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THE NEW 
INTERNATIONAL 
ENCYC Teo ainte i 


SUPPLEMENT 


VouuME [| 


NEW YORK 


“x DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY 
i 1925 i 


Copyright, 1924 


Dopp, Mrap anp CoMPANY 


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All rights reserved 


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Boston Booxsrnpine Co., CAMBRIDGE, U.S.A. 


SET UP AND ELECTROTYPED BY 
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|PPLEMENT 


HE last complete revision of Toe NEw INTERNATIONS® ENCYCLOP@pIA, when the entire work 
was reset, began in 1914, and the present SupP1LEMENT Coyers the ten years following. The 
war had so dominated the decade that it was hard to majntain the proportions of a really ency; 
clopedic review; yet the historical perspective of the war had certainly changed and it was es- 
sential to a general work of reference that detailed acefounts of campaigns, battles, diplomatic 
struggles, revolutions and political and economic efforty at readjustment should no longer be al- 
lowed to prevent response to the diversity of public interests. Therefore the special aim has been 
to treat the war compactly and clearly and it is hop that a reasonable balance has been main- 
tained. The pages directly devoted to the war and /#ts consequences probably do not exceed in 
space an octavo volume of average length, althougly sof course the indirect effects of the war ram- 
ify incaleulably throughout all parts of the text. he war articles have been prepared in the same 
manner as the text of the EncycLopap1a itself, Yat is by the editorial staff and specialists and 
not by either alone. That method, ind¢ed, has bees ) followed throughout the present volumes, as 
it was in the ENCYCLOP2DIA. 
Space is lacking for a classification of 
work may be inferred from the follov 
largest departments are biography, jf 
by. staff writers and members of 
mercial and financial record of co 
narrative), written or revised by « 
the other departments may be mer 
jects, a large group of articles +o 
Applied Science; Archeology; Ar 
Municipal, and Sanitary Eng > * 
Manufactures; Medicine; Lah: 
Music; Painting and Sculptur 


ways; Social Economics; Zodlogy, 
In general the plan of the work he. 4% to supplement effectively the text of the ENcycLopapIA 


not by carrying forward its minor entrink but by so grouping subjects that they could receive well- 


pr for an outline of the plan, but the scope of the 
few of the larger groups of articles: The three 
n editorial staff and special contributors; history, 

Columbia University; and the industrial, com- 
economic movement described statistically and in 
e Department of Commerce at Washington. Among 
mriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, and allied sub- 
y a dozen specialists; Anthropology and Ethnology; 
; Astronomy; Botany; Chemistry; Civil, Mechanical, 
ucation; Electricity; Finance; Geology; Industries and 

ijow; Literature; Mineralogy and Mineral Production; 
ogf/, Classical and Modern; Philosophy; Psychology; Rail- 


/ 


rounded treatment. 
FRANK MOORE COLBY. 


October, 1924. 


ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I 


MAPS 
FACING PAGE 
AFRICA . 26 
AUSTRIA . 124 
BALKAN STATES _ 228 
CHINESE REPUBLIC _ 288 
EUROPE . e436 
FRANCE NORTH _ 494 
GERMANY . 536 
ITALY . 698 
BKNGRAVINGS 

Aéronautics—U. 8. Navy Aircraft 10 
Abronautics—U. S. Army Aircraft 11 
ARronNAvuTICS—Airplane Instruments me 20 
AéERONAUTICS—U. S. Transcontinental Air Mail Route 22 
AéRonAUTICS—Airplanes in Agriculture : 93 
ArcH&0LoGy, EGypTiAN—Royal Cemetery at Luxor 80 
ArcH Z0LOGY, Eayprt1A4N—Tomb of Tutankhamen BEA 81 
ARCHITECTURE, AMERICAN—American Radiator Building, etc . eS Mey ea O4 

ARCHITECTURE, AMERICAN—Kansas City War Memorial: Church of St. Vin- 
cent Ferrer, New York City eb Si he ee tae, 9 se Boker SD 
ARCHITECTURE, AMERICAN—“The Towers,” ete. 86 
ARCHITECTURE, EUROPEAN ; 84 
ARTILLERY—U. S. Army Artillery . 102 
ARTILLERY—U. 8. Guns and Howitzers 103 
Astronomy—Large Reflecting Telescopes . 110 
Astronomy—Nebulae Photographs . 111 
BreLcium—Restored Library of Louvain 162 
BoucHarp—“The Blacksmith” 200 
Dams—Wilson Dam 356 
Dams—Gilboa Dam é 357 
LECTRIC PowER StatTions—Turbine Generator el ge ae 410 
LECTRIC PowrER STATIONS—Seven Radiator Type of Oil Transformer, etc. . 411 
Evectric RartwAys—Heavy Tonnage Electric Locomotive 414 
EvLEotric Rartways—Electric Freight Locomotive . 415 
Focu, FERDINAND ee Re 482 
Motor VrssELS—Marine Diesel or ; 680 

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- 


Loitor of the Supplement 


FRANK MOORE COLBY 


A Partial Dist of Contributors and Office Lditors 


EDWIN WEST ALLEN, Pu.D., 
United States Department of Agriculture. 
AGRICULTURE AND ALLIED TOPICS. 
JOHN B. ANDREWS, 
Secretary of American Association for 
Labor Legislation and Editor of Ameri- 
can Labor Legislation Review. 
LaBork LEGISLATION AND OTHER, LABOR TOPICS, 
MOSES NELSON BAKER, Pu.D., C.E. 
Associate Editor of the EHngineering 
News-Record. 
SANITARY ENGINEERING; 
MENT. 
W. H. BEAL, 


MunNICcIPAL GOVERN- 


MS S&S; 


FERTILIZERS, SOILS. 


MARCUS BENJAMIN, Pu.D., ScD., LL.D., 
Editor to the United States National 
Museum. 


RUDIGER BILDEN, 
ARTICLES IN SociaAL Economics ANpD HIsToRY. 
R. H. BLANCHARD, 
Associate Professor of Insurance, Co- 
lumbia University. 
INSURANCE AND WoORKMEN’S COMPENSATION. 
W. D. BROWN, 
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- 
merce, U. S. Department of Commerce. 
Norway, SwEDEN, NETHERLANDS, AND AFRICAN 
CoLoNIEs. 
STELLA BRUNT, 
OFFICE EpiroR AND CONTRIBUTOR, DEPARTMENT 
oF SociaL Economics. 
SCOTT M. BUCHANAN, 
PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS. 
EMMETT A. CHAPMAN, 
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- 
merce, U. §S. Department of Commerce. 
STATES OF AUSTRALIA; NEW GUINEA. 
F. A. CHRISTOPH, 
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- 
merce, U. 8S. Department of Commerce. 
BRITISH DOMINIONS AND COLONIES. 
_ ALLEN LEON CHURCHILL, 
STATES OF THE UNITED STATES AND BIOGRAPHY. 
PHILIP M. COPP, 
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- 
merce, U. S. Department of Commerce. 
FRANCE, BELGIUM, SPAIN, ITALY, SWITZERLAND 
AND PORTUGAL. 
WALTER H. EVANS, Pu.D., 
Botany, DIsEASES or PLANTS. 
LEON FERRARU, 
Instructor in Romahce Languages, 
lumbia University. 
RUMANIAN LITERATURE. 
COLONEL GUSTAVE JOSEPH FIEBEGER, 
as U. S. A. (Retired), 
Formerly Préfessor of Military and Civil 


Co- 


BIOGRAPHY. | 


Vii 


Engineering at West Point; author of a 
military history of the late war and 
other works. 
Wak IN Europe. 
JOHN DRISCOLL FITZ-GERALD, Pu.D., 


Member of the Hispanic Society of 
America; corresponding member of the 


Spanish Royal Academy of History of 
Madrid; Professor of Spanish, University 
of Illinois. 
SPANISH LITERATURE. 
JOHN LAWRENCE GERIG, Pu.D., 
Associate Professor of Celtic, Executive 
Officer, Department of Romance Lan- 
guages, Columbia University. 
MopERN PHILOLOGY. 
BENJAMIN GINZBURG, M.A., 
PSYCHOLOGY. 
WILLYSTINE GOODSELL, 
Assistant Professor of the History of 


Education, Teachers College, Columbia 
University. 
DIVORCE. 
GENERAL A. W. GREELY, Pu.D., 
Major-General, United States Army; 


Commander Greely Polar Expedition. 
EXPLORATION; POLAR RESEARCH; ALASKA. 

IRWIN 8S. GUERNSEY, 

Professor of American History, De Witt 
Clinton High School. 

CONTRIBUTIONS TO WAR IN EvurRoPE, THE HisToRy 
OF THE UNITED STATES, AND OTHER 
HISTORICAL ARTICLES. 

L. M. HACKER, 

ASSISTANT EpIToR; CONTRIBUTOR TO AND EDITOR 
OF HISTORICAL AND GAZETTEER DEPART- 
MENTS. 

GEORGE HAINES, M. S., 

LivE Stock, DAIRYING. 

TALBOT F. HAMLIN, 

Member of ‘American Taabiiute of Archi- 
tects; writer on American Architecture. 
ARCHITECTURE. 

F. H. HANKINS, 

Professor of Sociology, Smith College. 
BirTH CONTROL. 

ANNE HENRY, 

OFFICE EpiITor, BIOGRAPHICAL DEPARTMENT. 

JOSEPH A. HILL, 

U. S. Bureau, of the Census. 
NEGRO MIGRATION. 

MILO B. HILLEGAS, Pu.D., 

Professor of Education, Teachers College, 
Columbia University; formerly Commis- 
sioner of Education of Vermont. 

EDUCATION; UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES. 

JAMES F. HODGSON, 

Bureau of Féreign and Domestic Com- 

_merce, U. S. Department of Commerce. 


Vili 


RusstIA, PoLAND AND OTHER SLAVIC COUNTRIES. 
W. A. HOOKER, D. V. M., 
EcoNoMIC ENTOMOLOGY; VETERINARY 
WILLIAM E. HOOPER, 

Former Financial Editor of Railway Age. 


SCIENCE. 


RAILWAYS. 
HENRY D. HUBBARD, 
Secretary, United States Bureau of 
Standards. 
PHYSICS. 
M. JAMES, 
Author of A History cf the American 
Legion. 


AMERICAN LEGION. 
WALTER B. KENNEDY, 
Professor of Law, 

Law School. 


Fordham University 


Law. 
CHARLES KNAPP, Pu.D., 
Professor of Classical Philology, Barnard 
College, Columbia University. 
CLASSICAL PHILOLoeyY. 
GEORGE KRIEHN, Pu.D., 
Extension Lecturer in the History of Art, 
Columbia University; Lecturer, Woman’s 
Art School, Cooper Union. 
PAINTING AND SCULPTURE. 
HECTOR LAZO, ; 
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- 
merce, U. S. Department of Commerce. 
LATIN-AMERICAN COUNTRIES. 
LEONARD J. LEWERY, 
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- 
merce, U. S. Department of Commerce. 
RussIA AND ASSOCIATED COUNTRIES; FINLAND; 
LATVIA; ESTHONIA. 
A. A. LIVINGSTON, 
Formerly of the Romance Department of 
Columbia University. 
ITALIAN LITERATURE. 
KATHERINE S. LOVELL, 
Editorial Proofreader. 
AMY LOVEMAN, 
Associate Editor of the Saturday Review. 
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
ROBERT H. LOWIE, Px.D., 
University of California. 
ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. 
COLONEL THATCHER T. P. LUQUER, 
Engineers, O.R.C., U. S. A. 


ARMIES AND ARMY ORGANIZATION; STRATEGY 
AND TACTICS. 

CLARENCE E. MANNING, 
Assistant Professor of Slavonic Lan- 


guages, Columbia University. 
RUSSIAN LITERATURE; SLAVONIC LITERATURE. 
M. J. MEEHAN, 
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- 
merce, U. S. Department of Commerce. 
ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. 
THOMAS F. MEEHAN, 
Editorial Staff, America. 
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
DOUGLAS MILLER, 
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- 
merce, U. 8. Department of Commerce. 
GERMANY. 
JAMES R. MOOD, 
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- 
merce, U. §. Department of Commerce. 
GREECE, TURKEY AND COUNTRIES oF THE NEAR 
East; Ecypt, Apysstnta, Morocco ANnpb 
OTHER ARTICLES 
PARKER THOMAS MOON, 
Assistant Professor of History, Columbia 


f 


{ 


University; Editor Political Science 
Quarterly. 
ARTICLES IN EuROPEAN HIsTorY. 


DAVID HALE NEWLAND, 
Formerly Assistant State Geologist of 
New York. 
GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 


VICTOR W. PAGE, 


Automotive Editor Scientific American, 
New York City. 

Moror VeEnIcLES AND INTERNAL COMBUSTION 
ENGINES. 

HARRY Y. E.. PALMBLAD, A.M., 


Professor of Modern ‘Languages, Phillips 
University. 
SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE. 
EDWARD PREBLE, M_D., 
MEDICAL SUBJECTS. 
ELIZABETH REID, 
BIOGRAPHICAL ARTICLES. 
ALFRED REMY, M.A., 
Extension Lecturer, Columbia University, 
and formerly Professor of Harmony and 
Counterpoint, International Conserva- 
tory, New York; Editor of Baker’s Bio- 
graphical Dictionary of Musicians. 
Music AND BIOGRAPHIES OF MUSICIANS. 
LINDSAY ROGERS, 
Associate Professor of 
Columbia University; editor, 
lems of Reconstruction. 
DIPLOMACY OF THE WAR; 
ARMAMENTS, ETC. 
OLIVER MARTIN SAYLER, M.A., 
Dramatic Critic; author of Our Amert- 
can Theatre. 


Government, 
The: Prob- 


LIMITATION OF 


THEATRE. 
ALBERT SCHINZ, Pu.D., 
Professor of French Literature, 
College. 


Smith 


FRENCH LITERATURE. 
J. I. SCHULTE, 
ARTICLES ON FIELD CROPS. 
HERBERT NEWHARD SHENTON, 
Department of Sociology, 
University. 


Columbia 


PROHIBITION. 
MARGARET SHERWOOD, 
Instructor, University Extension, Colum- 
bia University. 
BIOGRAPHICAL ARTICLES. 
ROBERT EMMET SHERWOOD, 
Motion Picture Editor of Life. 
MovVING- -PICTURES. 
WALTER IRVINE SLICHTER, 
Head of Department of Electrical Engi- 
neering, Columbia University. 
TELEPHONY, TELEGRAPHY, RADIO TELEPHONY AND 
OTHER ARTICLES IN ELECTRICITY. 
EDWARD M. SLOCUM, 
Consulting Chemist. 
CHEMISTRY. 
SYBIL JD. SMITH. M. 3s. 
Foop AND NUTRITION. 
FRANK M. SURFACE, 
Bureau of Foreign and Peiestts Com- 
merece,” U.. Ss Department of Commerce. 
FoREIGN COMMERCE AND OTHER STATISTICAL 


SECTIONS OF THE ARTICLE UNITED 
STATES. 
L. SZABO, 
Lecturer and Writer on eastern European 
subjects. 


HUNGARIAN LATERATURE. 


CHARLES A. TAYLOR, 
Sporting Editor, New York Herald. 


SPorTs. 
DOROTHY J. TEALL, 
‘Editorial Proofreader. 
R. P. TEELE, M. S., 
RECLAMATION. 


OLIVER SAMUEL TONKS, Pu.D. 
Professor of Art, Vassar College. 
ARCH Z OLOGY. 
AARON L. TREADWELL, Pu.D., 
Professor of Biology, Vassar College. 
ZObLOGY. 
amc. TRUE, Pe.De 
AGRICULTURAL EpUCATION, AGRICULTURAL Ex- 
TENSION. 
R. W. TRULLINGER, C. E., 
FARM TRACTOR. 
CAPTAIN LEWIS SAYRE VAN DUZER, U. 
S. N. (Retired), 
Writer on naval and nautical subjects. 


ix 


NAVAL ARTICLES. . 


AMELIA VON ENDE, 
Critic and newspaper correspondent on 
German topics. 
GERMAN LITERATURE. 
HERBERT TREADWELL WADE, 
Late Captain, Ordnance Department, 
U. §S. Army; author of Scales and 
Weighing—Their Industrial Applications 
and Hveryday Electricity. 
AERONAUTICS, ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURES, 
AND ToPICS IN THE APPLIED SCIENCES. 
- COLONEL JAMES L. WALSH, O.R.C., U. S. A., 


Chief New York District Ordnance 
Office. 
ARTILLERY, ORDNANCE, TRENCH WARFARE 


MATERIAL, EXPLOSIVES, ETC. 


WILLIAM E. WELD, 
Associate Professor of Economics, Colum- 
bia University. 
CoOPpERATION; TARIFF; TAXATION; TRUSTS. 
ELWOOD A. WELDEN, 
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- 
merce, U. S. Department of Commerce. 
NETHERLANDS; Norway; SwepEN; AND AFrRI- 
CAN COLONIES. 
J. W. WELLINGTON, 
HORTICULTURE AND Forestry. 
JAMES O. WETTERAU, 
Instructor in History, New York Uni- 
versity. 
ARTICLES IN EvROPEAN History. 
H. PARKER WILLIS. 
Editor, Journal of Commerce. 
FINANCE; AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. 
THOMAS R. WILSON. 
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- 
merce, U. S. Department of Commerce. 
GREAT BRITAIN AND AFRICAN COLONIES. 
EMMA A. WINSLOW, Px#.D., 
Cost or Livine; PrickEs; WAGES. 
CLARK WISSLER, Pu.D., 
American Museum of Natural History. 
ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. 
EDGAR W. WOOLARD, 
United States Weather Bureau. 
ASTRONOMY; METEOROLOGY; EARTHQUAKES. 
MONROE NATHAN WORK, 
Professor of Pedagogy and History, 
Georgia State Industrial College. 
LYNCHINGS. 
JULIA C. WRIGHT, 
OFrFIcE Epiror, COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES, 
SocIETIES, RELIGIOUS BODIES, ETc. 


T HE 


NEW 


INTERNATIONAL 
BN G2 ¥GoL: Ov Ps Athy TA 


BBE, Ropert (1851- ye An 

American surgeon, a prolific writ- 

er in nearly every field of opera- 

tive surgery. He was born in 

New York City and educated at 

the College of the City of New 
York (S8.B., 1871) and Columbia University 
(M.D., 1874). Beginning as a pioneer in 1904, 
he became an authority in the surgical uses of 
radium and a vigorous opponent of tobacco as a 
cause of cancer. He has reported over 100 per- 
sonal cases of smoker’s cancer. He has been con- 
mected with several of New York’s leading hos- 
pitals, including St. Luke’s, New York Cancer, 
and New York Post-Graduate, and has held the 
professorships of surgery in the New York Post- 
Graduate Medical School and Woman’s Medical 
College. 

ABBOT, CHARLES GREELEY (1872- ). An 
American astrophysicist (see Vou. I). Using a 
spectrobolometer, he succeeded in measuring the 
heat of the stars to within %o00,000,000°. The 
experiments began in 1922 and were carried on 
at the Mt. Wilson Observatory in California 
with the aid of the great 100-inch reflector. The 
results are regarded as of the highest interest 
to scientists. 

ABBOTT, Epvirte G. (1871- ). An 
American orthopedic surgeon born in Hancock, 
Me., and educated at Bowdoin College. He was 
well known through his mechanical so-called 
Abbott method of treatment of lateral curvature 
of the spine. In 1913 he demonstrated his meth- 
od in England and on the Continent. He was 
professor of orthopedics at Bowdoin College and 
has been connected with the Maine General Hos- 
pital, the Children’s Hospital, ete. 

ABBOTT, Epwin MILTon (1877- yo An 
American lawyer, born at Philadelphia and ed- 
ucated at the Central High School there and 
the University of Pennsylvania. He was ad- 
mitted to the bar in 1896 and subsequently dis- 
tinguished himself in criminal cases. He was 
ehief counsel in the fight of the Philadelphia 
commuters against the railroads, a member of 
the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, 
1911-12, chairman of the Commission on the 
Revision of Criminal Laws of the State of Penn- 
sylvania, 1912-15 and 1917-23, and in 1913 
minority nominee for judge of the Court of 
Common Pleas. He was appointed secretary of 
the American Institute of Criminal Law and 


Criminology in 1913. 


ABBOTT, ELEANOR HALLOWELL (Mrs. For- 
DYCE CoBuURN) (1872- ). An American writer 
of fiction. She was born at Cambridge, Mass., 
and was educated in private schools and at 
Radcliffe College, where she was a special stu- 
dent. She is a prolific and popular author of 
light, romantic stories. One of her best-known 
novels is Molly Make-Believe. Besides being a 
frequent contributor to magazines, especially 
The Ladies’ Home Journal, she is author of The 
Sick-a-Bed Lady (1911), The White Linen Nurse 
(1913); Little Eve Edgarton (1914), The In- 
discreet Letter (1915), Molly Make-Believe 
(1916), The Stingy Receiver (1917), Ne’er-do- 
much (1918), Old-Dad (1919), Peace on 
Earth (1920), Rainy Week (1921), and The — 
Fairy Prince, and Other Stories, a collection 
of stories published previously in magazines 
(1922). 

ABBOTT, Grace (1878- ). An Ameri- 
can social worker, born at Grand Island, Neb., 
and educated at the Grand Island College, the 
University of Nebraska, and the University of 
Chicago, from which she received the degree of 
Ph.M. in political science in 1909. Beginning 
in 1899, Miss Abbott taught for several years in 
the Grand Island High School and laid a sound 
foundation for her social work as director of 
the Immigrants’ Protective League (1908-17 ) 
and as a resident of Hull House, Chicago (1908- 
15). She was an extremely efficient director of 
the Child Labor Division of the Children’s Bu- 
reau, Washington, D. C. (1917-19), secretary 
of the Illinois Immigrants’ Commission (1920- 
21), chief of the United States Children’s Bu- 
reau (1921- ), unofficial representative of the 
United States on the advisory committee of the 
League of Nations on traffic in women and chil- 
dren (Geneva, 1923), and president of the Na- 
tional Conference of Social Work (1923), the 
fourth woman to hold this office. Miss Abbott 
is the author of The Immigrant and the Com- 
munity (1917) and a contributor to various 
periodicals. 

ABBOTT, LAwrENCE FRASER (1859- ). 
An American editor and writer, son of Lyman 
Abbott. He was born in Brooklyn, N. Y., and 
educated at Amherst College. In 1891 he be- 
came president of the Outlook Company. He 
was secretary to Theodore Roosevelt during the 
latter’s tour of Europe and Africa, and edited 
Roosevelt’s African and European Addresses 


ABBOTT 


(1910). He is the author of an article on Theo- 
dore Roosevelt in the Hncyclopedia Britannica 
(1911), and of Impressions of Theodore Roose- 
velt (1919). 

ABBOTT, LEoNARD DALTON (1878- ) ae Ie 
American publicist and radical leader, born in 
Liverpool, England. He came to the United 
States in 1897. He early plunged into the so- 
cialist movement and remained an active work- 
er up to 1905. His interests later turned to 
libertarian education, in which he at once as- 
sumed a commanding place. He was associated 
in the publication of The Commonwealth, The 
Free Comrade, and The Modern School, and 
aided in the founding of the Rand School of 
Social Science, the Intercollegiate Socialist So- 
ciety, and the Ferrer School at Stelton, N. J. 
He is the author of Ernest Howard Crosby 
(1907), and Francisco Ferrer, His Life, Work, 
and Martyrdom (1910), besides many tracts 
and pamphlets. From 1905 he was one of the 
editors of Ourrent Opinion. 

ABBOTT, LyMAn (1835-1922). An American 
Congregational clergyman and editor (see VoL. 
I). In 1913 he was expelled from the Ameri- 
can Peace Society because military prepared- 
ness was vigorously advocated in the Outlook 
which he edited and because he was a member 
of the Army and Navy League. During the 
War he was a strong supporter of the govern- 
ment’s war policies. His later writings includ- 
ed Reminiscences (1915); The Twentieth Cen- 
tury Crusade, (1918); What Christianity Means 
to Me (1921). 

ABBOTT, WILBuR CorRTEZ (1868- De 
American historian and educator (see Vou. I). 
In 1917 he wrote the Hapansion of Hurope, one 
of the most important modern American his- 
torical works, having as its theme the story of 
the Commercial Revolution which changed the 
character of European affairs and inaugurated 
the modern era. He also wrote Colonel John 
Scott of Long Island (1918). In 1920 Profes- 
sor Abbott went to Harvard University as pro- 
fessor of history. 

ABDERHALDEN, Emit (1877- yt 
Swiss chemist and physiologist, born in the 
Canton of St. Gallen. He was educated at the 
University of Basle and took his medical degree 
at Berlin in 1902. After doing research under 
Prof. Emil Fischer, the distinguished chemist 
of Berlin, he was made professor of physiology 
in the University of Halle (1908). Of much 
original research his discovery of the so-called 
defensive ferments is best known, together with 
“Abderhalden’s reaction” in connection with 
their demonstration. His literary activity has 
been almost without parallel among his contem- 
poraries. In addition to many articles, often 
in collaboration with others, he has published 
numerous books. His Lehrbuch der Physiolog- 
ische Chemie, which first appeared in 1906, has 
gone through many editions including English 
translations; the Handbuch der Biochemischen 
Arbeitsmethoden appeared in 1909. Other works 
of his are Physiologisches Practikum (1912) ; 
Abwehrfermente der Thierischen Organismen 
(1913; also an English translation) ; Synthese 
der Zellbausteine (1912; also an English trans- 
lation); and Handbuch der Biologischen Ar- 
beitsmethoden (1920). His crowning work is 
the immense Biochemisches Handlexikon, the 
publication of which began in 1910. Ten vol- 
umes of this encyclopedia had appeared up to 
1923. 


ABORTION 


ABDUL HAMID II (1842-1918), Thirty- 
fourth sultan of the Ottoman Empire (see VoL. 
I). After his deposition in 1909 he was held a 
prisoner by the Young Turk army and was con- 
fined first in Saloniki, and later (1915) in 
Smyrna. He died in a secluded palace on the 
Asiatic side of the Bosphorus. 

ABDUL MEJID EFFENDI (1868- ). 
Former Caliph at Constantinople, born in 1868, 
the son of former Sultan Abdul Aziz. He was a 
learned man, a patron of the arts, a painter, 
and a composer of music. One of his paintings 
was hung in the Paris Salon of 1914, at the re- 
quest of Pierre Loti. After the Greek defeat 
in 1922, the Sultan-Caliph Mohammed VI fled, 
the office of sultan was abolished, and on Nov. 
1, 1922, Abdul Mejid was made Caliph. Presi- 
dent Mustapha Kemal Pasha determined that 
religion should be separated from politics and 
persuaded the Assembly to accept his views. 
On Mar. 3, 1924, the caliphate was abolished, 
and Abdul Mejid and his family were obliged to 
leave immediately for Switzerland. See CALI- 
PHATE. ; . 

ABERCROMBIE, LAsceLttes (1861-, 
An English poet born at Ashton-up 
Mersey, Cheshire. He was educated at Malvern 
and Victoria University, Manchester, a 
tured in poetry at the University of Liverpool, 
contributing at the same time to various /maga- 
zines. His poetry has been characterize 
the Victorian tradition. 
ludes and Poems, appeared in 1908. Hi 
works include Mary and the Bramble 
The Sale of St. Thomas (1911), Hmblems of 
Love (1912), Deborah (1912), Speculat 
logues (1913), The Epic (1914), Theory of Art 
(1922), and Four Short Plays (1922), besides 
Thomas Hardy, a Critical Study (191: 

ABERNON, Epcar VINCENT D’, BARON OF 
EsHEerR (1857- ). A British diplomatist, 
born at Slinfold, Sussex, England, and educated 


at Eton. From 1877 to 1882, he wags in the 
Coldstream Guards, in which he became a lieu- 
tenant. In 1880 he began to serve in various 
capacities as British representative in the Near 
East. In 1883 he was president of the Council 
of the Ottoman Public Debt, and from 1883 to 
1889, financial adviser to the Egyptian Govern- 


ment. Thereafter until 1897 he was governor 
of the Imperial Ottoman Bank in Cohstantino- 
ple. He became a member of Parliament in 
1899. Sir Edgar Vincent was raistd to the 
peerage as Baron d’Abernon in 1914 gnd during 
the War was prominent as chair 
Central Liquor Control Board. He was appointed 
British Ambassador at Berlin in/ 1920. He 
wrote A Grammar of Modern Greek (1881) and 
collaborated in other publications. 

ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY. | See Psy- 
CHOLOGY, ABNORMAL and CONSCIOYSNESS AND 
THE UNCONSCIOUS. 

ABORTION. At one time justifiable or 
therapeutic abortion was practiced principally 
in the case of women with narrow/pelves. Ow- 
ing to the perfection of the aseptic Cesarean 
operation, which now has a very low mortality 
and can be performed successfully) by any good 
surgeon, interruption of pregnan¢cy for simple 
contraction of the pelvis is no longer considered 
as wholly justifiable. On the other hand, in the 
interest of reducing maternal mortality from 
childbirth and in the salvage of maternal 
health, many obstetricians advocate and prac- 
tice interruption of pregnancy im a series of 


ABRAMS 


pathological conditions, such as_ tuberculosis, 
heart disease, insanity, ete. This attitude re- 
ceives some support from the birth control and 
eugenie movements, but there is an energetic 
counter-propaganda from religious bodies and 
from advocates of higher birth rates which 
tends to reduce cases of artificial termination 
of pregnancy to a small minimum; in other 
words, in nearly every case in which abortion 
is held to be justifiable there are about as many 
good reasons for non-intervention. 


ABRAMS, ALBertT (1863-1924). An Ameri- 
can physician (see Vout. I). He died at San 
Francisco in 1924. He was_ internationally 


known as the inventor of spondylotherapy and 
as the inventor of an apparatus with which he 
claimed he could diagnose a disease by testing a 
drop of blood. His theories were investigated by 
the Scientific American, which found that no 
satisfactory conclusion could be reached, since 
numerous obstacles were placed in the way 
of the investigators by Dr. Abrams and his 
followers. 

ABRUZZI, Prince L. A. (1873- ). , An 
Italian vice-admiral and explorer (see VOL. 
I). He was commander-in-chief of the Italian 
naval forces in the War and showed exceptional 
ability in operations in the Adriatic. He re- 
signed in 1917 and afterward planned a coloni- 
zation scheme in Somaliland. 

ABYSSINIA. One of the two independent 
states of Africa on the east coast. The area is 
variously estimated from 350,000 to over 430,- 
000 square miles. The population is about 11,- 
500,000, a much higher figure than earlier 
estimates, which ranged from 3,500,000 to 8,- 
000,000. The boundaries, on the side of the 
Sudan and of the Italian territory, were being 
delimited in 1924. The leading towns, with 
their estimated populations, were: Addis-Abeba, 
the capital (60,000), and Harrar, (40,000). 

Industry and Trade. In spite of the rich- 
ness of its resources, the economic development 
of the country was retarded by the instability 
of the social life and the absence of a strong ad- 
ministrative machinery. Agriculture remained 
primitive and intercourse was hindered by the 
‘want of means of communication. Products en- 
tering into the export trade were coffee, hides, 
wax, ivory, civet, and native butter. Deposits 
of copper, iron, salt, lignite, and potash were 
known but were as yet little worked. After the 
War, Abyssinia began to receive the serious at- 
tention of foreign capital. A British company 
was formed in 1918 for the purpose of commer- 
cial exploitation; in 1923 were commenced the 
activities of an Anglo-American company 
financed largely by American money. A con- 
cession of some 60,000 square miles, the north- 
ern part of which was crossed by the French 
Ethiopian railway, was received, and prelimi- 
nary surveys showed the presence of oil in the 
Harrar mountains. Estimated figures, the lat- 
est available in 1924, showed that commerce 
was on the increase. Imports and exports for 
1913 totaled 49,080,000 francs; for 1917, 56,- 
665,000 franes. The principal trade route was 
the Ethiopian railway, connecting Jibuti, in 
French Somaliland, with Addis-Abeba, a dis- 
tance of 590 miles, which was completed in 
1917. Trade was carried on by caravan in the 
interior and with the Sudan, British East 
Africa, British Somaliland, Italian Eritrea, 
and Italian Somaliland. Gambela, on the Baro 
River, leased to the Sudan government in 


ABYSSINIA 


1907, was an important trade centre, and a 
steamer service was maintained between it and 
Khartum. 

History. At the beginning of the European 
war, Lij Yasu, the young grandson of the Em- 
peror Menelek, was on the throne. He had al- 
ready embraced Islam, and under Turco-German 
influence he embarked on a policy of Moslem 
solidarity, in codperation with his father, Ras 
Michael, whom he caused to be crowned king 
of the Moslem province of Wollo. In April, 
1916, he openly acknowledged the overlordship 
of the Turkish Sultan as Caliph, and about the 
same time he gave it out that he would take 
the field against the Allies as soon as the ex- 
pected German victory was announced. The AIl- 
lies, particularly the British, offset the German 
Turkish influence by propaganda of their own, 
and the Emperor’s policy was opposed by most 
of the native chiefs and by the Christians. 
Finally the Abuna, or head of the Abyssinian 
church, publicly proclaimed the dethronement 
of the Emperor on the ground of his apostasy 
(Sept. 27, 1916), and his aunt, the princess 
Zauditu, was crowned empress at Addis-Abeba, 
Feb. 11, 1917. The direct control, however, 
was placed in the hands of her cousin, Ras 
(prince), Taffari, who was made regent and 
heir to the throne. A desultory civil war fol- 
lowed, lasting more than a year. Lij Yasu, 
after a slight attempt at resistance, left Harrar 
in secret for the Danakil country on October 
8, but Ras Michael gathered a formidable 
force, estimated at 80,000, and on October 17 he 
destroyed the army of the new government aft- 
er a sharp battle in which 12,000 men were 
said to have been, killed. A few days sufficed 
the government, however, to rally in great num- 
bers and with superior artillery, and by Octo- 
ber 27 it succeeded in cutting off the rear of 
Michael’s army and nearly surrounding it. 
Forced to surrender or to fight at a disadvan- 
tage, he chose the latter. After a desperate 
encounter and heavy losses on both sides, his 
army was routed, all his artillery captured, 
and himself taken prisoner. In this three 
weeks’ campaign the loss of life was placed at 
60,000. Of these, 20,000 were Shoan or govern- 
ment troops. No attempt was made to follow 
up the victory or to subdue Wollo, the disaf- 
fected province; and Lij Yasu, taking advan- 
tage of this neglect, gathered the remnants of 
his father’s forces and held out in the Wollo 
country till the latter part of 1917. In Decem- 
ber of that year the town of Magdaba, where 
he had taken refuge, was captured. Lij Yasu 
escaped, and after futile wanderings among 
neighboring tribes he returned toward the end 
of 1920 to the province of Tigré, where in 
January, 1921, he was captured by government 
troops. After the War the government of Ras 
Taffari and the Empress definitely sided with 
the Allies, and in the summer of 1919, Abys- 
sinian missions of congratulation were de- 
spatched to London, Paris, Washington, Rome, 
and Brussels. On this occasion they received 
various counsels in respect to measures of 
social and economic progress and were urged 
in particular to suppress slavery, which had 
been stimulated by Menelek’s conquests and 
continued to prevail. Great Britain, primar- 
ily, manifested an interest in Abyssinian af- 
fairs, and as a result of a British agitation 
against slavery, the League of Nations Assem- 
bly appointed an investigating committee in 


ACADEMIC FREEDOM 


September, 1922. This renewed concern over 
Abyssinia was regarded with suspicion; the 
agitation, Abyssinians feared, might be seized 
by interested powers as a pretext for interfer- 
ence in their internal affairs. The result was 
that to protect their independence, Abyssin- 
ja’s rulers sent a delegation to Geneva in Au- 
gust, 1923, to apply for League membership. 
The Regent, at that time, stated justly that 
Abyssinia’s problem was the suppression not 
of slavery, which was mild in character, but 
of slave-running, which was caused by the 
illicit trade in arms. As a result of the viola- 
tion of the British frontiers by marauding 
bands of Abyssinians-in search of slaves and 
ivory, Great Britain had gained, in 1919, the 
cessation of arms importations into Abyssinia, 
the prohibition applying even to. the needs of 
the central government. It was to supply the 
general dearth that slaves were being smug- 
gled out across the Red Sea in exchange for 
munitions and rifles. Abyssinia was admitted 
to membership in the League of Nations on 
Sept. 28, 1923. In the winter of 1923-4 an 
educational commission sent out by the Phelps- 
Stokes Fund of New York visited Abyssinia 
and on the conclusion of its investigations re- 
ported unofficially that while slavery still per- 
sisted, corruption flourished among officials, 
and commerce was hampered by harsh restric- 
tions, nevertheless there was bright promise of 
future development, thanks to the country’s 
rich natural resources and the latent abilities 
of the native population. 

ACADEMIC FREEDOM. See 
TIES AND COLLEGES. 

ACADEMY, Frencu (ACADEMIE FRANCAISE). 
Founded in 1635, this is the oldest and 
highest of the five academies which make 
up the Institute of France. Between 1914 and 
1924 the following members died: Jules Lem- 
aitre; Albert, Comte de Mun; Charles Jean 
Melchior, Marquis de Vogiié; Henri Roujon 
(1914); Alfred Jean Frangois Méziéres; Paul 


UNIVERSI- 


Hervieu (1915); Emile Faguet; Marquis 
Pierre de Ségur; Francis Charmes (1916); 
Emile Rostand (1918); Etienne Lamy (1919) ; 


Emile Boutroux; Jean Aicard (1921); Alfred 
Capus; Ernest Lavisse; Paul Deschanel; Mgr. 
Duchesne (1922); de Freycinet; Pierre Loti 
(L. M. J. Viaud); Alexandre Ribot; Maurice 


Barrés; Frédéric Masson (1923). The follow- 
ing were elected: Maréchal Joffre (1917); 
Louis Barthou; Mer. Baudrillart; René 
Boylesve-Tardieu; Francois de Curel; Jules 


Cambon; Maréchal Foch; Georges Clemenceau 
(1918); Henri Bordeaux (1919); Robert de 
Flers; Joseph Bédier; André  Chevrillon 
(1920); René Doumic, Georges Goyau; Pierre 
de Nolhac (1922); Georges de Porto-Riche; 
Edouard Estaunié; Maitre Henri Robert; 
Charles Jonnart; and Abbé Bremond (1923). 
Frédéric Masson, who became permanent’ secre- 
tary in 1919 on the death of Etienne Lamy, 
was succeeded in 1923 by René Doumic. The 
Academy was engaged throughout the period on 
the seventh edition of the great dictionary. 
The complete list of members at the beginning 
of 1924 stood as follows: Comte de Haus- 
sonville, Paul Bourget, Anatole France (Jac- 
ques Anatole Thibault), Gabriel Hanotaux, 
Henri Lavedan, René Bazin, Maurice Donnay, 
Jean Richepin, Raymond Poincaré, Eugéne 
Brieux, R. Doumic, Marcel Prévost, Henri de 
Régnier, H. R. D. Cochin, Maréchal Lyautey, 


~from the Central Powers 


ACTION 


Pierre de la Gorce, Henri Bergson, Maréchal 
Joffre, Louis Barthou, Mgr. Baudrillart, René 
Bolyesve-Tardiveau, Francois de Curel, Jules 
Cambon, Georges Clemenceau, Maréchal Foch, 
H. Bordeaux, Robert de Flers, Joseph Bédier, 
André Chevrillon, Pierre de Nolhac, Georges 
Goyau, Georges de Porto-Riche, Edouard Estau- 
nié, Maitre Henri Robert, Charles Jonnart, and 
Abbé Bremond. 

ACADEMY OF ARTS AND LETTERS, 
AMERICAN. See ARTS AND LETTERS, AMERICAN 
ACADEMY OF. 

ACCIDENTS, InpustriAL. See Lasor LEGIS- 
LATION, also WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION. 

ACHESON, Epwarp CAMPIon (1858- ibe 
American bishop of the Protestant Episcopal 
Church, born at Woolwich, Kent, England, and 
educated at Wycliffe College in the University 
of Toronto and at New York University. After 
service in Canada (1888-9), New York City 
(1889-92), and Middletown, Conn. (1892- 
1915), he became suffragan bishop of Connecti- 
eut in 1915. He was chaplain in the Canadian 
army during the rebellion in the Canadian 
Northwest in 1885 and was Red Cross chaplain 
and field worker with the American army in 
France (1918-19). 

ACIDOSIS. See DIET. . 

ACKERMAN, Cart WILLIAM (1890- Ve 
An American journalist, born at Richmond, 
Ind., and educated at the University of Chi- 
cago; Earlham College, Richmond, Ind.; and 
the School of Journalism, Columbia University. 
He has been correspondent of important news 
publications, especially of the United Press 
(1915-17), of the 
Saturday Evening Post in Mexico, Spain, 
France, and Switzerland (1917-18), and of the 
New York Times with the Allied armies in Si- 
beria (1918-19). Besides press and magazine 
articles, he is author of Germany, the Neat 
Republic? (1917), -Mewico’s Dilemma (1918), 
and Trailing the Bolsheviki (1919). 

ACOUSTICS. See AUDITION and PHYSICS. 

ACTION. While the psychological theories 
of action and their respective arguments have 
remained unchanged in the interval since 1914, 
there was a definite drift in the decade follow- 
ing that year to the explanation by means of 
reflexes. The school of psychology known as 
behaviorism (q.v.) has sought to orient psy- 
chological research from such mental data as 
sensations, perceptions, and ideas to the con- 
sideration of action responses. From a theo- 
retical point of view, this merely shifts the 
problem, for it is just as difficult to explain 
mental life if reflex action is taken as ele- 
mentary, as it is to pass from passive conscious 
representation to action. The emphasis upon 
action as the psychological simple has favored 
the various developments in applied psycholo- 
gy. It has led to the statistical tabulation of 
reaction times for different individuals placed 
either in the same situation or with the same 
task to do. (See Psycuotogy, APPLIED.) The 
intelligence tests and the learning and memory 
curves illustrate the successful empirical use 
of the concept of action. They measure the 
rapidity of response among different individ- 
uals but do not provide any theoretical insight 
as to the causes. During the War a section of 
American psychologists rashly undertook to 
treat the whole province of human action as -a 
branch of psychology. While this topic be- 
longs rather to moral and political philosophy, 


ADAM 


it is significant that the emphasis on action in 
psychology has accompanied the spread of 
pragmatism, a philosophy which champions ac- 
tion as against intellectualism. Consult Wat- 
son, Psychology from the Standpoint of a Be- 
haviorist (1919), and Woodworth, Psychology, 
a Study of Mental Life (1921). 

ADAM, PAUL. (1862-1920). A French writer 
(see Vout. I) and porte-parole of the symbolist 
movement. His most celebrated novel, La 
Ville Inconnue, passed through more than a 
dozen editions. He was an active writer until 
the year of his death. During the War he en- 
gaged in propagandist activity and shortly be- 
fore his death published Reims Devastée and 
Le Lion @ Arras, which portray the heroic ruins 
of Northern France. He died in Paris, Jan. 
17, 1920, 

ADAMI, Joun GEorGE (1862- ). An Eng- 
lish pathologist born at Manchester (see VOL. 
I). During the War he was a colonel in the 
Canadian Army Medical Corps. He published 
War Story of the C.A.M.C. (1918) and Medical 
Contributions to the Study of Evolution (1919). 
He moved from Montreal to Liverpool in 1919 
and was appointed vice-chancellor of the Uni- 
versity of Liverpool. 

ADAMS, ANNETTE ABBorT (1877— ). An 
American lawyer, born at Prattville, Cal. She 
was educated at the Chico State Normal School, 
Cal., and the University of California. In 
1912 she was admitted to the California bar. 
She held the office of Assistant United States 
Attorney in the Northern District of Califor- 
nia, 1914-19, and in 1918-20 she was attorney 
in the same district. In 1920 she was ap- 
pointed Assistant Attorney General of the 
United States, an office which she resigned in 
1921. She subsequently became chairman of 
the legislative ‘committee of the California 
State Federation of Women’s Clubs. 

ADAMS, CHARLES CHRISTOPHER (1873- Ve 
An American zodlogist born at Clinton, IIL, 
and educated at Illinois Wesleyan University, 
Harvard University, and the University of Chi- 
cago. He was assistant in biology at Illinois 
Wesleyan (1895-96), assistant entomologist at 
the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural His- 
tory (1896-98), Curator of the Museum of the 
University of Michigan (1903-06), director of 
the Cincinnati Society of Natural History and 
curator of the Museum of the University of 
Cincinnati (1906-07), associate in animal ecol- 
ogy at the University of Illinois (1906-14), as- 
sistant professor of forest zodlogy at Syracuse 
University (1914-16) and professor (1916- ), 
and director of the Roosevelt Wild Life Forest 
Experiment Station (1919- ). Besides num- 
erous papers on animal ecology he published 
An Ecological Survey of Isle Royal, Lake Su- 
perior, in collaboration (1909); Guide to the 
Study of Animal Ecology (1915); An Ecologi- 
cal Study of Forest and Prairie Invertebrates 
(1915); and Variations and Ecological Distri- 
bution of the Snails of the Genus Io (1915). 

ADAMS, Comrort Avery (1868-— Pee rh 
American electrical engineer, born in Cleveland, 
Ohio. He graduated in 1890 from the Case 
School of Applied Science, where from 1886 he 
also served as an assistant in physics, and for 
a year was an electrical engineer with the 
Brush Electric Company. In 1891 he was 
called to Harvard, where he remained. He be- 
came full professor of electrical engineering in 
1906, later Lawrence professor of engineering, 


ADAMS 


and Dean of the Engineering School. During 
the War he was chairman of the division of 
engineering of the National Research Council 
and also served on the Council of National De- 
fense, besides acting as advisor to the Emer- 
gency Fleet Corporation. He has given much 
attention to the study of induction and syn- 
chronous motors, to commutations, and to dy- 
namo design schedules. Besides membership 
in many scientific societies he was president of 
the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 
in 1918 and of the American Welding Society 
in 1919. 

ADAMS, ELEANOR N. (?- ). An Ameri- 
can college president born in Lebanon, Ohio, 
and educated at the Universities of Cincinnati, 
Oxford, and Yale. She was a teacher in pri- 
vate schools in Cincinnati before 1911; instruc- 
tor in English in the University of Cincinnati 
(1911-12); professor of English (1915-18) at 
Oxford College for Women (Ohio), of which 
she was elected president in 1918. She is the 
itn of Old English Scholarship in England 

EP): 

ADAMS, FRANKLIN PIERCE (1881- Ts 
American poet and columnist (see Vou. I). As 
“Tr, P. A.” he was arbiter elegantiarum for an 
increasing circle during the decade 1914-24. 
His intellectual honesty and his scorn for all 
pretense and stupidity, whether in politics, lit- 
erature, or everyday affairs, were factors in his 
popularity, though his light verse, strongly 
reminiscent of C. S. Calverley, his parodies, 
and his translations from the Latin poets, were 
among the best of their sorts being written in 
America. In the New York Tribune and after 
1922 in the New York World, his daily column, 
“The Conning Tower,” attracted contributors 
Whose prose and verse were often quite as 
witty and perspicacious as his own. From 1914 
on, his published volumes were By and 
Large (1914), Weights and Measures (1917), 
Something Else Again (1920), and So There 
(1923). 

ADAMS, FrReperick UpnHAmM (1859-1921). 
American author and industrial engineer (see 
Vout. I). In the latter years of his life he be- 


~ came a leading exponent of Frederick W. Tay- 


lor’s system of scientific management for in- 
dustry. His publications since 1914 have been 


The Romance of Big Business (1915), The 
Open Shop (1919). 
ADAMS, GeEorceE Burton’ (1851- ys 


American college professor and historian (see 
Vout. I). Continuing his work in the studies of 
the English constitution, he made contribu- 
tions which were acclaimed in both England 
and America. After 1914 he published Owtline 
Sketch of the English Constitution (1918), 
The British Empire (1919), and The Constitu- 
tional History of England (1921). The last 
named presented in epitome the fruits of the 
lifelong researches of the author, the purpose 
of which was to reject the Stubbs-Freeman ex- 
planation of the Teutonic origin of the English 
constitution and to establish his own theory of 
feudal or Norman antecedents. 

ADAMS, Harrier CHALMERS ( ?— ). An 
American explorer and lecturer born at Stock- 
ton, Cal. She made extensive journeys through 
‘Mexico and into the heart of South America 
(1903), traveling 40,000 miles and exploring 
regions never before visited by a white woman. 
In 1916 she was a war correspondent at the 
French front. Mrs. Adams has lectured on her 


ADAMS 


travels and has written of them in the National 
Geographical Magazine, Travel, ete. 

ADAMS, Henry Carrer (1851-1921). An 
American economist and educator (see Vou. I). 
His later works included Description of Indus- 
try (1918) and American Railway Accounting 
(1918), 

ADAMS, HeErBert (1856- ). An Ameri- 
can sculptor (see Vou. I). He received a medal 
of honor from the Panama-Pacific International 
Exposition in 1915 and the Watrous Gold Med- 
al from the National Academy of Design 
(1916). During recent years he was twice 
president of the National Sculpture Society, and 
once (1917-20) of the National Academy of 
Design. His most important recent works are 
two seated bronze statues, John Marshall and 
Rufus Ranney, and two historical figures, 
Stephen Langton and Simon de Montfort, for 
the courthouse of Cleveland, Ohio, and the grace- 
ful group of the McMillan fountain, Washing- 
ton, Dix. 

ADAMS, James Trustow  (1878- } 
American historian. He was born in Brooklyn, 
N. Y., educated at the Brooklyn Polytechnic In- 
stitute and Yale, and from 1900 to 1912 de- 
voted himself to business. During this period 
he was a partner in a New York Stock Ex- 
change firm and acted as director of several 
banking, manufacturing, and railroad corpora- 
tions. He ended his commercial activities in 
1912 and from then on devoted himself to liter- 
ary and historical pursuits, publishing Memo- 
rials of Old Bridgehampton (1916) and History 
of the Town of Southampton (1918). His first 
considerable work was The Founding of New 
England (1921), which won immediate recog- 
nition not only for its scholarly worth and 
stylistic qualities, but also because of its very 
able and challenging analysis of the Puritan 
character. As a cultural study of American 
regionalism, a field too little regarded by the 
academic scholar, Mr. Adams’s work was of 
the first importance. It received the Pulitzer 
Prize for the best historical book of the year. 
In 1923 he continued his chronicle with the 
volume Revolutionary New England, 1691-1776. 

ADAMS, Jonn TaAytor (1862- petal 
‘American manufacturer and ‘politician, born 
at Dubuque, Iowa, and educated at the Dubuque 
High School. He entered the sash and door 
manufacturing business in 1881 and later be- 
came president of the Carr, Ryder and Adams 
Company. He entered politics in 1908 as man- 
ager of the successful campaign of United 
States Senator Allison. In 1912 he was man- 
ager of the Taft campaign in the Iowa prima- 
ries. In the same year he was a member of the 
Republican National Committee for Iowa and 
was vice-chairman in 1917. From 1912 to 1916 
he was a member of the executive and cam- 
paign committees, and in 1921 he became chair- 
man of the National Republican Committee. 
He was a member of the Iowa State Council 
of National Defense in 1917. 

ADAMS, JosepH Quincy (1881-— ). An 
American college professor, born at Greenville, 
S. C., and educated at Wake Forest College, 
8. C., the University of Chicago, Cornell Uni- 
versity, London, and the University of Berlin. 
After holding various pedagogical positions, he 
was appointed professor of English in Cornell 
University in 1919. Besides contributing to 
American and European philological journals, 
he is author of several valuable studies, espe- 


ADDAMS 


cially in the field of the Elizabethan stage, 
which include: A Manual of American Liter- 
ature, in collaboration (Leipzig, 1909), Shake- 
spearean Playhouses (Boston, 1917); with 
Northup, A Bibliography of English Philology 
(1918); The Bones of Ben Jonson, with arti- 
cles by others (Chapel Hill, N. C., 1919); with 
Bradley, An Allusion-Book to Ben Jonson 
(1922); and A Life of William Shakespeare 
(1923). He edited Sheridan’s The Rivals 
(Boston, 1910) and The Turke by John Mason. 
He was associate editor of Materialen zur 
Kunde des Aelteren Englischen Dramas and 
joint editor of Cornell Studies in English. 

_ ADAMS, Samvurt Horpxrns (1871- ). An 
American author and publicist (see Vor. I). 
The work he had done so effectively in exposing 
the quack medicine industry Mr. Adams con- 
tinued in the field of dishonest newspaper ad- 
vertising. His column, “The Ad-Visor,” in the 
New York Tribune, succeeded remarkably in 
raising the standards of advertising in’ the 
daily press. He wrote The Clarion (1914) and 
Success (1921), both studies of modern jour- 
nalism, and several novels, including The Un- 
speakable Peck (1916), Our Square and the 
People in It (1917), and Siege (1924). 

ADAMS, Watter §. (1876— y Pepe 1 
American astronomer (see Vou. I). In 1917 he 
received the gold medal of the Royal Astronom- 
ical Society of London and the Draper medal of 
the National Academy of Sciences in 1918. 
His many papers were originally contributed to 
the Astronomical Journal and to the Astrophys- 
ical Journal, but they later appeared under the 
general title of Contributions to the Mt. Wil- 
son Observatory. He is also the author of 
several memoirs, the most important of which 
Were a series of four papers published in 1916 
as Investigations on Stellar Spectroscopy. 

ADAMSON EIGHT-HOUR LAW. See 
LABork ARBITRATION; UNITED STATES, History ; 
and STRIKES. 

ADAMSON, Witiiam (1863- ). British 
Labor politician, born at Halbeath, Fife. For 
many years before his public appearance he 
worked as a miner. In 1902 he became assis- 
tant secretary of the Fife and Kinross Miners’ 
Association and in 1908 its general secretary. 
He was elected to Parliament for West Fife 
in 1910, and when the Labor party was reorgan- 
ized in 1917, he became its chairman. In 1918 
he was sworn in as a member of the Privy 
Council. As leader of the Labor party he was 
head of the official opposition in the House of 
Commons in 1919 and took a prominent part 
in the debates in the coal industry and the 
trade union discussions of 1919, 1920, and 
1921. When on Jan. 22, 1924, Ramsay Mac- 
donald formed his Labor cabinet, Adamson 
was made Secretary for Scotland. 

ADAPTATION. The adjustment of a plant 
or animal to its environment or surroundings 
as shown in its structural form or habits. 
Adaptations are rarely or never perfect, and 
the elimination of the less well adapted in the 
struggle for existence has been supposed to be 
a factor in evolution. See Zodxocy, 

ADDAMS, Jane (1860- ). An American 
settlement worker (see Vou. I) and a regular 
contributor to the New Republic, Survey, Na- 
tion, etc. Her last work, published in 1916, 
was The Long Road of Women’s Memory. She 
was a delegate to the International Women’s 


ADE 


Congress at The Hague (1915) and was elected 
its president. She was also a delegate to sim- 
ilar congresses held at Zurich (1919) and Vien- 
na (1921). Though an avowed pacifist, Miss 
Addams illustrated her wealth of common sense 
in the practical rather than theoretical attitude 
she took toward the War. 

ADE, Gerorce (1866- ). An American 
author and humorist (see Vou. I). His popular 
Ade’s Fables and Nettie appeared in 1914. He 
was a member of the Indiana State Council of 
Defense (1917-18). 

ADELPHI COLLEGE. A nonsectarian col- 
lege of liberal arts. for women, in Brooklyn, 
N. Y., founded in 1896. In 1913 the students 
numbered 176 in regular college courses and 
98 in extension courses, and the faculty com- 
prised 18 persons. In 1923-24 there were 
about 400 students and 28 faculty members, not 
including the extension courses and summer 
school. The library was increased from 15,000 
to 19,000 volumes. A campaign for an addi- 
tion of $1,000,000 to the endowment was con- 
ducted during the academic year 1922-23. 
president of the institution is Frank D. Blod- 
gett, LL.D. 

ADEN. A peninsula and a British protec- 
torate on the southeastern Arabian coast. 
Area of the peninsula, 75 square miles; of the 
protectorate, 9000 square miles. The island of 
Perim, included in the settlement, has an area 
of 5000 square miles. Population of Aden and 
Perim in 1911, 46,165; in 1921, 54,923; of the 
protectorate in 1921, about 100,000. Aden con- 
tinued as an important entrepodt and trans- 
shipment station for the Red Sea country. Im- 
ports for 1911-12 were valued at £2,643,276, 
for 1919-20 at £6,517,000, and for 1922-23 at 
£7,761,505; exports for the same years were 
£2,318,595, £7,124,000, and £6,738,167. A rail- 
way was begun in 1915 to extend from Aden to 
Lahej (25 miles). In 1921 administration 
was transferred from the India Office to the 
Colonial Office. 

ADLER, Fetix (1851- ). A German- 
American educator born in Germany (see VOL. 
I). Among his later publications are The 
World Crisis and Its Meaning (1915); Divorce 
(1915); An Ethical Philosophy of Life (1918), 
and The Punishment of Children (1920). In 
1923 Dr. Adler delivered the Hibbert Lectures 
at Oxford; in 1924 they were published in a 
volume entitled The Reconstruction of the 
Spiritual Ideal. 

ADLER, HERMAN Morris (1876— Veen 
American physician, psychiatrist, and crimi- 
nologist born in New York City. He graduated 
from Harvard in 1897 and received his degree 
of doctor of medicine from Columbia University 
in 1901. He was appointed State criminologist 
of Illinois in 1917. After 1917 he was director 
of the Juvenile Psychopathic Institute and 
after 1919 professor of criminology at the 
University of Illinois. He has made _psycho- 
pathic surveys of Cook County, under the au- 
spices of the Rockefeller Foundation, and of 
the military prisoners during the War. 

ADLER, Victor (1852-1918). An Austrian 
Socialist leader (see Vor. I). He played only 
a passive part in the War, but with its termi- 
nation, in 1918, he once more took a prominent 
place in Austrian politics. With other Social 
Democrats he advocated Austrian union with 
the German Reich. For a few days he served 
as Austrian Foreign Minister, but his collapse 


The. 


ADVENTISTS 


and death, on Nov. 12, 1918, lost for the young 
and helpless republic the counsel of one of its 
most astute politicians. 

ADLER, Wotrcane Friepricu (1879- ). 
Austrian politician, born at Vienna. He was 
educated at the Realgymnasium in Vienna and 
the University of Zurich and lectured in phys- 
ics in Zurich, 1907-11. From 1910 to 1911 
Dr. Adler edited the Social Democratic daily 
Volksrecht, and for the next five years he was 
secretary of the Austrian Social Democratic 
party and editor of Kampf. His sympathy for 
the Socialists during the War and expectation 
of a rising of the proletariat led him at the 
breakup of the International (1916) to shoot 
the Austrian prime minister, Count Stiirgkh. 
He was condemned to death on May 19, 1917. 
This sentence was commuted to 18 years’ im- 
prisonment, and in the chaos of 1918 he was 
amnestied. In 1919 he was elected to the Na- 
tional Assembly. He was president of the Aus- 
trian National Workmen’s Council and_ secre- 
tary of the International Labor Association of 
Socialist Parties. It was due to his initiative 
that the last mentioned was founded in 1921. 
His later works include Die HErneuerung der 
Internationale (1918); Mach’s Ueberwindung 
des Mechanischen Materialismus (1918); Orts- 
zeit, Systemzeit, Zonenzeit und das Ausgezeich- 
nete Bezugssystem der Electrodynamik, eine 
Untersuchung iiber die Lorentzische und die 
Einstein’sche Kinematik (1920). 

ADOR, GUSTAVE (1845- ). A Swiss 
statesman, born at Geneva, where he studied 
law at the academy. He was twice mayor of 
Cologny and a member of the cantonal parlia- 
ment almost continuously from 1874 to 1915. 
After holding other important government of- 
fices he was elected president of the Swiss Na- 
tional Council in 1901. In June, 1917, he be- 
came federal councillor of the federal executive 
and head of the department of foreign affairs. 
He was elected by parliament as president for 
the year 1919. Later he was chairman of the 


International Committee of the Red Cross 
(1921). 
ADRENALIN. Whereas in 1914 this drug 


was considered merely as a strong astringent, 
by 1924 it had become known as one of the 
most useful in the pharmacopeia. It is a heart 
stimulant of great value. It has sometimes 
reanimated the apparently moribund patient 
when injected directly into the heart. Its 
power of constricting the blood vessels also 
makes it of value in hemorrhages. See SECRE- 
TIONS, INTERNAL. 
ADRIATIC SEA. 
TROVERSY. 
ADSORPTION. See PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. 
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, American 
ASSOCIATION FOR THE. See ScIENCE, AMERICAN 
ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF. 
ADVENT CHRISTIANS. See ApDvENTISTS. 
ADVENTISTS. The “Advent Movement” 
originated about 1840 with William Miller, 
who became convinced that the coming of 
Christ in person must be premillennial. It em- 
braced the following- churches: The Advent 
Christian Church, the Seventh Day Adventists, 
Life and Advent Union, the Church of God, 
Adventist, and the Churches of God in Christ 
Jesus. The Seventh-Day Adventists, the larg- 
est body of the group, differed from the other 
branches in that it never set a definite date for 
the coming of the Lord. Its membership in- 


See FIUME-ADRIATIC CoN- 


ADVERTISING 


creased throughout the world from 125,844 in 
1914 to 208,771 in 1922. In North America 
the number of members increased from 72,015 
in 1914 to 102,797 in 1923, the number of 
churches rose from 2054 to 2226, and the num- 
ber of ordained and licensed ministers from 
769 to 1069. During the ten years the denom- 
ination supported 152 mission fields, and 123 
colleges, theological seminaries and intermedi- 
ate schools. Fifty-one publishing houses and 
branches issued 3904 separate volumes of lit- 
erature. 

ADVERTISING. As the most sensitive out- 
post of modern business, advertising underwent 
a remarkable development during the War and 
the years succeeding it. Not only did the stim- 
ulation of business activity during the six 
years of war inflation lead to an enormous in- 
crease of the expenditure for advertising, but 
the entry of governments and _ semi-official 
agencies into selling campaigns lent a new dig- 
nity to the profession. { 

The British government was the first to use 
advertising methods to sell its war bonds to the 
people of Great Britain and the United States. 
Early in 1915 it became evident that the size 
of the financial operations made it indispensa- 
ble to appeal beyond the regular investing class 
reached through the banks. An expenditure of 
£100,000 was decided upon for newspaper and 
poster advertising. It produced extraordinary 
results. The experiment was repeated on a 
larger scale in the United States when the 
Liberty Loans came to be floated in 1917 and 
1918. By coérdinating publicity, propaganda 
and paid advertising, the number of investors 
in government bonds was increased fiftyfold. 
The Victory Loan was sold to more than 21,- 
000,000 individual bondholders. 

The adoption of conscription by the belliger- 
ent countries made it ynnecessary to employ 
poster advertising for recruiting. This method 
was extensively used, however, for the main- 
tenance of civilian morale. The war poster at- 
tracted leading artists. 

In commercial advertising the perfection of 
the four-color press made it possible to illus- 
trate the text appeal with pictures of adver- 
tised goods in their natural colors. This de- 
velopment has been most prominent in Ameri- 
can periodicals. In one national magazine be- 
tween 50 and 75 pages of advertising are 
printed in colors. The annual expenditure for 
advertising in the United States is said to ap- 
proach $1,500,000,000, although exact figures 
are not available. This expenditure reflects a 
growth of more than 100 per cent since the 
War. Out of it advertising has built itself up 
as a professional activity, drawing some of the 
best brains of the land. The centre of the pro- 
fession is the advertising agency, which has 
grown from a mere brokerage office for the pur- 
chase of space to a technical bureau which 
plans campaigns and writes and executes the 
advertising copy. One of the most interesting 
developments in this connection is the use of 
publicity to supplement paid advertising. Free 
publicity before the War was used chiefly by 
theatrical press agents, who were successful in 
creating news “stunts” for their stars. During 
the War, all the relief and welfare agencies 
maintained publicity bureaus informing the 
newspapers of their activities, and this practice 
was speedily imitated by private industrial or- 
ganizations. In the latter case it was not al- 


AERONAUTICS 


ways easy to make out a legitimate news inter- 
est, and editors put themselves on guard 
against printing as news what was obviously 
private propaganda. Large amounts of such 
copy do get into the newspapers, however, in- 
asmuch as the line between private interest and 
public interest is not always easy to draw. 
Publicity cannot be used to sell merchandise, 
but it can create a favorable atmosphere, which 
big corporations regard as invaluable. With 
the growth of advertising as a profession, spe- 
cial steps have been taken to eliminate as far 
as possible improper methods. Prominent in 
this activity are the advertising clubs, which 
bring together the advertising writers of the 
United States and England in a common feder- 
ation. These clubs spread the slogan ‘Truth 
in Advertising” and endeavored in other ways 
to standardize practices. 

The attempt to apply the methods of experi- 
mental psychology to advertising have been for 
the most part abandoned. Whatever relation 
advertising has to psychology is seen to belong 


.rather to the empirical psychology of motives, 


the psychology that is practiced by interpreters 
of human nature whether they be historians, 
philosophers, or novelists. In advertising the 
recognized principle is to associate a strong 
sentiment with the prosaic announcement of the 
goods to sell. The use of this principle is open 
to many moral objections, and it may become 
more and more necessary for society to legis- 
late against its too enthusiastic application. 
But as things stand, it is part of the economic 
system and the necessary competition for pub- 
lic attention. 

A. E. F. See War in Europe, Western Front. 

AERONAUTICS. If one were to exclude 
the actual invention of the heavier-than-air ma- 
chine for mechanical flight and its early prac- 
tical development, it might be said without fear 
of contradiction that the period 1914-24 was 
the most momentous in the history of aérial 
navigation. In these years not only was me- 
chanical flight reduced to practice, but it was 
made a method of transportation which had to 
be seriously considered, and which, while it had 
not supplanted existing means of locomotion, 
showed great promise for the future. The War 
stimulated the use of aircraft and made possi- 
ble both experimental and service applications 
on a larger scale than would have been possible 
otherwise and led to abnormally rapid progress 
of the art. (See War IN Evropg, Aérial Oper- 


ations; also BOMBING OF VESSELS By AIR- 
CRAFT. ) 
Our consideration will take up first the 


spherical balloon or aérostat, where naturally 
there had been but little advance save in the 
use of better fabrics for the gas container, as 
the utility of this device was limited. Except 
for flights, rather of a sporting nature, or to 
test the air currents, spherical or freely flying 
balloons had a narrow field of usefulness. 
Secondly can be considered the dirigible, which 
had reached a point where it was able to cross 
the Atlantic Ocean, not to mention its use as a 
serious engine of war for purposes of demoli- 
tion when not opposed. Third in order will 
be discussed the various types of heavier-than- 
air craft, such as airplanes, seaplanes, and 
helicopters. 

Spherical Balloons. During the War, nat- 
urally there was little opportunity for the use 
of spherical balloons, by the belligerents, and 


AERONAUTICS 


in the neutral countries, also, little attention 
was paid to this field of aéronautics. For ob- 
servation the captive kite or sausage balloon was 
used, but freely flying balloons had no use on 
or even behind the battle line. Accordingly 
activity in this department was not resumed 
until in 1919, the annual balloon race in the 
United States again was held. On Oct. 2, 
1919, this competition was resumed at St. 
Louis, with entries from 10 American cities. 
This competition ordinarily is held annually 
and serves to select the American competitor 
and alternates for the annual Gordon Bennett 
balloon trophy race which is held in the coun- 
try of the winner of the previous year’s compe- 
tition. This now became an annual event, and 
limited interest attached to the outcome of the 
competition, which was to determine the largest 
distance to be flown by any of the contestants. 
The national balloon race for 1924 was started 
April 23, at San Antonio, Tex., and while the 
winner’s distance, 1072 miles, did not break 
the earlier American record made in 1910, 
nevertheless it developed. interesting competi- 
tion and was in every way successful. 

Gordon Bennett Competition. In 1920 the 
annual international balloon race for the Gor- 
don Bennett trophy was resumed. The United 
States was then the trophy holder, so that the 
start was made from North Birmingham, Ala., 
on Oct. 23, 1920. Eight large spherical bal- 
loons participated, filled with by-product coke 
gas from the Sloss-Sheffield Steel and Iron Com- 
pany furnaces. From this time this annual in- 
ternational air competition was held regularly 
in different countries, but without improving 
on the record of 1887.6 kilometers, or 1172.9 
miles, made by Augustus Post and A. R. Haw- 
ley, Oct. 17-19, 1910; this was also the Ameri- 
can record for distance for the spherical bal- 
loon up to 1924. The Gordon Bennett balloon 
competition took place annually without any 
specially significant incidents until 1923, when 
on September 23, the twelfth competition was 
started at Solbosch, outside of Brussels. The 
weather conditions, which included severe gales, 
heavy rains and electric storms, resulted in de- 
struction or damage to some six balloons and 
fatal casualties to three pilots and two aids, as 
well as serious injuries to three pilots and two 
aids. This competition developed considerable 
discussion, as the rules, which did not permit of 
postponement under dangerous weather condi- 
tions, were followed to the letter. It was be- 
lieved that some provision should be made 
whereby subsequent competitions should not be 
started when to do so would make the flights 
extra hazardous. 

On June 15, 1924, 17 balloons, representing 
7 nations, started in the fourteenth compe- 
tition for the Gordon Bennett cup, taking off 
from the great Solbosch plain outside of Brus- 
sels, Belgium. Unlike the 1923 competition, 
the weather conditions were favorable, and aft- 
er the balloons had been filled they left the 
ground. The first to rise was the Belgica, pi- 
loted by Ernest de Muyter of Belgium, three 
times winner of the cup. There were three bal- 
loons from the United States, the Uncle Sam, 
piloted by Capt. H. E. Honeywell, the Good- 
year, piloted by Capt. W. T. Van Orman, and 
the 812, piloted by Major Peck and Lieutenant 
Grey of the United States Air Service. Condi- 
tions of wind and weather were not such as to 
develop fast traveling, and several of the bal- 


AERONAUTICS 


loons that were carried to the west were forced 
to land rather than be driven out over the At- 
lantic Ocean. The competition was won again 
by the Belgian balloon Belgica, piloted by Lieu- 
tenant de Muyter, which achieved a distance 
of 745 miles, landing in Scotland at Alhb’s 
Head, 45 miles east of Edinburgh. Lieutenant 
de Muyter thus became the permanent possessor 
of the trophy. Second place was taken by the 
I'rench balloon, Ville-de-Bordeauz, piloted by F. 
Laport, which crossed the English Channel and 
landed at Brighton, England, covering 198 miles. 
The United States balloon, Uncle Sam, H. E. 
Honeywell, pilot, was third, with 180 miles. 

Outside of the Gordon Bennett international 
trophy competition and the national balloon 
race, several important flights were made, some 
of which developed unusual experiences due to 
enforced landings in desolate regions. Thus in 
1920 the United States naval splierical balloon 
A5598 left the naval air station at Rockaway 
Point, N. Y., and after a trip of 800 miles de- 
seended on December 14 in Ontario. None of 
the various flights exceeded the record for dura- 
tion made by H. Kaulen of Germany on Dec. 
13-17, 1913, of 87 hours, or that for distance 
made by the German, Berliner, on Feb. 8-10, 
1914, of 3052.7 kilometers (1896.9 miles), 
while for altitude Suring and Berson on June 
30, 1901, reached a height of 10,800 meters 
(35,424 feet). 

The International Aéronautic Federation 
(fF. A. I.) makes a distinction of class for 
spherical balloons, grouping in the first cate- 
gory those up to 600 cubic meters capacity, in 
the second category those from 601 to 900 cubic 
meters, and in the third category from 901 to 
1201 cubic meters. Up to 1924 the Internation- 
al Federation’s records for duration and dis- 
tance were, for balloons of the first category, 
as follows: duration, (France) Gaston Fleury 
and George Fleury, Aug. 15-16, 1923, 19 hours 
43 minutes; distance, (France) George Cor- 
mier, July 1, 1922, 804.173 kilometers (499.69 
miles). 

Dirigibles. Prior to the War dirigible bal- 
loons or airships had been developed principally 
for, military purposes. They were classified as 
rigid, semirigid, and nonrigid, depending on 
arrangement of the gas bags and the support- 
ing frame. At this time the sole examples of 
the rigid type were the Zeppelin airships of Ger- 
many, which had found a limited application 
for passenger transportation. Of the last two 
groups named, the airships of French workers 
and of the Schiitte-Lanz and Parseval types in 
Germany were, perhaps, the most important, 
though airships of these types had been built 
in Great Britain and the United States. The 
Italians also had a semirigid airship which 
served to train pilots as well as indicate the 
possibility of future designs. During the War 
a number of these semirigid and nonrigid craft 
were built and used, but without decided mili- 
tary advantages. 

The Zeppelin Airships. In the field of the 
rigid airship, the work of Zeppelin done before 
the War on a systematic basis looking not only 
to military applications but also to use in com- 
mercial air travel and transportation was sig- 
nificant and had an important bearing. In 
1913, 10 Zeppelin airships were in service in 
Germany, and others were being built for the 
military or naval service. Of the latter, two of 
the larger craft were destroyed accidentally in 


AERONAUTICS 


1913. At the outbreak of the War there were 
three Zeppelins, each of 15,000 cubic meters ca- 
pacity (19,619 cubie yards; 530,000 cubic feet) 
in the German Navy. With manufacturing fa- 
cilities previously developed, it was possible 
straightway to proceed with further construc- 
tion, following essentially the same designs but 
increasing capacity and motive power and im- 
proving equipment of the craft. The greater 
capacity naturally was required for explosives, 
incendiary, and other bombs which were dropped 
in the course of raids on enemy territory. 

It was stated that the total number of Ger- 
man Zeppelins by the end of the War was 67, 
of which 17 were lost in action with the enemy, 
34 were accidentally destroyed, and six were 
captured. This statement shows clearly the 
usual hazards incidental to the operation of dir- 
igibles and the war dangers to which they were 
exposed from hostile airplanes. In fact when 
the French and British air squadrons were well 
organized and the defense measured up to its 
full strength, it was impossible to employ the 
Zeppelins on the western front or even in air 
raids over Great Britain. 

British Dirigibles. Previous to the War the 
dirigible balloon had aroused little interest in 
Great Britain, and even in 1915 the British 
Government decided that they were not worth 
building, principally on account of the in- 
flammability of the hydrogen gas, which could 
be readily ignited by an incendiary bullet from 
an airplane. The British government did build 
in 1916 a series of nonrigid or semirigid dirigi- 
bles or miniature airships, known as “blimps,” 
largely for observation purposes. In 1918, when 
it was realized that there could be made avail- 
able helium in quantity, it was decided to build 
a fleet of rigid airships which would be safe 
from dangers of explosion or fire. Accordingly, 
with the experience derived from the War and 
particularly from a study of captured Zeppelins 
which had been brought to earth, including the 
[383 which had been brought down in England, 
Sept. 23, 1916, there was designed in England, 
before the Armistice, a type of airship which, filled 
with helium gas, not only would be suitable for 
a transatlantic trip, but which would be able to 
transport and discharge large amounts of high 
explosive. Inasmuch as the British had suf- 
fered severely from the Zeppelins, they sought 
to make these craft, eight of which were pro- 
jected, as efficient as possible. None was com- 
pleted before the Armistice. The R34, put into 
commission in 1919, made the first transatlan- 
tic flight by a dirigible. Unfortunately, this 
craft ran aground and was destroyed, Jan. 28, 
1921, during night flying in Yorkshire. An- 
other of the group, the R38, was purchased by 
the United States government and was prepar- 
ing for an overseas trip to America when it was 
wrecked in the air, and almost the entire crew 
of British and American officers and men per- 
ished. The R36, on June 10, 1921, had a suc- 
cessful endurance test; it was 30 hours in the 
air on a trip from Pulham to Land’s End and 
back. The R80, the R34 and the R38 were com- 
pleted, or practically completed, by 1920. The 
R80 had a volume of 1,250,000 cubic feet and a 
length of 530 feet, as against a volume of 1,980,- 
000 cubic feet and length of 643 feet for the 
R34, and a volume of 2,720,000 cubic feet and a 
length of 698 feet for the R38. The R34 scored 
the first transatlantic flight for a dirigible, 
leaving East Fortune, near Edinburgh, Scot- 


Io 


AERONAUTICS 


land, at 2 a.M., July 2,1919 and flying by way of 
Newfoundland, arrived at Roosevelt Field, Mine- 
ola, N. Y.,at 9 a.m., July 6, 1919. A return trip 
was made even more successfully, leaving New 
York on July 9, and reaching Great Britain on 
the morning of July 12, a distance of 3200 miles 
in 75 hours and 3 minutes, or a total flying 
time for the R34 of 183 hours and 15 minutes 
for some 7000 miles on this transatlantic trip. 
This achievement was notable in that the airship 
experienced various kinds of weather, including 
fog, heavy squalls, thunderstorms and _ head 
winds, and indicated the possibilities of trans- 
atlantic flight by a dirigible on a commercial 
scale. 

The R38, also referred to above, was designed 
and constructed by the British for the United 
States, being known in the United States Navy 
records as Z2. ‘This airship was the largest 
and most powerful of the British dirigibles; it 
had six Sunbeam Cossack engines, each of 350 
horse power, or a total of 2000 horse power, and 
a maximum speed of 72 miles per hour. It was 
designed for a cruising range of 5000 miles. 
The R38 made a number of flights in England 
and was destroyed on a trial trip, Aug. 25, 
1921, falling into the Humber River and carry- 
ing with it some 62 officers and men, both Brit- 
ish and American. The Americans were includ- 
ed in the training crew which was to take the 
airship across the Atlantic for the United 
States. While there was no definite informa- 
tion as to the reason for the failure, it was be- 
lieved that certain features of design had been 
overlooked and that there was lack of strength 
at certain important points. Once the structure 
failed, the ignition of the gas by the broken 
electric wires resulted in a fire. 

United States Dirigibles. Before the United 
States had entered the War several small diri- 
gibles had been secured for the army and when 
it was decided to participate actively in the 
conflict a number of nonrigid dirigibles resem- 
bling the British “blimps,” which had been or- 
dered, became available, the first of which were 
tested in May, 1917. By 1919, a useful Amer- 
ican dirigible had been developed, of which the 
C5 was a representative. This nonrigid airship 
was 192 feet in length, 43 feet wide and 45 feet 
high, with a capacity of 180,000 cubic feet of 
gas. It had a cruising speed of 42 miles an 
hour and in May, 1919, made an attempt to 
cross the Atlantic by way of Halifax. <A dis- 
tance of 1050 miles was accomplished success- 
fully, but a heavy gale arising, the airship was 
driven from its moorings and carried out to sea, 
where it was destroyed. 

The United States War and Navy Depart- 
ments, however, had manifested an interest in 
still larger dirigibles, as they seemed to possess 
for the United States a considerable field of use- 
fulness. In addition to the airship ordered 
from the British and a Zeppelin to be secured 
under the Treaty of Versailles, the American 
government put under way the ZR1, still an- 
other airship of the rigid type, but following 
the lines of the German Zeppelin L49, captured 
intact in France during the War, and supposed 
to represent the best efforts of the German de- 
signers. See NAVIES OF THE WOoRLD under 
United States. 

United States Airship “‘ZR1.”’ It was decided 
to construct this airship and its engines entire- 
ly in the United States, using the Philadelphia 
aircraft plant of the United States navy for the 


AERONAUTICS 


OFFICIAL PHOTOGRAPHS, BUREAU OF AERONAUTICS, UNITED STATES NAVY 


UNITED STATES NAVY AERONAUTICS 


1. U.S.NAVY RIGID AIRSHIP “SHENANDOAH” at Naval Air Station, Lakehurst, N. J. 
2. U.S.NAVY—CURTISS RACER. The World’s Fastest Airplane, 1924. 
3. -U 


-S. NAVY —CURTISS SEAPLANE RACER. Winner of Schneider Seaplane Trophy, 1923, ata Speed of 177 
miles per hour. 


AERONAUTICS 


OFFICIAL PHOTOGRAPHS, UNITED STATES ARMY AIR SERVICE 


UNITED STATES ARMY AERONAUTICS 


1. UNITED STATES ARMY AIR SERVICE WORLD CRUISER OF 1924, EQUIPPED WITH WHEELS 


2. UNITED STATES ARMY AIR SERVICE BARLING BOMBER—THE WORLD’S LARGEST AIRPLANE, 
1924 


AERONAUTICS 


fabrication and their assembly at the large han- 
gar at Lakehurst, N. J. While the airship was 
based on the Zeppelin designs, these were not to 
be followed absolutely, and improvements were 
to be introduced wherever possible. In _ fact 
with the serious disaster attending the ZR2 
which the British government had built for the 
United States, the plans of the ZR/, as the 
Shenandoah was called until after she had been 
put into commission, were submitted to the 
most careful serutiny of experts and engineers 
connected with aéronauties, as well as technical 
men outside of aircraft circles. The ZR1 was 
designed by Com. Jerome. C. Hunsaker of the 
United States navy and was intended to be 
used by the navy with the surface fleet. It was 
677.49 feet in length and 78.74 feet in diameter, 
with a height of 93 feet. There were 20 gas 
cells, or balloonettes, inside the frame and fab- 
ric, with a total capacity of 2,115,000 cubic feet 
of buoyant gas. Surrounding these cells were 
19 ring frames between which were lighter 
rings, making a total of 41 rings. 

The hull itself was of the general Zeppelin 
form of streamline design and was built of 
longitudinal and transverse girders which were 
braced and covered by fabric, within which 
were the gas cells already referred to. The 
rings, girders, and parts involved approximate- 
ly some 400,000 pieces of the metal alloy dura- 
lumin which were riveted together like bridge 
work and braced by heavy wire. From the hull 
were suspended the various cars; the control 
car was located forward, and five engine cars 
were hung at intervals near the keel between 
the control ear and the outer structures. In 
each of these cars was installed a 6-cylinder 
300-horse power Packard airship engine which 
turned.the propellers. The forward outer wing 
and inner wing cars had geared propellers, each 
16 feet in diameter, while the inner wing cars 
had direct drive propellers 12 feet in diameter. 
The ZR1 weighed 76,000 pounds without fuel, 
supplies, or crew, and was able to carry a load 
of from 30,000 to 50,000 pounds of fuel, sup- 
plies, crew, etc., depending on whether helium 
or hydrogen was used and the degree to which 
the airship was inflated. A crew of 20 to 25 
officers and enlisted men was required. 

The ZR1 was the first airship of Zeppelin 
type to be filled with helium gas, and in Sep- 
tember, 1923, it made a very satisfactory trial 
flight from the naval air station at Lakehurst, 
N. J. The first extended flight was on October 
1-3 of the same year, when a voyage was made 
from Lakehurst to St. Louis, Mo., and return, 
a total distance of some 2200 miles, which was 

VERTICAL 
STEERING RUDDERS 
CONTROLLED FROM 
CONTROL CAR 


II 


OUTER COVER 
PAINTED ALUMINUM 
OUTSIDE 


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AUXILIARY 
STEERIN 
STATION FUEL TANKS 

20 GAS BAGS 


FILLED WITH HELIUM GAS 
SUPPORTING SHIP 


THE WO?"S.. 8: 


HORIZONTAL OR 
ELEVATING RUDDERS 
CONTROLLED FROM 

CONTROL CAR 


- 


f 


KEEL CORRIDOR 
IN WHICH PERSONNEL 
WILL LIVE 


ssa 


BSSSss 


AERONAUTICS 


negotiated in a total elapsed time of flight of 
47 hours and 49 minutes, of which the actual 
time in the air was 45 hours and 11 minutes, 
with an actual flying time of 42 hours and 11 
minutes, including a 4-hour cruise over the 
city of St. Louis. The average speed was 52 
miles per hour, and the highest speed 78 miles 
per hour. Subsequently, during the autumn of 
1923, the Shenandoah, as she was christened on 
October 10, made several trips from Lakehurst, 
including a flight up the Shenandoah Valley on 
October 27 and a cruise to New England on 
November 20. 

During the spring of 1924, in addition to the 
repairs occasioned by her breaking loose from 
the mooring mast, improvements were made, 
and five engines instead of six were installed. 
The engine formerly located in the after section 
of the control car was removed, and a new spe- 
cially constructed long range radio sending and 
receiving set was installed in its place, 

United States Airship ‘‘Roma.”’ The United 
States government in the autumn of 1921 pur- 
chased from Italy a large semirigid dirigible 
named the Roma, which with a capacity of 
1,200,000 cubic feet and a length of 410 feet was 
stated to possess a range of action of approxi- 
mately 3500 miles at 80 miles per hour, and 
had at cruising speed a range of 8000 miles. 
This airship was shipped to the United States 
and assembled at Langley Field near Washing- 
ton. The six 12-cylinder 400-horse power An- 
saldo motors received from Italy were later re- 
placed with Liberty motors, and flights were 
made with fair success until Feb. 21, 1922,-when 
flying near the army base at Hampton Roads, 
Va., the craft was forced to earth through the 
failure of the rudder with its vertical controls. 
The metal-clad nose of the airship came into 
contact with high tension electric power wires, 
and immediately the gas bag was ignited. With 
the exception of those members who were able 
to jump, those on board were burned to death. 
The casualties included 13 officers and 2] non- 
commissioned officers, privates, and civilians. 

United States Airship “ZR3.”’ The United 
States navy, after the War, determined to make 
a thorough test of dirigibles, and in 1921 the 
Allied Council of Ambassadors in Europe agreed 
to permit the Zeppelin works in Germany to 
build for the United States on the reparation 
account a commercial airship of the L90 type 
with a gas capacity of 2,475,000 cubic feet. 
This permission was essential as in the protocol 
signed in June, 1919, 30,000 cubic meters (1,- 
059,000 cubic feet) maximum capacity had 
been made the limit for the largest rigid air- 
GAS CELL VALVE 
FOR LETTING OUT 
HELIUM GAS IF 
DESIRING TO LOSE 

ELEVATION 
IN THAT MANNER 


BLACK 


OBSERVATION 
INSIDE PLATFORM 


ee eo 


Ye TT Ly Z 
Vg wt- 
ary ea 


se 


\/ 


3 
i 
it 


WATER BALLAST BAG 
CONTROLLED FROM 
CONTROL CAR 


CONTROL 
CAB 


“SHENANDOAH”’ 


Showing the details of assembly. and the disposition of the various rts the navy-constructed 
rigid airship. A 


AERONAUTICS 


ship that Germany was permitted to construct. 
Airships of this size built after the War had 
not been found profitable in operation. The 
Zeppelin airship thus constructed for the Unit- 
ed States was notable in representing the design 
and construction of the most experienced men 
in Germany. It was the highest development 
of this special type, which in the future must 
be built outside of Germany if it is to endure. 
The ZR3 was a commercial type, as it was stip- 
ulated that even a reparations ship must be 
used only for commercial purposes. It is 650 
feet long, 90.75 feet in diameter, and 101.8 feet 
high from the floor of the control car to the top 
of the hull. The cruising speed ranges from 45 
to 71 miles an hour, affording a radius of action 
of some 5000 miles as compared with 4000 miles 
for the Shenandoah. There are five Maybach 
engines, directly reversing without gears, each 
of 400-horse power, installed in cars suspended 
close to the keel. The gas capacity is 2,475,000 
cubic feet, and a gross lift of approximately 
150,000 pounds is afforded, 60 per cent of it use- 
ful load, including passengers, fuel, supplies, 
etc. The control car includes the passenger 
eabin, supplied from an adjoining electric kitch- 
en, a radio and engineer’s room, and forward, 
the navigator’s cabin. The passenger quarters 
accommodate 30 with berths similar to those of 
a sleeping car, and a crew of 30 men is required. 

Completed in 1924 and brought to the United 
States, ZR3 represented the last and best work 
of the famous plant of Friedrichshafen, which 
was to be dismantled after contributing so 
much. to aéronautical science and art. In the 
meantime the Goodyear Rubber and Tire Com- 
pany secured the rights of manufacture for 
North America in the autumn of 1923, and’ an- 
nounced that it proposed to develop the lighter- 
than-air craft on a basis of extended commer- 
cial air routes. It was well known that Ger- 
man aéronautical engineers had contemplated 
the establishment of a two-and-a-half day pas- 
senger service across the Atlantic. Surveys 
were made for a 12-hour service between New 
York and Chicago, and more ambitious plans, 
involving transatlantic flight, were seriously 
discussed. 

On Oct. 17, 1922, the United States Army di- 
rigible C2, the largest “blimp” or nonrigid 
dirigible in the American air service at that 
time, was destroyed by explosion, and members 
of the crew were injured. The accident oc- 
curred at San Antonio, Tex., after a flight from 
Washington to San Francisco. The United 
' States Army Air Service by 1924 had in com- 
mission other nonrigid dirigibles, of which one 
of the TC type, built by the Goodyear Tire and 
Rubber Company, was of 200,600 cubic feet ca- 
pacity and could transport a total useful load 
of 4107 pounds with a maximum speed of 60 
miles per hour. This airship had a cruising 
speed of 47 miles per hour and a range of ac- 
tion of 830 miles. About this time the United 
States Navy Bureau of Aéronautics had built 
a nonrigid airship of the J1 class of almost che 
same size of envelope but shorter and faiter, 
having a capacity of 173,000 cubic feet. The 
power plant consisted of two 125-horse power 
engines. ° 

Helium for Airships. In view of many se- 
rious accidents caused by the ignition and explo- 
sion of the hydrogen in the gas containers of air- 
ships, unusual interest attached to the develop- 
ment during the War of *ePTOCOSS and plant for 


oe oem 


I2 


AERONAUTICS 


the production on a commercial scale of a sub- 
stitute for hydrogen, in the form of helium. 
The gas helium was next lightest to hydrogen, 
but was not inflammable or susceptible to igni- 
tion from an electric spark or incendiary pro- 
jectile, and at the same time it was most inert. — 
Its production in bulk was accomplished by the 
United States government at Fort Worth, Tex., 
using the oil from certain wells in Texas and 
Oklahoma and separating the helium from the 
other gases by a complicated refrigerating proc- 
ess. This plant and process was developed so 
that on Dec. 1, 1921, the United States navy 
nonrigid airship C7? was successfully inflated 
with gas thus produced and made a number of 
trips, and later the Shenandoah was also inflat- 
ed with the gas. Helium is noninflammable and 
is nonexplosive, but it has 92 per cent of the 
lifting power of hydrogen, and accordingly for 
the same gross lift would require an airship of 
10 per cent greater volume. In 1924 the United 
States was able to produce sufficient helium to 
fill two such airships as the Shenandoah which 
used the gas successfully on all its trips. For 
other nations no such supplies were available, 
or, with the possible exception of Canada, likely 
to_be developed. 

Development of the Airplane, 1913-1924. 
From the time of the first flight by Wilbur and 
Orville Wright, Dec. 17, 1903, up to the opening 
of hostilities in August, 1914, there had been a 
rapid development, with the result that practi- 
cal machines were available which could fly un- 
der conditions of satisfactory balance and con- 
trol, and over distances sufficiently great to 
prove their usefulness. At the beginning of the 
second decade of mechanical flight, an interest- 
ing landmark was noted when the original 
Langley ‘“aérodrome,” built in 1903, was 
shipped with its engine from the Smithsonian 
Institution in Washington to the Curtiss fac- 
tory at Hammondsport, N. Y. Here the orig- 
inal machine was reclothed without change of 
size or shape, and the framing, engine, propel- 
lers, wings, rudders, and control just as Lang- 
ley had left them, were put in proper adjust- 
ment. With the single addition of a modern 
radiator and carburetor to the engine, and the 
use of floats so that the machine could rise 
from the water, various successful tests were 
made with the original construction. The few 
additions referred to involved about 200 pounds 
more weight and some considerable extra air 
resistance to the original machine; nevertheless, 
with Mr. Curtiss as pilot, on May 28, 1914, the 
machine rose on an even keel and sailed from 
the surface of the lake under the control of the 
aviator. 

Thus it was demonstrated clearly that the 
first airplane provided with an internal com- 
bustion engine not only was capable of carry- 
ing a passenger in sustained flight but also pos- 
sessed inherent stability sufficient to take care 
of itself in bad weather. It will be remembered 
that Langley’s earlier machine was a tandem 
monoplane, driven by twin propellers and car- 
rying above four great dragonfly wings with 
a long double tail and a steering rudder placed 
beneath and behind the centre. The original 
inventor had made no provision in the way of 
landing gear or pontoons but had relied on a 
special launching apparatus which in large 
measure was responsible for disaster in the 
original tests where the possibilities 
chine failed of demonstration. Me 

. ’, 


the ma- 
+ Curtin 


AERONAUTICS 


90-horse power engine with a direct connected 
tractor screw was mounted on the forward part 
of the frame of the Langley “aérodrome,” in 
place of the original propeller, there was fur- 
ther demonstration of the soundness of the the- 
ory on which the original designs were made. 
The original machine is now in the National 
Museum at Washington. 

Airplanes in 1914. By 1914 there had been 
developed four fundamental types of heavier- 
than-air machines: the tractor land plane and 
seaplane, the latter fitted with pontoons, and 
pusher land planes and flying boats. With the 
exception of the Russian Sikorski plane, which 
was provided with four engines, all were single 
engine machines, England and the United States 
favoring biplanes, and France and Germany 
monoplanes. Largely as a result of racing con- 
tests for which substantial prizes had been of- 
fered, the French planes of 1914 were the fastest 
in the world, and at that time the world speed 
record stood at 125 miles per hour, made by 
Prévost at Rheims, Sept. 29, 1913, when he flew 
a Deperdussin plane with a 100-horse power 
Gnome engine. 

In contrast to the sporting competitions of the 
French, the Germans had arranged military tests 
and offered prizes for competitions, where the 
chief importance was to demonstrate reliability 
and endurance. Accordingly, at this time the 
non-stop flight record was held by a German, 
Boehm, who made it with an Albatross plane 
with a 100-horse power Mercedes engine at 
Johannesthal, July 10-11, 1914. The altitude 
record was also made by a German, Oelrich, who 
on July 14, 1914, at Leipzig flew a D.F.W. plane 
with a 100-horse power Mercedes engine to a 
height of 26,730 feet. 

The British airplanes of this time, while faster 
than those of Germany, and capable of carrying 
larger loads than the French machines, were 
notable for their stability and ease of control 
rather than for speed or power. The United 
States at this time was considerably behind the 
Europeans, in regard both to the engines and 
to the planes themselves. It was the manifest 
availability of the airplane and airship for mil- 
itary purposes that first won encouragement 
and support for practical aéronautics from the 
European governments. 

The Stimulus of the War. With the out- 
break of hostilities in 1914 it was soon found 
that the airplane possessed not only all the pos- 
sibilities claimed for it in the way of observation 
and as an auxiliary to troops, but also that it 
was to be developed as a weapon of offense. 
From carrying a camera, when the province of 
the plane was merely to observe, there was de- 
veloped special equipment and armament, and not 
only different hand weapons, but machine guns, 
bombs, radio and other signaling equipment were 
installed. This naturally led to changes in the 
design of the aircraft with due regard for de- 
fense as well as offense. It was early found 
necessary to sacrifice the speed of the French 
racing machines to reliability and to increase the 
speed of the British two-seater airplanes and 
make them single-seaters. 

France at this time had a rather heterogene- 
ous collection of airplanes and nonrigid airships, 
with many types representing experimental work 
rather than the attainment of definite standards. 
The Same was true of Great Britain and Italy; 
the air equipment of both these powers was in- 
ferior to that of Germany and showed a variety 


13 


AERONAUTICS 


of types. On the other hand, Germany entered 
the War with a standardized fleet of airplanes. 
and a group of Zeppelin airships made up not 
only of those designed for naval purposes but of 
those successfully employed in passenger service. 
The German air service, however, starting with 
ample and standardized equipment of general 
utility machines, soon found itself seriously 
handicapped on this very score and was com- 
pelled to develop new machines, not only for ob- 
servation but for fighting and bombing, as the 
Allies increased the quality and amount of their 
air strength, developing such types as experi- 
ence showed were advantageous and efficient. 

By all the combatant nations there were re- 
quired airplanes of power, strength, speed, ca- 
pacity, reliability, durability and other essential 
qualifications as engines of war for tactical em- 
ployment, and these the designers and manu- 
facturers were forced to turn out as fast as pos- 
sible on an unprecedented scale. Different types 
were developed, as for observation, for combat 
with other aircraft, for carrying and discharg- 
ing large amounts of explosive, and for other 
purposes. To these, if the War had lasted 
longer, would have been added without question 
the actual transportation of considerable bodies 
of men. To the production and improvement of 
aircraft were devoted without - reserve the 
wealth, resources, and scientific and mechanical 
skill of the combatant nations. For its opera- 
tion, even under extra-hazardous conditions, the 
picked youth of the warring powers were trained 
to a high degree of skill and efficiency, while for 
improvement of design and mechanism endless 
experiments based on theory, experience, or in- 
ventive genius, were freely undertaken on the 
largest possible scale. For the production of 
aircraft vast establishments highly and_ scien- 
tifically organized and operated, were established, 
and a vast industry arose overnight in each of 
the Allied countries as well as in the Central 
Powers, where normally such undertakings would 
have been of slow growth. 

Obviously this development was along purely 
military lines, and the single-seater combat ma- 
chine, for example, fast and readily manceuvred, 
was entirely without commercial value. Like- 
wise the two-seater observation plane of the air 
services had the power and speed desirable for 
military use but was highly uneconomical in op- 
eration, on a commercial basis. Extraordinary 
progress in developing large bombing machines 
also was made, but these for the most part re- 
quired the use of special landing fields. In 
general, in all of the War design, manufactur- 
ing, and operation, cost and economy figured but 
slightly, and complicated and delicate equipment 
often met with short life. All these factors 
must be realized, for while four years of the War 
did a vast amount to develop aviation, yet at 
the same time they imposed handicaps and con- 
ditions which after the Armistice had to be con- 
sidered and met. The production of distinct and 
separate types of airplanes to function along 
special lines naturally led to corresponding ap- 
plications in peace times. Thus the observation 
or message plane became the mail plane for high 
speed service, the heavier combat plane became 
the light passenger or express craft, and the 
heavier bomber at once suggested the large plane 
susceptible of carrying a number of passengers 
or substantial amounts of freight. The recon- 
noissance and military mapping of the War 
found its counterpart in the surveying, map- 


AERONAUTICS 


ping, and panoramic photography which soon 
after the Armistice became an important and 
recognized branch of aérial activity, bearing a 
distinct relation to topographic and other sur- 
veys. During the War, naturally, military ef- 
ficiency was the sole measure of performance, 
and designs and tests were made with that end 
in view, but with the close of hostilities came 
again such trials as would demonstrate speed, 
capacity, altitude, duration, extent of flight, and 
similar characteristics susceptible of quantita- 
tive standards of performance and test. Air- 
craft in non-military and commercial service had 
to be operated on a basis of safety and economy, 
and a commercial service must pay for itself 
either directly or indirectly but unmistakably. 

Seaplanes. After the first successful trials 
of the airplane it was realized that by arrang- 
ing the plane so that it would rest on the sur- 
face of the water it would be possible to dispense 
with the landing field for taking off and return- 
ing to the ground. With the light weight of the 
plane it was feasible either to supply pontoons 
or to construct a fuselage in the form of a boat 
or hull. The possibilities of the flying boat 
straightway appealed to a number of yachtsmen, 
and just before the War a competition for the 
Schneider International Cup for Modern Flying 
was arranged-at Monaco, on Apr. 20, 1914. The 
competition covered a course of 150 nautical 
miles which the winner negotiated in 15 hours, 
13.2 seconds. The hydroplane straightway el 
manded the attention of naval officers, and it 
was increased as the War developed, inasmuch 
as it afforded a convenient means of scotiting, 
particularly with reference to submarings. <Ac- 
cordingly, large and substantial planes were 
built with a sturdy hull that could ride on a 
fairly rough sea, and with naval officers and 
yachtsmen interested in their design, useful 
boats were soon developed and for a while were 
more generally used than other aircraft in the 
United States; long flights were made overseas 
and following the course of rivers. After the 
War the international competition for seaplanes 
was reéstablished and the Schneider trophy was 
won in 1923 by a seaplane representative of the 
United States navy. 

Tendency of Design. Even before the out- 
break of the War, designers and manufacturers 
of airplanes realized that in addition to securing 
lightness for the plane and adequate power for 
the engine, considerable was to be accomplished. 
The first progress made was toward securing 
greater structural strength, and soon it was re- 
alized that other factors than lightness must be 
considered. After satisfactory devices for con- 
trolling the plane had been developed on a prac- 
tical basis, attempts were made to secure greater 
aérodynamic efficiency of wings. All-metal con- 
struction was developed for airplanes of different 
types and capacities, as they were found to pos- 
sess greater strength and were in general more 
serviceable. In fact, the increased use of metal 
framing and construction was but one of the 
indications that all aéroplane construction was 
an engineering matter where technical study and 
accurate construction were essential for safety 
and more powerful and generally more efficient 
machines. With metal construction came the 
increased use of metal alloys, which for strength 
and lightness were found suitable. By 1924 a 
large number of all-metal planes had been built, 
and the only obstacle to further progress in the 
construction of metal aircraft was the high cost. 


We: rd 
tr ! 
Fr 3 


14 


AERONAUTICS 


When the supply of duralumin and aluminium 
alloys became generally available, they were ex- 
tensively used in airplanes. Magnesium alloys 
were found available for parts not subject to 
stress and it was believed that engine crank 
cases made from such materials might prove as 
successful as those from aluminium alloys. 
While the United States was inferior in the 
number of its airplanes in 1924, yet unquestion- 
ably it had the fastest fighting equipment in the 
world; this was strikingly illustrated in its 
pursuit planes, which undoubtedly surpassed the 
aircraft of European nations. In the Pulitzer 
trophy competition held at the St. Louis air 
meet in 1923, a United States navy Curtiss racer, 
the VCR made a record of 243.67 miles per hour, 
for the St. Louis closed course, and 266.6 miles 
per hour for the 3 kilometer distance. Later in 
the year, on November 4, at Mitchel Field, the 
speed record was increased to 266.59 miles an 
hour for 3 kilometers (1.864 miles). Such 
achievements were entirely the result of re- 
search and experimental engineering. With the 
D12 Curtiss engine, which was used in this 
plane, there was employed the Curtiss C62 air- 
foil section, the wing type radiator and the 
Curtiss-Reed one-piece metal propeller. The full 
streamline wheel and_ shock absorber, the 
cellular wooden wing construction, and other 
improvements in design, the results of aérody- 
namical investigations, all contributed to the 
wonderful performance of this type of airplane. 
The Curtiss army pursuit plane also had been 
improved and refined to such an extent that in 
1924 it could realize a speed of 180 miles per 
hour. It was virtually a modification of the 
army Pulitzer racer of 1922, and was used by 
Lieutenant Maughan in his dawn-to-dusk flight 
across the continent, June 23, 1924. It was 
provided with a D12 engine. The Schneider cup 


racer of the United States navy which was suc- 


cessful in the seaplane contests in England in 
1923 was a modification of the navy Pulitzer 
racer of 1921. 

The Barling Bomber. A heavy capacity air- 
plane, completed in 1923, was the largest in the 
United States air service and, in fact, the largest 
in the world. The machine was really a tri- 
plane, but the intermediate or mid plane was of 
narrow chord, and the ailerons were on the top 
and bottom planes only. Six Liberty motors, 
each of 400-horse power, formed the power plant, 
and for operation it required a minimum crew 
of four men. The original specifications de- 
manded that not more than 5000 pounds of 
bombs shall be carried at one time, but were a 
10,000 pound bomb developed, the Barling could 
lift and carry it for two hours. The weight of 
the airplane loaded was in excess of 40,000 
pounds, and it had a flying speed of some 90 
miles per hour. 

Engines. The development of aircraft has 
gone hand in hand with the improvement of in- 
ternal combustion engines. The aim has been 
always to secure greater power, reliability, and— 
economy, and at the same time/to reduce the 
unit weight of the power installation as com- 
pared with the horse power (developed. The 
development in this field from 
shown by the accompanying table where the 
average values of the principal airplane engines 
for each year are given, except that in 1903, 
when the figures are for the Wright motor and 
the 1918 figure for horse power, 450 pounds, 
which is that of the Liberty motor. In this it 


AERONAUTICS 


will be noted, a ratio of 1.8 pounds per horse 
power was achieved. 


Year 1903 1910 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 
Horse power 21 Saal 22) Looe Loon Mato 400 
Weight (lbs.) 152 809 487 512 570 693 825 
Lbs. per horse 

power Te ie Oc Ee. OL Ot OcOP Eh Ok pieeS ay LS 


The Liberty engine is worthy of passing com- 
ment as a wartime attempt by the United States 
to produce on a quantity basis a new design in 
which all the best features of the various engines 
used in the airplanes of the combatant nations 
would be incorporated and which could be manu- 
factured immmediately in quantity. The design 
was developed in the United States by a group of 
skilled motor car engine designers, and by 1918 
the engine was in quantity production; an out- 
put of 3878 motors was secured in that year. 
These motors were used not only for American 
airplanes in the closing months of the War but 
were supplied to the French, British, and Italian 
machines. The object of the Liberty engine was 
to combine high power with lightness, and the 
12-eylinder motor was developed, in which the 
best features of American and European types 
were combined in a single efficient machine. 
The cylinders were made of steel inner shells 
surrounded by pressed steel water jackets. 
Above the cylinder heads were a cam shaft and 
valve mechanism with an improved arrangement 
for automatic lubrication. The cam shaft drive, 
copied almost entirely from the Hall-Scott motor, 
followed the type of drive used on the Mercedes, 
Hispano-Suiza and other successful machines. 
The included angle between the cylinders was 
45° instead of 60° as in other 12-cylinder engines 
of the time. An improved system of lubrica- 
tion also was employed and an improved type 
of water tank especially adapted to the new 
machine. The bore and stroke of the Liberty 
engines was 5x7 inches. 

Notwithstanding that vast numbers of Liberty 
engines were available after the close of hos- 
tilities, there was no tendency on the part of 
American aviation engineers to remain satisfied 
with their design. As the engines were used 
and applied to various airplanes and airships, 
as well as to motor boats, the type was further 
improved by the army and navy designers and 
other engineers so as to increase its reliability 
and efficiency. While the Liberty engine was a 
pioneer American airplane, power plant, it soon 
found competitors, and superior types were 
evolved in the United States. With the develop- 
ment of bombing planes for the military service, 
which continued after the Armistice, there was 
involved not merely reliability and endurance 
for the engines but considerable power to take 
eare of planes that could carry large loads 
of passengers and freight. In the attempt to 
secure such high power with reliability, it 
was the general opinion that a large single 
engine was preferable to a number of. engines, 
as the multi-engined plane required separate 
controls and did not secure any greater relia- 
bility, as three or more engines were necessary 
to provide against the failure of one. 

Up to 1924, 600 horse power had been the 
usual limit for ordinary gasoline airplane en- 
gines, though some 13 or more had been built, 
rated in excess of this figure, and had received 
experimental tests. 

It might be said here that even during the 
War, German engineers did not turn their at- 

2 


ai 


AERONAUTICS 


tention to large power plants, either for their 
airplanes or airships, as their air bases were 
situated comparatively near the fields of hos- 
tilities for the territory to be invaded, and the 
long trips which many of the Allied machines 
had to make were not required in their case. 

As distinct from engines of great power for 
use on bombers, other improved types are de- 
veloped for speed, pursuit, mail, and various 
other planes. The Curtiss D12 engine, which 
was employed with great success in planes par- 
ticipating in the Pulitzer, Schneider, and other 
competitions in 1922 and 1923, demonstrated its 
usefulness as an engine for a small high-speed 
airplane, single-seater, fighter, or scout, such as 
the Curtiss and Boring pursuit airplanes, or 
for a two-seated fighter. There was a V- 
arrangement of the twelve cylinders which were 
water cooled, and the entire engine weighed 
670 pounds dry, requiring 44 pounds of water. 
This engine gave 400 brake horse power at 200 
revolutions per minute. In connection with this 
engine was employed a wing type of radiator 
where two sheets of brass, one flat and the 
other corrugated, were soldered together and 
fastened to the surface of the near wing. The 
water flowing from edge to edge of the wing 
and through the corrugations of the two sheets 
is cooled in its passage. The wing type de- 
sign eliminates the resistance of the former 
core type of radiator which interfered with the 
attainment of the highest possible speed. In 
the wing type radiator the flow of water to 
each section can be controlled by the pilot; 
this makes it possible to eliminate any section 
when desired on account of leakage. The Cur- 
tiss D12 engine was still further refined and 
the cylinder diameter and compression ratio 
increased. Its advantages were widely recog- 
nized, and _ straightway European airplane 
manufacturers secured machines for use with 
their planes. 

The Wright Model T3 high-compression en- 
gine, as a result of United States navy tests 
in 1924, was claimed to be the lightest engine 
built for the power secured, weighing as it 
did but 1.7 pound per horse power developed. 
It was a 12-cylinder engine which developed 
680 horse power at 2000 revolutions per minute, 
with a fuel consumption of .47 pound per horse 
power hour on nine-tenths running, and for the 
entire test that was run an average oil consump- 
tion of .0065 pound per horse power hour. The 
engine weighed, dry, 1155 pounds. It was ca- 
pable of being used both in pursuit and observa- 
tion planes and in large bombers and flying 
boats, its power and economy being available for 
both classes of service. 

By 1922 the specifications in the United States 
army and navy for airplane engines had become 
most rigorous, and the Bureau of Aéronautics 
of the United States navy adopted for all types 
of aircraft engines a standard for service ac- 
ceptability tests of 300 hours running at full 
throttle without failure of such a nature as 
would force the termination of the flight under 
service conditions. That this was not an im- 
possible condition was demonstrated by the fact 
that the Wright model E4 completed such a 
test and ran a total of 572 hours at full throttle 
with voluntary stops for adjustments. 

The Bureau of Aéronautics in 1923 decided 
on a startling innovation in abandoning definite- 
ly the use of water-cooled engines of less than 
300-horse power in naval aircraft construction. 


AERONAUTICS 


This action was taken as a result of the success 
of the Lawrance-Wright Jl, a 200-horse power 
air-cooled engine. A new model of this engine, 
the J3, affording 200 horse power at 1800 revo- 
lutions per minute, became standard equipinent 
for certain types of naval aircraft. The devel- 
opment of such air-cooled engines as these was 
bound to exert a very important effect on future 
aircraft engineering. Inasmuch as the cooling 
system of the water-cooled type of airplane en- 
gine usually amounted to 25 per cent of the 
weight of the engine itself, it was realized that 
the problem was to secure an air-cooled engine 
of such improved dependability that it would 
equal the best water-cooled device. Improved 
devices of turbine super-chargers had been de- 
veloped which made possible ascents to higher 
altitudes. The most recent of these machines 
were better cooled and had greatly reduced head 
resistance. (See 
GINES. ) 

Motorless Flight. After the War consider- 
able attention was paid to airplanes without 
motors, which were used in soaring flight. 
These were popularly known as gliders, and so- 
called gliding contests were held; but this was 
a misnomer, since the devices were essentially 
planes or winged contrivances which depended 
on upward air currents for their power to over- 
come the force of gravity. A large number of 
different machines of this general class were 
developed, and the success obtained by 1924 in- 
dicated the possibility of producing inexpensive 
planes which would require engines with but 
from 5 to 25-horse power and consequently could 
be constructed and operated without large out- 
lay. In the second place a future development 
might be the employment of towing planes or 
cargo carrying motorless airplanes to be hitched 
to a strong motored plane, in much the same 
fashion as a trailer to a motor car. 

In 1911 Orville Wright made a soaring flight 
record at Kittyhawk, N. C., remaining aloft 
9 minutes and 45 seconds. He started from 
a sand dune 75 feet high and rose to 230 feet, 
hovering over the same spot nearly 9 minutes, 
a record which stood until Dr. Klemperer, a 
German scientist, built a soaring plane in which 
he was able to make a 6-mile flight, remaining 
in the air 13 minutes and 3 seconds, in 1921. 
Inasmuch as the terms of the Peace Treaty re- 
stricted motor driven flight, students and pro- 
fessors who had been carrying on aviation 
studies prior to and during the War now de- 
voted themselves to research and experiment in 
planes without motors. The record of Klemper- 
er did not last any longer than September 6 of 
the same year, when it was broken by a student 
at the Hanover Technical University named 
Martens, who, flying from the Wasserkuppe at 
the head of the Rhoen Valley in Germany, was 
able to soar for 15 minutes and 40 seconds in a 
plane designed by Dr. George H. Madelung, then 
a professor at Hanover. 

On Sept. 13, 1921, an aviator named Harth 
made a flight of 21 minutes and 37 seconds, be- 
ing able to alight at a spot only 35 feet below 
his starting point. About this time competi- 
tions were held also in France, though in com- 
parison with the work of German gliders the 
showing made was not at all good. In the year 
1922, however, some notable German contests 
were held at the Wasserkuppe, where by this 
time the local air currents were well under- 
stood. A record of 3 hours and 6 minutes was 


16 


INTERNAL COMBUSTION EN-- 


AERONAUTICS 


achieved by F. H. Hentzen, while two-passenger 
gliders were shown, one of which remained aloft 
for 13 minutes. In November, 1922, a British 
international contest for gliders was held near 
Brighton, over the English downs, and was won 
by Alexis Maneyrol, a French aviator, who re- 
mained aloft in a tandem plane for 3 hours and 
21 minutes. This form of construction naturally 
suggested the original aérodrome of Langley, a 
type of design which had not figured extensively 
in the development of the motor-driven airplane. 
In 1923, extensive competitions were held, and 
on January 29 of that year Maneyrol made a 
world’s glider record of 8 hours and 4 minutes, 
at Vauville, France. This lasted until May- 11, 
1924, when Ferdinand Schulz, a German glider 
pilot, established a new duration record for 
gliders of 8 hours and 40 minutes in the course 
of a flight in which he maintained an average 
altitude of 150 feet. 

Light Planes. By 1923 it was realized that 
there was considerable opportunity for the de- 
velopment of light planes making use of the 
principle of the soaring plane and combining 
with it a light powered motor. In Germany 
in the glider competition of 1924, motor gliders 
also were included, and for these the engines for 
single-seaters were limited to 750 cubic centi- 
meters (45.75 cubic inches) piston displacement, 
or 66 pounds weight; and for two-seaters the 
limit was 1000 cubie centimeters (61 cubic 
inches) piston displacement, or 88 pounds 
weight. The German regulations for the 1924 
competition spoke of “gliders with auxiliary 
motors,’ and it was interesting to see just what 
differentiation would be made between such 
planes and “light planes,’ for which in the 
various countries competitions were announced 
for the season of 1924. In all of these, restric- 
tions as to the size and capacity of the engine 
employed were most specific. Though somewhat 
heavier than the light plane referred to, an in- 
teresting airplane was developed in Germany, 
known as the Dietrich-Gobiet monoplane, which 
at the time was called the “Ford of the air.” 
It was driven by a Haacke two-cylinder opposed 
type of motor rated at 30 to 35-horse power. 
This was said to give a power loading of 21 
pounds per horse power, with a wing loading of 
6.5 pounds per square foot. In the United 
States also a light plane competition was ar- 
ranged for 1924. 

Helicopter. As early as the time of Leonardo 
da Vinci, air travel by means of a revolving 
screw or propeller mounted on a vertical axis 
had been in the minds of scientific men. No 
attempt to realize this idea was successful un- 
til the twentieth century, when a number of de- 
vices were brought out which, if not successful 
on a practical basis, at least showed promise 
and indicated progress in this field. In 1919 
Michelin of France, patron and promoter of 
aviation, announced a prize of $100,000 to be 
awarded to the person who should produce and 
demonstrate the first heavier-than-air aircraft 
that would rise from and land on the ground 
vertically, or would, for example, rise to the 
roof of a modern house and then return to its 
starting point. The chief conditions of the 
Michelin prize provided for a machine to rise 
vertically from the ground, to possess the great- 
est possible s eed up to 124 miles an hour, and 
to land vertically within a radius of 5 meters. 

In France a helicopter was devised by Pateras 
Pescara and constructed by the French technical 


. 


AERONAUTICS 


section of aviation. Here vertical motion was 
produced by the rotation of two wings in a 
horizontal position, and a small propeller was 
provided. In 1923, in the course of experiments 
at Issy-les-Moulineaux, near the French capital, 
Pescara kept his machine in the air for three 
minutes, traveling above the ground at an aver- 
age height of one meter, and at the conclusion 
remained stationary in the air for one minute. 
Other notable performances of the Pescara heli- 
copter included a straight flight of 200 meters 
length, another of 460 meters, and a circular 
flight of 650 meters circumference, with the 
machine landing in a circle of 10 meters di- 
ameter from which it took off. Pescara’s ma- 
chine had an automobile-like body, on which was 
mounted a shaft turning a number of propel- 
lers. At official tests held at Issy-les-Moulin- 
eaux during November, 1923, Pescara managed 
to keep his machine in the air at a height of 
between 1 and 2 meters for 5 minutes and 4414 


_seconds, traversing a distance of 300 meters and 


returning to his starting point. 

Other French work of importance was the 
helicopter of Etienne Oehmichen, which, like 
that of Pescara, was able to rise freely and make 
short flights. In 1923, a hovering. flight of 5 
minutes and 15 seconds was made before repre- 
sentatives of the French air department. In 
fact it was claimed that this helicopter of Eti- 
enne Oehmichen had lifted three persons ‘to a 
height of 5 meters. The machine also twice 
rose with the same number of passengers to 
heights of 3 to 5 meters. The Oehmichen heli- 
copter had to its credit a total of two hours 
in flight, with one flight of nine minutes. It 
also had accomplished a horizontal flight of 
400 meters. Later he secured the first official 
record. 

In Great Britain also, considerable attention 
had been devoted to this subject, and Louis 
Brennan, inventor of, the mono-railway, had been 
engaged in experiments at the Royal Aircraft 
Establishment at Farnborough since 1918 un- 
der government auspices. Brennan also had 
executed more or less short flights or hops, but 
up to 1924 had not passed beyond an experi- 
mental stage. 

In the United States a helicopter was devised 
by the distinguished Emile Berliner and after 
his death was improved by his son, Henry Ber- 
liner. In 1922 this device was able to rise 
freely seven feet from the ground and remain 
motionless and steady; in subsequent experi- 
ments it was demonstrated that it was possible 
to give forward motion to the helicopter from 
the same source of power that provided the up- 
ware lift. The Berliner machine involved three 
pro,ellers, two for the upward motion and one 
for the forward motion. This device also had 
not proceeded beyond an experimental stage. 
The De Bothezat helicopter was constructed 
under the direction of the engineering division 
of the United States Army Air Service and 
reached a point where in the year 1922 it was 
able to make free flights and show encouraging 
prospects. 

That the helicopter was becoming a serious 
factor in aéronautics was shown by the fact 
that after Apr. 1, 1924, the International Aéro- 
nautic Federation recognized officially records 
made with such machines. The first holder of 
an official helicopter record was Etienne Oehmi- 
chen. This was made on April 17, at Valen- 
tigny, France, when a horizontal flight of 525 


17 


AERONAUTICS 


meters (1772 feet) in a direct line was scored. 
This record was beaten the following day. by 
Pescara at the Issy-les-Moulineaux aérodrome 
in a straight line horizontal flight with a dis- 
tance of 736 meters (2550 feet), made in 4 
minutes and 11 seconds, while the machine was 
over 6 feet above the ground. On May 5 
Oehmichen made the first circuit flight accom- 
plished by a direct lift machine, covering a tri- 
angular kilometer course in 7 minutes and 40 
seconds. This flight, which was made under the 
control of the technical section of the French 
Air Service, won for Oehmichen a prize of 90,000 
francs offered by the French air department for 
the first 1l-kilometer circuit made by a heli- 
copter. 

On Apr. 30, 1924, entries were closed for the 
international helicopter competition for the 
British Air Ministry’s prize of £50,000 offered 
in May, 1923. This competition attracted 15 
or 20 competitors, including the best examples 
of this type of construction. To win the prize 
the helicopter must rise vertically to 2000 feet 
altitude; hover there for half an hour and de- 
scend safely; make a circular flight of 20 miles 
length at 60 miles per hour; and make a glid- 
ing flight from 3000 feet altitude with the 
engine stopped and land in a small area. These 
conditions seemed difficult of fulfilment, be- 
cause at the time the entries closed no free heli- 
copter had ever risen more than 10 feet from 
the ground, although 150 feet was the record 
height ascent for a captive helicopter of the 
Austrian designers, Karman and _  Petroczy. 
Furthermore, up to this time no helicopter had 
ever made a gliding flight with the engine 
stopped or a landing with precision, and the 
greatest horizontal speed ever made by a heli- 
copter was about 6 miles per hour, or one-tenth 
that required in the competition. 

The World’s Aircraft. In 1924 the four 
leading military flying nations of the world, 
in order, were France, Great Britain, Italy, and 
Germany, while Russia and Japan were con- 
sidered significant as potential powers with fu- 
ture possibilities in no way to be neglected. 
Of the 55 nations of the world reporting air- 


craft, 16 engaged in a deliberate policy of es- 


tablishing air transport, and in particular 
France, Great Britain, Italy, and Germany were 
seeking to cover Europe with connecting lines, 
and also to extend air transportation into 
Africa, Asia, and South America. Great Brit- 
ain, in 1923, after some neglect of air travel, 
was engaged in laying the foundation for consid- 
erable extension of aérial, activity, particularly 
in relation to defense and to connection between 
the colonies. The British firms were building 
about 24 different types of military and naval 
aircraft, and types of troop-carrying planes had 
been produced, each capable of carrying 25 per- 
sons. Such designs could readily be developed 
for large cargo carrying and passenger planes. 
At the end of 1923° Great Britain had more 
naval aircraft in serviceable condition than all 
the other nations together. 

As already stated, the military note was the 
loudest in Europe, and by the end of 1923 France 
had become the strongest power aéronautically, 
with a considerable military strength. In 1922 
the French airplane factories had produced 3300 
planes for military and civil purposes, which 
gave France a lead in aérial preparedness that 
was a source of concern .to other nations. 
While in most countries, subsequent to the 


AERONAUTICS 


Armistice of 1918, the general tendency had 
been to use up surplus war material, in France 
new developments were constantly put under 
way, and in 1923 there were 29 aircraft facto- 
ries, two airship plants, and 11 concerns manu- 
facturing airplane engines. These naturally 
brought many foreign orders to France, and 
with the large number of tourists from abroad, 
important air lines were operated. 

By the terms of the Treaty of Versailles it 
was provided that all German aviation should 
be civilian, and even that was seriously handi- 
capped. At the end of the War the Germans 
had a well organized and productive aircraft 
industry, and this was not altogether obliterated 
by the new conditions, notwithstanding the 
many transformations which were required. At 
a meeting of the conference of Ambassadors of 
the Allies held Apr. 14, 1922, there was adopted 
a prohibition against the construction of air- 
planes capable of more than 31% or 4 hours 
flight and a range of more than 600 kilometers 
(372.6 miles). This action led to the removal 
of the well trained technical assistants to for- 
eign countries and the transfer in large measure 
of designing, supervising, and manufacturing 
organizations to cities in other countries, but 
working on German lines and practice. For ex- 
ample, Dr. Junkers became active in Moscow, 
the Fokker interests were established at Am- 
sterdam, and other leading designers located at 
other points outside the Empire. Nevertheless, 
by 1924 Germany was well covered with air- 
plane routes, some of which were maintained in 
connection with the services from other nations; 
the line between Berlin and Amsterdam con- 
nected with British airplanes regularly carry- 
ing passengers to London. The British ma- 
chines, however, were built to carry nine pas- 
sengers, while the German machines operating 
on such routes carried but four or five. In 
Italy also commercial and military aviation was 
being developed, though no extensive air routes 


were planned. Japan too had acquired a num-. 


ber of planes, while in Russia many important 
developments were in progress, and German de- 
signers were aiding the development of both 
military machines and commercial planes for 
land travel. 

Commercial Flying. After the close of the 
War, and the period of readjustment. involving 
the demobilization of the air forces of the vari- 
ous powers and the return to peace conditions, 
the development of civil flying, up to 1924, was 
confessedly disappointing, notwithstanding the 
fact that there were numerous improvements 
and machines of greater capacity, endurance, 
reliability, and speed were developed. The 
after-war conditions were in a large measure 
responsible for the failure to develop civilian 
flight and the lack of government support made 
necessary in most cases by necessity for the 
strictest economy. Furthermore, the general 
public failed to recognize that aviation had 
great possibilities outside of its military appl- 
eation. 

The United States had developed its air mail 
to a greater extent than that of any other 
nation, so that in addition to other lines, on 
July 1, 1924, it was able to start a through 
transcontinental mail service on a permanent 
and scheduled basis. But it was also true that 
the passenger and parcels express service main- 
tained by American aviation companies was 
not on as spectacular or methodical a basis as 


18 


AERONAUTICS 


in Europe. The first American passenger air 
line service was inaugurated on Nov, 1, 1920, 
by the Aéromarine Airways, Inc., to operate a 
daily schedule between Key West and Havana, 
a distance of about 100 miles, accomplished in 
a trifle over one hour. This was a_ private 
commercial undertaking without government sub- 
sidy or support, yet in 1921 this company, 
whose fleet had increased from three to five 
11-passenger flying boats, established lines from 
New York City to Atlantic City, and also from 
New York City to Southampton, L. I., and New- 
port, R. I. In 1922 with its fleet increased to 
seven 1l-passenger boats and nine 4-passenger 
flying boats, service was established between 
Cleveland and Detroit, and from Miami and 
Palm Beach to the Bahamas. By the end of 
1923 the Aéromarine Airways in its regular 
transportation lines carried over 30,000 pas- 
sengers more than 1,000,000 miles, with only one 
serious accident. Here the tendency was to es- 
tablish a regular service with a maximum re- 
liability and safety without making trips under ~ 
unfavorable weather conditions or taking any 
chances, however slight. 

In 1923 in the United States individuals and 
companies operating over fixed bases flew 3,014,- 
611 miles, and passengers carried numbered 
80,888, the majority of whom paid their pas- 
sage, whereas in 1921, of 122,512 passengers re- 
ported it was doubtful if the majority paid for 
their transportation. These fixed base fliers 
gradually were practising business methods and 
management, and where new lines were estab- 
lished efforts were made to underwrite and 
guarantee the undertaking by persons most in- 
terested. 

For the three years, 1921-23, the Aérial 
Chamber of Commerce of America compiled 
statistics of fixed base flying which was carried 
on by an average of 126 fixed base operators 
with an average equipment of 600 airplanes, of 
which probably one-fifth were water planes and 
four-fifths land planes. Altogether 327,510 sep-~ 
arate flights were made in this period and 8,767,- 
893 miles were flown, 278,668 passengers car- | 
ried, and 442,186 pounds of freight transported. 

Important as the military and naval situa- 
tion was in Great Britain, the development of 
commercial aircraft was important in view of 
the insular situation and the amount of busi- 
ness with the Continent. At the end of 1923 it 
was stated that 45,531 passengers had been car- 
ried between England and the Continent by air, 
and 33,362 of these, or 73 per cent of the total, 
had traveled in British aircraft. There was 
a constant increase in traffic and in freight, and 
during the year 1923 a total of 15,137 pas- 
sengers and over 800 tons of freight had been 
carried as compared with 12,359 passengers and 
477 tons of freight in 1922. The proportion 
of passengers carried in British machines in 
1923 was 79 per cent as against 77 per cent in 
1922. In 1923 the average load carried in- 
creased to 1200 pounds, representing’ four or 
five passengers, and about 270 pounds of freight, 
whereas in the previous year it was but 810 
pounds, three or four passengers, and about 150 
pounds of freight. Up to the end of 1923 mer- 
chandise representing total of £3,180,319 had 
been imported and exported by aircraft, British ~ 
and foreign combined, and in 1923 alone the 
total value of freight transported exceeded 
£750,000 sterling. On one single trip five hun- 
dred-weight of silver ingots and one ton of furs 


el 


AERONAUTICS P 


were carried by air to France. In 1923 British 
aircraft engaging in air transport had a record 
of 943,000 miles flown, equal to about 38 cir- 
cuits of the globe, an increase of 226,000 miles 
over the corresponding figure of 1922. In 1922 
the London-Paris route which had been in opera- 
tion since 1919 had a record of 92.5 per cent 
of flights completed within time limits fixed in 
the subsidy scheme, while in 1923 the cor- 
responding figure for all routes reached 91 per 
cent. 

After the War, various British air transport 
companies had sought to maintain foreign routes 
with more or less indifferent success and with in- 
adequate subsidies but without the development 
of a comprehensive air policy by the government. 
There had been four important air transport 
companies operating under subsidy, and late 
in 1923 these were combined through efforts 
of the British Air Ministry so as to meet Con- 
tinental competition and to develop the British 
industry. The organization resulting was known 
as the Imperial Air Transport Company, and it 
was decided to maintain the old routes, namely 
London-Paris-Zurich, London-Brussels-Cologne, 
Manchester-London-Amsterdam, and_ Berlin- 
Southampton-Channel Islands. The government 
granted to this company, which was British 
owned, a subsidy of £1,000,000 to be spread 
over 10 years, and stipulated that all aircraft 
employed were to be British built, registered in 
Great Britain, and operated by a British staff, 
and that further experiment and development 
was to be carried on. The station at Croydon 


19 


was to be made the world’s largest airport and \ 


an electric railway spur was to be built direct 
to the field. ' 

Hazards of Aviation. Progress toward 
greater safety in civil flying continued, and in 
the United States in three years from 1921 
there were but 470 civilian aviation accidents 
involving death to 221 persons and injury to 
391. Analyses of these accidents show that but 
51 occurred to individual or incorporated op- 
erators who, having a fixed base, were finan- 
cially liable and were properly carrying on 
regular work, and from these 51 accidents death 
resulted to 25 persons and injury to 40. The 
observance of a proper safety code and requisite 
rules for flying provided by national legislation 
would have obviated many of the accidents, 
most of which occurred among the “gypsy” or 
itinerant fliers. Of the 12 fatalities to regu- 
lar fliers in 1923, five could be properly re- 
corded as marine casualties, since passengers 
were swept from an aérial boat by the waves 
after it had alighted safely. In fixed base 
flying in the United States it was found that 
for every accident, 171,919.47 miles were safely 
flown, for every fatality 350,715.72 miles, and 
for each injury 219,197,325 miles. 


OFFICIAL WORLD RECORDS RECOGNIZED BY 
THE F. A. I. 
(AIRPLANES) 
RETURNING TO POINT OF DEPARTURE 
WITHOUT FUELING 


Duration—(United States) Lts. O. G. Kelly and 
J. A. Macready, U. S. Army T2, Liberty 400 h.p., at 
Wilbur Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, Apr. 16-17, 1923., 
386 hr. 4 min. 34 sec. 

Distance—(United States) Lts. O. G. Kelly and 
J. A. Macready, U. S. Army T2, Liberty 400 h.p., at 
Wilbur Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, Apr. 16-17, 
TO03 we 40500kmon (2010.00 It) 

Altitude—(France) Sadi Lecointe, - 
Hispano 300 h.p., at Issy-les-Moulineaux, 
Oct. 30, 1923. 11,145 m. (36,555 ft.). 


Nieuport-Delage, 
France, 


\ 


AERONAUTICS 


Maximum Speed—(United States) Lt. A. J. Williams, 
U. Ss. N., Curtiss R2C1, Curtiss 500 h.p., at Mitchel 
Field, Mineola, L, I., Nov. 4, 1923. 429.025 km. hr. 
(266.59 mi. hr.). 

Speed for 100 km. (62.14 mi.)—(United States) 
Lt. A. J. Williams, U. S. N., Curtiss R2C1, Curtiss 


500 h.p., at St Louis, Mo., Octi.46, 1928. $92.679 
km. hr. (243.81 mi. hr.). 

200 km, (124.27 mi.)—(United States) Lt. A. J. 
Williams, U. S. N., Curtiss R2C1, Curtiss 500 h.p., at 
Stem OUI MNLOeOCts &® O, «1923. 992.1545 km, hr. 
(243.67 mi. hr.) 

500 km. (310.69 mi.)—(United States) Lt. Alex 
Pearson, U. S. A., Verville-Sperry R3, Wright 350 


h.p., at Wilbur Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, Mar. 29, 
1923. 270 km. hr. (167.8 mi. hr.). 

1000 km. (621.37 mi.)—(United States) Lt. Harold 
R. Harris, U. S. A., DH4B, at Wilbur Wright Field, 


mtr ee Ohio; Mar.°29, 1923, 205 km. hr. (127.42 
Tie nT) © 

1500 km. (932.05 mi.)—(United States) Lt. Harold 
Re Harris, 5 lee) 74.: H4B, Liberty 400 h.p., at 
Wilbur Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, Mar. 29, 1923. 
HS'4\03" Kime (ds 14es5 wml.) nr. le 

2000 km. (1242.74 mi.)—(United States) Lt. 


Harold R. Harris, U. S. A., DH4B, Liberty 400 h.p., 
at Wilbur Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, Apr. 17, 1923. 
TSSe8s" kine hie Chl 42 ous hee 

2500 km. (1553.42 mi.)—-(United States) Lts. O. G. 
Kelly and J. A. Macready, Army T2, Liberty 400 h.p., 
at Wilbur Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, Apr. 16-17, 
L925. sho. O0 “ame hr) (4 oom. ental 

3000 km. (1864.11 mi.)—(United States) Lts. O. G. 
Kelly and J. A. Macready, Army T2, Liberty 400 h.p., 
at Wilbur Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, Apr. 16-17, 
S256 2 PD Seek Deas Cle Oo Mite his 

4000 km. (2174.79 mi.)—(United States) Lts. O. G, 
Kelly and J. A. Macready, Army T2, Liberty 400 h.p., 
at Wilbur Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, Apr. 16-17, 
1923, 113.93 ‘km- br. (70.79 mi. hr.). 


In 1923 the International Aéronautic Federa- 
tion (Fédération Aéronautique Internationale— 
F. A. I.) announced a new category of records 
for airplanes refueled in flight before return- 
ing to point of departure. These records were 
subject to ratification by the F. A. I. after the 
regulations covering this new category had been 
formulated at the 1924 General Conference in 
Paris. Up to March, 1924, Lieuts. L. H. Smith, 
and J. R. Richter, U. S. A. A. S., who had de- 
veloped an effective method of refueling, at 
Rockwell Field, Santiago, Cal., on Aug. 27 
and 28, 1923, flying in a DH4B plane, made 
a record for duration of 37 hours, 15 minutes 
and 48.8 seconds, and for a distance of 5300 
kilometers or 3,293.26 miles. In the course of 
this flight speed records for distances from 100 
kilometers to 5000 kilometers were made as 
follows: 


AKRONAUTICS 

Distancein Distance in Speed Speed 
kilometers miles km. hr. mi. hr. 
100 62.14 140.96 87.59 
200 124.27 142.29 88.41 
500 310.69 143.48 89.15 
1,000 621.37 144.56 89.92 
1,500 932.05 144,53 89.81 
2,000 1,242.74 144.01 89.48 
2,500 1,553.42 142.78 88.72 
3,000 1,863.11 141.17 88.15 
3,500 2,174.79 142.17 88.34 
4,000 2,485.48 142 88.23 
4,500 2,796.16 142.36 88.45 
5,000 3,106.85 V42350 88.55 


Distance Flights. When Louis Blériot first 
crossed the English Channel in 1909 in his 
monoplane the possibilities of long trips over 
sea were clearly indicated, and naturally trans- 
atlantic flight became a goal for aviators which 
loomed up nearer with the achievements of 
the military and naval aviators in the War. 
In May 8, 1919, the United States navy planes 
NC1, NC3, and NC4, left the naval station at 
Rockaway, N. Y., for Trepassey Bay, Newfound- 
land, two of the planes arriving at their desti- 


AERONAUTICS 


nation the same day, and the NC4, which had 
been forced down near Chatham, Mass., reached 
Newfoundland a few days later, after a new en- 
gine was substituted. The three planes left 
Trepassey Bay on May 16 for the Azores, the 
NO4 reaching Horta, 1250 miles distant, in 15 
hours and 13 minutes. The NC4, the only air- 
plane in good flying condition, then proceeded to 
Ponta Delgada, and on May 27 it flew from 
there to Lisbon, a distance of 810 miles, in 
9 hours and 43 minutes; or for the entire trip 
across the Atlantic of 2472 miles, an actual 
flying time of 26 hours and 51 minutes. The 
next stage was to Ferrol, Spain, and the last 
was to Plymouth, England, where the flight 
terminated. 

The success of the United States navy ex- 
pedition lent interest to the attempt of Com- 
mander Grieve and Maj. Harry Hawker in a 
British Sopwith biplane, flying from St. Johns 
to make a non-stop transatlantic flight, but they 
were forced down 1000 miles from their start- 
ing point and rescued by a passing Danish 
steamer. Engine trouble was responsible for the 
interruption of the flight. On June 14, 1919, the 
Vickers Vimy bomber, a bi-motored Rolls-Royce 
biplane with two 4-bladed propellers, piloted by 
Capt. John Alcock, who lost his life on Decem- 
ber 18 of the same year in a crash in France, and 
navigated by Lieut. Arthur W. Brown, made a 
landing at Clifton, Ireland, after a 1960-mile 
flight in 16 hours and 12 minutes, at an average 
rate of 120 miles per hour. This trip won the 
London Daily Mail $50,000 prize for the first non- 
stop flight across the Atlantic. On Aug. 11, 
1919, a Farman Goliath biplane flew from Paris 
to Morocco with 10 passengers in 16 hours and 20 
minutes, a record that was, perhaps, as notable 
as any at this time and indicated the possibilities 
of long-distance aviation. Capt. Ross Smith in 
a Vimy bomber, won a prize of £10,000 by flying 
from Hounslow aérodrome in England to Port 
Darwin, Australia, 11,500 miles. This was 
within the 80 days stipulated, being accom- 
plished in 27 days 20 hours and 20 minutes or 
from November 12 to December 10. In _ the 
United States, Lieut. B. W. Maynard in a DH4, 
equipped with 400-horse power Liberty motor, 
flew from New York to San Francisco and re- 
turn, or 5402 miles, Oct. 8 to 30, 1919. 

Transcontinental Non-stop Flight. The first 
non-stop flight across the United States, making 
a record for distance 2700 miles in 26 hours and 
50 minutes, was successfully accomplished May 
2-3, 1923, by Lieuts. Oakley G. Kelly and John 
A. Macready, U. S. A. A. S., in an Army-Fokker 
T2 plane, with Liberty engine. In the previous 
year these aviators had flown from San Diego to 
Indianapolis, where a forced landing was made, 
and at Dayton, Apr. 17, 1923, had made an 
endurance record of 36 hours, 5 minutes, and 20 
seconds. The 1923 transcontinental trip was 
made in the same plane as was used for the other 
record-breaking flights, but the plane was im- 
proved from the original constryction and in- 
creased gasoline capacity given to it. 

Dawn-to-Dusk Flight. An equally notable 
flight across the American continent was made 
on June 23, 1924, when Lieut. Russell L. Maug- 
han, U. S. A. A. S., in a Curtiss pursuit plane 
(Type PW8, 1924) with a 400-horse power 
Curtiss D12 engine and supplementary fuel 
tanks, accomplished a dawn-to-dusk trip from 
Mitchel Field, N. Y., to Crissy Field, San Fran- 
cisco, making the 2700 miles in a total elapsed 


20 


AERONAUTICS 


time of 21 hours, 44 minutes, and in a total 
flying time of 17 hours, 52 minutes. Lieutenant 
Maughan divided his trip into six stages. This 
flight demonstrated the ease with which pursuit 
planes of the United States Army Air Service, 
numbering but 25 in 1924, could cross the con- 
tinent from coast to coast in time of emergency, 
traveling at an average flying speed of ap- 
proximately 150 miles per hour. 

Around-the-World Flights of 1924. In 
1924 a number of important attempts to fly 
around the world were organized, and repre- 
sentatives of the United States, Great Britain, 
and France started on carefully organized trips, 
meeting with varying degrees of success, but 
all contributing to the development and knowl- 
edge of the conditions of long distance flying. 
On Mar. 17, 1924, the United States Army Air 
Service started its flight around the world with 
an itinerary measuring between 25,000 and 26,- 
000 miles. This flight started at Santa Monica, 
Cal., and extended north to Seattle and thence 
along the coast to Alaska, thence to Japan. from 
which it was continued to China, India, and the 
Mediterranean. Extensive preparations had 
been made for this trip, and the airplanes and 
engines employed were al] American in design, 
material, and construction, built, by the Douglas 
Company of Santa Monica. The fuselage was 
made in three detachable sections of steel tub- 
ing and divided into an engine section, a middle 
section, and a rear section. The wings were of 
standard box beam and built-up rib construc- 
tion. The upper wing was made in three panels, 
while the lower wing was made in two. These 
wings could be folded so that they required but 
small storage and shipping space. A vertical 
fin and a horizontal stabilizer were made of 
standard I-beam and built-up rib construction, 
while the elevator and rudder were of steel tub- 
ing. The axles were of alloy steel tubing, heat- 
treated after fabrication. For the struts steel 
tubes were used, streamlined with wood, and the 
water landing gear consisted of wooden floats of 
built-up wood construction; the top covering was 
of three-ply veneer and the bottom of two-ply 
mahogany. 

These world cruisers were biplanes and were 
designed to serve interchangeably as land and 
seaplanes, depending on the landing gear. The 
cruiser, when fitted as a seaplane, weighed, 
empty, 5100 pounds, and could carry a load of 
men, equipment, gasoline, fuel oil, etc., of 2615 
pounds, making its gross weight 7715 pounds. 
As a land plane with the landing gear shown in 
the accompanying plate it weighed, empty, 4300 
pounds. With the same load mentioned it would 
weigh 6915 pounds, so that it would have faster 
speed. In either case there would be a gasoline 
capacity of 450 gallons. As a seaplane there 
would be a wing loading of 10.9 pounds per 
square foot, and as a land plane of 9.7 pounds 
per square foot. As a seaplane the load would - 
amount to 18.3 pounds for each horse power, 
and as a land plane 16.3 pounds per horse 
power. 

The Liberty engine was of the usual 400-horse 
power type. The wing span for both the upper 
and lower wings was 50 feet, while the span of 
the airplane with the wings folded was 20 feet 
2 inches. The height over all was 13 feet 7 
inches, and the length over all was 35 feet 6 
inches. When rigged as a seaplane the world 
cruiser could attain a normal altitude of 7000 
feet and fly at a normal maximum speed of 100 


AERONAUTICS 


; 
Raia eek et ee TVS t 
. 


oe e 


ndicator 


Flight Indicator Airspeed Indicator 


“OFFICIAL PHOTOGRAPHS, UNITED STATES ARMY AiR SERVICE 


AIRPLANE INSTRUMENTS 
As used on the United States Army Air Service Airplanes in the Around-the-World Flight, 1924 


THE LIBRARY 
OF THE 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 


AERONAUTICS 


miles per hour, with a landing speed of 35 miles 
an hour. With the lighter equipment of a land 
plane it could climb to 10,000 feet, fly 103 miles 
an hour, and land at a speed of 53 miles per 
hour. For the round-the-world flight 15 extra 
Liberty engines were distributed along the route, 
and 200 per cent replacements in the airplanes 
were made available. Where long over-water 
flights were scheduled, 14 extra sets of pontoons 
were held in readiness. The first part of the 
flight was made to Seattle with incidental stops 
en route, and on April 6, the four world cruisers 
officially started from Seattle flying to Prince 
Rupert, B. C. On April 10 they proceeded to Sit- 
ka, Alaska, and on April 13 they flew directly to 
Seward. Three of the ships flying from Seward 
reached Chignik, a distance of 450 miles, but 
Major Martin’s plane failed to arrive, and the ex- 
pedition was temporarily checked. Bad weather 
and other difficulties also delayed the flight in 
Alaska. On May 10 word was received that 
Major Martin and Sergeant Harvey had safely 
reached Port Moller, an isolated point on the Ber- 
ing Sea shore of the Alaskan Peninsula. They 
had crashed into a mountain in a fog at 12.30 
A.M. on April 30, on their way from Chignik to 
Dutch Harbor. The ship was a total wreck, but 
the aviators were able to reach safety and were 
brought back to the United States on May 9. 

The remaining three cruisers, under the com- 
mand of Lieut. Lowell H. Smith, flew on May 9 
from Nazan to Chicagoff on the Island of Attu, 
a distance of 530 miles, which marked the com- 
pletion of the first of the seven divisions into 
which the grand journey of 27,000 miles was 
divided. On June 3 Lieutenant Smith, who with 
the squadron had successfully reached Japan, 
was designated permanent commander of the 
flight, on the personal request of Maj. Frederick 
L. Martin, who had returned to the United 
States after the accident to his plane in the 
Alaskan mountains. On June 26 the American 
aviators were at Calcutta, where wheels were 
substituted for floats, motors changed, and new 
wings fitted. The squadron had accomplished 
some 12,000 miles, or almost half way around 
the world. Leaving Calcutta on July 1, they 
flew across India and on to Constantinople. On 
July 13, they left Bucharest, and with a stop 
for luncheon at Budapest, reached Vienna at 3 
P.M. Leaving Vienna the following day, they 
arrived at Paris in time to participate in the 
observance of the French national holiday com- 
memorating the Fall of the Bastile. London 
was reached on July 16. The following day 
Brough was reached, and after repairs departure 
was made for Kirkwall. On August 2, Lieu- 
tenant Nelson made Hornafjord, but Lieutenant 
Wade was forced down by motor trouble and 
his plane wrecked. 

British World Flight. The British world 
flight began on March 25 under the command of 
squadron leader Maj. A. Stuart Maclaren, 
R.A.F., with flight officer W. N. Plenberlieth as 
pilot. The airship Vulture was selected to make 
the trip. On April 23 Major Maclaren reached 
Karachi, India, completing the first of the five di- 
visions into which the British globe circling route 
was divided. The total distance flown was 4890 
miles, and Major Maclaren, vy long-distance fast 
flying, was able to make up his schedule, not- 
withstanding two weeks lost at Corfu for re- 
placement of engine. 

Reaching Calcutta, Major Maclaren proceeded 
to Akyab in Burma, where he arrived on May 


2I 


AERONAUTICS 
21, but on May 24, he crashed in the harbor of 


' Akyab when he was about to proceed to Rangoon. 


This accident probably would have led to the 
abandonment of the flight, but a spare airplane 
which had been sent to Hakodate, Japan, was 
forwarded to Akyab by two American destroyers 
and made it possible for Maclaren on June 25 
to resume his flight, the next stage of which 
took him to Rangoon, Burma. Leaving here on 
June 28 he flew to Bangkok, Siam, whence on the 
following day he proceeded to Haiphong in 
French Indo-China. Hong-Kong was reached on 
June 30, and on July 3, after a stop at Foochow, 
Shanghai was made. On July 4, Major Maclaren 
flew across the Eastern Sea to Kagoshima, 
Japan, and on July 6, he made Kushimoto after 
a forced landing at Susami to refuel. He landed 
in Lake Kasumi near Tokyo on July 7. On 
July 13 Major Maclaren left Kasumigara and 
reached Minato. Proceeding by several stages, 
West Kamchatka was reached on August 1, 
but leaving here the plane was wrecked on the 
following day and the flight abandoned, as no 
more planes were available. 

French Expedition. The French Paris-to- 
Tokyo expedition, which consisted of Lieut. 
Peltier d’Oisy, pilot, and Sergeant Vesin, me- 
chanic, left Paris on April 24, arriving in Agri, 
India, on May 3, and flew thence to Calcutta, 
making the 850 miles in 6% hours. This gave 
a flying time from Paris to Calcutta of 51 hours 
and 55 minutes, and a total elapsed time, for 
6300 miles distance, of 12 days. Hamnnoi, the 
capital of French Indo-China, was reached on 
May 13, and a new 400-horse power engine was 
substituted, notwithstanding the fact that the 
original engine had served the fliers without any 
trouble for 900 miles and doubtless would have 
held out until Japan was reached. On May 18 
their departure was made from Hannoi, and 620 
miles to Canton, in southern China, was accom- 
plished in 51% hours, most of the time in heavy 
rain. Captain d’Oisy unfortunately smashed 
his plane on May 20 in landing at Shanghai, 
China, but the Chinese governor presented him 
with a Breguet plane in which he flew to Pekin, 
a distance of 650 miles. From Pekin, Captain 
d’Oisy proceeded to Mukden in Manchuria, and 
on the following day he flew from Mukden to 
Pingyang in northern Korea, and then crossing 
the Korean Strait on June 8, reached Japan. 
The flight terminated at Tokyo. It was notable 
as the first trip of the kind, extending from 
Paris, France, to Tokyo, Japan, a distance of 
11,000 miles. 

Air Mail. One of the earliest suggested ap- 
plications of the airplane was to the transporta- 
tion of mail and small packages where time was 
an important consideration. This was attempted 
spasmodically before the War, and during that 
conflict airplanes were employed to transmit dis- 
patches and various articles or small freight. 
In the United States during the War, there was 
inaugurated, on May 15, 1918, a regular air 
mail service between Washington and New York, 
which functioned for a year with a performance 
of 92.73 per cent, carrying 7,720,840 letters with 
revenues from the sale of airplane mail stamps 
amounting to $159,700 as against a cost of serv- 
ice of $137,900.06. This air mail was started 
by the United States army aviators, but on 
Aug. 10, 1918, it was turned over to the Post 
Office Department, by which all such activities 
were subsequently conducted. On May 15, 1919, 
the Cleveland-Chicago air route was established, 


AERONAUTICS 
and on July 1 of the same year New York and 


22 


Cleveland were connected, the combined service ° 


making possible a substantial reduction of the 
time of transmission for letters between these 
centres, enabling them to catch mail trains, or 
advancing them over mail-train time. On July 
18, 1919, the rate on airplane mail was reduced 
to $.02 an ounce, the regular first class rate; 
from that time, the air mail was on the same 
basis as other means of transportation. In Eu- 
rope also a beginning was made in aérial mail 
service, and during the British railway strike 
of 1919, mail was carried by airplane. The first 
regular French aérial postal service was in- 
augurated, Nov. 10, 1919, when mail was trans- 
ported to England from Bourget, near Paris, and 
service was maintained between that place and 
Hounslow near London. On longer and shorter 
routes air mail lines were established. 

On Sept. 8, 1920, the first transcontinental 
mail left Mineola Field near New York City, 
reaching Marina Field near San Francisco on 
September 11. This was made possible by the 
establishment of definite routes or stages with 
dépots at the change points, and while through 
mail was not carried as a regular thing, 
the ordinary mail was advanced wherever 
possible. 

In 1923 United States mails were carried un- 
der contract between Seattle and Victoria, B. C., 
on Puget Sound; from New Orleans, La., along 
the coast by the Gulf Coast Air Line; and in 
Alaska between Fairbanks and McGrath, where 
the airplane was given a thorough and success- 
ful test in competition with dog sleds for the 
transportation of local mails. 

The transcontinental mail service at first was 
not a through service but aimed to advance the 
railway mail over the various stages and thus 
cut down the actual time of transportation ma- 
terially. So regular and reliable was this serv- 
ice that in the week ending Aug. 25, 1923, tests 
were made showing the practicability of a di- 
rect 28 hour service between the Atlantic and 
Pacific coasts by relays of mail planes flying 
both day and night over a distance of 2680 miles. 
These night flights, which made continuous move- 
ment of the mails possible, were made on the 
specially equipped and lighted airway between 
Chicago and Cheyenne, and it was shown con- 
clusively that direct service between New York 
and San Francisco could be maintained as soon 
as authorized by Congress, which action came in 
the following year. The experience and de- 
velopments of the United States postal air serv- 
ice demonstrated that in commercial flying all 
meteorological obstacles except fog had been 
overcome. 

Under authority provided by Congress in the 
spring of 1924 the Postoffice Department was em- 
powered to establish a transcontinental mail 
which would permit direct transportation from 
the Atlantic to the Pacific Coast. For this 
service there was established a graded charge 
ranging from $.08 to $.24, the country being 
divided into zones, as from New York to Chi- 
cago, Chicago to Cheyenne, and Cheyenne to San 
Francisco The airplanes used in the test flights 
of 1923 to determine the feasibility of a regular 
through mail service from coast to coast used 
night flying for this service along with special 
planes of new types. The illuminated airways 
were available for regular mail work, which 
was begun on July 1, 1924, on a basis indicated 
in the accompanying plate. 


AERONAUTICS 


STATISTICS OF U. S. AIR MAIL 
1923 1918-1923 
(inclusive) 
Trips scheduled 8,072 33,060 
Trips defaulted ..... es PAN syy | 
Trips attempted 7,847 30,903 
Trips incompleted . 111 984 
Trips in fog, storm, etc. 3,745 12,118 
Trips in clear weather 4,102 18,806 
Miles scheduled ..... 1,603,110 6,717,422 
Miles flown with mail 1,545,280 6,168,395 
Miles, testing and ferry 325,142 983,850 
Total miles flown . 1,870,422 J ,lo2,245 
Percentage of perform- 

ane® sy. waka 96.37 91.82 
Number of letters car- 

TAG (etree ee eee eee 65,295,920 225,769,520 
Cost of service .... $1,910,422.54* $6,204,643 
Forced landings: 

Mechanical paen sae. 175 1,549 

Other! 1A eae 327 7,041 


* Includes experimental flying at night. 


Aérial Photography. During the War the 
observers in airplanes flying over the enemy lines 
very early proceeded to take photographs which 
gave an adequate representation of the terrain 
below. These photographs were very valuable 
both to the high commands and to the fire con- 
trol officers of the various batteries, and it did 
not take long to develop the work on a sys- 
tematic basis as a means of adding to the in- 
formation contained on the military maps. 
After the close of hostilities it was realized that 
photography from airplanes had valuable scien- . 
tific and commercial applications, and accord- 
ingly a number of the government bureaus pro- 
ceeded to employ airplanes and photographers in 
coast and topographical surveys and mapping 
for rapid reconnoissance examinations of new 
country. It was found also that photographs 
made from airplanes afforded an extraordinary 
picture of a wide range of territory, and in ad- 
dition to maps and topographic studies such 
photographs of water fronts, terminals, factory 
sites, and other similar objects for industrial 
uses in connection with engineering and con- 
struction purposes were in increasing demand. 
Substantial improvements were made in the ap- 
paratus, and a new film magazine was designed 
which permitted aérial enlargements on a more 
efficient basis. There was also developed in 
1922 what was known as a_ hypersensitized 
panchromatic film several times faster than 
the film first used, and this contributed to the 
success and character of the pictures. One of 
the best of recent airplane views is shown 
in the plate accompanying the article NEw 
YORK. 

The government coast surveys after some com- 
prehensive tests reported that shore lines could 
be mapped accurately and expeditiously and 
shoals and sunken obstructions readily detected 
by such means. The United States Coast Sur- 
vey employed photographic surveying on the New 
Jersey coast, at the mouth of the Mississippi 
River, on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington, 
and elsewhere. A map of Guantanamo Bay was 
prepared for the United States Hydrographic 
Office, while extensive aérial surveys were made 
in connection with eonservation and irrigation 
projects. In Canada a reconnoissance survey 
of considerable accuracy was carried on at slight 
expense and with considerable speed on the 
boundary between northern Manitoba and Sas- 
katchewan. Similar surveys also were made in 
India, while in new country generally such work 


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AERONAUTICS 


OFFICIAL PHOTOGRAPH. UNITED STATES ARMY AIR SERVICE 


Spraying Swamps from an Airplane to kill Mosquitoes 


OFFICIAL PHOTOGRAPH, UNITED STATES ARMY AIR SERVICE 


Airplane Spraying Cotton to Kill Boll Weevil 


USE OF AIRPLANES IN AGRICULTURE 


AERONAUTICS 


has proved useful and economical. Furthermore 
on a smaller scale topographic surveys or aérial 
photographs are now made of cities or suburban 
districts; these show the landmarks and divisions 
with great faithfulness and accuracy and aid 
materially in any scheme of city planning. 
For city mapping aérial surveying found con- 
stantly increased use; and in 1923, 620 square 
miles of Greater New York were mapped pho- 
tographically, while in addition extensive sur- 
veys of similar nature were made in connection 
with the port developments. 

The advertising value of photographs and 
maps made from the air was early recognized, 
especially in connection with the sale of real 
estate and land development, to afford an 
adequate idea of the character of large industrial 
plants and extensive tracts of lands. Quite dif- 
ferent from this, was the advertising known as 
“sky writing.” Here aviators would discharge 
smoke-producing compounds from flying planes 
so as to make letters in the sky, spelling the 
name of some product to which public atten- 
tion was to be called. Aircraft were also used 
to carry aloft at night illuminated signs attached 
to the under side of the wings. 

Other Applications. In the United States 
the various government agents were quite willing 
to make extensive experiments with the air- 
planes for various purposes when the machines 
could be placed at their disposal. The Depart- 
ment of Agriculture carried on some notable ex- 
periments to combat various insect pests, in 
which powdered calcium arsenate was distrib- 
uted over cotton plants from an airplane flying 
at heights of 25 to 50 feet. This dusting of the 
cotton plants with the calcium arsenate worked 
effectively to destroy the boll weevil and was 
found very practical. (See PLANTS, DISEASES 
oF.) The gypsy moth was attacked in some- 
what similar experiments carried on with a 
motor balloon, while in the Philippines a plague 
of locusts was handled in the same manner. 
Not only in surveys but in crop reporting, air- 
craft were used extensively and afforded a rapid 
and convenient method of obtaining informa- 
tion as to the extent and condition of crops. 
The patrol of the forests by airplanes during the 
dry season, as in some of the Pacific States, 
proved a very efficient way to detect in- 
cipient fires; a report by radio telephone would 
immediately bring the matter to the atten- 
tion of the nearest forest ranger or fire fighting 
force. 

International Aéronautic Federation. On 
Oct. 14, 1905, the International Aéronautic Fed- 
eration (Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, 
F.A.I.) was formed, for the purpose of record- 
ing aéronautic performances throughout the 
world and soon became the sole international 
authority in aéronautic sport. , The authority of 
this body in aéronautic sport and technical mat- 
teis was recognized and duly enforced by na- 
tional aéro clubs or aéronautic associations of 
the following countries in 1924: Argentina, 
Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, China, Czecho- 
Slovakia, Denmark, Finland, France, Great 
‘Britain and Ireland, Italy, Japan, the Nether- 
‘lands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, 
Serb-Croat-Slovene Kingdom, Spain, Sweden, 

Switzerland, Uruguay, and the United States. 
The headquarters of the F.A.I. are in Paris, 
France. Its representative in the United States 

is the National Aéronautic Association. 

National Aéronautic Association. On Oct. 


AERONAUTICS 


12, 1922, the National Aéronautie Association 
was formed at Detroit, principally to “foster, 
encourage and advance the science of aéronautics 
and all kindred and allied sciences.” This na- 
tional body maintained its headquarters at 
Washington, D. C., and took over the function 
formerly éxercised by the Aéro Club of America 
as the national representative of the Interna- 
tional Aéronautie Federation, transmitting to 
the headquarters of that body for approval 
records and other matters 1equiring interna- 
tional sanction. 

Aéronautic Chamber of Commerce. In 
1921 there was also established with headquar- 
ters in New York City the Aéronautic Cham- 
ber of Commerce of America, made up of 
persons, firms, and corporations engaged in the 
business of manufacturing, buying, selling, and 
dealing in aircraft motors and aircraft parts 
and accessories of every kind, and to advance 
in general aéronautical industry and commerce. 
In addition to various activities of a purely com- 
mercial nature, this organization in 1919 began 
the publication of Aircraft Year Books, authori- 
tative annuals which soon established them- 
selves as invaluable to the student of aéronauti- 
cal progress and to which this summary is 
indebted. 

Bibliography. Since 1914 the literature of 
Aéronautics has been increased by a number of 
notable works dealing with theory and practice. 
Both military aéronautics and tlie engineering 
and constructive sides are treated in the follow- 
ing representative books: Loening, Military 
Aéroplanes (Boston, 38d ed. 1916); Muller, 
Manual of Military Aviation (Menosha, Wis., 
1918); Pagé, Aviation Engines (New York, 2d 
ed., 1919) ; Rathbun, Aéroplane Construction and 
Operation (Chicago, 1919); United States Navy, 
Bureau of Navigation, Courses of Instruction 
and Required Qualifications of Personnel for the 
Air Service of the Navy (Washington, 1916) ; 
Fales, Learning to Fly in the United States 
Army (New York, 1917); Hayward, Practical 
Aviation (Chicago, 1919); Shaw, A Textbook of 
Aéronautics (London, 1919); Williams, The 
Dynamics of the Airplane (New York, 1921) ; 
Chadwick, Aviation Engines (New York, 1919) ; 
Chatley, A Textbook of Aéronautical Engineering 
(3d ed., London, 1921); Wilson, Aéronautics 
(New York, 1920); Cowley, Aéronautics in 
Theory and Experiment (2d ed., London, 1920) ; 
Wiener, Flieger Kraftlehre (Leipzig, 1920) ; 
Vivian and Marsh, A History of Aéronautics 
(London, 1921); Mitchell, Our Air Foree (New 
York, 1921); Raleigh, War in the Air (vol. i, 
Oxford, 1922); Sykes, Aviation. in Peace and 
War (London, 1922); Fuchs and Hopf, “Aero- 
dynamik” in Handbuch der Flugzeugkunde 
Band 2 (Berlin, 1922); Hurt and Laidler, Ele- 
mentary Aéronautical Science (Oxford, 1923). 
An important technical work based on sound ex- 
perimentation was the record of the Géttinger 
Aérodynamie Laboratory, Ergebnisse der Aero- 
dynamischen Versuchsanstalt zu Géttinger, ed- 
ited by Dr. L. Prandtl in collaboration with C. 
Wieselsberger and Dr. A. Betz (2 vols., Munich 
and Berlin.) 

Much valuable material is to be found in the 
Technical Notes of the National Advisory Com- 
mittee for Aéronautics, published from time to 
time by that body at Washington, D. C. 

Annuals. Aircraft Year Books annual be- 
ginning with 1919 (New York). A valuable 
summary of the world’s progress and invaluable 


ZZSTHETICS 

in its discussions of American developments; 
Jane, All the World’s Aircraft (London). 

Periodicals. International Aéronautics (New 
York); Aviation (New York); Aéronautical 
Digest (New York); Society of Automotive En- 
gineers Journal (New. York); U. 8S. Air Service 
(Washington, D. C.); National Aéronautical 
Assn. Review (W ashington, D. C.); The Royal 
Aéronautical Society Journal (London); Flight 
(London) ; The Aéroplane (London); L’Aéro- 
nautique (Paris); L’Arophile (Paris); Bulletin 
du -—- Fédération Aéronautique Internationale 
(Paris); La Technique Aéronautique (Paris) ; 
L’Indicateur Aérien (Paris); Revue de VUIn- 
dustrie Automobile et Aéronautique (Paris) ; 
Technique Automobile et Aérienne (Paris) ; 
Revue juridique internationalé de la locomotive 
aérienne (Paris); L’Air (Paris); La Conquéte 
de VAir (Brussels); Luftfahrt (Berlin); Zeit- 
schrift fiir Flugtechnik und Motorluftschiffahrt 
(Berlin) ; Jllustrierte Flug-Woche (Leipzig) ; 
Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft fur Luftfahrt, 
Berichte und Abhandlungen (Munich); Flugs- 


port (Frankfort). See INTERNAL COMBUSTION 
ENGINES; PitysicS; STRATEGY AND TACTICS. 


ZESTHETICS. In this as in most other 
sciences of man, the empirical and the meta- 
physical are so intermingled that scarcely a 
writer can be found who does not at one point 
or another confound the two. The modern ten- 
dency is to reject metaphysical interpretations 
and to concentrate upon the positive scientific 
aspects of problems, but more often than not 
‘this praiseworthy approach, because it is un- 
aided by any philosophic analysis of the con- 
cepts involved, results in metaphysical dogmas 
baptized in the name of science. All of these 
contain much empirical truth; but this truth, 
when generalized out of its proper context, be- 
comes an obstacle to further truth. With this 
word of caution, a survey may be attempted of 
the flux of wsthetic theories since the beginning 
of the War. In this period the philosophic 
school was represented by Bosanquet and Croce. 
Both of these men, with somewhat varying view- 
points, made the idea of the beautiful into a 
drapeau or standard around which to orient 
much if not all of the activity of life. Bosan- 
quet stressed chiefly the Greek notion of con- 
templation, in which the finite being finds a 
brief but ineffable union with the eternal and 
the absolute. Croce’s conception reflected more 
the dynamic and active aspect of esthetic ex- 
perience; he made all art and even the enjoy- 
ment of art consist in the expression of an in- 
tuition. This intuition, it may be explained, is 
really nothing more than the act of judgment 
or perception in so far as it affirms, perceives 
or creates a unity. The esthetic experience, ac- 
cording to both Bosanquet and Croce, is cre- 
ated by the perceiving subject; created entirely, 
according to Croce; created by the mind in an 
act of union with a reality which he does not 
completely control, in the more Platonic con- 
ception of the British philosopher. 

The philosophic view of esthetics deliberately 
ignores the more empirical problems as to what 
makes a specific object beautiful. This line of 
attack a been taken up by the psychologists 
and sociologists of esthetics. In psychology the 
effort was made for a long time to run down the 
esthetic experience by experimentally confront- 
ing the state of mind with the laboratory stim- 
ulus which a subject was so indiscreet as to call 
beautiful. This method yielded no results of 


24 


ZESTHETICS 


any consequence. Out of this approach, the no- 
tion of empathy, what the Germans call Hinfil- 
lung or sympathetic attribution of qualities to 
an object, alone has survived. Researches into 
the psychology of wsthetics have been continued 
along more literary, less rigidly experimental 
lines. Among those who worked in this field 
may be named Langfield, Marshall, and C. K. 
Ogden. 

The sociological approach to esthetics was prev- 
alent in the writings of the French estheticians. 
What they attempted to do was to treat esthetic 
phenomena in much the same way that modern 
scholarship treats moral and religious customs, 
as a function of the changing society. This ap- 
proach has yielded more results in connection 
with literature and architecture than with the 
fine arts. We come here to the question of 
motifs, which are the carriers, as it were, of the 
esthetic emotion. There can be no doubt that 
these motifs are responsive to social changes. 
A corollary more or less improperly deduced from 
this fact is that art and literature should be 
used as vehicles for social and moral propaganda. 
This view was largely championed by political 
radicals and others interested in morally re- 
forming or revolutionizing society. In Soviet 
Russia, it may be noted, the revolutionary con- 
ception of art and culture was carried to an ex- 
treme. The attempt was made to create a spe- 
cial culture representative of the proletariat— 
the so-called proletkult. The absurdity of the 
programme became apparent even to such men as . 
Trotsky, who in 1923 threw all his influence 
against the movement. In times of social stress, 
it is also to be expected that art would be used 
as an agent for the conservation of values. This 
tendency was manifested in practically all coun- 
tries. In America the group headed by Irving 
Babbitt, Paul Elmer More, and Stuart P. Sher- 
man expounded a certain variety of classical hu- 
manism, which was to serve as a bulwark against 
the subversive influences of social romanticism. 
In France the jealous courting of the muses by 
rival social factions was to be seen in the clash 
of the Action Francaise group with the writers 
of advanced opinions affiliated, with the Clarté 
movement. From a reaction against the at- 
tempts to drag esthetics into the. polities of the 
right and the politics of the left developed a re- 
crudescence of the ivory tower conception of art. 
The Creed of an Aisthete was loudly\ proclaimed 
in England and America by such men as Clive 
Bell and Leo Stein. Such manifestoes were met 
by the iconoclastic fire of Bernard Shaw, who 
knew better than most radicals how to synthe- 
size art and social idealism without disobeying 
the dictates of good sense. An interesting side- 
light on the philosophic aspects of this problem 
is provided in a prize memoir submitted by 
Charles Lalo to the French Academy of Moral 
and Political Science. To the’question whether 
art can emancipate itself from morality, M. Lalo 
replied that they ought to live together in Pla- 
tonie friendship. The union is difficult, but it 
is also necessary and unavoidable. 

No exposition of modern esthetics can be B 
garded as complete without a discussion of 
psychoanalysis. The doctrines of psychoanalysis 
contain gleanings from a number of philosophies. 
In their emphasis on the will to live and the 
expression of the unconscious they are linked up 
with Nietzsche, von Hartmann, Schopenhauer, 
and their various intellectual ancestors. But be- 
sides these conscious philosophical elements, 


AFFLECK 


there is in psychoanalysis a subconscious tend- 
ency, to use a Freudian term, to view all things 
from the point of view of the psychiatrist. The 
therapeutic value of art was recognized as early 
as the days of Aristotle; in a vaguer manner the 
relation of. art to the pathological expressions 
of the sex instinct was also perceived. The dis- 
tinct and daring originality of psychoanalysis 
lies in the fusion of these scattered intuitions 
into a more or less coherent system. Art, ac- 
cording to Pfister’s version of psychoanalytic 
doctrine, is the expression or, sublimation of in- 
hibited tendencies. By the act of objectification, 
the artist gets relief from his emotional suf- 
ferings. This theory at once accounts for the 
prevalent preoccupation of art, particularly the 
literary arts, with sexual themes; for there is no 
doubt that in civilized society, it is the sex in- 
stinct rather than the food and shelter instinct 
which because of its imperiousness must needs 
be restrained. 

From the point of view of the psychiatrist, 
who must take the biological categories for 
granted, it is inevitable that art should be re- 
garded as a biological safety-valve. But this is 
obviously not the whole story. The instincts and 
tendencies which the psychiatrist accepts as 
given, the philosopher would call into question. 
Freud himself, when in his philosophic moments 
he transforms all tendencies into derivatives of 
the great Libido, becomes a metaphysician, and 
as such must take all the risks of metaphysics. 
The Libido cannot have a concrete sexual sig- 
nification; it becomes the Eros of Plato, the will 
to live of Schopenhauer, the intellectual love of 
God of Spinoza. But these conceptions are be- 
yond the realm of empirical science, although 
they make the shortcomings of that science com- 
prehensible. 

Bibliography. G. P. Adams, Idealism and 
the Modern Age (1919); Irving Babbitt, Rouws- 
seau and Romanticism (1919); B. Bosanquet, 
Three Lectures on A'sthetics (1915); L. E. Bud- 
den, An Introduction to the Theory of Architec- 
ture (1923); Rhys Carpenter, The Aisthetic 
Basis of Greek Art of the Fifth and Fourth 
Centuries (1921); Benedetto Croce, The Hssence 
of Asthetics (1920): H. Delacroix, La Psychol- 
ogie de Stendhal (1918) ; Charles Lalo, L’Art et 
la Morale (1922) and La Beauté et VInstinct 
Sexuel (1922); Herbert S. Langfeld, The As- 
thetic Attitude (1920); Henry R. Marshall, The 
Beautiful (1923); Charles K. Ogden, I. A. 
Richards, and James Wood, The Foundations of 
A'sthetics (1922); De Witt Parker, The Prin- 
ciples of Alsthetics (1920); Oskar Pfister, Ha- 
pressionism in Art (1923); Willard Huntington 
Wright, The Creatwe Will (1916). 

Consult also articles by W. T. Bush, Leo Stein 
and Katherine Gilbert in Journal of Philosophy, 
vol. xx, 1923; articles by Clive Bell in The New 
Republic (1916-23), and Bernard Shaw’s reply 
to Bell, ibid. (1922); also article by Stuart P. 
Sherman on literary movements in the United 
States in the French Revue de Métaphysique et 
de Morale, vol. xxx (1922). 

AFFLECK, Sir JAmes Ormiston (1840- 
1922). A distinguished consulting physician 
and extramural teacher of clinical medicine of 
Edinburgh. He was educated at Edinburgh 
University and associated during most of his 
medical career with the Edinburgh Royal In- 
firmary and the Longmore Home for Incurables, 
of which he was co-founder. He was an author- 
ity on eruptive fevers. Besides being an ex- 


25 


AFGHANISTAN 


aminer in medicine at Edinburgh University, he 
was medical editor of the ninth edition of the 
Encyclopedia Britannica. He was a Fellow of 
the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh 
(1875) and was knighted in 1911. 

AFGHANISTAN. An independent monarchy 
of Central Asia bounded by British India on the 
South and East, Persia on the West, and Rus- 
sian territory on the North. The southern 
boundaries, long undetermined, were fixed by a 
convention with Great Britain in 1921. The 
total area is estimated at 245,000 square miles; 
the population at 6,380,500. The dominant ra- 
cial element was the Afghan, which embraced 
Islam, and the leading languages were Persian 
and Pushtu. The capital, Kabul, had an esti- 
mated population of 150,000. The other large 
cities were Kandahar (31,500) and Herat (20,- 
000). The activities of the Afghans continued 
to be centred in the plains and valleys, and ag- 
ricultural and grazing products were the chief 
support of the country. Copper and lead were 
reputed to be found in the northern districts, 
though no extensive mining was carried on. 
Gold mines were worked under the British at 
Kandahar. The trade was chiefly carried on 
with India and Bokhara. The exports into In- 
dia included timber, fruits and vegetables, grain, 
silk, cattle, hides, tobacco, asafetida, and par- 
ticularly wool. The articles imported from In- 
dia included cotton goods, indigo and other dyes, 
sugar, hardware, and silver treasure. In 1917-— 
18 the Indian statistics reported for this trade 
exports into India of £1,147,000; imports from 
India, £1,258,000; for 1920-21, exports, £1,328,- 
500; imports, £1,543,200; for 1921-22, exports, 
£809,500; imports, £1,353,700. No large im- 
provements were made in the modes of trans- 
portation, and Afghans still resorted to camel 
and horseback. Intercourse was somewhat fur- 
thered by the establishment of telephone com- 
munication between Kabul and Kandahar, Jaka 
and Jalalabad. Under the Amir Habibulla, 
motor roads were constructed for short stretches, 
principally from Kabul to Kandahar, and from 
Kabul to Dakka. 

In the period 1914-24, Afghanistan played a 
part in. Central Asiatic affairs that seemed 
hardly warranted by its isolation geographically 
and its backward state economically. Its posi- 
tion between Russia and India and the fact that 
it remained one of the few countries still pre- 
serving the spirit of militant Islam enhanced 
this importance. Afghanistan, during the dec- 
ade, was thus courted assiduously by Russia, 
Great Britain, and Turkey in turn. The friendly 
relations that the British government of India 
had maintained with Afghanistan since 1907 
served the Allies in good stead during the War. 
With the outbreak of hostilities in 1914 the 
British succeeded in securing a pledge from the 
Amir Habibulla Khan, that his country would 
observe a strict neutrality. The <Amir’s posi- 
tion became increasingly difficult with Turkey’s 
entrance on the side of Germany for attempts 
were made by German and Turkish officers and 
Indian nationalists to preach a Holy War. The 
Amir successfully kept the Afghans aloof from 
the struggle, and as a result of his activities 
in checking the unruly frontier tribes he earned 
the lasting gratitude of the British Indian gov- 
ernment. Unfortunately for Great Britain’s 
peace, Habibulla was assassinated on Feb. 20, 
1919. His successor, Amanulla Khan (the third 
son of the late Amir), at once proclaimed the 


AFGHANISTAN 


external independence of the country and at- 
tempted to establish relations with the Soviet 
government at Moscow. An Afghan army was 
dispatched to the Indian frontier in May, 1919, 
and but for the prompt action of the British 
might have caused serious disaffection among 
Indian Moslems. Fighting with irregular Af- 
ghan troops continued until the signing of peace 
in August, 1919. As a result of the Anglo- 
Afghan treaty, Afghans were denied the privilege 
of importing arms through India; the Amir’s de- 
mand for the payment of the arrears of the na- 
tional subsidy was refused; and the subsidy was 
entirely discontinued. On the other hand the 
treaty freed Afghanistan from its dependence 
upon the British government for its external 
policy, and left the country free in both its 
domestic and _ international relations. The 
awakening interest of Soviet Russia in eastern 
affairs served further to complicate matters. 
A Soviet mission from Moscow arrived at Kabul 
in January, 1920, and negotiated a treaty which 
caused the British Indian government grave con- 
cern. This document, signed at Moscow on Feb. 
28, 1921, provided for the establishment of five 
Russian consulates in Afghanistan, several of 
them to be near the Indian frontier; it recog- 
nized the independence of Bokhara and Khiva, 
and promised the Amir a yearly subsidy of one 
million gold rubles to replace the discontinued 
British grant. The Russians also pledged them- 
selves to construct a telegraph along the line 
of Kusha-Herat-Kandahar-Kabul. This new 
Afghan temper was further encouraged during 
this period by the activities of the Turkish Na- 
tionalists, who signed with Afghanistan at Mos- 
cow (Mar. 1, 1921) an offensive-defensive treaty ; 
by the penetration of Bolshevik propaganda into 
Persia, by the political disorders in India, the 
reappearance of a Pan-Turanian propaganda, es- 
pecially in 1923, and by the ever-recurring ques- 
tion of the political independence of Islam under 
the Turkish Algir. Djemal Pasha, former Turk- 
ish minister, on his arrival at Kabul in Novem- 
ber, 1920, was accorded a friendly reception, and 
his aid was employed in the construction of a 
powerful military establishment. All these evi- 
dences of a changed attitude on the part of 
Afghanistan that could bode no good for Brit- 
ain’s security in India caused the dispatch of a 
British mission under Sir Henry Dobbs to the 
Amir in 1921. The resultant Anglo-Afghan 
Treaty of Nov. 22, 1921, did not succeed in off- 
setting the gains that Russia had made. Af- 
ghanistan was permitted once more to import 
arms by way of India and was again guaranteed 
its freedom and independence. Nothing was 
said of the former subsidy or the Rus- 
sian grant. Nor did the Amir indicate any 
desire to relinquish his policy of neutrality. To 
aid in the commercial development of the coun- 
try, Great Britain signed with Afghanistan a 
trade convention, June, 1923, granting favored 
transportation and customs rights. The same 
conciliatory attitude was shown in the tactful 
rotest which the British government sent in 
becannert 1923, when brigands on the. border ac- 
counted for the slaying of several English na- 
tionals. 

In 1921 a constitution for Afghanistan was 
promulgated by the Amir, though the form of 
government continued autocratic. The Amir re- 
served for himself the place of prime minister 
and in fact invested himself with most of the 
legislative and executive authority. Under the 


26 


AFRICA 


promptings of European influence compulsory 
education was decreed, and in January, 1921, 
Slavery was abolished. During the period, 
hand in hand with the greater nationalistic 
consciousness went a steady march toward west- 
ernization. Roads were built, agricultural meth- 
ods improved, education and administration 
were reformed. The faith of Afghans in their 
own ability was shown by the opening of diplo- 
matic relations with Russia, Turkey, Persia, 
China, France, and Italy; by the strengthening 
of the frontier guards, the inauguration of a 
modern discipline in the army, and the breaking 
of ground in 1924 for a new capital city. For- 
eign engineers, too, notably Italians and Ger- 
mans, were invited in 1924 to take charge of 
road construction and the building of a railway 
from Kabul to Daruaman. 

AFRICA. A continent of the eastern hemi- 
sphere with an estimated area of 11,500,000 
square miles, exclusive of islands. Detailed ac- 
counts of African developments in the period 
1914-24, political, geographic, and economic, 
will be found under the heads of the separate 
political divisions. See ABYSSINIA, ALGERIA, 
Eeypt, Morocco, Tunis, SoutH AFRICA, éte. 

Explorations. During this period, French 
exploration parties carried on an intensive work 
in the only region still practically unknown to 
Europeans, the Sahara. In the eastern Sahara 
and in the Libyan Desert the expedition under 
Col. Jean Tilho (1912-17) succeeded in clearing 
up many doubtful points in hydrography and 
orography. Some of the achievements of the 
Tilho expedition were the demonstration of the 
absence of any connection between Lake Chad 
and the Nile Basin; the exploration of the 
Tibesti and Endi mountains through the pene- 
tration of a region of 1200 miles previously un- 
visited, and the discovery of a mountain forma- 
tion in the Libyan Desert. Exact longitude and 
latitude determinations of many places were 
fixed by wireless communication with the Eiffel 
Tower, and surveys were completed for more 
than 6000 miles. Similarly Mr. W. J. H. King 
and Mrs. R. Forbes carried on explorations in 
the Libyan Desert. In 1919, Captain Augiéras, 
one of the best known of the African explorers, 
made public his researches in the western Sa- 
hara. He clearly indicated the extent of the 
central plateau lying between 6° and 9° W. long. 
and 28° to 31° N. lat. French research was also 
prosecuted vigorously in the little known Atlas 
region. Captain Augiéras, in 1920, crossed the 
southwestern Sahara of Morocco and as a result 
was able to make many corrections in the sur- 
veys of the region, particularly in the Draa 
plateau. . In 1921 Commandant Lauzanne crossed 
the western Sahara by a journey of 1000 miles, 
and opened up a new route between western 
French Africa and Algeria. In 1923, Hassanein 
Bey crossed unexplored parts of the Libyan 
Desert, laying his route from Sollum to Siva, 
Jarabub, Jalo, Kufara, Hawari, across the oases 
of Arkenu and Oswenat, to the capital of Darfur. 
In 1922, 1923, and 1924, particularly, French 
energies redoubled, so that these years saw at 
work the following expeditions: the irrigation 
problems of the Niger Valley under Proust, 
Valude, and Audoin; the collection of fauna and 
flora of the mountains of the Sahara under Ba- 
bault; Tunisian ornithology under Balzac; 
fauna and flora of Central Africa under Bruneau 
de Laborie. In the Nile Basin, English parties 
explored the Sobat river system, the country be- 


30° Longitude from 30° Greenwich G_ 


SCALE OF STATUTE MILES 


200 300 400 500 


Log DUALS G Roo" \ SEsLe OF KILOMETERS 
JORDAN Shaka me 200 400 600 800 1000 
Djemeima? Jmportanttowns-are shown in heavy face type 


eGarah CAIRO RAE tn. “A 
Medinet Fhjuif “QM ESinG:, , WEFU\D D “ESERT Railways <= 
Hail » Submarine Cables 

te} 


oO 
wah 
Babarijeh” 


s. Geima 
. 2° 


BAHTEIN . 


CS ae ad | 
opel usd Sas 


.2nd Cat act any 
° , 
san 


8. VICENTE 


» 2 
CAPEVERDE & > 


ISLANDS 
| A - 
3 (Pdrt,)e® Q 


S.THIAGO 


SOKOTRA- 


- ma) ; 
? \ : 
= j i oN ria j S S 7 
ay é aed Wee ‘AM V . N a : * 
F\U R a . A e gi : c q 2, 
Y == Pee AGN gar fy o SS : (Big 
‘ra® E) Towaisha~ to -"{R ranal > ) ‘ C0) 28 el. G. 
& 2 p ‘%, aral-~ ) ) <horai 1(Guqrda ful 
— \ >. Be : CO” =o a Potiaia 
nto qShekka = t é - , noel So, Rad Hafun 
Ba, E : s —l0 
2 et—Arab— ae met : 8.0 M A LILAN ~ | Bela 
= : : Hargeisa © Tura * 


htep Nehas An A 2 4 é 
= ax e aor ‘ : “Se 


uaka Sa , 
Ns od ohh sip : H, a i Q - 3 Z Milmil 
fo) : a . : ARES 
NL son Ie SS ; ; 2 a . Ons se ~.Hussein X 
i t a, ne f' soo g 
eS a SL. See a 


6° Digna’ wh L 


Sa 
SR ret nyille 


Long. 14° West 


= 

Stanle Yi 2 Ente re : EAS Gee 
{ 7 = 3 = A ; As ene A, Golwen 5 
Wi lets 5 f ft Kismay u 


Kirandu Pee ve 
Sur Kirunga Volle 


N ae 


J \-~Shabunda : 
\Uvira 30 & a 4 REO Bs 
Baraka A i biN : *0 
IZWeK Kavos La 1 SCOMORO GLORIOSO Ls 
° NY es 1s, 
;Wilhelmstal€ ‘ a (Fr.) Nossi BE 1. 


B ahora} Kondosfrapei> <0. eve 
Kilimatindes 
5 


Mean ES SALAAM 


Mrogoro 


Daria L y 


a SS 2-EMfohord, 
” DRilgig “shots oS , 
eS > =e “| Ki il wa 
Setenggat p swale oe 
V Tedbaven SaMakindi 
© Ssongea - ; C. Delgado 


DBarigrve blo} ¥ s 3 
Rowry . 
0 : 
‘ Ke/Matanoro 
= 20 


Was Kapfogs: Bandy P 
Kampoloiabo 7 


CAPE T(r W 
Cape of GodsKa}09 


fi “ 1 c : 
7 pee) a» if i : a. Dit —— 
spe ies 6 Pres 
no So ili lS o.stmarg 


RHOD 
a cect erie CA AChi H Same scale as main map 


& 
} & 
ie Le 
2 : Cadizd aay. eS) 50° J 
° . 
“be 30° Longitude West a from B Greenwich 10° )'Strvof, Gibral > Ee E Longitude 20° Bast F from 30° Greenwich G 40 PAN Eye ————— 
ee oe nore pees Ec loneiuiae teat a as | 
} eee “ syd ——< 
| (ve SMokain MALTA tons 1 
i Biskta (met ea (By) creter—/ CYPRUS (oar 
om Nie SK EAKENA IS. : ; : 
ol fe Fo Sp ( Gulf of Cabes EDIT E-RRANEA AD ores “ 
30 1 hire SS DJERBA 1. SCALE OF STATUT 
ag 100 200 300 400 500 600 
°Tokra ~ Rena METERS q 
y (Oe TRANS- SCALE OF KILO | 
BENGHAZI ~~ \, “Wena iseaD E S\E Re Ge" rns olf 
{ eae NATOA, aN hors” © Shake! y 0 200 400. 600 800 1000 || 30 
Y LANzaRoTe Tfni A pa “Djemeima® “Ymportanttowns-are shown in heavy face type 
}  Djarabub © , cGarah CA a)  y EFUD D ‘ESERT ‘Railways <—— Canalbs=——— | 
| 7 1s Medinetel-Fajun . i 
! foe i R ratoun Siwah a : ~~. Submarine Cables————— 
°Mayara } Ou {: Babarijeh~ > beers Hailo % : i 
f Tamentit ues Knot! frah Minjehy hk %. BAHREIN }t. H 
ruat olnealal A a G iut® Bereideh yp 
2 a E 
= 
! oDiedid B = SS 
=—F_CANCE © Marabuti j MLAS Tdiserboo ,Ruseima i El) Chargeb’ 
== \el r, Lz © Wau-el-Keb| oasis of KUFRA 
Eglab “ Gatrun 9 
. Erbebna 1) SSS SS SS SS > Sa A ie ee 
SSeS ei Lkf e Bir Bischra . WA. 
e : D (YY SS T 
° 4 Taudeni ™,. : nse SiH ee dy, 
20 ° ‘H Pam Fe a — = tnd Cataracte 
_ R 28 = 
: camces? Tiinigguine? Selimeh 
| CO. Mirik hte oo Bis”, _—-—s, | = EI Agia, G 
| “S Se i an : ~ F: 
x, oHarich x ee © Tischit Abig he N f°! Taghazi~ ZZ bed Cataract & 
8.ViC = Tiagangé TA G } Z Araw oMabruk } jue eens Kuoual Sr os Dongola’ 
EEENTE AGA NG orl £ Th R ano AlD E-R-AR | ‘Tinteltous Sina: Coe ‘oWadyanga Zaghawe Handak 
t fPotoree Tobaiti A Wi ° © Beet ise op a nF fo gam ; ~ ° Old Dengolgy 
4 Podor@ % ie 2 i i RKU;| ‘ws, 
CAPE/y RDES j or S., ao \ EL HODH Timbuktu os )| fe Akar / TERRI 3 Ee EH @ es RY © Dibbela Kichi- Kini ~~ Se tiaadt.. ! 
! a v re okt Agadem°? . 
ISLANDS , Alig VRAD N OC Hos ee ‘ BOD! 
3 | NOS GQ? Z. Betete. T } Fr 
a) “Rus. Ks Sy Saar a Sa ey 9 USNS Menino See ny oh Ven aN hs at R i C : . ° ; 
| 2") sro C Verde: S Le »Nioro  Bassikuny * fa Van va Loe 38 fe ee eee “Kin Medo! OF HARTUM 
P & we iggart n Medob 4A z Sees 
akar? © ip Meainyy U SP ER, 0S E 3E G ~A--L. ty N- o Tadalaka pn AMERIGHU. | Bir Atal ¢ “A IN Q-E! Fasheel 
eg ee of Kay AB Al oketa chic. Sinders I G © Sabankafi, Ngiugmi . a _Fraja° Y.Medani 
BATHU sth i Badi a re Seenitings sre PDori_A ra ge ER OC\KANEM = + on KoReb po) Basher = ‘PGedarefo 
GLBadoumbe © Wahiguya is “~~ } ¢ a > Zz n 
| Cara anc Resmcntiiios 2, 4 As A eS ent. “Sik ‘oro oes Bay. \j giges aoWirn Tie one : Chad a. : R FW R eae 
| | PORT ebao eS Ko tial ve Up = & - gourl \ Y T 
‘ < GU r BAMAKO 9 cre (Us \ eit S ee Nh se 2, Keno, Gis g Hira ES 
| B — Is. aes a Sikasso!| Fores ai ie) LT A: ) 4 Gomba’ ————) Rano / ‘B O Sho a na = E 6QAS a ; Sans ie 
lf \ \ ric Boon ‘s Boba PaRbags “ ie \ Zaria? 6 AS = “BA a . \ Kalaka , oShekka Ee ( . ee: oni, e tah a ah? (als = Rat. da'&, Ras Hafun 
19k = eke 2 “ Dioulasso Wa. rae =) es Znhera Gi uf SeGomybe 5 S a) 7, > ae = : : *Bulhand BERBERA at 10: 
~ 2 ikkis ? oba es SaZ a ; : Le “gece é — 
+S fo Ar ab ma SOMALILAND ba \/ ana Bela 
f : Odiennec : 2 oe “upirites Nebas 3 ‘ashodal *Offar: an “Hargeisa ° Tura T j 
a> = ERRA Biguipdy at foo Be ee Olt wf & p foots - A os eer es — _&}-FtArchambault _-=-. oRaquaka ps . Bohodia—a Aged 
Sierra an fe yy <0. . Seguel eae af Ye a4 Horin — es offoko cK BA “of ntyd gh of ee — lomvbele } . a Moshe ef-Reko aes y i 
s 1S. Tr i lbadg mat eee RL enn a : £ J |. 
SHERBRO |. E a Yr, 0 go f Sy ; a ‘DJA Rip (Bardo. -Bakiu,.’.' Ns sfonde Rie ‘ W srandayy ~) lig 
i j Fo 4 \ mW aS ee - oeee \ Os SRE i * attass i 
R i ; , 0) ine : ; Sate we % n Ft. { Vp } > RY, , hana 
f { ~ 7 eeu ‘ 
= dopniad / 14 
Nan Sinise, roe j Elburn = 
ELENAL < Harper. i sult Songp <~ he oe 3 
C . a. t | 
tat .)-16 C. Palmas = — Wbsoa EES y i <*3 | 
Eiea : Hoende| Mokapo Schidle 
OCEA a POT, Oo. oEbolwea Nitilacd/ = Ze Os Y 
Sp. Gr. Bat nea L se SSSA 5 tala | 
= Bigh ie gene c : y Mobeka Moganzulu oF. Meas s 2 yarscheik | 
10 ight ‘of Biafra SPANISH —— Ag Yamb LPM acadoxd 
NORTHERN, RHODESIA -Q-4 3 : ENGres. o~. Bata i rg SSNS DY Sate g was : 
: . 6° . ae i ort-) ; 
Aer NGSTON, ST. THOMAS 1, Tibreving =. o Likonda\ <F Tutanl \ Abrava / A 
me (Porte) 7x. Gabun Raa : | Okana___} ~hCoqui ae EQUATOR 


ee } = S oT 
= a7, ie SOU i E R- EQUATOR (Nazareth L —. )) \ /i q Br 1 0 


o Golwen Fe 
alls S=-- Hartlgy.o_Umtahi \C. L \ Edward Sse. | AL Kismayw © 
Wankies ~ == XO inde. opez2 Wor = Bonga, Nlrebu Kirgndt Vich ; ayu ! 
— MA eee t keldépra { > e Zambezi R. © © le Gs cian RRS er, Bakobs J | i 
— 2 Béira cl ANNOBON |. se es D ‘A oN Liou SSN i 
ie NA Wl , DIELS re etgr 7 Asofala 2 = \ Y Bol ays L, Leopold II ~Yabiiga p. ¢ abitizi- 
| ALi ‘a9 —— : pergue statarieh Ui 
TAR. ave aKa es af Kwa ia \ Mariahilf 9,7 i 
Tuli ff GRA WL. HBAZARI TON, S SBRAZZAVIL E = = sn = Mosel i) 
L) Ph Umpop +C. S.S: basti XA BeBianlex Pod 3 > ——s 3 
Srakopmuniigaa° BECHUAN aoe DS Poibasdaye oN? a es Ba Tan cones ang copaldyflle ao N G A NLY TK AGS 
WALFISCH*BAYp™ Tut a WN: i Wa OAN LOPE i € 
a (Gr. Br) ss = W Titrogic OF CAPRICORN _ Shoshong0/ 7 _ {h yy: <a Vey 6 Masibi & 1) KABINDASE, HST \Tabora 3 Kondos“[ray ee ow PEMBA. I. 
5 Ir - 57> “Sheppaans bri “= : ictersburg Se 4 fo Zi Fiance = Kabind: o Kilimatindes, ao, Ane = 
©Matsa Molopolo Nylstroom A ! 5 C. aerlentes == ZANZIBAR 
= PROTECTORATE TE BAN SEAL bos Th onaichai éy Ae “ Mrogoro “PAR ES SALAAM 
PRETORH, Bathertot SE COURENCO MARQUEZ 


' 
; 
\ AS 
‘ 


Za 
4 t 
M issum a 
a 


‘ ‘BRA C-A Ri 
Q yh, Ati) Bersebp Mafeking is SO are Wary se ‘Delagoa Bay 
dastarits Bait eal SAS es Mol\A,_— Poteb pen Ha ne ‘SD: net] | j 9 


> 3 
Angra en ) Keetmanshoop ~~ = wagnarel Kile mesa Wp akKersire GA LD. 
: uenana #=74 3 a = f Kurumano mS ~—— Z 
= Warmnid™ eee 


: ANGE, 19 astle 2ULYAl / SSN Ye ev Tangent 


: fe oO), cHétrismith JSt. Lucia L, Rs : Z q indi A0 
7 “ee pet adtys play aN yd 5 . ’ ( : yap ated 3 r ~~) it w Wiedhaven aa fakindi 
BAcU aw aS \ A Sas en aN. tts Re) = BASE Derry (Ss : © Ssongea Lb 
ort\Nollothy OF a9 SS Ya N ob a & \3 3 eT epi’ eh j Seen) E = \C.D 
: i Bf pe or . EWrepengst ok: fete RMARITZBURG Fay | Rais 2 Rigas adn, Litod a alo} -¢ ‘ee Se : | 
30 2 cana De Al wi Tape [gUurban =u Sftendy Mtani} 
Fenisd » = |Carnarvon tga faa — SIM Port Shepstone — UP A Cti‘“—t;‘<‘i SCStCSCC MR, SE AN a } 
S v irs We, aes 7 Port Shepstone x pas | Muyarea 
i oA Pp E> 0 K fh AU P E angambe” C 
Giiena F } MM nrg aS) Port Grosvenor wv Raton, orTOnEe 
aaa Ca iris aout O's > x Port St.John 
= St. Holenabay., DP Pp ny. Vv} Somerset. 15} Williams Town 5) ringeza Amelia oKal 
( & E som g Wi EST AFRIC ag lomo}, 
Do beeen no East Landon 


6 


Sree 


ae) = 2 z e ae S—Giahamstow 
CAPE TOWN} 2 a orge—S/ “Port Elizabeth > 
Cape of Good Hope. Hosse) Bay < 


ore C. Agulhas 
Same scale as main map 
Greenwich 


Longitude 30° 


20° from 


cs ok 
ad se OU eee 


Same scale as main map 


AFRICA 


tween Bahr-el-Jebel and Lake Rudolf, and the 
divide between the Congo and Nile Rivers. In 
Central Africa, boundary commissions represent- 
ing the British, Belgian, and Portuguese govern- 
ments, surveyed the Congo-Zambezi watershed 
(1911-14), for the more exact determination of 
frontiers. A French-British commission set to 
work in 1922 on the. determination of the 
Darfur-Wadai boundary. War operations added 
much to the knowledge of the whole continent, 
not only ethnologically but geographically; for 
this, the airplane was used to advantage. In 
1920 a British aviator, flying over the Nile 
Basin, discovered a hitherto unknown range of 
voleanic hills north of Khartoum. It is inter- 
esting to note that the end of the War saw an 
awakened interest in scientific and economic re- 
search apart from pure geographical explora- 
tion. The activities of the French in the Sa- 
hara have been alluded to. A British expedi- 
tion (1919-20) under the Rey. John Roscoe car- 
ried on extensive ethnographical investigations 
in the Uganda. Biological expeditions also fig- 
ured prominently. A Smithsonian Institute 
party was maintained in Central and South 
Africa, covering the Transvaal, Kafue River 
valley, Lake Tanganyika, and the Budongo forest, 
for the collection of fauna and flora. One in- 
vestigator (Mr. L. H. Shantz) gathered 1600 
specimens of plants, including forage and nut 
plants, fruits and vegetables, for introduction 
into the United States. Similarly, in 1921, 
Prince William of Sweden in explorations in 
the regions south and southwest of Uganda, col- 
lected 1000 mammals, 2000 birds, and more than 
6000 insects. Italian research workers discov- 
ered in Eritrea, near the Abyssinian frontier, 
important bodies of chloride of potash. Finally, 
in 1922-24, of the many expeditions at work, 
may be noted the investigation of the etiology 
of the tribes in the Mongalla district by an 
Anglo-Egyptian group and the exploration, for 
geographical and zodlogical purposes, of the 
Central Sahara by the British and Rothchild 
Museums. 
Communications. Hand in hand with the 
geographical researches went the extension of 
the means of communication. An _ Atlantic- 
Indian Ocean route by water and rail was com- 
pleted in 1914-15, so that it became possible 
to travel from west to east by water along the 
Congo, thence by rail from Kakalo on the Up- 
per Congo to Albertville on the west shore of 
Lake Tanganyika, across the lake by water, and 
finally by rail from Kigomo to Dar es Salaam 
on the Indian Ocean. An east-west route along 
South Africa was similarly completed in 1915 so 
that Walfish Bay and Delegoa Bay became 
linked. Along the Cape to Cairo route the 
progress made was from Ndola on the Belgian 
Congo frontier to Bukama, a distance of 442 
miles (1909-18), and extension of this line 
along the Lualaba River to a point better 
adapted for large vessels. Thus it was possible 
to travel from Cairo to the Cape by rail and 
water almost completely, except for two breaks 
of 300 miles, one from Tabora to Mwanza on 
the Victoria Nyanza, the other between Nimule 
and Rejaf along the Upper Nile. The terri- 
torial changes after the War brought the Cape- 
to-Cairo line wholly within British territory, so 
that it was evident that the next few years 
would see the work pressed to completion. 
Two other general schemes need mention. Rail- 
roads were started by the French from Dakar 


27 


AFRICA 


(Senegal), Konakry (French Guinea), Abid- 
jan (Ivory Coast), and Katonu (Dahomey), 
with the purpose of pushing all of them into 
the French Sudan and then uniting all the lines 
by a single railroad running from west to 
east. The work was delayed during the War, 
and the French were slow up to 1924 in tak- 
ing it up again. The 1924 announcement of 
a north and south Saharan railway project was 
even more ambitious. After a spirited domestic 
controversy the French government announced 
its acceptance of the Pabatier route which 
called for a railway line from Arzeu and Oran 
in Algeria through Tosaye on the Niger to 
Wagadagu, the capital of Haute Volta in the 
“Loop” of the Niger. Of this, 112 miles were 
already built across the Atlas range to Raz-el- 
Mao; the scheme called for the construction of 
2090 miles more at a cost between 1,400,000,000 
and 1,700,000,000 franes. (For local railroad 
construction see under the headings of the sep- 
arate African countries and territories.) <A 
further development was the use of the air- 
plane as a means of communication and trans- 
port. In 1920 two British aviators flew from 
Cairo to Cape Town, a distance of 5206 miles, 
in 72 hours of flying time. In the same year 
a French plane flew across the Sahara from 
Algiers to Dakar. An interesting experiment 
was undertaken in December, 1922, when an 
expedition of five motor cars with caterpillar 
attachments made a successful journey to about 
2000 miles across the Sahara from Tugurt (AI- 
geria) to Timbuktu (on the Niger). The whole 
trip took only 20 days. 

History. the map of Africa, in the period 
1914-24, was subjected to many changes as 
a result of the War. Shortly after the outbreak 
of the hostilities in Europe, Belgium inquired of 
France and Great Britain whether they intended 
to maintain the neutrality of territories in the 
conventional basin of the Congo, in accordance 
with the General Act of the Berlin Conference, 
of Feb. 26, 1885; the German government, like- 
wise, proposed the maintenance of neutrality in 
this region, on the ground that solidarity of 
the white race was necessary to preserve Euro- 
pean ascendancy in Africa. Great Britain and 
France, having already begun hostilities against 
the German colonies, rebuffed the German offer 
of neutrality, and proceeded, with some aid from 
the Belgian Congo, to conquer the German pos- 
sessions. British forces from the Gold Coast 
and French from Dahomey mastered Togoland 
in August, 1914, German Southwest Africa 
was successfully invaded in September, 1914, 
and occupied before July, 1915, by British South 
African troops. French and British columns, 
convergently penetrating Kamerun, completed 
the conquest of that colony in the spring of 
1916, after encountering stubborn resistance. 
German East Africa, resolutely defended by 
a small German garrison supplemented by native 
contingents, was not swept clear ,ef German 
forces until November, 1917, and «zen only 
after an ambitious plan of invasion, designed 
by General Smuts, had been carried out by Brit- 
ish, South African, Indian, and native troops 
and codperating Belgian forces. During the 
War France and Great Britain by secret agree- 
ments arranged in advance the partition of the 
German colonies, and by the Treaty of London 
(1915) they promised Italy an extension of 
territory in Africa if they should succeed in 
carrying out their designs. The Treaty of Ver- 


AFRICA 


sailles (1919) required Germany to surrender 
all overseas possessions to the principal allied 
and associated powers, transferred all German 
public property in the colonies to the new pos- 
sessors, exacted reparation for damage done 
to French nationals by German encroachments 
in French Equatorial Africa before the War, 
and compelled Germany to relinquish all former 
treaty rights in the French protectorate of 
Morocco. The Treaty further provided that Togo- 
land, Kamerun, and German East Africa should 
be Class B mandates, with safeguards of native 
rights and of the open door, whereas German 
Southwest Africa should belong to Class C, to 
be administered as an integral part of the man- 
datory; but the distribution of these mandates 
was left to the allied powers. A preliminary 
division of the territories was effected by the 
Supreme Council on May 7, 1919, as follows: 
German East Africa to Great Britain; Ger- 
man Southwest Africa to the Union of South 
Africa; Togoland and Kamerun to be disposed 
of by Great Britain and France. Subsequently 
the districts of Ruanda and Urundi, in the 
northwestern part of East Africa, were assigned 
to Belgium as mandatory; and the remaining 
nineteen-twentieths of East Africa, under the 
new name of Tanganyika Territory, became a 
British mandate. Of the Cameroons (former 
Kamerun), about five-sixths went to France, and 
only a small strip along the Nigerian border to 
Britain. Togoland was split, France taking al- 
most two-thirds and Britain a little more than 
one-third. The mandate for German Southwest 
Africa (now Southwest Africa Protectorate) 
was formally approved by the Council of the 
League on Dec. 17, 1920; the Class B mandates 
for the other German Colonies, divided as de- 
scribed, were delayed until July 20, 1922. Other 
minor adjustments were made. Portugal re- 
covered a district known as the Kionga triangle, 
which had been included in German East Africa. 
In order to insure an unbroken route for the 
Cape to Cairo Railway, Belgium transferred to 
Britain a strip of Ruanda-Urundi. Moreover, 
in fulfillment of the Treaty of London by which 
Italy had been promised compensation for 
Anglo-French gains, territorial concessions were 
made to Italy. Italy had desired territorial ad- 
ditions in French Somaliland (particularly 
Jibuti) ; the extension of Tripoli to Lake Chad; 
rectifications in the Libyan Desert in the neigh- 
borhood of the oasis of Jarabaib; and the ad- 
dition of territory along the Juba _ River. 
France ceded to Italy the Ghadames and Trum- 
mo districts on the western border of Italian 
Libya; further than this France would not go. 
Egypt, at Britain’s behest, transferred a long, 
narrow strip, the Jarabaib region, to extend the 
eastern frontier of Libya. Great Britain ex- 
pressed herself in 1919 as willing to make con- 
cessions to Italy by additions to Italian Somali- 
land, but the Italian demand for more territory 
left the onestion open. In 1924 Ramsay Mac- 
Donald “ueclared for the English government 
that it, like the former Baldin government, 
planned to link the disposition of Jubaland with 
that of the Dodecanese, and inasmuch as Italy 
had received the latter by the treaty of Lau- 
sanne (1923), there was little likelihood of any 
favorable settlement being reached, at least as 
far as Italy was concerned. But in June, an 
amicable settlement was reached when the 1919 
Milner-Scialoja line was accepted. Late in 
1923 Italian ambitions encountered another set- 


28 


AGAR 


back in the discussions over the status of Tan- 
giers (q.v.). Among other territorial changes 
were the settlement of the boundary between 
Wadai and Darfur in 1921 by France and Great 
Britain and the independence of Egypt. Egypt 
in December, 1914, first became a British Pro- 
tectorate, and then, on Feb. 28, 1922, gained 
its independence under its own king and legis- 
lative assembly. The disposition of the Anglo- 
Egyptian Sudan still remained a source of con- 
tention between Britain and Egypt in 1924. 
Thus 1919-24 saw the elimination of the Ger- 


man territories, covering an area of 1,030,000. 


square miles, and the re-partitioning of Africa 
along the following lines: 


Countries Area 

square miles 
Great Britain, (not including Egypt) .. 4,014,000 
ER GATIGE ih y.s oc fe olscahe rete sate are stebeteteler crores oes, pa, 40,000 
Italy oe eee . ee . eee eevee ee ° . eee 591,000 
SPaiNiin ce awiak « Siete fot ele S Yolote atareps vyefe Suc: 129,000 
PSELEUIIN = ie issecoed etale OE RO oA dot aiaaabe a 910,000 
BAO EELS Alisa tes cveyccsvo te s sishe « Mtieksusstegecocs pienels 927,000 
BOY Dt te 3. SLMS T Ly cies teh etete es 3 350,000 
Abyssinia .....).'. Wit Ss dilo os Biel RIS EE o 5 350,000 
MGT DEUS We tere lol's © isbn shane pois ERED eo cao catekole 40,000 


Like other parts of the world after the War, Africa 
became the scene of nationalistic aspirations, which 
threatened white supremacy. Of the Egyptians’ suc- 
cessful fight for native sovereignty an account is given 
under Egypt; the contest between Indians and British 
in the Kenya Colony is recounted under KENYA; the 
Union of South Africa’s determination to ‘check the 
economic and political aspirations of the Negroes and 
Indians (largely the work of General Smuts) is told 
under SOUTH AFRICA, UNION oF. As far as the 
Europeans were concerned, a more disquieting move- 
ment was that of the Negroes of the continent to 
gain a fuller hearing for their demands for racial 
equality. In 1919, 1921, and 1923, representatives 
of Negro groups in America and Africa, more 
particularly from the latter, met in Paris, London, and 
Lisbon, under the egis of the Pan-African Congress, 
and there set out a charter of liberties for their people. 
Their purpose was plainly the development of Africa 
for the benefit of Africans, and not merely for the 
profit of the Europeans. They sought political, educa- 
tional and economic equality, the restoration of native 
lands, e.g., in Kenya, Rhodesia, and South Africa; the 
curbing of commercial exploitation, in the Belgian 
Congo; release from the hold of large industrial mon- 
opolies, in Portugese East Africa, where a _ British- 
financed company rendered nugatory the good inten- 
tions of the liberal Portugese code; and the appoint- 
ment by the League of Nations of direct diplomatic 
representatives in the mandated territories with powers 
to investigate and report. It was too early to as- 
certain whether the movement was gaining strength. 
In the 1921 Congress 30 countries were represented 
as against only 13 in the 1923 Congress. But its 
implications indicated a serious challenge to the pur- 
poses of European imperialism. The cry of Africa 
for the whites was being met by that of Africa for 
the Africans. 


AFRICA, EHARty CIVILIZATION OF. See 
ETHNOGRAPHY. 
AGAR, FREDERICK ALFRED (1872- Pe Wa 


American clergyman, born in London, England. 
He studied at the Louisville Theological Semi- 
nary and was ordained Baptist minister in 1893. 
He was medical missionary to the Congo Free 
State (1893-4) and after holding various pastor- 
ates he became efficiency and methods secretary 
of the Northern Baptist Convention in 1913. 
He is a specialist in church methods and is au- 
thor of Church Finance (1915), Dead or Alive 
(1916), Help Those Women (1917), Personal- 
aty and Possessions (1917), Democracy and the 
Church (1918), Church Officers (1918), The 
Stewardship of Life (1919), Modern Money 
Methods (American Baptist Publication Com- 
pany, 1921), and several pamphlets. 


SS — a 


AGEE 


AGEE, Atva (1858- ). An American 
agricultural educator, born at Cheshire, Ohio. 
He attended Marietta College and the University 
of Wooster. From 1907 to 1912 he was in 
charge of agricultural extension work at the 
Pennsylvania State College and from 1912 to 
1918 performed the same service and was pro- 
fessor of soil fertility at Rutgers College. In 
1890 he became associate editor of the National 
Stockman and Farmer and contributed many 
articles on agriculture to periodicals. From 
1916 he was secretary of agriculture for the 
New Jersey State Department of Agriculture. 
He wrote Essentials of Soil Fertility, Crops and 
Methods for Soil Improvement, and Right Use 
‘of Lime in Soil Improvement. 

AGEE, Fannie HEASLIP Lea (1884— ya 
An American author, born at New Orleans and 
educated at Tulane University. She has been 
a frequent contributor to Harpers Monthly, 
Century, Scribner’s, Collier’s Weekly, Woman’s 
Home Companion, ete., and is the author of 
Quiecksands (1911), The Jaconetta Stories 
(1912), Sicily Ann (1914), Chloe Malone 
(1916), and other volumes. 

AGER, WALDEMAR (THEODOR) (1869- )s 
An editor and author, born in Fredriksstad, 
Norway, and educated in the common schools. 
He came to America in 1885. He joined the 
Fremad Publishing Company, Eau Claire, Wis., 
in 1892, and in 1903 was appointed manager 
and editor of Reform. He was also made secre- 
tary of the Norwegian Society of America and 
editor of its quarterly. He is the author of 
Kristus for Pilatus (1911), Paa veien til smel- 
tepotten (Eau Claire, Wis., 1917), and short 
stories and histories in Norwegian. He is also 
known as a lecturer. 


29 


AGNES SCOTT COLLEGE. An institution . 


for women at Decatur, Ga., founded in 1889. 
The student enrollment increased from 225 in 
1914 to 500 in 1923-24, the number of mem- 
bers of the faculty from 35 to 55, and the 
library from 4000 to 11,000 volumes. The en- 
dowment in 1924 was $850,000, with pledges of 
$200,000 payable within the two years follow- 
ing, as compared with an endowment of $175,000 
in 1914; and the income in 1923-24 was ap- 
proximately $225,000, in contrast with $100,000 
at the beginning of the decade. The land hold- 
ings of the college were more than doubled, and 
the buildings were increased about 50 per 
cent, An extensive building programme was al- 
so projected. President, James Ross McCain, 
ATBIMILINDS AM .7? Ph:D: 
AGNEW, WILLIAM HEnrRy (1881- ). An 
American clergyman and educator born in West- 
phalia, Kan., and educated at St. Louis Uni- 
versity. He was ordained priest in the Roman 
Catholic Church in 1915 and was appointed 
dean of the department of Science and Mathe- 
matics at Loyola University in 1921. He has 
been at various times chaplain in hospitals in 
Illinois and New York and in the Blackwell’s 
Island workhouse. He is a well-known lecturer 
in religious and educational institutions. He 
was at one time editor of The Queen’s Work. 
AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. This term has 
come into prominence in the years 1914-24 in 
several distinct senses, among which may 
be recognized: rural credit (mortgage bond 
loans); marketing credit (loans for the sale 
and carrying of farm products); and _ pro- 
ductive credit (loans made for farmers’ ex- 
penses during the period of putting in and har- 


AGRICULTURAL CREDIT 


vesting crops). Due partly to the growth of 
am agrarian movement in many quarters and 
partly to the unsatisfactory position of the 
farmer as the result of the changes in prices 
during and since the War, the problem of fur- 
nishing the farmer with an adequate mechanism 
for supplying these different kinds of credit has 
assumed the position of a political issue in 
several countries and particularly in the United 
States. 

Rural Credit. By rural credit is meant the 
extension of loans to working farmers for the 
purpose primarily of improving their land and 
of equipping them with suitable farm buildings 
and in some cases with the more permanent and 
lasting types of machinery. Since the farmer 
has usually little or nothing upon which to 
base his application for credit except the title 
to his land, this form of agricultural credit 
becomes a system of advancing money upon 
farm mortgage. Since farm mortgages are 
costly and difficult to supervise and crop fail- 
ures suspend interest payments and sometimes 
necessitate the surrender of title to the land, 
mortgage banking has been developed in con- 
nection with agricultural operations and has 
been worked out on the codperative principle, 
which is intended to put behind the loan the 
protection of a joint guarantee derived from 
claims upon a considerable number of pieces of 
property. This plan of codperative mortgage 
banking was first developed in Germany and 
came into definite existence about 1775, con- 
tinuing in various forms since that date. Paral- 
lel systems have been introduced into nearly 
all of the European countries and some Ori- 
ental states with varying success. The typical 
form of the plan is found in an organization 
of codperative groups or associations whose 
members’ applications for loans are passed on by 
their neighbors or associates in the group. Un- 
der the German plan, the next step is the issue 
of a bond or obligation which is jointly bind- 
ing on all members of the group and their 
lands, and which the recipient, the applicant 
for the loan, then sells to as good advantage as 
he can. Mortgage banks have been established 
for the purpose of assisting in this marketing 
process. Under other variations of the scheme, 
the recipient obtains his loan in money, mort- 
gaging his land to the codperative association, 
which is organized with a small capital. The 
association then sells the mortgage to a land 
bank which places it and a series of other mort- 
gages given by contemporary borrowers in a 
pool or trust fund. Bonds against these mort- 
gages are sold to investors; thus the mort- 
gages serve as collateral to protect the bonds. 

Federal Farm Loan Act. The Federal Farm 
Loan Act adopted in 1916 by Congress is based 
upon the last described form of the codperative 
mortgage system. Farm loan associations are 
formed in designated areas under conditions pre- 
scribed in the law, and their members are bor- 
rowers only. The borrowers submit applications 
for loans under specified conditions and restric- 
tions as to size, security, and valuation of the 
land. When such loans are approved by the 
association after careful appraisal of the prop- 
erty, the mortgages are transferred to a Fed- 
eral land bank. Twelve of these banks have 
been organized in districts covering the whole 
of the continental United States. They sell 
bonds issued in series against the mortgages 
which they have thus purchased. All bonds are 


AGRICULTURAL CREDIT 


guaranteed by the twelve banks. The Federal 
Farm Loan Board, an appointive body in the 
Treasury at Washington, supervises the opera- 
tions of the loan associations and the banks, 
and assents to or rejects applications for the 
issue of bonds. During the period from 1916 to 
early in 1924, about 4500 farm loan organizations 
were formed, and under the codperative princi- 
ple the capital of the land banks was increased 
with the loan associations, which take out cap- 
ital in proportion as they sell mortgages to the 
land banks. Thus a total of about $750,000,- 
000 of bonds has been placed in the hands of the 
public by the twelve banks. Under the Federal 
Farm Loan Act provision was also made for 
institutions known as Joint Stock Land Banks. 
These were to operate in somewhat the same 
way as the Federal land banks, except that 
the former were originally founded with gov- 
ernment capital and were steadily overseen 
by the government. The joint stock land banks 
were to be organized with private capital and 
were to make mortgage loans direct to farmers, 
instead of following the procedure as in the 
case of the farm land banks, purchasing the 
mortgages from local loan associations, which 
obtained them from the farm borrowers who 
were their members. The joint stock land banks 
early in 1924 numbered about sixty. The total 
issues of bonds put out by them up to the close 
of 1923 was about $300,000,000. In general, the 
effect of the farm loan act was undoubtedly to 
reduce the average rate of interest on first-class 
landed security by 5 to 7 per cent, according to 
location; and it also tended to establish a com- 
paratively high degree of uniformity between 
different parts of the country. 

Intermediate Credit Banks. Because farm 
land banks and joint stock land banks were 
strictly limited to mortgage security, i.e. first 
mortgages on farm lands, and were not author- 
ized to make any extensions of funds for con- 
ducting agricultural business, sharp demand 
arose in the United States in the years 1920-22 
for some system of banking which would provide 
for loans running up to two or three years 
in maturity protected by ordinary paper or 
chattel mortgages. Such loans were especially 
designed to meet the requirements of the cattle 
and wool raising industries and to some extent 
for the use of fruit growers and others who 
required period loans of a duration greater 
than could be obtained from the ordinary bank 
and shorter than those contemplated by the 
land mortgage act. On Mar. 4, 1923, Congress 
accordingly provided for the creation of twelve 
intermediate credit banks to be operated in con- 
nection or as departments of the twelve land 
banks. Each was to have a capital of not more 
than $5,000,000, the actual amount to be deter- 
mined by the Secretary of the Treasury and 
paid in by him out of any funds in the Treasury 
not otherwise appropriated. Each bank was to 
be allowed to do business with ordinary banks 
and with loan associations and corporate lend- 
ers of various kinds. It was to be permitted to 
place its securities in trust, to issue tax exempt 
debentures, and to sell these to the public in an 
amount not to exceed twelve times its capital 
stock. Such debentures were to be purchasable 
by Federal Reserve Banks. In lieu of issuing 
debentures, the intermediate banks might make 
acceptances against commodities in warehouses; 
and such acceptances might be discounted with 
Federal Reserve Banks, so as to give the farm- 


30 


AGRICULTURAL CREDIT 


er access to the commercial banking funds of 
the country under specified conditions. In 1923 
these banks. were organized with a capital of 
$1,500,000 each. 

War Finance Corporation. During the War 
a War Finance Corporation was formed whose 
purpose was to make loans to hard pressed en- 
terprises which might be unable to obtain bank- 
ing accommodation through ordinary channels. - 
The concern had a nominal capital of $500,000,- 
000 paid out of the Treasury. It did a limited 
amount of business during the War, but after 
the close of the struggle it was largely liqui- 
dated and practically closed under the Admin- 
istration of Secretary of the Treasury Houston. 
The Harding Administration which came into 
office in 1921 expanded and revived the opera- 
tions of the concern and devoted it largely to 
agricultural relief with direct loans to banks 
and under certain conditions to corporations, for 
the purpose of promoting export trade and en- 
abling banks with frozen assets to obtain assist- 
ance on a long term basis on a larger scale than 
they otherwise could. The War Finance Cor- 
poration was extended from time to time, with 
operations in its most active year amounting 
to about $465,000,000 of loans. When the in- 
termediate credit banks were organized, it was 
supposed that they would take over the business 
of the War Finance Corporation, but they did 
not prove able to do so, owing to the less flex- 
ible conditions under which they operated. The 
result was successive extensions of the life of 
the corporation to Dec. 31, 1924. 

Federal Reserve Operations. None of the 
long term or intermediate mortgage banking 
enterprises already referred to has any bearing 
on the question of currently financing the farm- 
ers’ crops. For many years, this matter had 
presented serious difficulties in the United 
States, largely because so great a proportion 
of American agriculture is of a seasonal nature. 
Cotton, for example, which comes to maturity 
and is practically all gathered in by the mid- 
dle of November, must be financed over the 
period during which it is to be consumed either 
at home or in the course of the exporting period. 
That is to say, funds must be provided from 
some source with which to pay harvesting and 
producing expenses, and other obligations in- 
curred by the farmer during the growing sea- 
son. If he sells the cotton, he is able to pay 
his expenses out of the proceeds so far as they 
go. Observation, however, has shown that in 
general the lowest prices of the year prevail 
for some weeks immediately after the peak 
of the harvesting season. Hence there was a 
desire to put the farmer into a position to 
carry his crop until it could be gradually sold 
at a price up to the average. This gave rise 
to the establishment of Federal warehouses and 
also to the adoption of State warehouse sys- 
tems operating under the uniform warehouse 
law, It also led to the creation of codperative 
marketing associations whose function is to re- 
ceive the: cotton from their members, store it, 
and carry it until favorable opportunity for 
selling presents itself. In order to carry the 
crop in this way, the farmer or the codperative 
association must be able to obtain satisfactory 
accommodation at the banks, and in order to 
insure such accommodation, the Federal Reserve 
Act made provision for an unusually long 
period of credit on farm paper, six months in- 
stead of three, and also contemplated the use 


AGRICULTURAL CREDIT 


of the resources of the system so far as needed 
for the orderly marketing of crops. Under the 
administration of the Federal Reserve Board, 
this idea of orderly’ marketing came to signify 
the holding of the crop during the consumption 
period, with the understanding that it should 
all be placed on the market prior to the advent 
of a new crop. What is said here of cotton 
applies also to other staples und is a general 
characterization of the crop-moving problem 
at large. The working of the Federal Reserve 
system in connection with short term farm 
paper has been very satisfactory, enabling the 
agriculturist to get at low rates all of the funds 
to which he could be considered reasonably 
entitled. 

Agrarian Discontent. Very decided agrarian 
discontent has prevailed in the United States for 
several years past. One reason for it was the 
artificially high prices that were fixed for food- 
stuffs during the War. These tended to en- 
courage farmers to bring too much land under 
cultivation for certain crops and to neglect the 
diversification of certain products. They also 
tended to encourage a speculative movement and 
inflated level of values in the farming com- 
munity, with the result that many cultivators 
purchased or in some way took over land at 
valuations which could not thereafter be main- 
tained. After the close of the War, the fixed 
prices for agricultural products were termi- 
nated and a considerable slump in farm prices 
and values set in. This reaction was by many 
ascribed to deflation, an effort on the part of 
the banks and especially of the Federal Reserve 
system to curtail the amount of credit going 
to the farmer. One outcome of this discontent 
was the so-called agricultural inquiry of 1921, 
conducted by a joint committee representing the 
House and Senate. The findings of the commit- 
tee exonerated the system for its discount 
policy but blamed it for allowing expansion to 
occur as rapidly as it had, notwithstanding that 
the inevitable result was reaction and defla- 
tion. Dissatisfaction continued throughout the 
northwest and some parts of the Middle West, 
and during the years 1922-23 a considerable 
movement of population away from the farms 
occurred, with many foreclosures and defaults 
in mortgage loans and an unusual volume of 
bank failures in the farming regions. These 
troubles continued to be attributed to poor or 
inadequate credit, and the result was steady 
agitation in Congress and out of it for some 
sort of relief. One result of the agitation was 
the Intermediate Credits Act of March 4, 1923, 
already described. 

Farm Cooperation. Perhaps the most prac- 
tical development in the field of agricultural 
credit and at the same time the most helpful 
measure from the standpoint of the farmer him- 
self was the development of codperative credit 
associations and the codperative marketing as- 
sociations already incidentally mentioned. There 
was a rapid growth of both classes of institu- 
tions in the cotton and fruit growing regions 
and to some extent in the grain sections as well. 
It was asserted that the effect of codperation 
in the cotton regions was to save the farmer 
an amount equal to about $20 per bale of 500 
pounds either in reduced marketing expenses or 
in actually higher prices. 

The method of the codperative association is 
to exact from its members an agreement to keep 
a specified amount of land under cultivation 


31 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 


for a certain kind of crop over a given period 
of years or at all events to cultivate no other 
crop on that land, thus assuring a steady sup- 
ply of the product in question. The farmer 
agrees to deliver his output through the as- 
sociation and to abide by its rules, which pro- 
vide for grading, holding, and selling the prod- 
uct under conditions determined by the board 
of directors and other authorities. The associ- 
ation then provides for financing and carrying 
the combined output furnished by its members. 
This financing has been done in two principal 
ways; by direct loan at banks with warehouse 
receipts representing the title to the cotton as 
collateral, and by acceptances furnished by 
banks with which arrangements have previ- 
ously been made. The acceptances are protected 
by warehouse receipts in the same way and then 
marketed by the association, or in some cases 
by the accepting bank. The best of these agree- 
ments provides also for regular marketing of 
the warehoused crop at a specified rate per 
month and reduction of the outstanding accep- 
tances in corresponding amount. This method 
has provided an economical and apparently 
very safe form of financing. Altogether the 
codperative association seems to furnish the 
key to a difficult problem of agricultural 
marketing. 

Future of Farm Credit. The discussion of 
the 1920’s in the United States and elsewhere 
confirmed the opinion that sound farm credit 
can be based only on careful adjustment of 
acreage to demand and that the holding or 
storage of surplus products merely intensifies 
the problem of prices at a later date, even 
though it may temporarily advance them. Al- 
though a great. number of bills were urged in 
Congress with a view to providing for govern- 
ment subsidies to farmers of specified classes 
or for the formation of agricultural purchasing 
corporations designed to fix the prices of farm 
products by buying at a specified rate, no legis- 
lation of the sort had been enacted up to July, 
1924. The passage of such laws had become 
the basis of a movement represented by the so- 
called farm bloc in the Senate and by similar 
organizations in foreign legislative bodies. Im- 
provement of marketing methods and facilities 
and elimination of middlemen’s charges both 
for selling and financing appeared to offer the 
best solution of the problem. See FINANCE AND 
BANKING. 

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. During 
the decade 1913-23 agricultural education in the 
United States broadened greatly, in research, 
graduate and undergraduate work in colleges, 
courses in secondary and elementary schools and 
extension work. A larger measure of public 
funds was devoted to these enterprises than pre- 
viously, and a considerable number of private 
institutions were devoted to the work. The 
interest of the farming folk in agricultural edu- 
cation was sharpened and found new expression 
through their organizations. The American sys- 
tem was profoundly strengthened in this period 
by the operation of the Smith-Lever Coépera- 
tive Extension Act of May 8, 1914 (see Acrt- 
CULTURAL EXTENSION WorK), and the Smith- 
Hughes Vocational Education Act of Feb. 23, 
1917. The United States Department of Agri- 
culture and the agricultural experiment sta- 
tions (q.v.), which with few exceptions were 
departments of the agricultural colleges, sup- 
plied more largely the new information on 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 


which improvement in the subject-matter of 
agricultural teaching was based. 

The Agricultural Colleges. In 1924 instruc- 
tion in agriculture was given in 52 land-grant 
colleges for white students in the 48 States, 
Alaska, Hawaii and Porto Rico, 25 of these 
in connection with State universities. It was 
also featured in 17 institutions for negroes in 
the Southern States. In 1921 instructors in 
agriculture in the white colleges numbered 2032 
men and 96 women. The total number of stu- 
dents of agriculture in all courses was 32,186 
men and 3183 women, of whom 751 men and 
71 women were in graduate courses, 14,676 men 


and 487 women in four-year undergraduate 
courses, and 14,997 men and 1996 women in 
subcollegiate work, including short courses, 
summer schools and correspondence courses. In 


1910 these colleges had only 8859 students in 
regular college courses in agriculture. In the 
land-grant college institutions for negroes, in 
1921, there were 11,527 students, of whom 853 
were in collegiate work and 847 in agricultural 
courses. In the white colleges the expenditures 
for resident instruction in agriculture in 1921 
totalled about $9,500,000. 

The Federal appropriations for instruction in 
the land-grant colleges were increased under the 
provision in the Vocational Education Act for 
teacher-training and the Federal acts for Reha- 
bilitation of Veterans of the World War. But 
by far the greatest increase of revenue came 
to these colleges through State appropriations 
for buildings, equipment and current expenses. 
The agricultural divisions of these colleges re- 
ceived a good portion of these funds. Many 
large buildings for agricultural work were erect- 
ed and well equipped. Additional farms, live- 
stock, machinery, libraries, etc., were purchased. 
The number and variety of courses were greatly 
increased. The courses in agricultural produc- 
tion under the heads of agronomy, horticulture, 
forestry, animal husbandry and dairying were 
strengthened in various ways, but chief empha- 
sis was increasingly placed on the development 
of courses in rural engineering and in rural 
economics and sociology. 

The Graduate School of Agriculture under the 
auspices of the Land-Grant College Association 
was held in 1914 at the University of Missouri 
and in 1916 at the sassachusetts Agricultural 
College, after which it was discontinued. This 
was largely due to the development of regular 
graduate courses leading to advanced degrees 
at most of the agricultural colleges and particu- 
larly at universities and the stronger colleges. 
In the undergraduate work special attention 
has been paid to better organization of the 
curriculum, the adoption of a group system of 
electives, provisions to meet the needs of in- 
dividual students according to their interests 
and capabilities, promotion of better teaching, 
and recognition of the importance of expert 
supervision of the educational work as a whole 
by the appointment of directors of resident 
teaching or similar officers. College authorities 
generally agreed that during the first two years 
in college, students should be required to take 
general basic courses, including a_ technical 
knowledge of what the farmer needs to know in 
order to carry on his work intelligently. The 
specialization through group courses could then 
be undertaken at the beginning of the junior 


year. 
In 1922 all the land-grant colleges had de- 


32 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 


partments offering courses in general psychol- 
ogy, educational psychology, methods of teach- 
ing and other professional studies. A num- 
ber of them had courses in methods of teach- 
ing agriculture. The training of teachers of 
agriculture for the secondary schools under the 
Smith-Hughes Vocational Education. Act was 
committed to the land-grant colleges. They had 
also become interested in the professional train- 
ing of the college teachers The Land-Grant 
College Association, through its Committee on 
Instruction in Agriculture, Home Economics 
and Mechanic Arts, urged that instructors in 
the technical department pursue graduate work 
in education and study the problems of teach- 
ing in their respective fields. Heads of de- 
partments were asked to guide young teachers 
and give them opportunity to teach a variety of 
subjects and to commit the teaching of intro- 
ductory and basie subjects to experienced and 
successful teachers. The association also has 
adopted a recommendation that beginning with 
1925 candidates for teaching positions in the 
colleges be required to have professional train- 
ing. 

The School of Agriculture for the Ameri- 
can Expeditionary Force. In 1919 a unique 
educational enterprise was undertaken for the 
benefit of the American soldiers in France. 
This was planned and inaugurated by the Young 
Men’s Christian Association, and afterwards 
was taken over by the Army Education Com- 
mission. This plan included a college of agri- 
culture located at Beaune which enrolled 6000 
students and a nearby farm’ school at Allery 
with 2600 more. Thorough extension work 
courses in agriculture were carried to thou- 
sands of soldiers in practically every regiment. 
Numerous trips to French farms and forests 
supplemented the classroom work. In charge 
was President K. L. Butterfield of the Massa- 
chusetts Agricultural College, with whom were 
associated a large number of the ablest agri- 
cultural educators from the colleges through- 
out the United States. More than 150 were 
selected from the army, representing 40 agri- 
cultural colleges. 

Agricultural Training for Disabled Ex- 
Service Men. Under the Vocational Rehabilita- 
tion Act of June 27, 1918, the Federal Board 
for Vocational Education included agriculture 
in its programme for training disabled ex- 
service men. In 1921 the rehabilitation work 
was transferred to the Veterans’ Bureau. Up 
to June 30, 1921, about 15,000 men took advan- 
tage of such training. They were distributed 
among the agricultural colleges and_ schools. 
Some of them could join the regular classes, 
but for the most part their general education 
was too limited to permit this and special in- 
struction had to be given them. During the 
fiscal year 1922-23 more than 11,000 men were 
given training in agriculture. Of these, about 
2000 were pursuing college courses leading to a 
degree, about 4000 were taking shorter college 
courses and about 5000 were in special practical 
courses. Thousands of farms and other agricul- 
tural enterprises were utilized as placement and 
project training opportunities for men on the 
job. In 1923 there were over 5000 men in in- 
stitutional training and about the same number 
in training on the job. The latter method 
proved more effective, especiaily for men of 
limited education, and their health was im- 
proved. 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 


“Secondary Education in Agriculture. In 
1923 there were 170 special agricultural schools, 
and agriculture was being taught in about 4500 
high schools. About 3000 of these schools re- 
eeived Federal and State funds under the pro- 
visions of the Smith-Hughes Vocational Educa- 
tion Act of Feb. 23, 1917. This act was ad- 
ministered by the Federal Board for Vocational 
Edueation, which had a division for agricultural 
education, and by State boards in all the States. 
Plans for the work in agriculture, as in other 
subjects, were initiated in the States and ap- 
proved by the Federal Board as the basis for 
allotment of Federal funds. The instruction 
was for students from 14 years of age and might 
include work in all-day or evening schools or 
in other part-time courses. Supervised prac- 
tice work in agriculture during six months of 
each year was required of all students. 

The Federal funds for vocational instruction 
in agriculture increased from $547,027 in 1918 
to $1,759,219 in 1923 and were offset by more 
than this amount of State and local funds. The 
Federal fund will reach its maximum jin 1926, 
when it will aggregate $3,021,987. In 1918 vo- 
cational agriculture was taught in 609 schools 
by 895 teachers to 15,453 pupils and in 1923 in 
2673 schools by 3012 teachers to 71,298 pupils. 
A report of the Federal Board showed that of 
8340 students who had received one or more 
years of such instruction, 4888 were engaged in 
farming. Experience showed the advantage of 
connecting the Smith-Hughes work in agricul- 
ture with the local high schools because thus the 
pupils lived at home and as a rule carried on 
their practice work on the home farm. This 
also made the school a factor in improving 
the agriculture of the local community The 
agricultural instruction in the Smith-Hughes 
schools was largely conducted on a project basis. 
This led to an attempt by the Federal Board, 
in codperation with the division of agricultural 
instruction in the Department of Agriculture, 
to make job analyses of the different agri- 
cultural enterprises and several publications 
were issued showing how such analyses may 
be used in the teaching of agricultural sub- 
jects. 

Elementary Agricultural Education. 1923 
and 1924 saw considerable progress in the teach- 
ing of agriculture in the rural elementary 
schools. The former year, 28 States had laws 
requiring elementary agriculture to be taught 
in the rural schools, and several others en- 
couraged such teaching. In about 20 States 
elementary. agriculture and nature study were 
taught effectively in many rural schools, espe- 
cially consolidated schools. A number of the 
State departments of education published out- 
line courses in elementary agriculture for the 
use of teachers, partly by codperation with the 
agricultural colleges and the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture. The agricultural col- 
leges, through summer schools and in other ways, 
were helping to train teachers for this work. 
These colleges and the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture were also aiding the rural 
teachers by the distribution of publications, lan- 
tern slides and other illustrative material and 
by personal services of the State and county ex- 
tension agents. The boys’ and girls’ clubs or- 
ganized by the extension agents are in many 
eases closely associated with the rural schools. 
Many normal schools and high schools have 
courses through which teachers are trained for 


33 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 


work in agriculture and nature study in the 
rural schools. 

Foreign Countries. Institutions for agricul- 
tural education increased in number and variety 
throughout the world, including colleges, second- 
ary and practical schools and special schools 
for horticulture, forestry, dairying, poultry, eic. 
In the European countries the regular work 
of the agricultural institutions was greatly 
abridged during the War, but at that time and 
afterward, special arrangements were made for 
the instruction of disabled soldiers in several 
countries. In Great Britain the Development 
Commission under the law of 1909, in codpera- 
tion with the Ministry of Agriculture and Fish- 
eries, greatly stimulated agricultural education 
and research, through the establishment of cen- 
tres of research at the Rothamsted Experiment 
Station, and at Cambridge, Oxford, and other 
universities and colleges, promotion of the resi- 
dent teaching at these and other institutions, 
assistance to local authorities in maintaining 
short courses of 10 to 12 weeks (called farm 
institutes) by itinerant teachers and broaden- 
ing of the extension work through county rep- 
résentatives and other expert advisory officers. 
For this work Parliament had made large grants 
of money to supplement local funds. 

In Canada, agricultural colleges and the teach- 
ing of agriculture in many high, consolidated 
and elementary schools were maintained in all 
the provinces under direction of the provincial 
departments of agriculture and education, aided 
by the Dominion Department of Agriculture, 
which beginning with Mar. 31, 1914, had an 
appropriation of $10,000,000 for 10 years to be 
distributed among the proviices according to 
population for education and research. In 1917 
the Agricultural Instruction Act, providing for 
district extension agents, made special arrange- 
ments for instruction of convalescent soldiers 
by these agents. At St. Joseph, Trinidad, the 
West Indian Agricultural College was opened for 
students, Oct. 16, 1922. It was designed as a 
eentre for research and education in tropical 
agriculture. The Imperial Department of Agri- 
culture for the West Indies was transferred 
from Barbados and located at this college. 

In Belgium a royal decree of Apr. 8, 1920, re- 
organized the higher agricultural education. 
The course for a bachelor’s degree was to occupy 
four years, but a license in agricultural science 
could be obtained on completion of a two years’ 
course. A higher normal institute of farm man- 
agement has been established at Laeken. In 
France the law of Aug. 21, 1912, reorganized the 
departmental and communal system of agricul- 
tural education and provided a bureau of agri- 
cultural services for each department. Laws en- 
acted in 1918 and 1920 further systematized ag- 
ricultural education and provided better oppor- 
tynities for specialization in different branches 
of agriculture, the training of teachers, winter 
courses for farmers, continuation courses for boys 
and girls leaving the primary schools and agri- 
cultural instruction for women. 

In Denmark, agricultural education was given 
in the Royal Danish Agricultural College at 
Copenhagen, at which the regular course occupied 
two years, with additional special courses 
covering two more years; and in 22 agricultur- 
al schools, with nine-month courses and special 
shorter courses lasting from a few days to sever- 
al weeks. In Norway there were the high school 
of agriculture, with a three-years’ course; the 


AGRICULTURAL STATIONS 


State Training School for Teachers to Small 
Holders, with a two-years’ course; and 41 county 
or district agricultural schools, with courses of 
six to eighteen months and several schools of 
forestry, horticulture and dairying. 

In China an educational survey in 1916 showed 
the great need of more practical education, and 
that year the National Association of Vocational 
Education was formed. The National Alliance of 
Provincial Educational Associations also favored 
vocational education. This movement greatly 
stimulated progress in agricultural education in 
colleges and secondary and primary schools. In 
1919 there were seven colleges with 1550 students 
and two missionary colleges at Canton and Nan- 
king, with 225 students; 54 secondary schools 
with 640 teachers and 5998 students; and 240 
primary schools with 622 teachers and 9784 stu- 
dents. 

An interesting development of agricultural 
education was connected with missionary colleges 
and schools in several countries. Many mission 
boards were promoting this side of their work, 
and young men were being trained in colleges in 
the United States and elsewhere for it. A sur- 
vey in Africa by the African Education Commis- 
sion showed the importance of correlating mis- 
sionary enterprises with the agricultural and 
community life of the African peoples, through 
practical instruction and extension work in con- 
nection with mission schools. 

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STA- 
TIONS. The work of the experiment stations in 
the United States and Europe found unusual ap- 
plication during the emergency period of the War, 
and their officials and experts were called upon 

‘for a variety of unusual advisory service. Many 

of the men were drafted into war activities, 
while others in large numbers took positions in 
the industries. The drain upon the station forces 
was therefore a very heavy one, and for a time re- 
search suffered a temporary setback. The more 
important lines of investigation were, however, 
kept alive, and after the Armistice the forces 
gradually returned and State appropriations 
were increased to some extent. In the United 
States there were, in 1924, 61 separate stations, 
some of the States maintaining more than a 
single station. In addition to the main stations 
many branch stations were maintained for typ- 
ical regions or the study of special branches of 
agriculture, and codperation with the United 
States Department of Agriculture increased ex- 
tensively. Experiment stations were maintained 
by the Federal government in Alaska, Hawaii, 
Porto Rico, Virgin Islands, and Guam, and sta- 
tions were also maintained in the Philippines un- 
der the Insular Government. A system of forest 
experiment stations was inaugurated under the 
United States Department of Agriculture in 
1922-23, quite largely in codperation with the 
State experiment stations. (See ForEsTRY). 
In addition to these public agencies, the Thomp- 
son Institute for Plant Research, supported pri- 
vately, was opened at Yonkers, N. Y., in 1921. 
In the same year the Food Research Institute 
was established at Stanford University, Califor- 
nia, with funds supplied by the Carnegie Cor- 
poration of New York, for the study of both the 
scientific and economic aspects of food supply 
and use. 

The total funds of the agricultural experiment 
stations in the United States for 1923 aggregated 
approximately $9,500,000. This compares with a 
little over $5,000,000 in 1914, much of the ap- 


34 AGRICULTURAL STATIONS 


parent increase, however, being absorbed by the 
increased cost of services and supplies. The sta- 
tions employed 2260 persons in connection with 
their research and administrative activities. 
About half of these were members of the teach- 
ing staffs of the agricultural colleges. During 
the year they issued over 900 publications, which 
were distributed to regular mailing lists aggre- 
gating about 900,000 names, in addition to many 
copies sent in response to special requests. A 
considerable part of the technical research was 
published in scientific journals, which served to 
increase materially the volume of published mat- 
ter. The stations were carrying a total of more 
than 5000 separate projects in 1923, covering 
practically every phase of the agricultural in- 
dustry and varying from quite practical experi- 
ments to abstract inquiries on the frontiers of 
science. The growing interest in economic prob- 
lems of agriculture was reflected in an expan- 
sion in that field as far as funds permitted, to in- 
clude studies of production costs, marketing and 
distribution of products, farm management, ag- 
riculturai codperation, and the like. Among 
other new developments was the subject of horti- 
cultural manufactures, dealing with canning, 
preserving and drying of fruits and vegetables, 
and the utilization of residues or by-products in 
various ways. Another new line in the western 
States was work in range management and the 
handling of stock under range conditions. In 
most of the States the field of the station work 
has expanded on new lines, and it has become in- 
creasingly technical in order to meet the type of 
problem and the demand for accurate information. 
In Great Britain the repeal of the war-time 
measure known as the Corn Production Act was 
accompanied by the granting of £1,000,000 for 
agricultural education and research, about half 
of which has been allocated to research and ad- 
visory work among various institutions. A new 
agency known as the Rowett Research Institute, 
for work in animal nutrition especially, was or- 
ganized at the North of Scotland College of Ag- 
riculture, contributions coming mainly from pri- 
vate sources. In Canada, the Dominion govern- 
ment was compelled to withdraw its assistance 
to the agricultural institutions in the Provinces 
in 1923, which was expected to result in serious 
curtailment of agricultural investigation. 
Despite the financial stress in France, an ap- 
propriation of 2,000,000 francs was made for ex- 
perimental work in 1921, and an Institute of Ag- 
ricultural Research was established under the 
Ministry of Agriculture, to which the existing 
stations and laboratories hitherto administered 
by the Department were assigned, with authority 
to establish other stations and make grants for 
research. This reorganization brought under the 
Institute 88 stations and laboratories with a 
total personnel of 236. A central station with 
regional stations for the improvement of crop 
plants was more recently provided for, and eight 
additional central stations with regional branches 
to deal with the principal divisions of agricul- 
ture. The foundation thus was laid for a com- 
prehensive system of agricultural research in 
France, utilizing the existing structure as far 
as possible and materially supplementing it. The 
State of Minas Geraes, Brazil, inaugurated a 
new institution for agricultural instruction and 
investigation, located at Vicosa; Colombia and 
Salvador each provided for a series of stations, 
and Venezuela opened a station for agriculture 
and forestry at Caracas. An institute of agri- 


AGRICULTURAL WORK 


cultural research in Palestine, with a system of 
local stations, was planned under the Zionist 
movement. 

Necrology. A number of scientists promi- 
nent in the work of the experiment stations 
died during the decade. Among these were Dr. 
H. P. Armsby, Director of the Institute of Ani- 
mal Nutrition at Pennsylvania State College; Dr. 
E. W. Hilgard, for many years director of the 
experiment station in California; Dr. J. H. Kas- 
tle, Director of the Kentucky Experiment Sta- 
tion; Prof. F. Nobbe, founder of the experiment 
station for plant physiology at Tharandt, Sax- 
ony, and of the first seed control station in 1869; 
Dr. Cyril G. Hopkins, head of the Department 
of Agronomy in the Illinois University and Ex- 
periment Station; Dr. William Frear, head of 
the Department of Experimental Chemistry and 
Vice-director of the Pennsylvania Experiment 
Station; Dr. J. C. Whitten, Specialist in Horti- 
culture at the California College of Agriculture 
and Experiment Station; Dr. F. W. Woll, Profes- 
sor of Animal Nutrition in the same institution 
and an agricultural writer; Prof. 8. A. Beach 
of the Iowa State Collegé and Experiment Sta- 
tion, a national authority on fruit growing. 

In addition to the changes brought about by 
death, a number of the leading station directors 
retired, among them Dr. W. H. Jordan of the 
Geneva Experiment Station in New York, Prof. 
Charles E. Thorne of the Ohio Station, Dr. 
Charles D. Woods of the Maine Station, Dr. W. 
P. Brooks of the Massachusetts Station, Dean E. 
Davenport of the Illinois College and Station, Dr. 
E. H. Jenkins of the Connecticut Stations, and 
Dean Thomas F. Hunt of the California College 
and Station. Dr. A. C. True, long Director of 
the Office of Experiment Stations in the United 
States Department of Agriculture and more re- 
cently Director of the States Relations Service, 
retired from’! administrative duties, continuing 
his study of the history of agricultural educa- 
tion and research. 

Bibliography. E. J. Wickson, The Begin- 
nings of Agricultural Education and Research 
in California, in Annual Report of California 
Experiment Station for 1918; Duke of Bedford 
and Spencer Pickering, Science and Fruit Grow- 
ing—A Record of 25 Years’ Work at the Woburn 
Experimental Fruit Farm (London, 1919); Ed- 
win Grey, Rothamsted Experimental Station: 
Reminiscences, Tales and Anecdotes (Harpenden, 
Herts, England, 1922) ; Milton Conover, The Of- 
fice of Experiment Stations, Its History, Ac- 
tivities and Organization, Institute for Govern- 
ment Research, Service Monographs, No. 32 
(Baltimore, 1924). 

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK. 
Agricultural extension work includes whatever 
instruction on subjects related to agriculture and 
country life is given by educational institutions 
to persons other than resident students. Most of 
this work is done away from the institutions, but 
it may include meetings or short courses held 
there. In the United States, courses at the insti- 
tutions exceeding two weeks in duration are us- 
ually not classed as extension work. Most of the 
agricultural extension work in the United States 
is done coéperatively by the State agricultural 
colleges and the United States Department of 
Agriculture under the terms of the Smith-Lever 
Extension Act of 1914 and related Federal and 
State legislation. This act brought about a com- 
bination of three more or less distinct lines of 
work previously conducted by agricultural in- 


AGRICULTURAL WORK 


stitutions: (1) farmers’ institutes 
in New INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPADIA), (2) 
farm demonstration work (see article in New 
INTERNATIONAL ENcYCLOPDIA) and (3) the cor- 
respondence and short courses, lectures at 
farmers’ meetings, exhibits at fairs, competitive 
judging of live stock and other products, etc., 
carried on by the agricultural college. 

From their beginning the agricultural colleges 
and the Department of Agriculture disseminated 
agricultural information among the farming peo- 
ple through correspondence, distribution of pub- 
lications, and addresses at meetings by members 
of their staffs. The colleges gradually enlarged 
the scope of their extension work, particularly 
in the decade beginning about 1905, when ex- 
tension divisions were organized. During this 
period the work was considerably influenced by 
the general movement of university extension, of 
which it was often considered a part. In 1908 
the colleges, through their Association, began to 
ask Federal aid for extension work and several 
bills were introduced in Congress. Finally a 
bill introduced by Hoke Smith of Georgia in the 
Senate and Asbury F. Lever of South Carolina in 
the House was passed, and was approved by 
President Wilson, May 8, 1914. This act pro- 
vides for agricultural extension work to be car- 
ried on by the land-grant colleges in codperation 
with the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture and in accordance with plans annually sub- 
mitted by the colleges and approved by the Sec- 
retary of Agriculture. 


(see article 


“Codperative agricultural extension work shall con- 
sist of the giving of instruction and practical dem- 
onstrations in agriculture and home economics to 
persons not attending or resident in said colleges in 
the several communities, and imparting to such per- 
sons information on said subjects through field dem- 
onstrations, publications, and otherwise; and this work 
shall be carried on in such manner as may be mutually 
agreed upon by the Secretary of Agriculture and the 
State agricultural college or colleges receiving the 
benefits of this act.’ 


To each State $10,000 annually was permanently 
appropriated, and additional sums beginning with 
$600,000 in 1914 and increasing by $500,000 for 
seven years thereafter, after which $4,100,000 an- 
nually was to be permanently appropriated. 
Since 1920 supplementary funds were added by 
Congress. To receive the additional sums the 
States were required to offset them with equal 
mounts, provided by States, county, college, local 
authority or individual contributions within the 
State. 


“No portion of said moneys shall be applied, directly 
or indirectly, to the purchase, erection, preservation, or 
repair of any building or buildings, or the purchase or 
rental of land, or in college-course teaching, lectures in 
colleges, promoting agricultural trains, or any other 
purpose not specified in this act, and not more than 
five per centum of each annual appropriation shall be 
applied to the printing and distribution of publications.’’ 


Soon after the passage of this act the Depart- 
ment and the colleges generally entered into a 
formal agreement, through a “memorandum of 
understanding,” under which the Department 
agreed to conduct all its extension work through 
the college, provided the college created an ex- 
tension division and put at its head a director 
who would be the joint representative of the col- 
lege and the Department and have charge of all 
the coédperative agricultural extension in the 
State. For the Department’s business necessi- 
tated by this act, a committee was at first organ- 


AGRICULTURAL WORK 


ized, but on July 1, 1915, when the States Re- 
lations Service was created, general supervision 
was given to the director of that service, under 
whom were put two extension offices transferred 
from the Bureau of Plant Industry, one for 15 
Southern States and the other for the 33 north- 
ern and western States. In 1920 the two offices 
were combined and in 1923 when the States Re- 
lations Service was abolished, the Codperative 
Extension Office became a part of the new Ex- 
tension Service, which contains also the Office 
of Exhibits and the Motion Picture Laboratory. 
The Extension Office administers the Smith-Lever 
funds and direct appropriations to the Depart- 
ment for farmers’ codperative demonstration 
work, which are used mainly in connection with 
the Smith-Lever work in the States but also for 
the maintenance of the Washington Office. Rep- 
resentatives of the different bureaus of the De- 
partment also do extension work in the States, 
under the supervision of the Extension Service. 

In the States the college organization consists 
of the extension director, leaders of county ag- 
ricultural, home economics and club agents, and 
extension specialists in the various branches of 
agriculture and home economics, together with 
the men and women agents located in the coun- 
ties. This nation-wide system of practical edu- 
cation for the farming people had hardly be- 
come well organized when the War brought to 
it unusual responsibilities. To aid in stimulat- 
ing agricultural production and food conservation 
the States Relations Service was given $4,348,- 
400 in 1917 and $6,100,000 in 1918 to supplement 
the regular extension funds. In war-time the 
extension organization was pushed forward very 
rapidly until over 2400 counties had agricultural 
agents and about 1700 counties and 200 cities 
had home demonstration agents. About 2,000,- 
000 boys and girls were enrolled in clubs. The 
supervising officers, extension specialists and 
clerks in headquarters at the colleges and the 
department were also greatly increased in num- 
bers. At one time about 7000 persons were in- 
cluded in the coédperative extension forces, which 
were accomplishing a great work in aiding the 
farmers to produce an adequate food supply and 
our people generally to conserve this supply. To 
accomplish this task it was necessary to organ- 
ize the farming people more thoroughly. The 
extension forces, therefore, were very active in 
promoting the older organizations and forming 
new ones. In the Northern and Western States 
special advantage was taken of an organization 
called the farm bureau. ‘This was originally a 
division in the Chamber of Commerce of Bing- 
hamton, N. Y., but was soon taken over by the 
farmers in that State, who organized county 
farm bureaus to work with the State agricultural 
college and Department of Agriculture in exten- 
sion enterprises. This movement spread to other 
States and in war-time the extension agents were 
active in organizing farm bureaus in many coun- 
ties. 

After the War, when economic conditions 
aroused the farmers to the importance of co- 
operative marketing and legislation relating to 
agriculture, the farm bureaus expanded their 
work beyond the educational field and formed 
State federations and a national federation called 
the American Farm Bureau Federation. The 
farm bureaus spread into almost all of the States 
and became one of the strongest and most influ- 
ential of our farm organizations. It was then 
necessary to readjust the relations of the exten- 


36 


AGRICULTURAL WORK 


sion forces to the farm bureaus and to confine 
these forces to educational work broadly defined. 
When the war emergency funds were withdrawn, 
the number of extension workers materially de- 
creased, though the expense of the work greatly 
increased and the farmers were in a very difficult 
situation. The people retained their interest in 
extension work and the number of county ex- 
tension workers again inereased. The empha- 
sis in the agricultural work shifted from pro- 
duction to economics, particularly codperative 
marketing. 

In 1923, out of 3044 counties reporting agri- 
cultural products, 2097 had men county extension 
agents; 846 had women agents. The men included 
56 directors and State leaders, 109 assistant 
State leaders, 2177 white county agents and as- 
sistants and 179 colored local agents... The 
women agents were 43 State leaders, 75 assistant 
State leaders, 838 white county agents and 103 
colored local agents. The men and women agents 
did much work with children but there were also 
special agents for boys’ and girls’ clubs, as fol- 
lows: State leaders 41, assistant State leaders 
59, county leaders 153: In addition, there were 
about 750 extension specialists and several hun- 
dred clerical assistants, making a total exten- 
sion force of nearly 5000. Over 600,000 boys and 
girls were enrolled in clubs. The total funds 
allotted for codperative extension work in the 
United States in 1923-24 were approximately 
$19,149,450, of whieh $7,194,450 were Federal 
funds, including $5,588,000 under terms of the 
Smith-Lever Act, $1,284,450 for farmers’ codp- 
erative demonstration work, and $30,000 for 
work by bureaus of the Department of Agricul- 
ture. From sources within the States $11,955,- 
000 were contributed, of which $5,324,000 were 
State and college funds, $5,743,000 county funds, 
and $888,000 from farm organizations and other 
sources. In Alaska, Guam, Hawaii, Porto Rico, 
and the Virgin Islands, extension work was con- 
ducted by the Federal experiment stations. 

Foreign Countries. Many countries had 
more or less elaborate systems of agricultural 
extension work, usually under the general super- 
vision of departments of agriculture and often 
connected with agricultural colleges and schools. 
In England and Wales extension work was con- 
ducted through County Agricultural Councils, 
with approval of the Ministry of Agriculture, 
and aided with Government funds by the Develop- 
ment Commission. The work is done by agri- 
cultural organizers, itinerant lecturers, and spe- 
cialists from agricultural colleges and the Min- 
istry. <A similar organization existed in Ireland. 
In Scotland the work was done through the uni- 
versities. In Canada a large number of exten- 
sion agents were employed under the supervision 
of the provincial departments of agriculture. 
Similar work was done in Australia, New Zea- 
land and the Union of South Africa. In France 
under the Ministry of Agriculture were inspect- 
ors-general, directors of agricultural services and 
their staffs in the several departments (coun- 
ties) and extension specialists. A similar sys- 
tem existed in Belgium. The Belgian Peasants’ , 
League, with over 90,000 members, also carried 
on much work. In Denmark, the Department of 
Agriculture, Royal Agricultural Society and _ lo- 
eal agricultural associations joined in the work. 
In Italy there were over 300 itinerant teachers 
of agriculture. The government and agricul- 
tural societies conducted the work in Norway, 
Sweden, Holland and Germany. There was or- 


AGRICULTURE 


ganized work in Spain, Switzerland, Bulgaria, 
India, Burma, British West Indies, Chile, Ar- 
gentina and other South American countries. 
AGRICULTURE. The decade from 1914-24 
was one of unusual significance for agriculture. 
The War brought it into a prominence in the 
countries of Europe and America which it had 
never before had in modern times, and the pe- 
riod following the Armistice was marked by a 
sharp reversal of prosperity in that industry and 
an unexpected change of public attitude towards 
it. The periods during and following the War 
represented the two extremes of stimulation and 
depression, from both of which the stability and 
the condition of farming in general suffered se- 
verely. The depression in the United States was 
the greatest agriculture had ever known, and in 
varying degrees it was in evidence in most other 
countries. But if the decade presented these re- 
markable contrasts, in America at least it also 
marked a new epoch in farming. The economic 
aspects of the industry began to receive much 
attention. Statistics were gathered on the cost 
per unit of production, the labor return of the 
farmer, and the factors affecting prices received 
by him and decreasing his share of the returns. 
Official standards were established for leading 
products, regulatory measures enacted to pre- 
serve competition and to prevent unfair price 
manipulation, codperation in marketing and dis- 
tribution and in buying farm supplies was given 
ereat impetus, and in general the organization 
of the farming people to promote their welfare 
and to make themselves heard in State and na- 
tional legislative bodies assumed unprecedented 
proportions. There was a movement also to- 
wards greater adaptation of agriculture to the 
special conditions of localities, an attempt to 
shape production of large staples more definitely 
to actual needs, to reduce narrow specialization, 
and develop greater diversification as being eco- 
nomically and agriculturally safer and more ad- 
vantageous. In no previous decade was there so 
much legislation looking to the interests of agri- 
culture, some of these measures marking a de- 
cidedly new departure in national legislation 
and in recognition of the people living by the 
land. 
Agriculture During the War. In most of 
the leading countries agriculture was well pre- 
pared to meet the unusual demands upon it. In 
1913 the world crop of wheat was equal to or 
greater than any of record, and the oat crop 
ranked among the largest ever grown. In the 
United States the season of 1914 was notable 
for producing the highest total value of crops 
and animal products which had been recorded 
in the country’s history, estimated at $9,872,- 
936,000, a part being accounted for by the rise 
in prices which had already set in. The wheat 
crop was the largest of record to that time and 
the cotton crop the second largest. There was 
a wheat surplus of about 290,000,000 bushels, 
mostly available for export, exceeding the 
amount of any previous year, including flour. 
The total production of the six leading cereals 
(including corn) was estimated at approximately 
5,000,000,000 bushels or nearly half a_ billion 
bushels in excess of 1913. Compared with this, 
the aggregate shortage in the wheat crop of the 
world for 1914 was placed at approximately 
386,000,000 bushels, that in Europe alone 
amounting to 323,000,000 bushels. The short- 
age in Germany was offset to the extent of about 
one-half by the surplus of rye production. Most 


37 


AGRICULTURE 


of the leading countries of Europe had been giy- 
ing special attention for years to the promotion 
of food production. France was noted for the 
large number of its small farms and its thrifty 
agricultural class, more than half of whom were 
landowners. 

For years Germany had pursued a: policy of 
encouraging and safeguarding industry, leading 
the world in its agricultural investigation, in- 
struction, and favorable consideration for the in- 
dustry. The growing of food was looked upon as 
a measure for the common good and was a part 
of its campaign for supremacy. At the out- 
break of the War Germany was producing about 
82 per cent of its requirements in edible grains 
(including flour), 93 per cent of its meats, 92 
per cent of its dairy products, 67 per cent of its 
poultry, and 99 per cent of its vegetables—about 
88 per cent of the total food requirements of 
that country. France was producing about 93 
per cent of the required edible grain, 98 per 
cent of meats, 80 per cent of poultry, and slightly 
more than it consumed of dairy products, vege- 
tables, and fruits. Austria-Hungary was almost 
entirely self-sustaining in food supplies, while 
Russia was a surplus producer of food stuffs, 
exporting about 19 per cent of its production of 
edible grains. Great Britain, on the other hand, 
had allowed its agriculture to languish, and 
along with an attitude of neglect or unfavorable 
action, had developed the policy of purchasing 
its food in large measure abroad. It grew only 
27 per cent of the required food grains, 53 per 
cent of the meats, 62 per cent of the dairy prod- 
ucts, and 58 per cent of the poultry consumed— 
in other words, only about half of the food re- 
quired. Prior to the outbreak of the war two- 
thirds of the total farm area was in permanent 
grass and only one-third in cultivated crops, 
whereas in Germany the proportion was exactly 
the reverse. It was said that British agricul- 
ture fed with home-grown food a third more peo- 
ple and employed a third more labor in 1870 than 
it did in 1913, because in the meantime the coun- 
try had so largely turned from cultivated crops 
to grass farming. The war soon served to dem- 
onstrate the inadequate state of British agri- 
culture. 

At the outset all of the European countries 
took steps to conserve their food supplies, to 
increase production of the most necessary sta- 
ples, and to adapt the production to the military 
needs and requirements of the people. The feed- 
ing of bread grains to live stock was largely re- 
stricted or prohibited. The amount of grain 
used for brewing and distilling was cut down, 
and closer milling of cereals was required, the 
addition of substitutes being first permitted and 
later enjoined. Non-essential crops like tobac- 
co were ‘prohibited and bulb growing and hop 
growing were much reduced. With the develop- 
ment of the aéroplane flax growing became a war 
necessity, and in Great Britain particularly it 
was stimulated and placed under strict regula- 
tion. In Germany the whole question of pro- 
duction was systematized and brought under 
Government regulation, and in France organiza- 
tion was carried to a high degree. Laws in the 
latter -country permitted neglected land to be 
taken over by the commune. The Government 
subsidized the purchase of expensive labor-saving 
machinery by codperative societies or communes, 
and bounties were offered and prices guaranteed 
for essential products. In most of the warring 
countries labor soon became scarce, owing to the 


AGRICULTURE 


extension of the draft, and women began to take 
the place of men in farm work. The serious- 
ness of Great Britain’s position was intensified 
when the submarines became active. That 
country declined, however, to guarantee the 
price of wheat, but made patriotic appeals to 
farmers and landowners to plow up their grass 
land and pastures and increase the acreage 
under wheat. This met with much objection 
in the absence of a well defined permanent pol- 
icy towards agriculture. Later such a change 
in farming was enjoined, and acts passed, en- 
abling the taking over of such land and _ plac- 
ing a penalty on neglect of owners to practice 
good farming. 

The world wheat crop of 1915 was much the 
largest ever produced. Great Britain shared in 
this, its wheat crop being the largest in many 
years, but in spite of this, three-fourths of its 
wheat supply had to be imported. In that year 
the United Kingdom imported agricultural prod- 
ucts valued at $1,342,000,000, while France 
bought food products costing $492,000,000. The 
United States produced the greatest wheat crop 
ever raised, passing the billion-bushel mark for 
the first time and representing about one-fourth 
of the entire world’s production. This was in 
response to the appeal from Europe and to in- 
creasing prices. The export of wheat to Eu- 
rope, which was less than 100,000,000 bushels be- 
fore the War, jumped to two and three times 
that amount. In 1916 the crops of wheat, bar- 
ley, oats, and maize in the Northern Hemisphere 
were decidedly less than in 1915, causing prices 
to rise and anxiety to increase. With the con- 
tinuance of the War the preéminent position of 
agriculture in the welfare of the countries in- 
volved became more unmistakable, and its im- 
portance was conceded as second only to that of 
the military activities. With thousands of 
acres devastated, relations with other countries 
interrupted, and a vast number of farmers and 
farm laborers drafted into the army, not only 
unusual demands but unusual conditions had to 
be met. Extreme measures were taken to make 
the countries as far as possible reliant on their 
own food production. 

To overcome its disadvantage Great Britain 
made most urgent appeals and adopted numer- 
ous measures to readjust the systems of farming. 
War committees and borough war societies 
sought to assist the farmers in the matter of 
information, labor, seed, fertilizers, etc., and at- 
tention was turned to the cultivation of land 
not ordinarily employed in agriculture, such as 
parks and pleasure grounds, the use of wood- 
land for raising pigs, etc. Farmers were urged 
to shorten the period of grass and clover in ro- 
tations and to reduce the acreage of bare fallow. 
There was widespread effort to prevent the de- 
pletion of live stock in the warring countries, es- 
pecially the work animals, milch cows, and 
breeding stock. In view of a tendency in Great 
Britain to dispose of cows on account of short- 
age of labor, the Board of Agriculture made 
every effort to help dairymen to retain indis- 
pensable laborers, and women were trained for 
milking. Scarcity of gasoline (petrol) for tract- 
ors and other machines, high prices of fertilizers 
and the scarcity and cost of seeds were other 
handicaps. Forage was unusually high and was 
requisitioned in large amounts by the armies. 
Farmers felt that the well-nigh impossible was 
being urged upon them. Prisoners of war, to 
whom there was at first objection, were success- 


38 


AGRICULTURE 


fully used in France and England and generally 
found to be submissive. In 1917 Great Britain 
enacted a comprehensive measure known as the 
Corn Production Act, guaranteeing prices of 
wheat for a period of six years, establishing 
prices for oats and barley, and fixing a minimum 
wage for agricultural labor. A live agricultural 
policy was put into effect in that country under 
the Defense of the Realm Act, enabling the tak- 
ing over of waste lands and commons and com- 
pelling the breaking up of grass land and the 
use of the cultivated land in accordance with 
the needs of the country. It was estimated that 
in 1917 an additional million acres were put un- 
der the plow in that country. 

When the United States entered the War in 
1917, renewed efforts were given to increasing 
production of the essentials, for home use and 
for the Allies. The Selective Service Law made 
agriculture one of the industries for which ex- 
emption could be claimed. The United States 
Food Administration fixed the price of the 1917 
wheat crop at $2.20 per bushel for Number 1 
hard, and a Federal Grain Corporation was 
formed which took over the purchase of wheat 
for export and for the larger flour mills. The 
price had risen to $3.18 and the fixing of a price 
which was represented as little above the actual 
cost of production under war prices raised con- 
siderable opposition, but was accepted as a pa- 
triotic measure. While the wheat crop of 1917 
was light, the aggregate of all cereals in the 
United States was approximately a _ billion 
bushels, over the average of the previous five 
years. In most of the Allied countries the pro- 
duction of cereals fell off materially, showing 
that Europe was fast declining in food-produc- 
ing power. Restrictions on the use of any ma- 
terial suitable for human food became more 
stringent. Horses were placed on rations and 
even the feeding of game and migratory birds 
was prohibited. Shortage of tonnage and in- 
creased risk practically eliminated from the 
market such surplus grain-producing countries 
as India, Australia, and Argentina. This laid 
the heavier burden on the United States and 
Canada. The latter country had made a remark- 
able showing, and in 1918 responded with the 
largest areas on record in that country for all 
food crops except corn. In the United States 
a carefully considered agricultural programme 
was laid out, the first of its kind in America, in 
which special emphasis was laid upon the wheat 
crop, with the aim of a billion bushels. The 
necessary acreage was apportioned among the 
States and the duty of meeting the apportion- 
ment and assisting the farmers was assigned to 
the County extension agents, State Councils of 
Defense, and other agencies. The President in 
a message to the farmers called upon them for 
a supreme effort, and Congress appropriated 
$2,500,000 to be used as a revolving fund in sup- 
plying farmers with suitable seed in certain sec- 
tions of shortage, the fund being administered by 
the Department of Agriculture. 

The response to this nation-wide campaign is 
better shown by acreage figures than by yields, 
as the season was adverse over considerable sec- 
tions. The acreage in wheat exceeded the pre- 
vious record by 3,500,000 acres, and the produc- 
tion, while it did not reach the billion-bushel 
goal, amounted to 917,100,000 bushels, the larg- 
est amount ever raised except in the record year 
of 1915, exceeding the preceding five-year average 
by nearly 107,000,000 bushels. Equally striking 


AGRICULTURE 


were the results in producing large supplies of 
other crops, meat, and dairy products. The 
labor situation became even more acute, with the 
extension of the draft and the large opportu- 
nities offered by other industries. Organized ef- 
fort was made to meet the shortage. A Boys’ 
Working Reserve was organized, students were 
recruited to work on the farms during their va- 
cation, colleges lengthened the summer vacation, 
and a Women’s Land Army went into training. 
Business men, clerks, and factory operatives 
worked on the farms after regular hours and in 
their vacations to gather in the world’s bread 
crops without loss. On the whole the results 
furnished a new evidence of the remarkable re- 
sourcefulness of American agriculture. 

Under stress of the emergency Great Britain 
redoubled its efforts and added another 2,000,- 
000 acres to its tilled area, the increase in wheat 
being 752,000 acres. The labor situation be- 
came increasingly acute, and unusual and part- 
time labor had to be resorted to. More than 
300,000 whole-time and part-time women work- 
ers were reported to be engaged on the land in 
the United Kingdom. The acreage in wheat, 
barley, and oats in that year was the 
highest ever recorded in British  agricul- 
ture and that in potatoes the largest since 1872. 
The harvest was not only greater than in any 
previous year, but the yields per acre were equal 
to the best recorded. It was estimated that the 
production would provide forty weeks’ supply 
of bread stuffs for the entire population of the 
United Kingdom at the prevailing scale of mill- 
ing and consumption, a remarkable achievement 
for a country which only a few years before im- 
ported its food stuffs in such large measure. 
The estimate, moreover, takes no account of food 
produced on allotments, of which there were 
fully 800,000 more in England and Wales than 
in 1916. France likewise made strenuous ef- 
forts to extend its food production in 1918, but 
by reason of its reduced man power had about 
reached its maximum. While the wheat crop 
was larger and of better quality than in the 
preceding year, production had dwindled with 
the continuance of the war and even with the 
1918 increase was much below the normal for 
that country. The potato situation was par- 
ticularly grave, the crop being not over two- 
thirds of the ten-year average. 

A systematic campaign like that of the pre- 
vious year was prosecuted in the United States 
in the fall of 1918, with the objective of a great 
liberty wheat harvest for 1919. The response 
was an acreage 13,000,000 acres greater than any 
previously recorded. Although the season was 
not favorable for the spring-sown crop, wheat 
production amounted to 941,000,000 bushels, 
considerably in advance of the 1918 crop and 
the second largest in history. The total area 
sown to leading cereals in the crop of 1919 was 
33,000,000 acres greater than the pre-war average 
for 1910-14 and produced 635,000,000 bushels 
more than that average. At prevailing prices 
the value of all crops in the United States in 
1919 was estimated at $15,873,000,000, compared 
with the pre-war average of $5,827,000,000. This 
was due in part to the higher prices but also 
represented the increased response to the appeal 
for food. The world crops as estimated by the 
International Institute of Agriculture, while 
large, were not over 70 per cent of food require- 
ments in the European countries. There was a 
decided decrease in the area devoted to cereals 


39 


AGRICULTURE 


and potatoes in Great Britain, with a consequent, 
decrease in production. There were correspond- 
ing decreases in livestock, with a disquieting 
prospect for milk and a falling off of young stock 
and sheep. The Armistice, therefore, found Eu- 
rope largely dependent on imported food, with 
enormously increased demand. The large part 
which agriculture had had in determining the 
result of the war was everywhere conceded, and 
in Great Britain especially a more definite and 
favorable agricultural policy promised, with the 
appointment of a Royal Commission under the 
Ministry of Reconstruction. 

Agriculture Following the War. After the 
Armistice the United States Department of Ag- 
riculture, realizing the possible dangers of over- 
production as a result of the opening up of the 
channels of trade and the resumption of farming 
in Europe, recommended a reduction in the 
wheat area of about 15 per cent and advised safe 
farming. ‘The season was unfavorable, the labor 
shortage continued, amounting to approximately 
37 per cent, and wages rose to an appalling 
point. This, with the continued high cost of 
fertilizers, machinery and supphes, all of which 
had greatly increased since 1914, made the 
hazard unusually large. Altogether the Ameri- 
can farmers had to meet the most difficult situa- 
tion in 1920 they had ever experienced. In 
spite of this the harvest was the largest of rec- 
ord, with a single exception. It met a falling 
market, however, in the late summer and au- 
tumn, with the worst slump in the history of 
grain prices. This threw the farmers and the 
banks supporting them into panic and resulted 
in the most severe agricultural depression the 
country had ever known. While Europe was 
still in need of outside food, difficulties of trans- 
portation, unfavorable exchange, and inability 
of the countries to buy worked against export. 
Moreover, Canada and British ‘India, two promi- 
nent exporting countries, had a combined wheat 
crop 195,000,000 bushels greater than in 1919. 

While agriculture shared a general business 
depression in America, no other industry was af- 
fected so soon or so seriously. Farmers had not 
been allowed to profit by the war emergency as 
other industries had. Prices had been held down 
by price limitation of the Food Administration 
and by agreement. Farmers had produced their 
crops at maximum costs, and the inflation in 
land prices had necessitated many buyers’ ex- 
ecuting heavy mortgages. Agriculture was one 
of the very first industries to be affected by defla- 
tion, which in its case was sudden and precip- 
itate, not gradual and regulated as in most other 
industries. The unusually heavy harvest of 
1920, produced at maximum costs, was worth 
$3,000,000,000 less than the smaller crop of 1919. 
Live stock and its products likewise declined to 
an extent causing serious loss to producers. 
The total value of animal products in 1920 was 
about $200,000,000 less than in 1919. 

Congress, called upon for relief, revived the 
War Finanee Corporation to aid local banks in 
carrying farmers and marketing crops, and 
passed an emergency tariff favorable to agri- 
culture. Price conditions continued in 1921, 
with production far in excess of domestic needs, 
high freight rates, inability of Europe to buy, 
and general business depression. Wheat fell be- 
low $1 a bushel, with its purchasing power less 
than the low price of 49 cents in 1894. Corn 
on the farms of the corn belt was lower than 
for 25 years. It was estimated that one-fourth 


AGRICULTURE 


of the farmers of the country were facing bank- 
ruptcy or had been wiped out. Similarly land 
rents, which had doubled, trebled, and increased 
even more in the prosperous years of the war, 
caused many renters to lose not only their labor 
but their savings. The purchasing power of the 
principal farm crops became lower than ever be- 
fore, and that of the major grain crops was 
little more than half the average for the five 
pre-war years. The farmers’ wages were re- 
duced to about the pre-war level, while the wages 
of workers in other lines remained near the war 
level. At the close of the year the cost of get- 
ting farm products to market frequently ex- 
ceeded the amount the farmer himself received 
in return. The situation attracted such atten- 
tion that Congress appointed a Joint Congres- 
sional Commission of Agricultural Inquiry, which 
in the winter of 1921-22 made a series of il- 
luminating reports, and urged the necessity for 
the formulation of a definite programme looking 
to the permanent development of agriculture, 
with a view to relating it to the various agencies 
of distribution in such a way as to avoid duplica- 
tion, waste, and.loss in reaching the consumer. 

The severe agricultural depression continued 
in 1922 with little abatement, while the cumula- 
tive effect noticeably increased and there was 
great discouragment on the part of the farming 
people. In most farming States taxes on farms 
had more than doubled since before the War. 
In the Central Western States these absorbed 
one-third of the farm income, as compared with 
less than one-tenth in 1913. Early in the year 
President Harding called a National Agricul- 
tural Conference at Washington, the first of the 
kind ever held in this country, with repre- 
sentatives from the principal farm organizations, 
agricultural institutions, and various lines of 
industry directly related to agriculture. This 
gave opportunity for a broadminded considera- 
tion of the situation and the outlining of reme- 
dial measures. The recommendations and the 
measures urged were notable for their sound 
constructive character. Favorable action was 
taken on many of them. The revival of the War 
Finance Corporation, making available more 
than $350,000,000 for agricultural financing, 
saved thousands of farmers from bankruptcy and 
many banks in the agricultural regions from 
passing into the hands of receivers, besides re- 
storing confidence and having a salient effect 
upon interest rates. The provision for greatly 
increased mortgage loans by the farm land banks 
and joint stock land banks enabled farmers in 
large numbers to refund their obligations and 
place them on a deferred payment basis. Un- 
usual attention was given to aiding the market- 
ing of farm products. A tariff law more fa- 
vorable to agriculture was enacted; the Packers 
and Stockyards Act placed all packing houses, 
stockyards, and similar agencies under govern- 
ment supervision, giving assurance of open com- 
petitive conditions; and an act was passed ex- 
tending government supervision over grain ex- 
changes dealing in futures, in the effort to con- 
trol another practice believed to be disadvanta- 
geous to agriculture. During this period the 
Farm Bloe in Congress became active and a 
source of great power, overriding party lines and 
giving the farmers’ interest unprecedented force. 

Although there were some marks of improve- 
ment in 1923 over the three previous years, the 
wheat situation became even worse, and it was 
only by comparison that the situation as a whole 


40 


AGRICULTURE 


appeared better. The 1923 wheat crop, nearly 
three-fourths as large as that of 1919, had a 
value of only $726,000,000, compared with $2,- 
080,000,000 in 1919. The aggregate value of 
crops and live stock products, however, was es- 
timated at $12,204,000,000, nearly a billion more 
than in 1922. It was also greater than in 1921 
or for any year prior to 1917. The index of the 
purchasing power of farm crops as a group was 
75 as compared with 64 in 1922. Many farmers, 
however, had been reduced to the breaking 
point by the low price of wheat and the shrink- 
age in value of range cattle. Thousands went 
bankrupt and many more were impoverished. 
Statistics of fifteen wheat and corn producing 
States showed that 9.5 per cent of the farmers 
had lost their farms, while an additional 15 
per cent were saved only by the leniency of their 
creditors. These continued four years of dis- 
tress resulted in increasing unrest and dissatis- 
faction over the whole country and a drift to 
the towns and cities. Of the many remedies 
suggested and pressed with vigor, a common one 
was the guarantee of prices for wheat, which 
did not find favor. The country banks of the 
Northwest were given support by the banking 
interests of the country, but proposals for a 
$50,000,000 loan to farmers of the Northwest 
to enable greater diversification was defeated 
in Congress after much agitation. The President 
raised the tariff on wheat 12 cents a_ bushel, 
bringing it up to 42 cents, to meet the compe- 
tition of Canada. It was made clear, however, 
that the United States could not successfully 
compete with Canada in wheat selling in Eu- 
ropean markets, owing to cheaper production and 
more advantageous shipping facilities. 

The wheat acreage declined from the peak of 
75,000,000 acres in 1919 to 58,000,000 acres in 
1923, only 11,000,000 acres above the pre-war 
average. The area sown in the fall of 1923 in- 
dicated a further decline of some 6,000,000 acres, 
which was still regarded as in excess of do- 
mestic needs. The unfavorable exchange and 
diminished ability of Europe to buy, taken in 
connection with the competition of other coun- 
tries for the European market, emphasized the 
need of readjustment. The exports of wheat fell 
off from upwards of 293,000,000 bushels in 1921 
and 208,000,000 bushels in 1922 to a little less 
than 155,000,000 bushels in 1923. There was 
also a considerable decline in exports of flour. 
Statistics collected by the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture in 1922 from over the country 
showed the average cost of producing a bushel 
of wheat to be $1.23, while the average price re- 
ceived by farmers was $1.11, and of oats 53 
cents as compared with 48 cents. 

While there was great revival of agricultural 
production in the countries of Europe, farming 
was in an abnormal condition in several localities 
and suffered depression. The wheat growers of 
Australia had had their market cut off by short- 
age of tonnage and wheat was accumulating in 
large quantities. The Government afforded re- 
lief by guaranteeing $1 a bushel, later prepared 
for bulk storage and shipment, and administered 
the elevator system. Arrangements were made 
to finance the wheat pool, the Government ad- 
vancing farmers three shillings per bushel f.o.b. 
Aid was also extended to the pastoral industry 
by a subsidy of %4d. a pound on beef. The 
Argentine live stock industry was reported in the 
most serious condition in its history, due to the 
slump in foreign demand, depreciation in the 


AGRICULTURE 


value of grazing lands and threatened loss of 
herds through insufficient pasturage. South 
Africa, faced with a large cattle surplus and 
very low prices, had a government-provided 
bounty equivalent to one cent per pound on 
exported beef and $.005 on live stock. 

The cultivated area in Great Britain began 
to decline almost immediately after the War. 
Landowners, who had suffered severely during 
the War and were not permitted to raise rents 
although taxes went up, were under greater ob- 
ligation to handle their land productively. De- 
mands from tenants increased. Labor became 
searce and wages advanced. Many large es- 
tates were broken up and sold. It was re- 
peatedly urged from the lesson of the War that 
the use to which land was put was not a private 
concern of owners: and occupiers, but had _ be- 
come a matter of vital interest to the nation. 
However, the recommendations of the Royal 
Commission were not enacted into law, and the 
essential features of a compromise passed in 
1920, continuing a portion of the Corn Produc- 
tion Act and otherwise providing for greater 
security in arable farming, were repealed the 
following year, causing great disappointment 
and sharp criticism. In 1920 the acreage under 
wheat in England and Wales was only 70,000 
acres more than in 1914, with an equal falling 
off in oats. In ten years the urban population 
had increased about 2,000,000, while rural dis- 
tricts declined about 50,000. The last payments 
under the guaranteed minimum grain prices, 
originated in 1917, were made in 1922. The 
maintenance of this Suarantee during six years 
cost the country approximately £14,000,000. 
The plight of British farmers in 1923 was well- 
nigh desperate. In that year 400,000 acres of 
plowed land were laid down in grass. The war- 
time increase in cultivated acreage disappeared, 
and wages of agricultural labor became so low 
as to afford only the scantiest livelihood. De- 
spite this, the net returns on large estates was 
only about 1 per cent. The depression was fast 
approaching that of the 80’s. There was strong 
opposition to protective tariff, because of the 
large amount of unemployment in the industries 
and the demand for cheap food. An Agricul- 
tural Tribunal made a further report with rec- 
ommendations, and finally, near the close of the 
year, an agricultural subsidy of £1 an acre was 
provided on arable land, including market gar- 
dens, fruit, and hops, contingent on the farmers’ 
paying labor a wage of not less than 30 shillings 
a week. An. Agricultural Credits Act was 
passed, and a reduction was effected in freight 
rates. 

France recovered quite rapidly after the War. 
In Jess than two years after the Armistice nearly 
50 per cent of the devastated land had been 
cleared and put under cultivation, and in a short 
time practically the entire area had been re- 
stored. Early assistance given farmers in that 
area was extended to those who wished to ac- 
quire farm land to replace that too seriously 
damaged for occupancy. By 1923 reconstruc- 
tion had reached a point where wheat produc- 
tion was about 90 per cent of the pre-war fig- 
ure. French millers were still required to mill 
closely and to incorporate from 8 to 10 per cent 
of substitutes in flour. As in several other Eu- 
ropean countries, rural depopulation became 
something of a problem. Many farmers and 
laborers were attracted to the towns by higher 
wages, Devastated lands in the Belgian war zone 


41 


AGRICULTURE 


were taken over by the government, restored 
and turned back to the original owners in good 
condition, with payment of 5 per cent interest 
on pre-war value while in government hands. 
Italy continued for several years to fix the price 
for wheat, and paid premiums for grain pro- 
duced in the southern provinces or wheat pro- 
duced in excess of that raised in 1918, the ef- 
fort being to minimize importation. 

Production in Germany recovered quite rap- 
idly, but agricultural labor became a problem 
and live stock numbers were short. Farmers 
were slow to accept the Government Food Com- 
mission price for grain, and there was conflict 
of interest between city and rural population. 
Consequently food shortage continued into 1924. 
The three main aspects in connection with this 
were (1) the breakdown in currency, causing a 
collapse of distribution, (2) inability of mer- 
chants to finance the full annual margin of im- 
ports necessary to make up the usual deficit in 
domestic production, and (3) widespread unem- 
ployment, as a result of which millions of work- 
ers in urban and manufacturing districts were 
unable to purchase sufficient food, even if it 
were in the market. Russian agriculture recov- 
ered slowly, owing to the disorganized condition 
of the country and the indefinite land policy 
which contributed to distrust and uncertainty. 
Crop production in lines in which the country 
was formerly a leader and a large exporter de- 
creased tremendously, while in many sections 
famine conditions prevailed. By 1923 the grain 
area was reported at about 80 per cent of the 
pre-war figures for the present Russian territory, 
but only small quantities were available for ex- 
port. Besides the local confiscation of the land 
in Soviet Russia, there were various measures 
for breaking up large estates in Germany, Aus- 
tria, Hungary, Poland, Rumania, and Czecho- 
Slovakia. 

Census of Agriculture. The census of 1920: 
showed a total farm area in the United States 
of 955,883,715 acres, as compared with §878,- 
798,325 acres in 1910, an increase of 8.8 per cent. 
There were 503,073,007 acres of improved land 
in farms in 1920, as compared with 478,451,750 
acres in 1910, an increase of 5.1 per cent. The 
increase in total acreage was therefore somewhat 
larger than in improved farm land. There was 
a decrease of 12 per cent in farm woodland. The 
total number of farms in 1920 was 6,448,343, an 
increase of 1.4 per cent in the decade. The aver- 
age size of the farms was 148.2 acres, of which 
78 acres were improved land, a small inevease in 
each case over 1910. The aggregate v-iue of all 
farm property in 1920 was reported as $77,924,- 
100,338, representing an increase of over 90 per 
cent in the decade. This large increase; how- 
ever, was less than that between 1900 and 1910, 
which amounted to over 100 per cent. The chief 
increase was in land, which rose from $34,801,- 
125,697 in 1910 to $66,334,309,556 in 1920, the 
average value per <cre being $32.40 in 1910 and 
$57.36 in 1920. 

For the first :ime in the country’s history the 
urban population exceeded that in rural terri- 
tory, and the growth of the former had been at 
a considerably more rapid rate; i.e. over 12,000,- 
000 in urban and only a million and a half in 
rural territory. Thus, while the increase in 
total population was nearly 15 per cent during 
the decade and the growth in urban population 
was 28.8 per cent, the increase in rural ter- 
ritory was only 3.2 per cent, and in the purely 


AGRICULTURE 


country districts an actual decrease of over a 
quarter of a million was recorded. This change 
in the trend of population from the country to 
town and city caused no little comment. Agri- 
culture was not keeping up with the growth of 
total population, considered from the standpoint 
of rural population, number of farms or acreage 
of improved land in farms. It was calculated 
that more than 4,000,000 people were diverted 
from agriculture to other industries in the 
growth of the 20-year period, 1900-20. This 
drift from the farms to the cities, due to larger 
urban opportunities, continued through the years 
of severe agricultural depression, 1920-23. It 
was estimated that fully a million more persons 
had moved from the land. This change could 
hardly fail to affect production, even with the 
increased efficiency of the American farmer. 
The peak of production per capita of inhabitants 
was reached about 1906 or 1907, and although 
the decrease since then had been slow it bade 
fair to be more evident with the shift of rural 
population. Meanwhile, for the first time in 
history the value of imports of agricultural prod- 
ucts into the United States exceeded the value 
of exports. These imports consisted mainly of 
tea, coffee, sugar, tropical fruits, and nuts. In 
the fiscal year 1923 these imports, including 
forest products, were valued at $2,135,000,000 
compared with exports valued at $1,927,000,000. 
This adverse showing was in part due to the low 
prices of export products and the high prices of 
imports. 

Position of the United States in World 
Agriculture. Of the four countries which have 
stood preéminent in agricultural production, i.e. 
the United States, Russia, China, and India, the 
United States was the only one producing a sur- 
plus for export. It is the largest producer of 
corn, it is much the largest wheat producing 
country of the world, and since the decline in 
Russia it leads in the other cereals except rye 
and rice. No other country approaches it in 
cotton or tobacco. Nearly 70 per cent of the 
world’s crop of corn, 60 per cent of the cotton, 
50 per cent of the tobacco, and approximately 
one-fourth of the total cereal supply is raised in 
the United States. This is done with the labor 
of about one-fourth of the gainfully employed 
population, whereas 85 per cent of the popula- 
tion of Russia has been classed as agricultural 
and three-fourths of the people of China and 
of India derive their support from agriculture. 
The large share of the world’s staple crops con- 
tributed by the United States is grown with less 
than 4 per cent of the farmers and farm laborers 
of the world, showing the high efficiency of the 
American farmer. The increase in productivity 
of the American farm is estimated at fully 15 
per cent in the past decade. There has also 
been a very marked upward trend in yield per 
acre in recent years. The United States also 
leads all nations in exports of agricultural prod- 
ucts. Since the war the value of its agricul- 
tural exports has exceeded the combined value 
of those from all other nations in the world, 
and yet these exports amount to only one-eighth 
of its production. Four countries now furnish 
about 90 per cent of the world’s surplus of agri- 
cultural products, i.e. the United States, Canada, 
Argentina, and Australia, with the United States 
contributing approximately half. Its four great 
surplus agricultural products are cotton, wheat, 
corn, and hogs. 


Farm Organization. The farming people 


42 


AGRICULTURE 


made remarkable efforts during the decade to 
protect their economic interests, promote their 
welfare and improve their general condition 
through organization. The American Farm Bu- 
reau Federation, formed by the federation of the 
State farm bureaus, based in turn on the County 
bureaus organized, to promote extension work, 
became the largest and most powerful national 
organization, with a membership of approxi- 
mately a million. Under its leadership various 
codperative ventures were launched and agricul- 
tural legislation promoted. The period of depres- 
sion stimulated efforts toward organization, es- 
pecially for the purpose:of codperation in buy- 
ing and selling products. The United States 
Census reported that in 1919 more than 1,000,- 
000 farmers marketed codperatively products 
valued at $722,000,000, while supplies to the 
value of $84,000,000 were purchased through co- 
operative buying associations. Grain, milk, 
cream, butter, fruit, and truck crops were the 
most prominent products handled by marketing 
associations. Organization later spread to 
other branches, notably cotton and tobacco, for 
which large marketing organizations were 
formed. According to the Department of Agri- 
culture more than $2,000,000,000 of business was 
done by farmer organizations in 1923, a large 
percentage of it in selling farm products. Grain 
organizations did a total business of $490,000,- 
000, dairy organizations $300,000,000, live stock 
shipping associations $220,000,000, fruit and 
vegetable associations $280,000,000, cotton co- 
operatives $100,000,000, and tobacco organiza- 
tions $132,000,000. It was estimated that 
10,000 coéperative organizations were in opera- 
tion. 

Many failures of codperative enterprises have 
been traced to such causes as falling prices, in- 
adequate financing, poor management, and too 
small volume of business in proportion to the 
overhead. Study has developed the essentials of 
successful organization and codperation and is 
aiding the movement greatly. Many obstacles 
have been placed in the way of such organiza- 
tion because of its interference with existing 
business methods, and it was much hampered 
by prosecutions under the Sherman Law, but its 
legality was assured by an act in 1922 specifically 
recognizing the right of farmers to associate for 
purposes of marketing their products. In Great 
Britain the Ministry of Agriculture has stim- 
ulated codperative societies for the marketing 
of products by the offer of loans to assist in 
financing their operation. 

Standardization of Farm Products. Co- 
operative marketing, selling by contract, and 
warehousing have been greatly promoted through 
the establishment of Federal standards for agri- 
cultural products. Such standards, authorized 
by Congress, include cereals, cotton, hay, tobac- 
co, and live stock, wool, and many of the most 
important fruits and vegetables. The cotton 
standards have been adopted by the leading cot- 
ton exchanges of Europe for American cotton. 
The warehouse act, stabilizing the receipts for 
products stored in licensed warehouses, neces- 
sitated such standards, as did also the inaugura- 
tion by the Department of Agriculture of ship- 
ping-point inspection of fruits and vegetables. 
Great benefit has been derived from this system 
of standards, although in their making they have 
been subject to sharp criticism. Their use has 
done away with many of the controversies be- 
tween shipper and buyer which formerly arose, 


43 AGRICULTURE 


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AGRICULTURE 


and the system of inspection maintained has 
given a large measure of protection. 

Production by Countries. See accompany- 
ing table on p. 43. 

New Literature. The following may be noted 
among the more important of the recent books 
on Agriculture and Agricultural Subjects: 
L. H. Bailey, Cyclopedia of Farm Crops (New 
York, 1922) ; Cyclopedia of Farm Animals (New 
York, 1922); H. J. Waters, The Essentials of 
Agriculture (Boston and London, 1915); A. H. 
H. Matthews, Fifty Years of Agricultural Poli- 
tics, 1865-1915 (London, 1915); A. D. Hall, 
Agriculture After the War (Oxford, 1916); B. 
H. Hibbard, Hffects of the Great War wpon 
Agriculture in the United States and Great 
Britain (Washington, 1919) ; H. C. Taylor, Agri- 
cultural Economics (New York and _ London, 
1919); J. M. Gillette, Constructive Rural Soci- 
ology (New York, 1916); J. E. Boyle, Agricul- 
tural Heonomics (Philadelphia and London, 
1921); C. S. Dunean, Marketing, Its Problems 
and Methods (New York and London, 1920) ; 
O. B. Jesness, The Codperatwe Marketing of 
Farm Products (Philadelphia and London, 
1923); Helen Douglas Irvine, The Making of 
Rural Europe (London, 1923); H. lL. Shantz 
and C. F. Marbut, The Vegetation and Soils of 
America (New York, 1923); L. Carrier, The 
Beginnings of Agriculture in America (New 
York, 1923); J. Shaefer, The History of Agri- 
culture in Wisconsin (State Historical Society, 
Madison, 1922); G. F. Warren, Prices of Farm 
Products in the United States (United States 
Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 999, 1921) ; 
G. F. Warren, Prices of Farm Products in New 
York (covering 132 years) (New York, Cornell 
Experiment Station, Bulletin 416, 1923); J. T. 
Stewart, Hngineering on the Farm (Chicago, 
1923). See AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 

AGRICULTURE, INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE 
oF. The Institute, located at Rome, Italy, 
numbered 64 nations as adhering members 
in 1924. The United States had a larger num- 
ber of votes than any other nation. The In- 
stitute continued its work with difficulty dur- 
ing the War, but maintained its organization 
and has since made notable progress. David 
Lubin, its originator and for many years the 
United States representative, died early in 1919. 
English has been added to French as one of the 
official languages of the Institute. The re- 
porting service to the United States was greatly 
improved. The condition and estimates for im- 
portant crops and live stock from the various 
countries reporting were cabled promptly. This 
information is broadcasted from the United 
States Department of Agriculture by radio, 
telegraph, and press release, so that the farmer 
may have the information as soon as the trader. 
This has gone a long way toward realizing the 
underlying purpose of its founders. 

AGRICULTURE, UNITED STATES DEPART- 
MENT OF. This Department, established as 
a separate branch of the Government in 1862, 
has grown to be one of the large central agen- 
cies, working not only for the interests of 
the agricultural industry, but for those of 
the public welfare generally. The range of its 
service extends from food production and health 
to weather prediction, means of communication, 
and education. The chief functions of the De- 
partment may be classed as administration, 
service including information, regulation relat- 
ing to the carrying out of various laws, and 


44 AHERN 


research. In recent years the variety of its 
activities has been greatly enlarged and its 
work extended. It conducts research and _ in- 
quiry in nearly every phase of crop and live 
stock production and distribution, is carrying 
out a systematic soil survey, and is actively 
studying the broad economic problems in the 
field of agriculture. It is supervising the great- 
est road building programme ever undertaken 
in history, by far the most extensive system for 
aiding farmers and their families directly 
through agricultural extension, and a nation- 
wide system of agricultural experiment stations. 
It also is administering the National Forests, 
comprising upwards of 157,000,000 acres of land, 
and, it is enforcing more than 30 regulatory 
laws for the health, safety, and general wel- 
fare of the public. Among the latter may be 
mentioned those relating to the inspection of 
foods and drugs, the inspection of live stock and 
their products after slaughter for food consump- 
tion, import and export of animals and control 
of interstate movement; laws regulating the 
importation of foreign birds and animals, inter- 
state trade in game and protection of migratory. 
and insectivorous birds, the inspection and quar- 
antine of diseased or infested plants, road con- 
struction in codperation with the States, cot- 
ton and grain standards, trade in grain futures, 
Federal licensing of warehouses, and control of 
stockyards and packing-houses. 

Edwin T. Meredith of Iowa succeeded David F. 
Houston as Secretary of Agriculture in Febru- 
ary, 1920, and in turn was succeeded by Henry 
C. Wallace of Iowa on March 4, 1921. In ad- 
dition to the Secretary, there is one Assistant 
Secretary, and Directors of Scientific Work, 
Regulatory Work, and Extension, respectively. 
The organization includes the Weather Bureau, 
the Forest Service, the Bureaus of Animal In- 
dustry, Plant Industry, Chemistry, Soils, Ento- 
mology, Biological Survey, Public Roads, Agricul- 
tural Economics, and Home Economics; the Office 
of Experiment Stations, Agricultural Extension 
Service, fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, Li- 
brary, and several smaller units. The Bureau 
of Home Economics was established as a sepa- 
rate unit July 1, 1923. 

The personnel of the Department numbered 
more than 20,000 persons in 1924. Its funds 
for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1924, aggre- 
gated $69,536,653, including $32,300,000 for road 
building. In 1923 the Department issued over 
1500 separate publications, about half of which 
were new, the remainder being reprints. The 
total number of copies issued was about 36,000,- 
000. Included in these publications were peri- 
odicals entitled Journal of Agricultural Re- 
search, Monthly Weather Review, Haperiment 
Station Record, Orops and Markets, and The 
Official Record, a house organ; upwards of 600 
Farmers’ Bulletins, an Annual Report of the 
Secretary, and the Yearbook. In addition to the 
above a large number of articles were prepared 
for publication outside, in trade, scientific, and 
popular periodicals. The Department has an 
extensive and varied correspondence, and main- 
tains a press service for the dissemination of 
matter of immediate interest. 

AHERN, Mary EILEEN ( ?- ). An Ameri- 
ican librarian and organizer, born near Indian- 


_ apolis, Ind., and educated at the Spencer (Ind.) 


High School, the Central Normal College of In- 
diana, and the Library School of the Armour In- 
stitute of Technology, Chicago. After beginning 


AHMED 


her career as a public school teacher in Indiana, 
she held the offices of Assistant State Librarian 
of Indiana (1889-93) and of State Librarian 
(1893-5). In 1889 she organized the Indiana 
Library Association and was its secretary from 
1889-96. She was organizer (1896) and secre- 
tary (1896-1907) of the library department of 
the National Education Association. In 1919 
she was publicity agent of the American Library 
Association in France. She has lectured in 
schools and before clubs, and since 1896 she 
has been editor of Public Libraries. She is a 
contributor to library and educational journals. 

AHMED FUAD PASHA. See FuvaAp I. 

AHMED MIRZA (1898-— ). A Shah of 
Persia (see Vou. I). He was crowned in 1914, 
but the government of Persia was under the 
control of the cabinet, whose most powerful 
member was Reza Khan (q.v.). 

AICARD, JEAN (1848-1921), French poet and 
novelist (see Von. I). After 1914 he published 
several volumes of war poetry and two novels, 
Arlette des Mayons (1917) and Gaspard de 
Besse (1919). The last named work, in two 
volumes (Gaspard de Besse, Raconté aux Poilus 
de France, and Gaspard de Besse, ses Derniéres 
Aventures) portrays a sort of Provencal Robin 
Hood, a man of the people who takes a truly 
Gallic pleasure in life and leads an existence 


which is care-free if hardly virtuous. He died 
in Paris, May 13, 1921. 
AIKEN, Conrap (POTTER). (1889-— Je 


American poet, born at Savannah, Ga., and edu- 
cated at Harvard. After the appearance of his 
first volume, Earth Triumphant and Other Tales 
(1914), he became an important figure in the 
American poetical renascence of the decade 
1914-24, producing almost a dozen works in that 
period. Always an individualist, in his poetry, 
Mr. Aiken followed no contemporary beaten 
track. His work possesses a metaphysical qual- 
ity, concerning itself with the consciousness of 
man rather than with the external world, and 
for this reason his manner is often obscure. 
Yet he has written poetry rich in color, varied 
in incident, and musical in technique and con- 
tent, as in Priapus and the Pool (1921). Though 
the narrative poem is his favorite form, as in 
The Jig of Forslin (1916), The House of Dust 
(1920), and Punch, The Immortal Liar (1921), 
he has also written lyrics of a high order, par- 
ticularly in Turns and Movies (1916). Mr. 
Aiken set forth his esthetic credo lucidly and 
provocatively in a volume of critical essays, 
Scepticisms (1919). The title of this work and 
of two others, Nocturne of Remembered Spring 
(1917), and The Charnel Rose (1918), give 
something of the implications of his philosophi- 
cal attitude. He has also written for The Dial 
short stories similar in manner and _ phrasing 
to his poetry. In 1923 he published The Pil- 
grimage of Festus, a narrative poem, which he 
called ‘“‘a cerebral adventure.” 

AIKINS , Sir JAMES (ALBERT MANNING) 
(1851- ). Canadian lawyer and adminis- 
trator, born in the County of Peel, Upper Can- 
ada. He was educated at Upper Canada College 
and the University of Toronto. He was a mem- 
ber of Parliament from Brandon, Canada, 1911- 
15. As director of the Imperial Bank of Canada 
he took a prominent part in the financial af- 
fairs of the Dominion. He was counsel of the 
Canadian Pacific Railway Company at Winni- 
peg, 1881-1911; president of the Canadian Bar 
Association, 1914-21; president of the Confer- 


45 


AITCHISON 


ence of Commissioners on Uniformity of Laws 
and later Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba. 
From 1887 to 1916 he was Honorary Bursar 
and Member of Council, University of Winni- 
peg, and later Honorary Lieutenant-Colonel of 
the 90th Regiment Winnipeg Rifles and Honor- 
ary Colonel of the 99th Regiment Manitoba 
Rangers. 

AINSWORTH, WILLIAM NEWMAN 
(1872-— ). An American Methodist Episcopal 
bishop, born at Camilla, Ga., and educated at 
Emory College, Ga. He was ordained in the 
ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church of 
the South in 1891 and served as pastor in vari- 
ous churches in the South until 1909, when he 
became president of Wesleyan Female College, 
Macon, Ga., for three years. He took up his 
duties again as pastor in 1913 and was elected 
bishop in 1918. 

AIR BOMBS. See Bompine or VESSELS, BY 
AIRCRAFT, 

AIRCRAFT. See A®RONAUTICS. 

AIRCRAFT CARRIER. See 
NAVAL; SHIPBUILDING; ete. 

AIRCRAFT GUNS. See Sma Arms. 

AIR DEFENSE. See BompBine oF VESSELS, 
BY AIRCRAFT; NAVIES. 

AIRPLANE. See AERONAUTICS, 

AIRSHIP, Navat, U. S. See Naviss, 
United States. 

AISHTON, Ricuarp HENrRy (1860- ). 
An American railway official, born at Evanston, 
Ill., and educated in the publie schools. He 
entered the railroad service in 1878 as axman 
in the engineering corps of the Chicago and 
Northwestern Railway. After holding various 
other positions in the same company, he became 
assistant superintendent in 1895, superintend- 
ent in 1897, general superintendent in 1899, 
assistant general manager in 1902, and general 
manager of lines east of the Missouri in 1906. 
This last position he held until 1910. From 
1910 to 1914 he was vice-president in charge of 
operation and maintenance, and from 1916 to 
1920, president. He was director of the West- 
ern Division of Railways under the United 
States government from 1918 to 1920. In the 
latter year he became president of the American 
Railway Association. 


VESSEL, 


AISNE, BATTLES oF THE. See WaAR_ IN 
EuRoPE, Western Front. ; 

AITCHISON, CrypE B. (1875— )oypAn 
Interstate Commerce Commissioner. He was 


born at Clinton, Iowa, and educated at Hastings 
College (Nebraska) and the University of Ore- 
gon. He was admitted to the bar in 1896, and 
to the Supreme Court of the United States in 
1908. From 1896 to 1903 he practiced in Iowa, 
going to Portland, Ore., in the latter year. 
In 1905-6 he was secretary of the commission to 
revise tax and revenue laws in Oregon. From 
1907 to 1916 he was a member of the Railroad 
Commission of Oregon and of its successor, the 
Public Service Commission. He was solicitor for 
the National Association of Railway Commis- 
sioners in 1916-17; in the latter year he be- 
came a member of the Interstate Commerce 
Commission and served as chairman, 1919-20. 
He is author of An Annotation of Iowa Decisions 
(1902). 
AITCHISON, Joun Younea (1868- 1 
American Baptist clergyman, born at Cascade, 
Iowa, and educated at Central College, Pella, 
Iowa, Des Moines College, and the Divinity 
School of the University of Chicago. He was 


AITKEN 


ordained in the Baptist ministry in 1896 and 
held various pastorates in the Middle West from 
1894 to 1909. He was secretary of the Amer- 
ican Baptist Home Missionary Society of Chi- 
cago, 1912-16, and home secretary of the Amer- 
ican Baptist Foreign Missionary Society from 
1916-19. In 1919 he became director general of 
the Board of Promotion of the Northern Baptist 
Convention, which proposed to raise $100,000,000 
to advance the work of the church. 

AITKEN, ROBERT INGERSOLL (1878- y 
An American sculptor (see Vou. I). In 1915 
he received the medal of honor of the Architec- 
tural League of New York for sculpture and the 
silver medal for sculpture at the Panama-Pacific 
International Exposition in the same year. He 
was commissioned captain in the United States 
army and assigned to Machine Gun Company, 
306th Infantry. Since the War he has designed 
and executed a number of war memorials, chief 
of which is the one at Kansas City, Mo., in 
process of erection in 1924. 

AKELEY, Cart ETHAN (1864—- y-7An 
American inventor and taxidermist. He began 
his work with the Field Museum in Chicago in 
1895 and with the American Museum of Nat- 
ural History in New York City in 1909. Dur- 
ing the War he served with the United States 
army as consulting engineer and also in the 
Emergency Fleet Corporation as special assist- 
ant in the concrete department. He invented 
the cement gun, the Akeley camera, etc. He 
studied big game in Africa, making several trips 
there for that purpose 

AKINS, Zoe (1886- ). An American 
playwright and poet born at Humansville, Mo., 
and educated at home and in. private schools. 
Beginning as a contributor to magazines, she 
attained considerable success as a playwright. 
Most of her plays have been very successfully 
produced. She published A Book of First Poems 
(London, 1912), and Cake Upon the Waters, a 
novel (1919), as well as short.stories in popular 
magazines. Among her many dramatic works 
are Papa (1914); The Magical City (1916); 
Déclassée, produced in New York City in 1919 
with Ethel Barrymore; Foot-loose (an adapta- 
tion), produced in New York City with Emily 
Stevens in 1920; Daddy’s Gone A-Hunting, 1921, 
with Marjorie Rambeau; The Varying Shore, 
1921, with Elsie’ Ferguson; Greatness, other- 
wise The Texas Nightingale, produced at the 
Empire Theatre in 1922, with Jobyna Howland; 
A Royal Fandango (1923), with Ethel Barry- 
more; The Moon-Flowers (1924), with Elsie 
Ferguson; and others. 

AKRON. A manufacturing city of Ohio. 
The area increased from 7254 acres in 1915 to 
16,120 acres in 1921; the population rose ap- 
proximately 200 per cent, from 69,067 in 1910 
to: 208,435 in 1920. The city adopted a new 
charter of the commission manager type in 1920, 
but reverted to its old form in 1924. city 
planning commission was appointed, and a com- 
prehensive zoning ordinance was adopted, Aug. 
15, 1922. In 1915 a new municipal water sys- 
tem was established which represented an in- 
vestment up to 1924 of about $11,000,000. It 
included a reservoir in the Cuyahoga River with 
storage capacity of 2,385,200,000 gallons, a com- 
plete purification system, and a pumping sta- 
tion. North Hill viaduct over the Cuyahoga 
River was opened in 1922. Elimination of the 
railroad grade crossings on the main lines of 
the Pennsylvania, Erie, and Baltimore and 


a 


46 


ALABAMA 


Ohio Railroads through the city was started 
in 1924. 

AKRON, MunicipaL UNIVERSITY oF. A coed- 
ucational institution at Akron, Ohio, founded 
in 1872 as Buchtel College, taken over by the 
city, and re-named in 1914. Buchtel College 
was retained as the name of the college of lib- 
eral arts of the university, which also comprised 
in 1924 a college of engineering, a school of 
home economics, and ‘Teachers’ College. The 
number of day students enrolled increased from 
198 in 1914 to 878 in the year 1923-24, with 
330 in the summer session of 1923; there were 
also 954 students in the night classes in 1923-24. 
The number of faculty members, including li- 
brarians and registrars, increased from 23 to 62 
in the same pericd; the number of catalogued 
volumes in the library, exclusive of pamphlets 
and public documents, increased from 10,000 to 
18,000; the productive funds from $750,000 to 
$975,000; and the total yearly income from 
$115,000 to $228,000. In 1920 bonds were is- 
sued to the amount of $150,000 for the enlarge- 
ment of the engineering laboratory, and in 
1923 the alumni raised $35,000 for the erection 
of a stadium seating 8000 persons. Teachers’ 
College was erected in 1921 in codperation with 
the Akron Board of Education. President, 
Parke Rexford Kolbe, Ph.D. 

ALABAMA. The twenty-eighth of the United 
States in size (51,998 square miles) and the 
eighteenth in population; capital, Montgomery. 
The population increased from 2,138,093 in 1910 
to 2,348,174 in 1920. The white population in- 
creased from 1,228,832 to 1,447,032; the Negro 
decreased from 908,282 to 900,652. The native 
white population rose from 1,209,876 to 1,429,- 
370, while the relatively small foreign-born 
population. decreased from 18,956 to 17,662. 
Both urban and rural populations mounted, the 
former from 370,431 to 509,317, the latter from 
1,767,662 to 1,838,857. The populations of the 
largest cities increased thus: Birmingham 
(q.v.), from 132,685 to 178,806; Mobile, 51,- 
521 to 60,777; Montgomery, 38, 136 to 43, 464. 

Agriculture. In Alabama, as in the other 
cotton-producing States, agricultural conditions 
in the decade 1914-24 were affected greatly by 
the ravages of the cotton boll weevil, which be- 
came serious about 1912. In fact, cotton be- 
ing the leading crop, the diminishing extent of 
cotton-raising was especially felt in this State. 
The boll weevil had spread through the cotton- 
growing area by 1915. Its effects were shown 
in both the production of cotton and the area 
devoted to it, the Jatter being reduced in the 
ten-year period about 1,000,000 acres, or nearly 
one-third, while the production declined about 
400,000 bales, or about 35 per cent. The changed 
conditions are indicated by the fact that while 
cotton for many decades occupied from 36 to 
38 per cent of all the cultivated land in Ala- 
bama, in 1920 it had dropped to 26.6 per cent. 
This condition led to the planting of other crops 
than cotton, the acreage of cereals increasing 
over 20 per cent and corn about 30 per cent in 
the decade. There was also a considerable in- 
crease in the growth of forage crops and in the 
raising of hogs and some other live stock. 

While the population of the State increased 
9.8 per cent during the decade 1910-20, the 
number of farms decreased 2.6 per cent, from 
262,901 to 256,099, and the acreage from 20,- 
732,312 to 19,576,856. There was, however, a 
slight increase in the improved land in farms, 


ALABAMA 


which rose from 9,693,581 to 9,893,407 acres. 
The total value of farm property in the State 
apparently increased 86.6 per cent in the decade, 
or from $370,138,429 in 1910 to $690,848,720 in 
1920; the average value per farm from $1408 to 
$2698. But it must be borne in mind in the 
statement of these values, and indeed in the 
statement of all comparative values of the decade 
1914 to 1924, that the inflation of the currency 
in the latter part of that period is to be taken 
into account. The index number of prices paid 
to producers of farm products in the United 
States was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 1920. 

The total percentage of land used for agri- 
cultural purposes in 1910 was 63.2, and in 1920, 
59.7, a slight decrease. The percentage of im- 
proved farm land, however, increased from 46.8 
to 50.5. Of the total of 256,099 farmers in 
1920, 71,089 owned their farms, 741 were man- 
agers, and 148,269 were tenants. There was an 
increase in the decade of 4000 farmers and a 
decrease of 10,000 tenants. The white farmers 
in 1920 numbered 160,896, as compared with 
152,258 in 1910; the colored farmers, 95,205 in 
1920 and 110,443 in 1910. Of the white farmers 
89,887 owned their farms, and of the colored 
farmers, 77,202. There was a decrease in the 
Negro population, 1910-20, of nearly 1 per cent, 
compared with an increase of nearly 10 per 
cent in the preceding decade, which noticeably 
affected the farm labor situation. The farms 
free from mortgage in 1920 were 64,498 and 74,- 
504 in 1910. Those under mortgage numbered 
27,854 in 1920, as compared with 27,457 in 
1910. Live stock showed a considerable increase 
in the decade. In 1920 the total number of 
dairy cows was 491,163, as compared with 
391,536 in 1910; swine, 1,496,893, as compared 
with 1,266,733. The number of sheep decreased 
from 109,112 to 81,968. The estimated pro- 
duction of the chief farm crops of 1923 was as 
follows: Corn, 48,108,000 bushels; oats, 4,971,- 
000; potatoes, 3,931,000; sweet potatoes, 11,159,- 
000; hay, 581,000 tons; cotton, 741,000 bales. 
Comparative figures for 1913 are as follows: 
Corn, 55,360,000 bushels; oats, 6,652,000 bush- 
els; potatoes, 1,512,000 bushels; hay, 286,000 
tons; cotton, 1,495,000 bales. 

Mining. The important mineral products of 
Alabama are coal, iron ore, cement and clay 
products. In the decade 1914 to 1924 the min- 
eral output remained fairly constant, although 
there was some fluctuation from year to year, 
and coal mining was hampered greatly by a 
protracted strike in 1921. The coal production 
in 1913 was 17,678,522 net tons. This fell to 
15,593,422 net tons in 1914. In 1915 the out- 
put amounted to 14,927,937 net tons. In 1916 
there was a considerable increase, the total coal 
mined in that year being 18,086,197. There was 
an increase of approximately 2,000,000 tons in 
1917 and 1918. In 1919 the output fell again 
to 15,536,721 net tons. In 1920 the output re- 
mained about 16 million tons, fell to 12,570,000 
tons in 1921, and in 1922 was 18,324,740 net 
tons. The production of iron ore in 1914 was 
4,838,959 gross tons, compared with 5,215,740 
tons in 1913. In 1915 the production was 
5,309,354 tons, but in 1916 there was an increase 
of over 27 per cent, or a production of 6,747,900 
tons. In 1917 there was a slight increase in 
value of shipments and in the quantity mined. 
The value of the shipments in 1918 was 14 per 
cent less than the previous year. There was 
a continued decrease in 1919, both in quantity 


3 


47 


ALABAMA 


and in value. In 1920 the total production was 
5,894,000 gross tons. In 1921 the production 
was 2,876,141 gross tons. In 1921 the ship- 
ments were 2,835,761 gross tons, valued at about 
$5,000,000. In 1922 the production was_ in- 
creased to 5,234,568 gross tons. Alabama ranks 
third in the production of iron ore. The manu- 
facture of coke is an important industry in the 
State. The production is between 3,000,000 and 
5,000,000 net tons, but in 1921 it decreased 
sharply to 2,534,039. As a whole, the mineral 
production of the State increased from $30,879,- 
288 in 1914 to $52,269,451 in 1921. The State 
ranked seventeenth in 1921 in the value of its 
mineral products. The census figures for 1919 
show a total value of the products of all mines 
and quarries in the State as $59,866,040, an in- 
crease of 145.8 per cent over the gross value 
reported in the census of 1909. 

Manufactures. The industrial development 
of Alabama during the decade 1913-23 and espe- 
cially in the latter part of that period was 
notable. The great undeveloped resources of the 
State were utilized by the government and by 
private corporations in the emergency resulting 
from the War. Great plate mills, costing over 
$12,000,000 were constructed in Birmingham in 
1917 by the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad 
Company, and huge shipbuilding plants were 
erected by subsidiaries of the same company at 
Mobile. The Federal government undertook the 
development of the water power at Muscle 
Shoals, near Sheffield, chiefly for the purpose of 
recovering nitrogen from the air for the manu- 
facture of explosives, and in October, 1917, the 
first atmospheric nitrogen was produced there. 
As development of the electric power there 
could not be completed in time to supply the 
electricity needed, it was necessary to erect a 
50,000 horse power steam plant on the Warrior 
River, the current provided by which was car- 
ried to Muscle Shoals, a distance of nearly 100 
miles, by transmission lines. The Federal Rail- 
road Administration in 1919 decided to utilize 
the Warrior River for coal and iron traffic to 
the Gulf and Mobile, and purchased barges and 
equipment for the purpose. The utilization of 
the river for this purpose had been urged for 
many years, but private capital could not be 
induced to undertake it on a large scale. It 
was opened to navigation in 1920. River ter- 
minals were built at Shore Creek on the War- 
rior River to handle the traffic. Industrial 
progress in the State was hampered somewhat 
by coal mining strikes in 1919 and 1920. An- 
other notable feature of water power develop- 
ment during 1920 was the joining of the Ala- 
bama power lines with those of Georgia, between 
Gaston, Ala., and Rome, Ga. By means of this 
connection Alabama water power is supplied 
for the mills of North and South Carolina dur- 
ing low water periods in those States, while 
when the rivers are low in Alabama, power from 
North and South Carolina is brought in. The 
manufacture of high grade phosphoric acid by 
the use of electric power was developed at 
Anniston in 1920. In the same year the ship- 
building plant at Mobile completed its four- 
teenth steel ship and ceased its war activities. 
In 1921 work undertaken to raise the height 
of the dams on the Warrior River to insure a 
depth of eight feet during the entire year, from 
Mobile to Birmingham, was completed. In the 
same year the Alabama Power Company began 
work which was finished in 1922 on its new dam 


ALABAMA 


at Duncan’s Riffle on the Coosa River, to develop 
120,000 horse power, and also put into service 
another unit of the Lock 12 power plant on the 
Coosa River, adding 20,000 horse power. 

The great power plant of Muscle Shoals was 
not completed by the government following the 
end of the War, and negotiations were carried 
on in 1922-3 for the purchase of this plant by 
Henry Ford. In September, 1923, the govern- 
ment granted the right to use a portion of this 
power to the Alabama Power Company. In 
October of 1923 work was resumed upon the 
construction of the dam across the Tennessee 
River on Muscle Shoals, but it was discontinued 
because of the lack of an appropriation by Con- 
gress. 

The Fourteenth Census of Manufactures taken 
in 1919 indicated a vast increase in the indus- 
trial development of the State. The number of 
manufacturing establishments increased from 
3242 in 1914 to 3654 in 1919; the number of 
persons engaged in manufacture from 89,053 to 
120,889; the capital invested, from $227,505,432 
to $455,592,733; and the value of products from 
$178,797,633 to $492,732,895. The chief manu- 
facturing industries in 1919 were cotton goods, 
with a product valued at $79,643,000; iron and 
steel works and rolling mills, $64,980,000; iron 
and steel blast furnaces, $57,018,000; and lum- 
ber and timber products, $55,139,000. The 
chief manufacturing city in the State is Bir- 
mingham, which is one of the most important 
iron and steel manufacturing cities in the coun- 
try. Mobile, during the War, was important as 
a shipbuilding centre. The steel ships manu- 


factured, according to the census of 1919, 
amounted to $15,909,618. 
Education. Educational conditions in Ala- 


bama showed a marked improvement in the 
decade 1914-24, especially after 1918. A new 
school code was enacted by the Legislature in 
1919, following a careful study of the school 
system of the State by representatives of the 
Federal Bureau of Education under the direc- 
tion of the Alabama Education Commission. 
Considerable attention was devoted in the later 
years to vocational and exceptional education, 
the latter aimed especially at the removal of 
adult illiteracy. The enrollment in the elemen- 
tary school grades in the decade remained prac- 
tically constant. In 1913-14 the white enroll- 
ment in the elementary grades was 305,248; and 
in 1921, 358,743. In the elementary schools for 
Negroes the enrollment in 1913 was 146,602; 
in 1921, 164,340. According to statistics of the 
United States Bureau of Education, there was 
a total enrollment in the elementary and kinder- 
garten schools of the State in 1919-20 of 543,- 
507; and in the secondary schools, 35,433; or 
a total enrollment in that year of 569,940. The 
high school enrollment of white pupils increased 
from 15,094 in 1913 to 38,306 in 1921; Negro 
high school pupils, from 1210 to 1780. 

Consolidation made considerable progress. In 
1921 there were 245 consolidated school build- 
ings in the State. Fourteen county training 
schools for Negro pupils are maintained, and 
summer schools for Negro teachers are conducted 
during the year. Illiteracy in the State showed 
a marked decrease from 26.2 per cent in 1910 
to 20 per cent in 1920, among native whites, 
from 11.5 to 8.3, and among the Negroes, from 
46.4 to 38.8. 

Finance. For finance, see STATE FINANCES. 

Political and Other Events. During the 


48 


ALABAMA 


decade 1914-24 there was no change in the 
political complexion of State politics in Ala- 


bama. The State remained steadfastly Demo- 
cratic. Oscar W. Underwood was elected 
United States Senator in 1914, to succeed 
Joseph F. Johnston, who died in 1913. At the 


same election Charles Henderson was chosen 
Governor of the State for four years. As a re- 
sult of legislation previously passed, prohibition 
became effective in the State on July 1, but an 
attempt to place the woman suffrage amend- 
ment on the State Constitution was defeated 
in the Legislature. In the presidential election 
of 1916 President Wilson received a plurality 
of 68,969 votes. Only minor State officers and 
Congressmen were elected at this time. The 
State, during 1917, enjoyed remarkable indus- 
trial development, much of it traceable to the 
War. The quadrennial elections for governor 
and other State officers were held in 1918. 
Thomas KE. Kilby was nominated for governor 
at the primaries and John H. Bankhead for the 
United States Senate. Both were elected with 
the entire Democratic ticket. Industrial pros- 
perity continued during this year. The Legisla- 
ture in 1919 refused to ratify the Federal 
woman suffrage amendment but approved the 
prohibition amendment on January 14. The 
only election held during 1919 was for Repre- 
sentative in Congress from the seventh district, 
following the death of Congressman John L. 
Burnett. C. B: Rainey was the successful can- 
didate. In 1920 an extra session of the Legis- 
lature was called to pass measures putting into 
effect the Federal woman suffrage amendment. 
The same conditions which previously applied 
to male voters were expanded to include women, 
and in addition the Legislature submitted to 
the voters the amendment to the Constitution 
providing that in order to register a vote the 
elector must be of good character and must 
understand the duties and responsibilities of 
citizenship under our form of government. This 
amendment was designed to bar undesirable 
females of the Negro race from voting. Candi- 
dates for United States Senator were nominated 
at primaries held that year. Senator Underwood 
was a candidate for reélection. Senator Bank- 
head died on March 1, 1920, and it was neces- 
sary to elect a successor. Former Gov. B. B. 
Comer served as Senator by appointment from 
March to November. J. Thomas Heflin, mem- 
ber of Congress, received the nomination and 
both he and Senator Underwood were elected 
in November. In the presidential election of 
1920 James M. Cox received 163,254 votes and 
Warren G. Harding 74,690. In 1920-21 a bit- 
ter coal miners’ strike resulted in much harm 
to the industries of the State. There was much 
disorder, but the efforts of the miners to place 
the mines on a closed shop basis failed. The 
strike was settled on Feb. 22, 1921. The semi- 
centennial of Birmingham was celebrated in 
October, 1921, when President Harding was the 
guest of the city. At primary elections held 
in 1922, W. W. Brandon was nominated for 
governor and was elected in the November elec- 
tions. During the summer of 1922 a railroad 
strike led to much violence, and the State troops 
were called into service. Governor Brandon 
assumed office the second Tuesday in January, 
1923, and pledged himself to continue the pro- 
gramme of social reform in the State which 
had marked the administration of Governor 
Kilby. The term of the latter had been notable 


ALABAMA 


for providing for the future abolition of the 
convict lease system, the building of new and 
improved prisons, enlarged schools and other re- 
form measures. No elections were held in this 
ear. 

Legislation. The Legislature of Alabama 
meets every four years. A proposed amendment 
to make the session biennial was defeated in 
1916. The Legislature in the same year passed 
six constitutional amendments relating chiefly 
to taxes and the banking system of the State. 
The Legislature of 1919 refused to ratify the 
woman suffrage amendment. The same Legis- 
lature passed a workmen’s compensation law, 
an income tax law, which was later declared un- 
constitutional, and a measure penalizing com- 
binations or agreements to strike. In the same 
year it adopted an eight-hour day and a forty- 
eight-hour week for children under 16 years in 
all gainful occupations. An elective workmen’s 
compensation law was also enacted. The Legis- 
lature of 1923 deferred the effective date of the 
new law abolishing the convict leasing system 
for four years. Other measures passed were 
chiefly of local importance. 

ALABAMA, UNIversity or. A State in- 
stitution at Tuscaloosa, Ala., founded in 1831. 
The university increased greatly in size during 
the decade 1914-24. The number of students 
trebled both in the winter and the summer ses- 
sions, with an enrollment for the year 1923-24 
of 2026 as against 652 in 1913, and an enroll- 
ment in the summer of 1923 of 2056 as against 
562 in the summer of 1913. The faculty in- 
creased from 89 to 143, and the number of 
volumes in the library from 30,600 to more than 
55,000. The endowment was raised from $545,- 
000 to $1,208,000. President, George H. Denny, 
PneD.7bk..D: 

ALAND ISLANDS. An archipelago made 
up of one large island and some 300 small ones 
at the entrance of the Gulf of Bothnia. Their 
inhabitants in 1920 numbered 26,911. From 
1917 to 1921 the islands were the scene of un- 
wonted turmoil. The work of the Russian 
Revolution of 1917 left its impress on the 
minds of the Alanders, who, because they were 
bound to Sweden by ties of language, custom, 
and trade, proceeded to express their wish to 
be reunited to Sweden by a plebiscite in August, 
1917. But the newly constituted state of Fin- 
land was opposed to the cession, offering as an 
alternative the establishment of local autonomy 
in the islands. It was plain, however, that 
Alanders regarded union with Sweden as the 
only feasible plan. On the ground of self- 
determination they appealed to the Allied peo- 
ples in November, 1918. In February, 1919, 
their case was presented again before the Paris 
Peace Conference. But the Supreme Council de- 
nied its jurisdiction, so that in 1920 the dispute 
was placed before the League of Nations. A 
commission appointed to ascertain the state of 
opinion in Sweden, Finland, and the Aland 
Islands, reported back to the League Council in 
June, 1921. On June 24, the Council announced 
as its decision that the islands were to con- 
tinue as a part of Finland but were to be neu- 
tralized with respect to military matters and 
also be guaranteed full local autonomy. Sweden 
protested but accepted the ruling, and the is- 
lands reverted to Finland. 

ALASKA. The decade 1914-24 was marked 
by many important changes in Territorial af- 
fairs. From 1914 to 1918 Alaska suffered eco- 


49 


ALASKA 


nomic and industrial depression incidental to 
the War, which materially reduced the popula- 
tion by drawing recruits for the army and 
navy and affected commerce. The census of 
January, 1920, numbered a population of 55,036, 
a decrease in ten years of 9320, of whom only 
one-fifth were natives. Considered generally, 
other discouraging conditions were few: reduc- 
tion in mineral output, temporary diminution 
of commerce, and over-fishing of the salmon. En- 
couraging features were many: reorganization 
of government with a local legislature; enact- 
ment of progressive laws; increase of the fur- 
seal herds and renewal of the catch; utilization 
of forest resources; enlarged copper production ; 
development of coal mines; improved roads; in- 
crease and scientific care of reindeer; land sur- 
veys; more productive farms; and especially the 
completion of the Alaska government railroad, 
extending from an ice-free port to the central 
mining districts of the Yukon watershed. 
Meanwhile education of whites and natives was 
widespread, and a College of Agriculture and 
Mining was established. The law-abiding nat- 
ives improved their sanitation, built better 
houses and raised their standard of living. 
What was lacking was action by Congress, long 
urged and never granted, to codrdinate Federal 
control and thus ensure future prosperity. 

Population. The population decreased from 
64,356 in 1910 to 55,036, one-fifth of whom were 
natives, in 1920. The loss of 1249 natives was 
due to epidemics of influenza. The great bulk 
of the decrease was due to enlistment in mili- 
tary service. During the last few years of the 
decade there was a steady and considerable in- 
crease of settlers. 

Government. The governor, surveyor gen- 
eral, and judges of the four judicial districts 
are appointed by the President of the United 
States for four years. The Territory is repre- 
sented in Congress by a Delegate, who has no 
vote. Under the Act of Congress of Aug. 24, 
1912, its legislature, with limited powers, con- 
sists of a senate of eight members, two elected 
from each judicial district for four years, and 


a house of sixteen, elected likewise. Beginning 
in 1913, the legislature met biennally. Its laws 


are subject to veto by Congress. The divided 
and inefficient methods of Federal control of 
Alaskan affairs had long been recognized, but 
Congress for years failed to enact corrective 
legislation. When diminishing population, re- 
duced mineral output, impaired transportation, 
and over-exploited fisheries brought matters to 
a crisis, Congress voted money for a govern- 
ment railway. Executive measures were finally 
taken to remedy business methods and save the 
situation. Upon the recommendation of a board 
of experts, the President authorized the creation 
of a permanent Inter-Departmental Commission 
on Alaska, with these functions: “To codrdinate 
and bring together facts and suggestions touch- 
ing matters affecting Alaska, and make recom- 
mendations for definite action . . . that duplica- 
tion may be avoided and efficiency secured.” 
As a result affairs under Federal control were 
being handled more efficiently in 1924. Congress 
remained silent, save in minor action on general 
land-leases, reindeer, and land-fur animals. 
Local Legislation. The legislature met 
biennally from 1913 to 1923. None of its Acts 
was vetoed by Congress. Its legislation was 
along progressive lines; education was fostered, 
liquors and drugs prohibited, labor guarded as 


ALASKA 


to hours, safety, compensation and liens; road 
and fishery commission authorized, whereby co- 
operation with Federal bodies could be obtained ; 
banks and corporations regulated, and the insane 
and indigent cared for. 

Finances. The revenue is derived from l- 
cense taxes, both Federal and Territorial. , On 
Jan. 1, 1924, there was a balance in the treas- 
ury of $218,345. The Federal taxes form the 
Alaskan Fund, of which 65 per cent is spent on 
roads, 25 on schools outside of incorporated 
towns, and 10 for relief of indigents by Federal 


judges. This fund received $190,987 from li- 
censes in 1923. 
Banks. The 18 banks (3 of them national) 


had in 1923 a capital of $780,000; surplus, $607,- 
000; and deposits, $8,374,000. 

Education. An Agricultural College and 
School of Mines was established. There are 
three classes of schools: within incorporated 
towns, without them, and native. In 1923 the 
17 schools of the first class cost $265,400 and 
had an enrollment of 2652. The 56 schools of 
the second class cost $122,279, and had an en- 
rollment of 1175 pupils. The native schools, 
constituting the third class, are maintained by 
the Federal government, under the Alaska Divi- 
sion of the Bureau of Education, and had an en- 
rollment in 1923 of 4999. 

Agriculture. The large areas of agricul- 
tural land in the interior valleys are being slowly 
occupied, as local needs make farming profitable. 
In the districts of Anchorage, Fairbanks and 
Matanuska there are 90 farms, where stock 
does well. The crops in order of value are 
barley, oats, spring wheat, winter rye, and win- 
ter, wheat. 

Forests and Parks. The important resources 
of the national forests, Tongass, 15,444,000 acres; 
and Chugach, 5,130,000 acres, amount to an esti- 
mated stand of 75,000,000,000 board feet. In 
1923 there were cut for commercial use 31,000,- 
000 board feet, besides large quantities free to 
settlers. Surveys were made at forty localities 
suitable for combined pulp mills and water 
power. Agricultural and mining lands have 
been largely segregated from forest areas. The 
administration of the national forests was im- 
proved and facilitated by the establishment of 
local headquarters at Juneau. See ForeEsTRY. 

Commerce. Owing largely to War disturb- 
ances, Alaskan commercial shipments were seri- 
ously affected. From 1914 the volume of trade 
fell sharply but irregularly, with occasional in- 
creases, until 1922. The increase in 1923 over 
the previous year was approximately $22,000,- 
000, reaching a total, gold and silver shipments 
included, of $83,000,000, of which $53,000,000 
was sent out from the Territory. Changes in 
prices in the later years somewhat affect the 
value of these data. 

Natives. The Eskimo and Indian inhabitants 
were gradually taking more prominent parts in 
the activities of the Territory. This was espe- 
cially true in southeastern Alaska, in the can- 
nery settlements, and at other industrial cen- 
tres. The efforts of the Alaska Division of the 
Bureau of Education to improve the condition 
of the natives was meeting with encouraging suc- 
cess. Under the direction of its agents, doctors, 
nurses, teachers, herders, etc., modern methods 
of sanitation, comfortable dwellings, more gar- 
dens, better schools, and higher standards gen- 
erally had been promoted in many remote vil- 
lages. Efficiency in industrial training was fol- 


50 


ALASKA 


lowed by the organization of special settlements, 
entirely native, and the formation of codper- 
ative associations, which were being successfully 
managed. Both the Metlakatla colony on An- 
nette Island and the Indian town of Hydaburg 
were modern communities, with canneries, mills, 
electric power, codperative associations, etc. 
Noorvik, on Kotzebue Sound near the Arctic 
Circle, had, with other modern plants, an electric 
lighting system. The natives in southeastern 
Alaska were taking important parts in the ac- 
tivities of that section, as clergymen, nurses, 
teachers, engineers, and navigators. In 1922 
there were employed in the Alaskan salmon can- 
neries 4192 natives. The life conditions of many 
Eskimos in remote regions, especially those 
located in the marshy, unhealthful deltas of the 
Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers, were still dis- 
tressing. Special efforts, with prospects of suc- 
cess, were being made to better them. 
Fisheries. From year to year the fishery 
industry held its position as the most productive 
of the Territory. It will surprise many to learn 
that the aggregate value of fish caught exceeds 
by $42,000,000 the entire mineral output of 
Alaska. The total value of fishery products to 
Jan. 1, 1924, was $560,231,000. In its maximum 
year, 1918, the industry employed 31,213 per- 
sons; its investments in 1922 aggregated $45,- 
208,000. The value of the annual eatch in- 
creased from $15,739,000 in 1913 to $59,844,850 
in 1918. Decreases followed to $24,087,000 in 
1922, whence it rose yearly to about $40,450,000 
in 1923. The more important catches, in order 
of value, are salmon, herring, halibut, and cod. 
Far exceeding in importance other species, the 
salmon is the most valuable factor in Alaskan 
prosperity. The number of salmon caught and 
their value increased from 54,651,915 fish, $19,- 
564,381, in 1914, to 101,454,688 fish, $53,464,812, 


in 1918. Of the salmon catch 95 per cent are 
eanned. The great catch of 1918, which counted 


6,505,535 cases, 48 eight-pound cans to a case, 
fell off alarmingly, 60 per cent, to 2,596,826 
eases in 1921. There was an increase to 
4,502,000 cases in 1922 and another unimpor- 
tant increase in 1923. Although it was evident 
that commercial over-exploitation was destroy- 
ing the salmon spawning grounds, endangering 
the food supplies of the natives, and ruining 
a most valuable national asset, Congress failed, 
despite urgent requests, to modify the old and 
inadequate law regarding Alaskan fisheries. 
The executive departments were obliged to 
adopt stringent measures, as far as the Fed- 
eral laws permitted. By executive orders of 
the President in 1922, two fisheries reserva- 
tions were created, the Alaskan Peninsula and 
the Southwestern. Under date of Oct. 25, 
1923, regulations for fisheries on these and on 
the Aleutian reservations were issued. Fish- 


‘ ing by the inhabitants is permitted for personal 


use, but corporations can only fish when li- 
censed and under restrictions set forth in these 
rules. The herring industry was steadily ex- 
panding, due largely to the introduction of the 
Scotch method of curing pickled herring. The 
maximum value of $2,329,116 came in 1922. 
Oversupply, storms, and decreased productivity 
of fishing grounds had reduced the halibut catch, 
which in 1922 amounted to 11,000,000 pounds, 
valued at $1,035,000. Cod fell off in quantity 
and value from the maximum of 1918. The 
6,135,000 pounds caught in 1922 had a value of 
$464,169. A revival of the whale industry in 


ALASKA 


1922 resulted in the catch of 445 animals, valued 
at $409,168. See Fisurrtes. 

The fur-seal industry was formerly the most 
important in Alaska, but it had become far in- 
ferior to the fisheries and mines. The rookeries 
of the Pribilof Islands were estimated in 1867 
to contain 4,000,000 seal. The herds were 
nearly exterminated by uncontrolled slaughter, 
and by pelagic hunting, so that by 1910 they 
contained only one-twentieth of the former num- 
ber. By the treaty of 1912 between Great Brit- 
ain, Japan, Russia, and the United States, pelagic 
sealing was made unlawful. Congress then en- 
acted that the fur-seal industry should be a govy- 
ernment monopoly, made the Pribilof Islands a 
closed reservation, to be governed by a commis- 
sion of experts, and established a closed season 
so that the herds might recuperate. Under an 
excellent system of protection the herds were 
slowly but steadily increasing, their numbers ris- 
ing from 294,687 in 1914 to 604,692 in 1923. 
During the decade the taking of seals was re- 
newed, and about 30,000 animals were killed an- 
nually, the number varying from 25,318 in 1918 
to 34,890 in 1919. The percentage of yearly in- 
crease was falling off, being in 1924 about 4.0 
annually. The skins are sold at public auction, 
and the profits of the industry are in general 
$1,000,000 a year above the cost of the service. 
Improved methods of taking pelts were adopted, 
and the fitting of the skins for the market, form- 
erly done in England, became an American in- 
dustry. The fur-seal industry gives employment 
to the 337 natives on the reservation. 

From about 150,000 head in 1914, the rein- 
deer increased to nearly 300,000, with a value of 
$7,500,000. The enormous numbers, however, 
caused conflicts as to pasturage, introduced 
diseases and led to decadence, so that the Bio- 
logical Survey had to be called upon for aid in 
locating’ suitable grazing areas, in combating 
diseases, and in improving herd management. 
Two-thirds of the deer were owned by the na- 
tives; the other third were being commercially 
exploited. The plan of introducing the meat of 
the reindeer to the markets of the Pacific Coast 
was successful, but its extent’ was_ strictly 
limited through lack of sufficient cold-storage 
plants on the commercial steamers. Originally 
introduced into the Bering Sea region, efforts 
were in progress in 1924 to distribute the rein- 
deer so as to benefit the largest number of na- 
tives. Herds on the Aleutian and Pribilof Is- 
lands thrive, as also in the Matanuska Valley 
and in the Broad Pass region. 

The destruction of the land game, which at 
one time was threatened, was stopped by means 
of closed seasons, game wardens, and custom in- 
spections. The Bureau of Biological Survey had 
the matter in hand after the transfer of these 
duties to the Department of Agriculture, under 
the Act of Congress of May 31, 1920. 

Minerals. The total mineral output to Jan. 
1, 1924, amounted to $518,000,000 distributed 
to include 1922 as follows: gold, $335,526,000; 
copper, $145,479,000; silver, $8,834,000; coal, 
$2,723,000; tin, $938,000; lead, $772,000; anti- 
mony, $237,500; marble, petroleum, etc., $3,476,- 
000. Attaining an output of $1,000,000 in 1892, 
it reached its maximum product of $48,632,212 
in 1916, and fell irregularly to $17,000,000 in 
1921. The estimated product for 1923 was $19,- 
000,000. For the decade the maximum annual 
output of gold was $15,627,000 in 1916, after 
which it steadily decreased to $6,150,000 in 


51 


ALASKA 


1923. The decreases were primarily due to the 
increased cost of mining, while the value of gold 
remained almost unchanged, Placer mining was 
slowly passing as individual ventures, were re- 
placed by dredges. The summer placer miners 
fell off from 4000 in 1913 to 410 in 1923. 
Quartz mines were increasing in number and ay- 
erage product. The large increase in silver val- 
ues, rising from $219,000 in 1913 to a maximum 
of $1,039,000 in 1920 and only falling to $600,- 
000 in 1923, was due to its being almost en- 
tirely a by-product of gold and copper ores, 
though galena ore was being mined, in the 
Kantishna district. 

Largely owing to the War, copper became the 
most valuable mineral of the Territory. In 
1914, six mines produced 21,660,000 pounds, val- 
ued at $2,852,934. Under pressure eighteen mines 
produced 119,655,000 pounds, worth $29,484,291, 
in 1916. Although the output fell to 47,221,000 
pounds in 1919, it rose to 86,000,000 in 1923. 
Most of the copper came from the Kennecott 
group and the Beatson-Bonanza mines, though 
some was mined at the Rush and Brown mine, 
From 28 tons in 1914, the production of lead ex- 
ceeded 800 tons in three separate years. The 
maximum value was $146,584, in 1917. The 
product in 1923 was worth $60,000. Low prices 
had practically closed tim mines in Alaska. 

Stimulated by the needs of the Alaska rail- 
road under construction and operation, there 
were largely increased outputs of coal from mines 
along the line of the road. The product was al- 
most entirely subbituminous and lignitic coal. 
The output rose from 1400 tons in 1914 to 100,- 
000 tons in 1923. Despite constant efforts to 
uncover workable veins of high-grade coal in the 
Matanuska and the Bering River fields, no depos- 
its of such fuels as can be profitably exported 
were discovered. Enormous reserves of low- 
grade bituminous and lignitic coal were located 
in various parts of the Territory, much of it 
easily accessible and cheaply mined. In 1922 
more than 40 per cent of the coal burned in 
Alaska was imported. Up to 1924 the only oil 
produced was from the private wells in the 
Katalla field, which was barely sufficient to meet 
the local demands for gasoline. In 1922 there 
were imported into Alaska more than 19,000,000 
gallons of oil of various kinds. Restrictions of 
Federal laws made impracticable the economical 
exploitation of petroleum fields. Under a later 
law, two companies began drilling in 1923 on 
the Alaskan Peninsula, but no success had been 
reported up to July, 1924. The Arctic Coast 
near Point Barrow was thought to be a prom- 
ising field for oil, judging from seepages there 
observed. At the request and expense of the 
Navy Department experts of the Geological Sur- 
vey were making an exhaustive examination of 
the adjacent region. 

Transportation. The most important im- 
provement in transportation was the construc- 
tion by the United States of the Alaska Rail- 
road, 543 miles in length, connecting the ice-free 
port of Seward with Fairbanks, the centre of 
the Tanana mining district. Apart from the 
main line the system had the following branches: 
Happy-Chatinka, 32 miles; Matanuska-Chick- 
aloon, 45 miles; Healy coal mines, 4 miles. In 
January, 1924, there was a semiweekly train 
service to and from Fairbanks, which involved 
two days’ travel with a lay-over at Curry. The 
Alaska Railroad serves directly the mines of the 
Kenai, Susitna, Matanuska, and central Yukon 


ALASTRIM 


districts. Traversing a rich coal region, it be- 
comes the main source of fuel for the mines of 
the vast interior regions. It had already de- 
veloped new mining grounds and brought farm- 
ing settlers into the contiguous regions. The 
expenditures for the railroad amounted, up to 
June 30, 1923, to $56,000,000, including systems 
purchased, roads built and reconstructed, and 
operation As the total revenue from the road 
during 1923 was only $543,521, it was evident 
that several years must elapse before the system 
became self-supporting. To replace the discon- 
tinued commercial transportation on the in- 
terior rivers, the railroad met the needs of the 
settlements of the lower Yukon by the establish- 
ment of a summer line of steamboats between 
Fairbanks and Holy Cross, where connection was 
made for the Norton Sound region with the 
launches of the Northern Commercial Company. 
Canadian boats in 1924 were caring for the set- 
tlers of the upper Yukon, while bringing ore to 
Fairbanks from the Klondike region. There had 
been constructed 6854 miles of roads and trails 
up to June 30, 1923, toward which the Federal 
government appropriated $4,300,000. The main 
road of 410 miles, open throughout the year, is 
that from Valdez to Fairbanks, with a branch 
to Chitina. The expenditure during 1923 for 
construction and maintenance was $740,000. 
Unfortunately road work was done under three 
separate departments, two Federal and one Ter- 
ritorial. Such aids to navigation as_ lights, 
buoys and signals were increased from 338 in 
1915 to 634 in 1923. 

Telegraphy. The importance of the signal 
corps system, with its 19 cables and 44 offices, 
may be gauged by its messages in 1923, whose 
tariffs approximated $400,000. It had 2700 
miles of cables, 840 miles of land wire, and a 
radio system. The governor reported: ‘The 
service rendered in the progress and develop- 
ment of Alaska cannot be overestimated.” After 
20 years’ use the existing cables were inadequate 
for current business. New cables had been pur- 
chased and in the spring of 1924 were in process 
of installation Supplementary to the army sys- 
tem was the Naval Communication Service, main- 
taining eight radio stations of great value to the 
public. See also LIGHTHOUSES. 

ALASTRIM. See SMALLPox. 

ALBANIA. A Balkan country, whose bound- 
aries were first fixed in 1913 and redrawn by 
the Council of Ambassadors on Nov. 9, 1921. 
Area estimated at 11,000 square miles; popula- 
tion, from 850,000 to 900,000 There were, ac- 
cording to a 1921 estimate, 584,675 Moham- 
medans; 158,215 Greek Catholics, and 88,987 
Roman Catholics in the country. The estimated 
populations of the principal towns in 1921 were: 
Scutari, 26,000; Koritza, 22,000; Tirana, the 
eapital, 13,000; Valona, 7000; Durazzo, 5000. 
Education was, of course, in its infancy. In 
1921 the country possessed only one normal 
school, one secondary school, and about 500 pri- 
mary schools. 

Albania, because of its mountainous nature, 
possessed no real means of communication and 
was still a primitive pastoral and agricultural 
society. The leading products, cereals, olive oil, 
tobacco, rice, and wool, were raised for home 
consumption, though some exchange was carried 
on with the neighboring Jugo-Slav market towns 
to the North, and with Italy. The valleys of 
the South were more favorable for agricultural 
activities, and here it was that what prosperity 


52 


_Serbs on the North and West. 


ALBANIA 


Albania could boast of was to be found. Natu- 
ral resources reported capable of exploitation, 
but as yet little worked, were the timber lands, 
coal, iron pyrites, oil, asphalt, and hydro- 
electric power. Trade was insignificant. In 1921, 
exports totaled 2,189,796 gold francs, largely 
to Italy, Greece and Jugo-Slavia, and com- 
prised skins, wool, dairy products, olives, olive 
oil, and tobacco; imports totaled 17,659,796 gold 
franes, covering purchases of cereals, fruits, oil, 
ete., from Italy, Greece, Great Britain. Because 
of the unfavorable trade balance a customs 
tariff was enacted, Feb. 5, 1922. During the 
War, the Austrians constructed a few narrow- 
gauge military railways, the most important of 
which was the line from Durazzo to Tirana, 23 
miles. All these, however, fell into disrepair 
and were little used. Principal ports were San 
Giovanni di Medua, serving Scutari, Durazzo, 
and Valona. Italian boats were the only ones 
to call regularly. Government accounts for 1921 
were expenditures, 18,797,455 gold francs; 
revenues, 18,500,000 gold frances, 5,000,000 in 
customs, and the remainder in direct taxes. 
There was practically no public debt. In 1914, 
Austria and Italy extended Prince William a 
credit of 10,000,000 franes; these claims were 
really eliminated, however, by the revenues col- 
lected by Austrians and Italians during the War 
occupation and retained at Vienna and Rome. 
History. The conflicting aspirations of Rus- 
sia and Austria left much to be desired in the 
Albanian settlement of 1913 as effected by the 
Ambassadors’ Conference. It has been esti- 
mated that upward of 500,000 Albanians were 
separated from their homeland and apportioned 
among Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece. The 
choice of William of Wied, a German prince, as 
Mpret of Albania, was also a cause of much local 
discontent. He arrived at Durazzo, Mar. 7, 
1914; stayed under the shadow of the Austrian 
guns in the harbor during his brief reign of six 
months, and fled the country for Germany on 
the outbreak of the War. Once more Albania 
was left without a unified control and at the 
mercy of the greater powers that surrounded it. 
Local chieftains dominated the scene until the 
conclusion of the War, though they were helpless 
in the face of the invading armies. For al- 
though it was neutral, Albania was a theatre of 
war during 1914-18. Austrian armies took pos- 
session of northern and central Albania; Italy 
was established at the harbor of Valona from 
November, 1916, on; the Serbs encroached on 
the northern frontier and the Greeks on the 
southern. By the secret Treaty of London 
(April, 1915), Albania had been disposed of 
rather baldly as part of the bargain for Italian 
support. The Allies in this convention recog- 
nized the Italian claim to Valona, while Italy 
on her side promised not to resist the possible 
desire of France, Great Britain, and Russia to 
distribute among Montenegro, Serbia, and 
Greece the northern and southern parts of Al- 
bania. It was, therefore, to protect her rights 
that Italy in June, 1917, announced a virtual 
protectorate over the country, and proceeded to 
occupy the whole of it when the Allied drive, in 
the autumn of 1918, banished the Austrians. 
Within the same year, matters were further 
complicated by the establishment of a republic 
under French protection in the neighborhood of 
Koritza, the presence of an Allied force at 
Scutari, and the threatening movements of the 
Throughout 1919 


ALBANIA 


the Italians stayed on. Against the protests of 
Albanian leaders, Italy persisted in a policy of 
Italianization in the South, sending colonists 
and gaining control of the schools. Only the 
refusal of President Wilson at the Peace Con- 
ference to countenange either partition or the 
establishment of an Italian mandate prevented 
the submergence of the harassed country. Thus 
protected, Albanian resistance strengthened. In 
January, 1920, an assembly at Lushnja protested 
against partition; later in the year, a permanent 

vernment, strongly nationalistic in tone, es- 
tablished itself at Tirana and erected a regency 
cabinet of four, composed of a representative 
each of the Roman Catholics, Greek Orthodox, 
and the two Moslem sects, the Sunni and the 
Bektashi. Finally, in the middle of the year, 
desultory warfare began between Albanians and 
Italians which manifested itself first in upris- 
ings in the coast towns and then in fighting in- 
land. Italians were even besieged at Valona in 
June. The Italian adventure had proved futile, 
with the result that Giolitti, for Italy, signed 
a convention on August 2 which guaranteed the 
evacuation of the country and the surrender of 
Valona, too, except for the island of Saseno at 
the entrance to Valona Bay. The French had, 
meanwhile, left Koritza in the same year. There 
seemed at last a hope for a peaceful political 
development when, on Dec. 17, 1920, Albania ap- 
plied and was admitted into the League of Na- 
tions. It was not until 1923 that Albania was 
cut free from international entanglements. It 
was plain in 1921 that admission into the 
League did not connote recognition of sovereignty 
or the frontiers of 1913. Jugo-Slavs still men- 
aced on the North. Disquieting Greek claims 
were made on southern Albania or the Northern 
Epirus, a district containing the two important 
towns of Koritza and Argyrocastro and holding 
a population of 120,000 Greek Catholics and 
80,000 or 100,000 Mohammedans, and where, in 
1920, the Greeks had occupied a large strip to the 
Northeast of Koritza containing 26 villages. 
These claims were grounded on cultural sym- 
pathy and economic necessity. Albanian appeals 
to the League Council for intervention through- 
out 1921 were unavailing. The Powers insisted 
that the question was rightly the concern of the 
Council of Ambassadors. Meanwhile in the 
autumn, Jugo-Slavs had begun threatening mil- 
itary preparations in the North, and the danger 
of a Balkan flare-up caused Lloyd George, in 
November, to demand for Great Britain an im- 
mediate consideration of the whole question. 
Great Britain’s sincerity was attested by the 
granting of formal de jure recognition to Al- 
bania. On November 5, therefore, the Council of 
Ambassadors announced a decision. Albania was 
recognized as a sovereign state; in the South, 
i.e. Northern Epirus, the boundary of 1913 was 
substantially promulgated though the Greeks 
were permitted to retain five of the seized vil- 
lages; in the North, however, to placate Jugo- 
Slavia, modifications in her favor were ordered 
in the frontier in the Northeast of Scutari, to 
the West and South of Prizren, and between 
Dibra and Struga. Finally, a boundary com- 
mission was appointed for the delimitation of 
the line in question. The southern frontier was 
being worked on in the summer of 1923, the 
Greeks having given their approval by withdraw- 
ing their claims to the rest of the Northern 
Epirus, and it was in the course of these ac- 
tivities that the murder of General Tellini, on 


53 


ALBEE 


the Council of Ambassadors’ 
Boundary Commission, occurred at Janina, 
Greece, Aug. 25, 1923. (See Greece and ITAty). 
By 1923, therefore, Albania’s independence was 
assured, Italy’s consistently friendly attitude 
since 1920 guaranteeing the result. 

In internal affairs, some progress was made 
toward stability. Executive authority was in 
the hands of the Regency Cabinet, which was 
aided by an indirectly elected parliament of 72 
members and a council of eight ministers re- 
sponsible to the parliament. Steps were taken 
to create educational facilities, while movements 
toward hastening religious independence were 
perceptible in 1924. In 1922, the Albanian 
Greek Orthodox Church proclaimed its inde- 
pendence, and in the next year Albanian Moslems 
approved of the abolition of both polygamy and 
the veil for women. At the request of its of- 
ficials in 1922, the League of Nations appointed 
to Albania a financial adviser who in 1923 had 
perfected plans for the creation of the country’s 
first bank of issue. From Dec. 22, 1921, on, a 
coalition government made up of representatives 
of the two parties, the Progressive and Popular, 
and headed by Djafer Ypi as president of the 
Council of Ministers, was in control of affairs. 
This was followed by the ministry of Ahmed 
Zogu, December, 1922—June, 1924, under which 
the country remained unusually tranquil. But 
Albania again became a Balkan storm-centre in 
the spring of 1924, when a revolt, led by the 
liberal forces who opposed the medieval ten- 
dencies of the government, successfully overthrew 
the Ahmed Zogu cabinet on June 10. In Jan- 
uary, 1924, a constituent assembly met for the 
preparation of a constitution. 

ALBANY. The capital of New York State. 
The population increased from 100,253 in 1910 
to 113,344 in 1920, and to 117,375 by estimate 
of the Bureau of the Census for 1923. The 
land for several blocks between Broadway and 
the Hudson River, together with docks and 
wharfage rights, was bought by the city for 
a public park. Broadway and Quay Street 
were widened and extended. The privately 
owned Hudson bridge, which carried the main 
thoroughfare between Boston and New York, 
was bought by the State in 1919, and the tolls 
discontinued. The roadway leading up to it 
was widened and paved and the sharp blind 
turn into Broadway made easier. In 1918 and 
1919, $1,150,000 was appropriated by the Legis- 
lature to erect a new State office building. A 
city plan was made and zoning adopted. Dur- 
ing the decade the city had a great industrial 
development. The value of its manufactured 
products increased from $25,211,000 in 1914 to 
$45,455,000 in 1919. Many large _ business 
buildings were erected. These included the 
Wellington Hotel, the Albany Journal building, 
the Henry Ford plant, and others. The New 
York Central Railroad constructed a _ great 
bridge and freight yards south of the city at a 
cost of $16,000,000. Many improvements were 
made on the parks, especially Lincoln Park, and 
important street improvements effected. Great 
progress was made also along educational and 
recreational lines. 

ALBEE, Frep Hovupterr (1876- yey An 
American orthopedic surgeon, born in Alna, Me., 
and educated at Bowdoin College (A.B. 1899) 
and Harvard (M.D. 1903). He is widely known . 
for his so-called bone inlay grafting operation 
for tuberculosis of the spine (Pott’s disease), 


Greeco-Albanian 


ALBERS-SCHONBERG 


first described by him in 1912. In 1916 he re- 
ported the results of 500 cases of “Albee’s op- 
eration.” In France in 1916 he was the first 
to use motor-driven tools in bone surgery. In 
1917, after the entrance of the United States 
into the War, he was made a colonel of the 
Medical Reserve Corps, having meanwhile served 
as consulting surgeon in many hospitals. Among 
positions held by him were director of the 
orthopedic clinic at the New York Post-graduate 
School and Hospital, and at the University of 
Vermont; director of the United States Army 
General Hospital No. 3, and consulting surgeon 
to the Pennsylvania Railway System. He pub- 
lished his monograph Bone Graft Surgery in 
1915 and in 1919 his large treatise Orthopedic 
and Reconstructional Surgery. 

ALBERS-SCHONBERG, HEINRICH ERNST 
(1865-1921). “The acknowledged leader of 
German medical réntgenology,” a native and 
resident of Hamburg, where he practiced after 
eraduation (M.D.) at Leipzig in 1891. His 
original bent was toward gynecology, but on 
Roéntgen’s discovery he at once opened an X- 
ray laboratory, one of the first on record, and 
by 1897 had founded the periodical Fortschritte 
an der Gebiet der Réntgenstrahlen, followed in 
1900 by Archiv und Atlas der Normalischen und 
Pathologischen Anatomie in Typischen Ront- 
genbilde. In 1903 appeared his textbook Die 
Rontgen Technik (5th ed., 1919). About 1902 
he was appointed réntgenologist to the St. 
Georg Hospital, Hamburg, and a famous X-ray 
establishment was created in association with it. 
When the new University of Hamburg was es- 
tablished in 1919 he was appointed a professor 
of réntgenology, the first of the kind in Ger- 
many. He was a cofounder of the German 
Réntgenological Society. As a pioneer he made 
many discoveries not only in the physiology of 
the X-ray but in technical improvements of the 
apparatus, including the means of self-protection. 
He discovered the pernicious action of the rays 
on the genital glands. Incidentally he was a 
martyr to the rays, as one of the first to de- 
velop X-ray cancer as a result of exposure. 
Through the loss of an arm by amputation he 
managed to survive through many years of use- 
fulness before finally succumbing. In addition 
to the magistral works mentioned above he wrote 
over 150 articles for periodicals. Among his 
minor works is a monograph on X-ray cancer 
(Das Réntgencarcinom) . 

ALBERT, DUKE oF WURTTEMBERG (1865- y 
A German general, born at Vienna. He was 
appointed general in command of the Wiirttem- 
berg army in 1908, and in 1913 he was appointed 
inspector-general of the 6th Army Inspection. 
He led the 4th army on the western front at the 
beginning of the War and in 1916 was made 
field-marshal-general. He became chief-in-com- 
mand at the front in Alsace-Lorraine, where he 
remained till the end of the War. See War 
IN EUROPE, Western Front. 

ALBERT I. King of the Belgians (see 
Vor. I). When Prince Albert ascended the 
throne of Belgium in 1909 he was perhaps the 
least known monarch of Europe, and even as 
King he escaped public comment. Following the 
invasion of Belgium by the Germans he was 
regarded as one of the foremost figures of the 
War. Rather than leave Antwerp with his min- 
isters when the enemy was advancing through his 
country, he joined his troops and remained at 
the front throughout the War. Queen Elizabeth 


54 


ALBERTA 


remained near him, acting as a nurse in the 
Hopital de Océan at La Panne. 

ALBERTA. A province in western Canada 
with an area of 255,285 square miles, and a 
population in 1921 of 588,454, representing a 
gain of 214,159 or 57.2 per cent since the 1911 
census. The rural population in 1921 was 62 
per cent of the whole as compared with 75 per 
cent in 1901. As in the other prairie provinces, 
males continued in excess of females, the division 
in 1921 being 324,208 males and 264,246 females. 
The leading cities with their populations in 1921 
were Calgary, 63,305; Edmonton, 58,821; Leth- 
bridge, 11,097, and Medicine Hat, 9634. Im- 
migrants from the United States steadily in- 
creased in number so that the census of 1916 
recorded 91,600 settlers of American origin in 
Alberta. 

Industry. Under the impetus of vast irriga- 
tion projects, Alberta was rapidly converted into 
an agricultural country, so that by 1922 at least 
13 per cent of the 74,000,000 acres of arable 
land in the province were under crops. At the 
end of 1921 irrigation projects took in 5,630,- 
000 acres, of which 1,714,000 were irrigable. 
The result of such activity manifested itself in 
the appearance of a more diversified husbandry 
and a greater attention to root crops and alfalfa. 
However, the prairie country accounted for the 
importance of wheat. Of the 11,316,542 acres 
sown in 1923, 5,958,361 were under wheat. 
Next in importance were oats, barley, rye, hay 
and clover, and potatoes. That the live stock 
industry did not decline, in spite of the inroads 
of the farmers, may be seen from the following: 
cattle in 1912 and 1923, 745,229 and 1,520,924; 
sheep, 135,075 and 239,174; swine, 278,747 and 
706,681. The total yield of field crops in 1923 
was valued at $165,340,000. The importance 
of the subsidary activities may be gauged from 
these values for 1923: animals slaughtered and 
sold, $11,584,000; dairy products, $15,534,000; 
wool clip, $264,000; game and furs, $46,000; 
poultry and poultry products, $6,264,000; horti- 
cultural products, $1,860,000. In 1921, there 
were 83,431 farmers in the province. Minerals 
made up the second source of economic wealth. 
The vast coal area which covers almost the en- 
tire province accounted for 95 per cent of the an- 
nual output of all the prairie provinces. In 
1922, 354 mines, representing a total capital of 
$53,000,000, produced 5,990,911 tons of coal for 
a value of $24,351,913, more than double the 
output of 1912. Proportions represented were 1 
per cent anthracite, 47 per cent bituminous, and 
52 per cent lignite. Other mineral products in- 
cluded cement, natural gas, sand and gravel, 
bitumen, gold, and salt. The total mineral pro- 
duction was $27,872,136 in 1922, an increase of 
$16,000,000 over the 1912 output. Local manu- 
factures increased during 1910-21 from 290 to 
2024; capital, from $29,518,000 to $55,539,000; 
employees, from 6980 to 10,324; and value added 
by manufacture, from $8,790,000 to $29,724,000. 
The leading industries were flour and grist mills, 
door and planing mills, slaughtering and meat 
packing. The horse-power resources were esti- 
mated at 475,281 h.p., of which 33,067 h.p. had 
already been developed on the Bow River in 
1921. Lumbering and fishing were also impor- 
tant activities. 

Trade and Communications. The articles 
entering principally into the interprovincial 
trade were grain, live stock, hams, eggs, fish, 
butter, mining, and timber products. In 1922 


ALCHEMY 


there were 4680 miles of railway in the province 
as compared with 2545 miles in 1914. The tele- 
phone system owned by the provincial govern- 
ment had 100,900 miles of wire in 1922. 
Throughout the province 64,383 telephones and 
238,733 miles of wire were in use. 

Government. The province’s representation 
in the Canadian Parliament was increased to 6 
in the Senate and 12 in the House of Commons. 
Revenues for 1922 were $9,324,889, against 
$5,399,905 in 1913, and expenditures $11,235,- 
192, against $5,275,584 in 1913. The public debt 
in 1921 amounted to $59,010,256. Education 
made steady advances. The 142,902 pupils en- 
rolled in 1922 were more than double the number 
of pupils of 1912. The University of Alberta 
had more than 1200 students in attendance in 
1922. Total expenditures for education in 1912 
were $6,667,282; in 1921, $12,134,488. Women 
were granted the franchise. 

ALCHEMY, Mopern. See Puysics. 

ALCOCK, Sir Joun (1892-1919). A British 
airman born at Manchester who obtained his 
training at the Empress motor works in his na- 
tive city. He was instructor of flying at East- 
church at the outbreak of the War and was 
afterward chief instructor with the aéronautic 
squadron. On the Turkish front he won the 
DS.O., for an attack on three seaplanes, and 
established a record for long-distance bombing 
flights. In 1917 the Turks took him prisoner 
and held him till after the Armistice. In 1919 
he won the prize offered by the London Daily 
Mail for the first successful flight across the 
‘Atlantic, with Lieut. A. W. Brown. Both men 
were knighted for this achievement. Alcock 
was killed at Coté d’Evrard, north of Rouen, 
in France, by the crashing of his airplane. 


ALCOHOL, Etuyt. See CHEMISTRY, OR- 
GANIC. 

ALCOHOLISM AND INSANITY. See 
INSANITY. 

ALDEN, Carwtos CooLipcE (1866- yet) An 
American lawyer born at Wilmington, Ill. He 


received his degrees of L.L.B. and L.L.M. at 
New York University and in 1893 was admitted 
to the bar. He practiced in New York from 
1893 to 1904 and was associate professor of law 
in New York University, 1896-8; professor, 
1898-1904. In 1904 he became dean of the 
Buffalo Law School. He was legal adviser to 
Governor Hughes in 1909 and in the next year 
became New York State Commissioner on Uni- 
form State Laws. He is the editor of A Hand- 
book of the Code of Civil Procedure (1901), the 
second edition of Abbott’s Practice and Forms 
(1907), the second edition of Abbott’s Forms 
of Pleading (1918), and Handbook of Civil 
Practice (1921). 

ALDEN, RAymonp Macponatp (1873- ). 
An American scholar and educator (see Vou. I). 
His later works include Tennyson, How to Know 
Him (1917), Oritical Essays of the Early Nine- 
teenth Century (1921), Shakespeare (1922), and 
The Boy Who Found the King (1922). 

ALDERSON, Victor CLirron (1862- ys 
An American college president born at Plymouth, 
Mass., and educated at Harvard University. 
After teaching in middle western high schools, 
1885-93, he became successively professor of 
mathematics (1893-8), dean (1898-1900), act- 
ing president (1900-1), and dean (1901-3) of 
the Armour Institute of Technology, Chicago. 
He was president of the Colorado School of 
Mines from 1903 to 1913 and resumed the office 


55 


ALEXANDER 


in 1917. Between 1913 and 1917 he was presi- 
dent (1913-15) and consulting mining engineer 
(1915-17) of the Winnemucea (Nev.) Moun- 
tain Mining Company. He is author of The Oil 
Shale Industry (New York, 1920) and Oil Shale: 
a Résumé for 1921 (Golden, Colo., 1923). 

ALDIN, Cecin C. W. (1870- ). An Eng- 
lish illustrator (see Vou. I) whose latest pub- 
lished work includes: Old Inns; Old Manor 
Houses (1924) and The Hunting Countries of 
England. 

ALDINGTON, Hitpa Dooritrre (“H. D.’) 
(1886- ). An American poet, born at 
Bethlehem, Penn. She entered Bryn Mawr Col- 
lege in 1904 and later went abroad. Her po- 
etry placed her among the most important of 
the Imagists. Her works, which have appeared 
in many periodicals, are distinctly Hellenic in 
their delicacy and cold beauty. Her publica- 
tions include Oread ; Pear Tree ; Heat; and Lethe. 

ALDRICH, Cuester Hotmes (1871-— ye 
An American architect, born at Providence, R. 
I., and educated at Columbia University and 
the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris. He has fol- 
lowed his profession since 1902 in New York, as 
member of the firm of Delano and Aldrich, de- 
signers of many well-known public buildings 
and private residences. From 1917 to 1919 he 
was Director General of Civil Affairs of the 
American Red Cross Commission to Italy, and 
received various Italian decorations. He is a 
director of the Musical Art Society of New 
ze and of the Music School Settlement, New 

ork. 

ALDRICH, Morton Arnotp (1874- ie 
An American educator, born at Boston, Mass. 
After graduation from Harvard University in 
1895, he was a student at the Universities of 
Berlin, Munich and Halle, obtaining the doc- 
torate from the last named institution. He be- 
came successively instructor of economics at 
Harvard, assistant professor at Leland Stan- 
ford, and professor at Tulane University. Since 
1914 he has been dean of the College of Com- 
merce and Business Administration at Tulane 
University. As member of the American Eco- 
nomic Association and Secretary of the Asso- 
ciation of Collegiate Schools of Business, Pro- 
fessor Aldrich has devoted himself to the prac- 
tical application of economic doctrines to the 
needs of business administration. 

ALESSANDRI, Arturo = (1869- yor: 
president of Chile, born Dec. 21, 1869. After 
receiving his preliminary training in the Catholic 
schools, he took up the study of law at the 
University of Chile. When but 24 years of age 
he was successful as a lawyer and in 1898 was 
elected by the Liberal party to the Chamber of 
Deputies. Later he became minister of state, 
and held the portfolios of industry and public 
works. He was given important posts under 
nearly every administration. On Dec. 23, 1920, 
he took office as President of the Chilean Repub- 
lie. 

ALEXANDER, KING oF THE. HELLENES 
(1893-1920). The second son of King Con- 
stantine and Queen Sophia was born on Aug. 
1, 1893, and ascended the throne of Greece on 
June 12, 1917. His original attitude of active 
personal interest in his subjects and kingdom 
immediately won for him the loyalty of his peo- 
ple. The diplomatic triumphs of Venizelos, 
Liberalist leader, at the Peace Conference, met 
serious reverses with the sudden death of Alex- 
ander on Oct. 27, 1920, by blood-poisoning from 


ALEXANDER 


the bite of a pet monkey. The Venizelist party 
was defeated in the general election which fol- 
lowed, and the exiled King Constantine was re- 
called to the Greek throne. 

ALEXANDER I (1888- ). King of the 
Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. The second son of 
Prince Peter Karajorgjevic, later King of Ser- 
bia, was educated at St. Petersburg, and en- 
tered (1904) the corps des pages at the Czar’s 
court. He was formally recognized as crown 
prince in 1909. On the outbreak of the Balkan 
War he had nominal command of the First 
Army. Because of the ill health of King Peter 
he was made prince regent in 1914, and was 
therefore commander-in-chief of the Serbian 
army when the War started. The Prince per- 
sonally became very popular with his soldiers, 
whose privations and hardships he shared. When 
the exiled Serbian government was established 
at Corfu, he was warmly received on his visits 
to Paris and London. On Dec. 1, 1918, he was 
formally recognized as regent in all the Jugo- 
Slav provinces by delegates of the Jugo-Slav 
National Council in Jagret. At the instigation 
of the Communists and other revolutionary 
groups, an attack was made on his life on 
June 28, 1921. He succeeded his father as King 
of Jugo-Slavia on Aug. 16, 1921. 

ALEXANDER, CARTER (1881- y. #An 
American educator, born in Paris, Mo., and edu- 
cated at the University of Missouri and Colum- 
bia University. He held various positions as 
teacher and as superintendent of schools in Mis- 
souri from 1898 to 1908. From 1908 to 1910 
he was research scholar and later fellow in ed- 
ucation at Columbia University. He was as- 
sistant professor of educational administration 
at the University of Missouri (1910-13), taught 
successively in the summer schools of Columbia 
and Chicago Universities, and from 1913 to 
1918 was professor of school administration and 
chairman of the committee on graduate work 
at the George Peabody College for Teachers at 
Nashville, Tenn. He was first assistant to the 
State Superintendent of Public Instruction of 
Wisconsin (1918-21) and in 1921 became as- 
sistant director of the Educational Finance In- 
quiry in New York. Besides contributing to 
periodicals he published Some Present Tend- 
encies of Teachers’ Voluntary Associations 
(1910), School Statistics and Publicity (1919), 
and Publicity Campaign for Better School Sup- 
port, with W. W.. Theisen (1921). 

ALEXANDER, HArtriey Burr (1875- V3 
An American scholar and educator (see VoL. I). 
During the War he represented the ultra-prag- 
matic wing of American philosophy and sought 
to apply philosophizing to the everyday prob- 
lems of war and peace. Liberty and Democracy 
(1918) is a collection of such contemporary 
essays. Letters to Teachers (1919) is an appeal 
to educators to forego the academic routine. 
His other works include Mythology of All Races, 
vol. x: North American (1916); vol. xi; Latin 
American (1920); and a volume of poetry, Odes 
and Lyrics (1921). In 1919 he served as presi- 
dent of the American Philosophical Association. 

ALEXANDER, HUBBARD FOSTER (1879- )s 
An American ship-owner engaged in ocean trans- 
portation. He was born at Colorado Springs, 
Colo., and received a high school education. He 
began as wharf agent of Dodwell, Carlill and 
Company, Ltd., at Tacoma, in 1897, and in 1900 
entered the Commercial Dock Company of Ta- 
coma, of which he became president in 1901. 


56 


ALEXANDER 


He was president of the Alaska Pacific Steam- 
ship Company in 1907, of the Alaska Coast Com- 
pany in 1908, president of the Alaska Naviga- 
tion Company in 1911, and in 1916 president of 
the Pacific Steamship Company (Admiral 
Line). Other offices which he has held are 
director of the Dollar Steamship Lines, director 
of the First National Bank of Seattle, and mem- 
ber of the National Foreign Trade Council, the 
American Bureau of Shipping, and the Amer- 
ican Steamship Association. 

ALEXANDER, JAMES STRANGE (1865- Ve 
An American banker born at Tarrytown, N. Y., 
and educated in the public schools. Entering the 
National Bank of Commerce, New York City, - 
in 1885, he was made vice-president in 1908 
and president in 1911. In 1907-08 he was 
treasurer of the American Express Company. 
He has been chairman of the board of the 
French-American Banking Corporation; director 
of the American Express Company, the American 
Foreign Securities Company, the Pacific Oil Com- 
pany, the American Telephone and Telegraph 
Company, the Prudential Insurance Company of 
America, and the Federal Reserve Bank of New 
York; trustee of the American Surety Company; 
chairman of the executive company of the Na- 
tional Committee on European Finance; mem- 
ber of the New York Liberty Loan Committee, 
etc. He was a member of the New York Clear- 
ing House Committee, 1913-16 and 1919-21. 
He was decorated by various foreign . govern- 
ments. 

ALEXANDER, MaitTianp (1867- } se) 
American clergyman born in New York and edu- 
cated at Princeton University, McCormick The- 
ological Seminary in Chicago, and Princeton 
Theological Seminary. He was ordained in the 
Presbyterian ministry in 1892 and held several 
pastorates in New Jersey and New York (1893 
to 1899). He accepted a pastorate in Pitts- 
burgh in 1899 and became moderator of the 
Presbyterian General Assembly (1916). 

ALEXANDER, Rosert (1863- ). An 
American army officer, born in Maryland. He 
graduated from the Army Staff College in 1910; 
was promoted through the grades, and reached 
that of colonel in 1917, after service in the 
Spanish-American War, the Philippines, Cuba, 
and Mexico. He went to France in 1917 as 
inspector-general, Line of Communications, was 
commander of the 4lst Division in 1918, and 
of the 77th Division from August, 1918, to May, 
1919. In this capacity he took part in the 
Oise-Aisne, Argonne-Meuse, and Marne-Aisne 
operations. On Aug. 4, 1921, he was appointed 
commander of the 3d F. A. Brigade. 

ALEXANDER, SAmMvueEL (1859- AR 
English philosopher and educator (see VoL. I). 
With the publication of his Gifford Lectures, 
Space, Time and Deity, in two volumes (1920), 
he joined the ranks of the leading English phi- 
losophers. His work was hailed in many quar- 
ters as combining the sweep of the great Ger- 
man metaphysicians with the critical insight 
characteristic of the British tradition. From 
his point of view as a realist, Professor Alex- 
ander constructs a genuine ontological meta- 
physics. Space-time is his ultimate reality, 
and he regards the entire universe as a hier- 
archy of complexes of this primitive matter; 
new qualities evolve out of the lower complexes; . 
it is thus that life, sensation, and mind come 
into being; and universals are patterns which 
are repeated at various places in the scale of 


ALEXANDER 


evolution. His conception of God is quite orig- 
inal. “God as actually possessing deity does 
not exist but as an ideal, is always becoming; 
but God as the whole Universe tending toward 
deity does exist.” Unlike the American neo- 
Realists, Professor Alexander is opposed to be- 
haviorism in psychology. He regards mind as a 
new quality and not as the neutral cross-section 
imagined by Prof. E. B. Holt. Professor Alex- 
ander was made Honorable Fellow of Lincoln 
College, Oxford, in 1918. His works since 1914 
include a number of articles on mind, discus- 
sions at the Aristotelian Society, and a lecture 
on Spinoza and Time (1921). For a critical 
consideration, see PHILOSOPHY. 

ALEXANDER, WaAttAce MCKINNEY (1869- 

). An American sugar manufacturer born 
on the Island of Maui (H. I.), where he has ex- 
tensive sugar plantations and refineries. He was 
educated at Yale University. He was appointed 
chairman of the commission visiting Japan 
(1920), chairman of the Japanese Relations 
Committee of California, and president of the 
San Francisco Chamber of Commerce (1921). 
He has been president of Alexander Baldwin, 
Ltd.; vice-president of the Matson Navigation 
Company, of the Hawaiian Commercial and 
Sugar Company, Ltd.; and of the Honolulu 
Consolidated Oil Company of California; and 
director of the California and Hawaiian Sugar 
Refining Company. 

ALEXEYEV, MiKairt (1857-1918). A Rus- 
sian general. He entered the army in 1876 and 
completed his course at the General Staff Col- 
lege in 1890. He became a member of the Rus- 
sian General Staff and in 1904 was made gen- 
eral. He took part in the war with Turkey and 
in the Russo-Japanese War. At the beginning 
of the War in 1914 he was chief of staff on the 
southwestern front, and eredit for the Russian 
victory of that year in Galicia was given to him. 
In 1915 he was transferred to the northwestern 
front, where he had eight armies under his com- 
mand. In August, 1915, he became chief of the 
headquarters supreme command and worked with 
the Emperor. A breakdown in health compelled 
him to resign late in 1916. After the revolu- 
tion of March, 1917, he was made commander-in- 
chief but was dismissed in May. Kerensky called 
on him for assistance in September, and he was 
at headquarters for 12 days. Not wishing 
to work with Kerensky or Kornilov, he then 
left, and at the beginning of the Bolshevik rule 


he fought against it in South Russia. He died 
in 1918, of heart disease. 
ALEY, Rogert Jupson (1863- Je An 


American educator (see Vou. I). After acting 
as president of the University of Maine (1910- 
1921), he became the president of Butler Col- 
lege. Recently he has contributed to the Edu- 
cational Review, School and Society, ete. 

ALFALFA LEAF WEEVIL. See Enrvo- 
MOLOGY, EcoNomIc. 

ALFONSO XIII (1886- ). King of Spain 
(see VoL, I). He made tireless efforts during 
the War to assist refugees and to obtain in- 
formation concerning prisoners and the missing. 
As a neutral, Spain was in a position to do a 
service of this sort; but recognizing that it was 
not a governmental duty, the King carried on 
the work entirely on his own initiative. 

ALFRED UNIVERSITY. A _ nonsectarian 
institution at Alfred, N. Y., organized as a school 
in 1836 and as a university in 1857. The stu- 
dent enrollment increased from 447 in 1912 to 


57 


ALGERIA 


586 in 1924, the staff of instructors from 42 
to 45, and the library from 25,000 to 36,000 
volumes. The endowment, including buildings, 


equipment, ete., increased from $500,000 to 
$1,206,000. A central heating plant and a new 
laboratory hall were built and the Greene 
Block was taken over for college purposes. 


President, Rev. Boothe Colwell 
LL.D. 

ALGERIA. A French colony and territory 
in North Africa. Its area is estimated variously 
from 222,180 to 343,000 square miles. The 
population according to the census of 1921 was 
5,802,464, of whom the northern division con- 
tained 5,256,420, and the southern, 546,044. 
The population in 1911 was 5,563,828. Of the 
total population in 1921, Europeans numbered 
831,040, against 681,772 in 1911, and the natives 
4,971,424, against 4,711,276 in 1911. French- 
men made up the majority of the European 
colonists, though it was estimated that Algeria 
contained 150,000 Spaniards and 40,000 Ital- 
ians, who were attracted by the liberal land 
grants offered by the government. The chief 
towns reported the following populaticen figures 


Davis, Ph.D., 


for 1921: Algiers, 206,595, an increase of 34,- 
199 over 1911; Oran, 141,156; Constantine, 
78,220; Bone, 45,171; Tlemcen, 43,090; Tizi- 


Ouzou, 35,171; Sidi-bel Abbés, 37,752; Blida, 
36,384; Phillippeville, 33,808; Sétif, 30,867. The 
native population, consisting of native Arabs, 
Berbers, Kabyles, and Mozabites, was entirely 
Mussulman. The chief Christian church was the 
Roman Catholic. Several Protestant churches 
and Jewish synagogues were supported by gov- 
ernment grants. 

Industry and Commerce. Agriculture con- 
tinued the leading activity of the population. 
An enlightened government interest contributed 
to its continuous development. European colo- 
nists in particular were encouraged to apply 
themselves to scientific cultivation. Irrigation 
was resorted to and the Algerian bureau of agri- 
culture did much to encourage the introduction 
of rust- and drought-resisting varieties of hard 
and soft wheat. The centres of production of 
cereal culture moved further and further South 
during the period, leaving the coast regions to 
the cultivation of vineyards, citrus fruits, vege- 
tables, tobacco, etc. The leading cereal crops, 
wheat, barley, and oats, produced a yield of 
1,008,280 metric tons in 1922 as compared with 
2.317,000 tons in 1921, and 1,089,840 in 1910. 
Because of the hard wheat produced and the 
presence of many skilled Italians, the manufac- 
ture of macaroni became important during the 
period. Production reached 17,500 tons annu- 
ally, of which 4358 tons were exported in 1921 
and 1695 tons in 1922. The manufacture of 
flour and semolina, too, grew in importance. 
The cultivation of the vine, following cereals in 
order, yielded 5,002,112 hectoliters in 1921 and 
7,473,091 in 1922 as compared with 8,413,654 in 
1910. Tobacco planting showed the best ad- 
vances during the decade. In 1913, 26,785 acres 
under cultivation yielded 10,866 metric tons; in 
1921, the planting was 53,810 acres and the 
yield 22,512 tons. The growth in the industry 
was due to the encouragement given by the 
French Tobacco Monopoly which bought up the 
major part of the crop. Other products con- 
tributing to the wealth of the colony were alfa 
or esparto grass, palm leaf fibre, fruits, vege- 
tables, lumber, woods, charcoal, ete. Algeria, 
too, furnished France with one-fourth of its 


ALIEN 


sheep consumption. .Minerals, principally iron 
ore and phosphates, were also important. There 
were mined in 1922, 1,045,816 metric tons of iron 
ore (1,432,748 in 1913), 484,304 tons of phos- 


phates (370,934 in 1913), 31,439 tons of zinc 
(118,884 in 1913), 1390 tons of petroleum 
(67 in 1913). After the War, efforts were 


made to develop a greater coal and lignite pro- 
duction, but with only little success. Figures 
for trade -follow: imports for 19138, 1920, and 
1922, 667,305,000, 3,072,707,000, and 2,077,089,- 
000 frances, respectively; exports for the same 
years, 501,169,000, 1,355,372,000, and 1,379,491,- 
000 franes. The balance of trade thus continued 
unfavorable, but this was largely written off by 
the income due Algerians on foreign securities 
and by the expenditures of tourists. Leading 
exports in 1922 were wine, 426,509,000 francs; 
sheep, 104,258,000; raw silk, 15,726,000; tobac- 
co, 45,654,000; and _ cigarettes, 38,696,000. 
France, in 1921, took 73.93 per cent of the Al- 
gerian trade, United States 5.03 per cent, Moroc- 
co 4.4 per cent, and Great Britain 3 per cent. 
On Dee. 31, 1922, there were 1751 miles of rail- 
way operated by the state and 2464 miles by the 
Paris, Lyons, & Mediterranean Company. In 
1912 there were 2049 miles in all. In 1920. a 
vast improvement scheme was announced, call- 
ing for the development of railways, vehicle 
roads, ports, schools, colonization, postal, tele- 
graph, and telephone communications, foresta- 
tion, irrigation, ete., and for this work loans 
up to 1,600,000,000 frances were authorized by 
the French law of July 23, 1921.. Of this 
programme, by 1923, only some 400 miles of 
railway were in construction or projected. 

Government and History. There were no 
important administrative changes in the colony 
during the period, except the extension of French 
citizenship in 1919 to veterans of the French 
army or navy, landowners, farmers, licensed 
traders, those capable of reading and writing 
French, and possessors of a French decoration. 
Estimated revenue for 1912 and 1922 was 151,- 
690,315 franes and 377,864,674 francs respective- 
ly; expenditure for 1912 and 1922 was 151,669.,- 
255 franes and 377,564,649 francs. In 1912, the 
direct taxes on natives were suppressed. There 
was no external debt, and the French govern- 
ment met the expenses of the War and of naval 
establishments. The colony remained peaceful 
during the period 1914-24, and its economic 
progress proceeded unchecked under the benefi- 
eent eye of the French imperial administration. 
But the European population grew very slowly, 
under the deterrent influence of the system of 
land tenure. Colonists found their acquisition 
of property checked by the faulty titles and 
the refusal of the natives to sell their land, 
much of which was held by communities. Again, 
the onerous conditions imposed upon colonists 
by the state, i.e. a five years’ residence require- 
ment for a complete title, retarded immigration. 

ALIEN ENEMY PROPERTY CUSTO- 
DIAN. See Unirep States, History. 

ALKALI EARTH METALS. See CHEM- 
ISTRY. 

ALLEE, Warper CLybDE (1885- )5 Lian 
American zodlogist and teacher, born at Bloom- 
ingdale, Ind., and educated at Earlham College 
and the University of Chicago. He was assist- 
ant professor of zodlogy at Oklahoma University 
(1914-15) ; professor of biology at Lake Forest 
College (1915-21); assistant professor of zo- 
ology at the University of Chicago (1921-23), 


58 


ALLEN 


and associate professor there. (1923- ).' He 
was on the teaching staff of the Marine Biologi- 
cal Laboratory at Woods Hole (1914-21), lee- 
turer in zodlogy at the University of California 
(1923) and secretary of the American Society 
of Zodlogists (1918- ). He has published 
numerous papers on animal reactions and on ani- 
mal ecology, particularly on the ecology of the 
marine invertebrates of the Woods Hole region. 

ALLEGHENY COLLEGE. A coeducational, 
nonsectarian college at Meadville, Pa., founded 
in 1815. A new gymnasium and an addition to 
the women’s dormitory were built during the 
decade 1914-24, and the endowment was _ in- 
creased from $1,000,000 to $2,000,000. The stu- 
dent enrollment rose from 405 in 1916 to 540 
in the year 1923-24 (102 in the summer of 
1923), the faculty membership from 27 to 35, 
and the number of volumes in the library from 
44,000 to 54,500. President, Fred W. Hixson, 
D.D:, LL.D. 

ALLEN, BeENNET Mitts (1877- ). An 
American zodlogist born at Greencastle, Ind., 
and educated at DePauw University and the 
University of Chicago. He was instructor, as- 
sistant professor and professor in the University 
of Wisconsin (1903-13); professor of zodlogy 
at the University of Kansas (1913-22); and 
associate professor of biology at the University 
of California, Southern Branch (1922- ty 
He was vice-president of the American Society of 
Zodlogists (1922). He has published articles 
on various embryological subjects, the most note- 
worthy on the relation of the thyroid gland 
and hypophysis to the metamorphosis of the 
Amphibia. 

ALLEN, CAtvin Francis (1851- ).. Am 
American engineer, born at Roxbury, Mass. 
He was graduated at the Massachusetts Insti- 
tute of Technology in 1872, but after holding 
various engineering appointments, chiefly in 
connection with waterworks and railroads, he 
turned to law, was admitted to the bar, and 
practiced in both New Mexico and his native 
State. Returning in 1887 to engineering, he be- 
came successively assistant, associate, and then 
professor of railroad engineering in the Insti- 
tute of Technology, until 1916, when he was re- 
tired. During the War he had charge of im- 


' portant work under the Fuel Administration in 


Massachusetts. Prof. Allen published Railroad 
Curves and Earthworks (1889), Tables for 
Earthwork Computation (1893), Field and Of- 
fice Tables (1903), and Business Law for En- 
gineers (1917). 

ALLEN, Epwarp FRANK (1885- ).)- An 
American editor and author, born in Newark, 
N. J. Positions which he has held through an 
active and varied career in journalism included 
that of reporter in Canandaigua, N. Y., 1904; 
contributor to the New York Times review of 
books since 1906; managing editor of the Bo- 
hemian Magazine (1908); publisher of Book 
News Service (1909); editor of Travel (1910- 
14); editor of ILppincott’s Magazine (1914- 
15); editor of McBride’s Magazine (1915-16) ; 
editor of Travel (1916- ); and editor of The 
National Marine (1918-19; 1920- ). He is 
also a contributor to The Dial, Outing, News- 
paper Feature Service, Scribner’s, The Century, 
Country Life, ete., and the author of A Guwide 
to the National Parks of America (1915) and 
Keeping Our Fighters Fit (1918). 

ALLEN, FLoRENcE ELLENWoop (1884— yi 
An American judge, born at Salt Lake City, 


ALLEN 


Utah, and educated at Salt Lake College, West- 
ern Reserve University, the University of Chi- 
eago, and New York University. She began her 
career as assistant to the Berlin correspondent 
of the Jiusical Courier and was later music 
editor of the Cleveland Plain Dealer and lecturer 
on music for the New York City Board of Edu- 
action. She was admitted to the bar and began 
her law practice at Cleveland, Ohio, in 1914. 
She became judge of the Court of Common Pleas 
of Cuyahoga County, Ohio (1921-26), and in 
1922 was elected judge of the Supreme Court of 
Ohio. She was the first woman in America to 
hold such an office and the first woman in the 
world to judge first degree murder cases. She 
is author of Patris, a book of poems (Cleveland, 
1908). 

ALLEN, FREDERICK JAMES (1864— yet Ar 
American vocational director, born at Limerick, 
Me., and educated at Dartmouth College and 
Harvard University. He held teaching positions 
at Boston University, Simmons College, ete., and 
subsequently became director of the Young 
Men’s Civie Club of Boston (1904), investigator 
of occupations for the Vocational Bureau in 
Boston (1910-17), and director of the Bureau of 
Vocational Guidance of Harvard University. 
His works include Vocations for Boys and Young 
Men (1911), The Law as a Vocation (1913), 
Advertising as @ Vocation (1918), and A Guide 
to the Study of Occupations (1921). 

ALLEN, FREDERICK LEwis (1890- ). An 
American editor born at Boston, and educated 
at Harvard University. He was assistant in 
English at Harvard University (1912-14), as- 
sistant editor of the Atlantic Monthly (1914- 
16), and managing editor of the Century Maga- 
eine (1916-17). He was engaged in war pub- 
licity work for the Council of National Defense, 
1917-19. From 1919 to 1923 he served as secre- 
tary to the Corporation of Harvard University. 
In 1923 he became literary adviser to the pub- 
lishing house of Harper and Brothers. 

ALLEN, FREDERICK Mapison (1879- Ne 
An American physician, originator of the Allen 
fasting treatment for diabetes. He received his 
education at Stanford University (M.D. 1907). 
At the Harvard Laboratory of Preventive Medi- 
cine and Hygiene he devoted several years 
(1909-12) to research in the nature of diabetes. 
Later he was on the staff of the Rockefeller In- 
stitute for Medical Research in New York and 
in 1919 founded the Physiatric Institute at 
Morristown, N. J., a clinical and research in- 
stitution for the study and treatment of dia- 
betes and other nutritional diseases. The re- 
sults of his early laboratory work were pub- 
lished in 1913 in a large volume, Studies Con- 
cerning Glycosuria and Diabetes, epochal in 
our knowledge of these disorders. In 1922 Dr. 
Allen, who is medical director of the Physiatric 
Institute, established the Journal of Metabolic 
Research, of which he is editor-in-chief. 

ALLEN, Henry Justin (1868- ). An 
American governor born in Warren County, Pa., 
and educated at Baker University and Wash- 
burn College, Kan. He began professional life 
as an editor and subsequently owned several 
daily newspapers, especially in Kansas. He was 
in France with the American Red Cross in 1917 
and 1918; in the latter year he organized the 
“home communication service” of the American 
Red Cross in France. He is best known for his 
work as governor of Kansas (1919-21), where 
he took an active interest in industrial problems. 


59 


ALLEN 


He has contributed to magazines articles on 
political, industrial, and administrative subjects. 
He is author of The Party of the Third Part 
and The Story of the Kansas Industrial Rela- 
tions Court (New York, 1921). ; 

ALLEN, Henry Tureman (1859- ). AD 
American army officer, born at Sharpsburg, Ky., 
and graduated from the United States Military 
Academy in 1882. After an exploration trip 
into Alaska in 1885, he was instructor in the 
Academy in 1888-89 and then military attaché 
in Russia and Germany; afterward he served 
with the army in Cuba, the Philippines, and 
Mexico. After organizing a cavalry brigade at 
Fort Riley, Kan., in 1917, and acting as com- 
mander at Camp Travis, Tex., he went abroad 
as commander of the American Forces in Ger- 
many, July 2, 1919. He is the author of Re- 
connaissance of Copper, Tanana and Kuyukuk 
Rivers (1886); Military System of Sweden 
(1895) ; My Rhineland Journal (1923). 

ALLEN, Ipa C. B. (1885- ). An Ameri- 
can dietician, born at Danielson, Conn., and 
educated at the English High School, Worcester, 
Mass., Oread Institute of Domestic Science, 
Worcester, and the Metropolitan Hospital, New 
York. She is a graduate dietician of the last- 
named institution. She has been dietician in 
several hospitals, director of domestic science 
in the Y. W. C. A., Worcester, Mass., lecturer 
on dietetics, and author of correspondence school 
courses. In 1920 she founded Mrs. Allen’s 
School of Good Cookery. She is a contributor 
to various magazines and was formerly editor of 
“Three Meals a Day” (Good Housekeeping Maga- 
zine), “The Housewife’s Forum” (Pictorial Re- 
view), and “Domestic Science’ (Woman’s 
World). She is author of The Golden Rule Cook 
Book (1916), Mrs. Allen’s Cook Book (Boston, 
1917); Mrs. Allen’s Book of Meat Substitutes, 
Mrs. Allen’s Book of Sugar Substitutes, and 
Mrs. Allen’s Book of Wheat Substitutes (1918) ; 


Woman’s World Calendar Cook Book (1922), 
and The Bride’s Book (1922). 
ALLEN, Sir JAmMeEs (1885- ). A New 


Zealand statesman, born in South Australia and 
educated at Clifton College and St. John’s Col- 
lege, Cambridge, and the Royal School of Mines. 
He rendered invaluable service to the British 
government in its problems of an educational, 
military, and imperial nature. He had an un- 
common faculty for solving financial and mili- 
tary questions. During the War he was an un- 
popular Minister of Defense under the Massey- 
Ward war coalition, but his unfaltering accu- 
racy and keen judgment subsequently regained 
public confidence and approval. In 1920 he re- 
tired from politics and became the Dominion’s 
High Commissioner in London. 

LLEN, JAmesS LANE (1849- ha An 
American author (see Vor. I). He has added 
to his long list of works The Last Christmas 
Tree (1914), Sword of Youth (1915), The Ca- 
thedral Singer (1918), Kentucky Warbler 
(1918), and Emblems of Fidelity (1919). 

ALLEN, Jorn AsapH = (1838-1921). An 
American zodlogist, born at Springfield, Mass., 
and educated at Wilbraham Academy and Law- 
rence Scientific School of Harvard University, 
where he studied under Louis Agassiz, whom he 
accompanied on his expedition to Brazil. He 
was in charge of mammals and birds at the 
Museum of Comparative Zoédlogy (1867-85) ; 
curator of ornithology and mammalogy at the 
American Museum of Natural History in New 


ALLEN 


York City (1885-1919), and curator of mam- 
malogy, that. (1919-21). In 1916 he published 
an autobiographical and bibliographical paper 
in which he listed titles of 1433 articles pub- 
lished up to that date. He was editor of The 
Auk (1884-91); Bulletin of the American Mu- 
seum of Natural History (1886-1918) ; the zo- 
ological numbers of the Memoirs of the Museum, 
(1895-1918); Check List of North American 
Birds (1895 and 1910) ; Supplement to the Code 
of Nomenclature and Check List of North Amer- 
ican Birds (1887), and Code of Nomenclature 
(1908). 

ALLEN, Ritey Harris (1884— day aT 
American editor, born at Colorado City, Tex., 
and educated at the University of Chicago He 
was reporter on the Honolulu Evening Bulletin 
in 1905, but two years later he joined the staff 
of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer (1907-10), sub- 
sequently becoming city editor of the Honolulu 
Evening Bulletin (1910-12), and of the Hono- 
lulu Star Bulletin (1912). In 1918 he went to 
Siberia with the American Red Cross. In 1920- 
21 he was engaged in rescuing and repatriating 
the Russian children exiled in Siberia, and was 
decorated by the All-Russian Government with 
the Cross of St. Anne for his services. He has 
contributed to the Saturday Evening Post, Col- 
lier’s, Munsey’s, ete. 

ALLEN, SHERMAN (1875- ). An Ameri- 
ean public official, born at Westford, Vt., and 
educated in the public schools. He was reporter 
and city editor of the Free Press from 1895 to 
1901, and later held many important positions 
of a political nature, among them that of assist- 
ant secretary to President William H. Taft 
(1910-11), Assistant Secretary of the Treasury 
(1911-13), and assistant secretary and _ fiscal 
agent of the Federal Reserve Board (1914-18). 
He was treasurer of the War Finance Corpo- 
ration (1918-19), and in 1919 he identified 
himself with the National City Bank of New 
York. 

ALLEN, Witt1am Harvey (1874— 8 
American social worker and publicist, born at 
LeRoy, Minn., and educated at the Universities 
of Leipzig, Berlin, and Pennsylvania. He was 
a pioneer in the creation of agencies for the 
scientific study of social and administrative 
problems and did his most effective work as the 
head of the New York Bureau of Municipal Re- 
search, 1907-14. The idea of the expert in 
municipal affairs largely owes its inception and 
extension to his activities, and he himself has 
played the part of investigator and technical 
adviser for many local, State, and educational 
agencies. From 1915 he devoted himself to edu- 
cational administrative problems; his organiza- 
tion, the Institute for Public Service, served as 
a clearing house for popular pamphlets and 
brochures on the subject. In fact he has been 
a pamphleteer meeting with unusual success in 
his. work, and his catholicity of interests has 
insured his importance as an unofficial critic of 
social and governmental machinery. His pub- 


lished works include’ Ffficient Democracy 
(1907), Civies and Health (1909), Woman’s 
Part in Government. (1911), Modern Philan- 


thropy (1912), Self Surveys by Colleges and 
Universities and Self Surveys by Teacher-Train- 
ing Schools (1917). 

ALLEN TREATMENT FOR DIABETES. 
See DIABETES. 

ALLENBY, EpMuNpd HENRY HYNDMAN 
(1861—- ). A British field marshal, born in 


60 


ALLENSTEIN 


Felixstowe, England. He was educated at the 
Royal Military College at Sandhurst and in 
1882 entered the Inniskilling Dragoons, with 
which he served in the Bechuanaland expedi- 
tion of 1884-85 and in the Zululand operations 
of 1888; he also served in South Africa, 1899- 
1902, gaining for his services in that war the 
rank of brevet colonel, and was made a Com- 
panion of the Bath. In 1902 he was given the 
Fifth Lancers and in 1905 was promoted to 
command of Fourth Cavalry Brigade. He was 
advanced to major general in 1909 and a year 
later became inspector of cavalry. In 1914 he 
went to France in charge of the cavalry division 
and a year later was given command of the Fifth 
Army Corps; shortly afterward, he became chief 
of the Third Army, participating in the battle 
of the Somme. The promotion to general was 
given him in 1917, and he was placed in com- 
mand of the troops in Egypt and Palestine. 
The Palestine campaign of 1917 under his di- 
rection was brilliantly conducted, culminating 
in the capture of Jerusalem on Dec. 9, 1917. 
Later in 1918 he completed his undertaking by 
occupying Damascus and Beirut, and all Syria 
passed into the hands of the Allies. For his 
services in the War he was promoted to the 
rank of field marshal and made _ Viscount 
Allenby of Meggido and Felixstowe. Since 1919 
he has been High Commissioner for Egypt, with 
headquarters in Cairo. Besides being made a 
Commander of the Bath (1915), Grand: Cross 
of St. Michael and St. George (1918), and Grand 
Cross of the Bath (1918), he has received the 
Distinguished Service Medal of the United States, 
the Croix de Guerre of both France and Belgium, 
and many other foreign decorations. For his 
success in the Palestine campaign the British 
government made him a grant of £50,000. See 
With Allenby in Palestine by F. 8S. Brereton 
(1920) and Allenby’s Final Triumph by W. T. 
Maffey (1920). See War In Europr, Turkish 
Front. 

ALLENSTEIN-MARIENWERDER. Arti- 
cles 94-98 of the Treaty of Versailles, as a 
result of the demands of the Poles, provided for 
the holding of plebiscites in the two regions 


known as Allenstein and Marienwerder (total 
area, 15,000 square kilometers). Allenstein, 
made up of eight East Prussian districts 


(Kreise), seated a population of 556,000, of 
whom 268,000 were Poles and 288,000 Germans. 
It is a little-frequented region of forests and 
marshland, whose leading economic activity is 
the export of wood. The Poles here had em- 
braced Protestantism in the sixteenth century, 
and this, as well as their long dependence on 
their German masters, had estranged them from 
the great body of Catholic Poles. Marienwerder, 
consisting of four West Prussian districts, was 
much more important, although smaller. Its 
population included 24,000 Poles and 114,000 
Germans. Its location on the East bank of the 
Vistula, and the fact that it was traversed by 
the Danzig-Mlava railway, the shortest route 
from Danzig to Warsaw, made its disposition 
a matter of the first moment to Poland. Inter- 
Allied commissions took control of both areas 
until the date fixed for the plebiscites, June 11, 
1920, but the presence of troops could not check 
the frequent disorders, for the most part the 
work of irregular Polish bands. The votes, as 
finally taken on July 11, yielded German vic- 
tories in both areas. In Allenstein 98 per cent 
of the vote was for Germany, and in Marien- 


¢ 


ALLIANCE FRANCAISE 


werder, 92 per cent. The two regions therefore 
were turned over to Germany. The Treaty of 
Versailles had assured Poland control of the 
Vistula, and it was to effect this that the Council 
of Ambassadors attempted to assign Poland a 
strip on the Vistula’s East bank 50 miles in 
width and 30 miles long and containing four 
villages. This raised a _ storm of protest 
throughout Prussia, so that reluctance to take 
a step so clearly unpopular prevented the Coun- 
cil of Ambassadors from delimiting the bound- 
ary and ordering the transfer of the territory 
in question. The matter was still unsettled in 
1924. 

ALLIANCE FRANCAISE, FEDERATION DE 
L’, An association of societies founded for the 
purpose of encouraging in the United States and 
Canada the study and cultivation of the lan- 
guage, literature, art and history of France. 
Established in 1902, it increased its groups from 
150 in 1916 to 226 in 1924. It published a 
Year Book (Bulletin Officiel) and a monthly, 
I’?Echo de la Fédération, both in French. The 
Moliére centenary was celebrated in 1922 and 
the Pasteur anniversary in 1923. A Congress 
of the French Language and Literature was or- 
ganized in 1922 by the Fédération in Chicago. 
Every year during the period the Fédération 
brought one or more eminent men of letters from 
France as official lecturers to speak before the 
groups and affiliated societies, and organized 
lecture tours for other distinguished French 
travelers. 

ALLIED DEBTS. See FINANCE AND BANK- 
Ina, Inter-Governmental Debts. 

ALLIN, CEpHAS DANIEL (1875- PTA. 
college professor, born at Clinton, Ont., and edu- 
cated at the Universities of Toronto, Harvard, 
Berlin, and Oxford. After teaching successive- 
ly in Leland Stanford Jr. University and in 
Queen’s University (Canada), 1902-07, he en- 
tered the University of Minnesota in 1907 as 
instructor in political science. He became pro- 
fessor of public law in 1917. Besides contri- 
butions to scientific journals, he has written 
The Early Federation Movement of Australia 
(1907), Annexation, Preferential Trade and 
Reciprocity (1911), and The Tariff Relations of 
the Australian Colonies (1917). 

ALLINSON, ANNE Crosspy EMERY (MRS. 
FRANCIS GREENLEAF ALLINSON (1871- ). An 
American writer on the Greek and Latin 
classics (see Vor. I). She was acting dean of 
the Women’s College at Brown University 
(1920-21). In her two books, Greek Lands and 
Letters, written with her husband (Boston, 
1909), and Roads from Rome (New York, 1913), 
as well as in contributions to magazines, she de- 
scribes, in an engaging way, her travels in 
Greece and Italy, recalling the literary and ar- 
tistic associations of the places she visited and 
showing the influence of natural environment on 
literature. 

ALLIS, Epwarp PHELPS (1851- yo) An 
American manufacturer and zoélogist, born in 
Milwaukee, Wis. He was educated at Delaware 
Literary Institute, Antioch College, and Massa- 
chusetts Institute of Technology. He founded 
and maintained for several years the Lake 
Laboratory at Milwaukee as a private research 
institution. Here he and his associates worked 
mainly on the anatomy and embryology of the 
vertebrate head. His work has been recognized 
by many of the leading foreign and American 
societies of which he is a member, and in addi- 


61 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


tion he has received the Prix Lallemand (Paris), 
Palmes Académiques (Paris), ete. 

ALLISON, Davip CLArk (1881). An Ameri- 
ean architect, born in Hookstown, Pa. He took 
special courses in architecture at the University 
of Pennsylvania and studied also in Paris. Be- 
ginning the practice of his profession in 1906, 
he moved in 1910 to Los Angeles, forming the 
firm of Allison and Allison. This firm de- 
signed a group of 12 buildings for the University 
of California and also several high school 
groups, an open-air Memorial Theatre at Santa 
Monica, and more than 150 school buildings in 
California and Arizona. During the War he was 
divisional representative of the American Red 
Cross with the American combat division on the 
British front in France. 


ALLOYS. See CHEMISTRY. 
ALSACE-LORRAINE. Since 1918, again 
the French departments of Bas-Rhin, Haut- 


Rhin, and Moselle. Area, 5605 square miles; 
population, in 1921, 1,709,749, as compared with 
1,874,014 in 1910. According to the 1910 cen- 
sus, 1,634,260 were German-speaking and 204,- 
262, French. The distribution by religions was 
Catholics, 1,428,343; Protestants, 408,274; 
Jews, 30,483. The falling off in population was 
accounted for in part by the loss of 45,000 men 
in the War and the emigration of from 75,000 
to 118,000 German citizens during 1918-21. Ac- 
cording to a 1923 estimate, Germans in the 
three departments numbered 70,434 unnatural- 
ized, and 78,000 naturalized. Other foreign 
nationals numbered 60,300. The French-speak- 
ing population was on the increase through the 
return of large numbers of former residents. 
Principal cities with their populations in 1921 
were Strassburg, 166,767 (178,891 in 1911); 
Mulhouse (Miilhausen), 98,393; Metz, 62,311; 
Sarreguemines, 14,318; Colmar, 42,255; Thion- 
ville, 13,410; Guebwiller, 11,520. After 1920, 
instruction was in French, a certain amount of 
time, however, being set off for religious in- 
struction in German in certain Alsatian dis- 
tricts. The University of Strassburg was 
opened in 1919, and in 1921 had 2415 students. 

Industry. Agriculture continued to engage 
the attention of a large proportion of the popu- 
lation. The leading crops were wheat, oats, rye, 
barley, sugar beets, hops, potatoes. The wine 
production in 1920 reached 725,000 hectoliters, 
valued at 124,000,000 frances. The economic im- 
portance of the departments to France, however, 
lay in their mineral wealth. In Alsace were 
to be found petroleum and great potash fields; 
in Lorraine, some of the greatest iron deposits 
in Europe. In fact, from Lorraine, Germany 
derived 75 per cent (21,000,000 long tons) of 
all the iron mined in the Empire. In 1921 the 
output had only reached 7,826,674 metric tons; 
yet it totaled more than half of the whole 
French yield. The state of the industry is in- 
dicated by the fact that only 8974 workers were 
employed in 1921 as compared with 17,237 in 
1913. Coal, mined largely in that portion of 
the Saar Basin deposits which extends into 
Lorraine, yielded 3,795,262 tons in 1913 and 
3,621,928 in 1921. In the potash mines of Al- 
sace, whose acquisition made France the great- 
est producer in the world, 1,039,635 tons were 
mined in 1920 and 657,087 in 1921, as compared 
with 355,341 tons in 1913. Oil-fields, lying in 
the Bas-Rhin (Alsace) were the scene of ex- 
tensive. operations. In 1913, production was 
placed at 49,584 tons; in 1920, 54,909 tons; in 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


1921, 55,574 tons. The total for France and the 
colonies was only 60,000 tons. As a result of 
these natural resources the Lorraine was the 
seat of a great iron and steel industry. In 
1921, pig iron produced was 1,447,000 tons, as 
compared with 3,460,000 tons in 1913; steel, in 
1921, showed a production of 1,156,129 tons as 
compared with 22,260,000 tons in 1913. On the 
other hand, the textile industry was first in 
importance in Alsace, and by its addition it in- 
creased the number of spindles for the whole of 
France by 23 per cent. The railroad system 
ranked with the best in France; in 1919 there 
were 2228 kilometers of line. In 1921, too, 
there were 131 kilometers of rivers open to navi- 
gation and 368 kilometers of canals. 

Government. By decree, in 1918, the French 
Republic took over the administration of the 
provinces, and a High Commission, accompa- 
nied by a military force, was installed at Strass- 
burg. To the High Commissioner were dele- 
gated the functions of supervising the activities 
-of the three departments and of recommending 
appropriate legislation to the French Chambers 
during the extremely delicate transitional pe- 
riod. During 1919-23, some 400 decrees were 
prepared to hasten a greater administrative and 
legislative codrdination. The introduction of 
the French code was to be only gradual. The 
first step was the installation of the French 
electoral and fiscal systems on Oct. 17, 1919. 
For a closer understanding between population 
and administration, a common regional council 
was erected with legislative powers concerning 
budgeting but with only consultative powers 
in all other matters. The French language 
was introduced in the schools, though religious 
instruction in German among Alsatians was for 
the time being maintained. High Commission- 
ers during the period were Georges Maringer 
(November, 1918, to April, 1919), Alexandre 
Millerand (to January, 1920), and Gabriel Ala- 
petite (1920- ). 

History. In accordance with the terms of the 
Armistice, French troops entered Miilhausen on 
Noy. 15, 1918, and Strassburg on November 22. 
On December 5, the Alsace-Lorraine Diet, which 
had been erected by Germany in 1911] in re- 
sponse to a demand for popular government, 
converted itself into a national assembly and 
formally welcomed the return of the French 
administration. Its president declared: “Le 
référendum est fait!” and four days later the 
French President replied: “Le plébiscite est 
fait!’ The occupation was thus complete, and 
the answer was given to that branch of Allied 
opinion, including the Socialists, which sought 
the holding of a plebiscite in the two provinces 
in order to invest the restoration with a legal 
sanction. A year later, in November, 1919, Al- 
satians and Lorrainers, as Frenchmen, took part 
in the general election to the satisfaction of 
all the political parties. In the following years, 
the problems of administration concerned them- 
selves wholly with the readjustments in finance, 
education, language, ete. It was inevitable, of 
course, that difficulties should arise. Alsace, 
in particular, had been essentially a German 
province, and the transitional period brought 
with it a derangement of habitual manners 
and modes of thought. There was grumbling 
over the substitution of a French bureaucracy 
for the German, over the tardy settlement of 
the language and religious questions, over the 
too zealous application of martial law, and the 


62 


ALUMINA CEMENT. 


inability of the government to convert the 
German currency into the French with consist- 
ency. It was not until June, 1922, that the 
French government was able to straighten out 
the financial tangle by providing funds through 
which the provinces’ banks might convert the 
currency at the authorized rate, viz., 1.25 
francs per mark. As for the religious and 
language questions, a compromise was arranged 
by which the elementary schools were  per- 
mitted to maintain their denominational char- 
acter and continue religious instruction in Ger- 
man, while no attempt was made to sever the 
connection between Church and State. It was 
made plain, however, that ultimately Church 
and State would be separated, as in the rest 
of France. In general, the French were treat- 
ing these and all other problems with their 
characteristic tact, and evidence was not want- 
ing that the process of assimilation was being 
lightly felt. 

ALSTON, Rosert CoTTen (1873- ). An 
American lawyer, born in Barber County, Ala., 
and educated atthe University of Alabama and 
the Atlanta Law School (Ga.). He began prac- 
ticing in Atlanta in 1893 and until 1903 was 
a member of the firm of Tompkins and Alston. 
He was later a member of the firm of McDaniel, 
Alston and Black, and from 1911 to 1921 of the 
firm of Robert C. and Philip H. Alston. Some 
of the positions he has held are general counsel 
of the Southern Express Company, special coun- 
sel of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad, and 
general attorney of the American Railway Ex- 
press Company. He was president of the Geor- 
gia Bar Association (1913-14) and in 1907 be- 
came chancellor of the diocese of the Protestant 
Episcopal Church of Atlanta. 

ALTHOFF, Henry (1873- ). An Ameri- 
can Roman Catholic bishop, born in Aviston, 
Ill., and educated at St. Joseph’s College, Teu- 
topolis, Ill., St. Francis Solanus College, Quincy, 
Ill., and the University of Innsbruck, Austria. 
He was ordained priest in the Roman Catholic 
Church at Innsbruck in 1902. After serving 
as assistant and as pastor in Missouri and in 
Illinois, he was consecrated bishop at Belleville, 
Tll., in 1914. 

ALTO ADIGE. See Trrot, GerMAN SouTH. 

ALTSCHULER, Mopest (1873- Jee A. 
Russian orchestral conductor, born at Mogilev, 
Feb. 15, 1873. From 1886 to 1890 he was a 
pupil at the Moscow Conservatory, studying 
’cello with Fitzenhagen and composition with 
Arensky, Safonov and Taneiev. After touring 
Russia with his own trio he came to New York, 
where in 1903 he organized the Russian Sym- 
phony Orchestra for the purpose of introducing 
the works: of the then little known Russian com- 
posers. Among those whom he first introduced 
to American audiences were Rachmaninov, Ip- 
politov-Ivanov, Skriabin, Liadov, Vassilenko, 
Spendiarov, and Konius. Players who made 
their American début under his baton include 
Elman, Lhevinne, Rachmaninov, and Margaret 
Volavy. On Mar. 20, 1915, he gave the first 
complete performance anywhere of Skriabin’s 
Prométhée, which requires the use of a specially 
constructed color-keyboard. From the very be- 
ginning Altschuler’s concerts met with success 
In 1920 the orchestra was disbanded, after ac- 
complishing the object for which it was founded. 

ALTSCHULER AWARD. See LAsor Arsi- 
TRATION. : . 

ALUMINA CEMENT. See CEMENT. : 


ALUMINIUM 


ALUMINIUM, or AtumMiINuUM. The world’s 
output of aluminium in 1913 amounted to 78,- 
093 metric tons; it reached a maximum of 200,- 
328 metric tons in 1918. The United States 
generally produces from 35 per cent to 50 per 
cent of the world’s output; at the same time it 
imports a certain amount, and in 1922 it reached 
a record total for metal, crude scrap and alloy, 
of 43,065,039 pounds. The world’s production, 
which in 1921 had fallen to 76,494 tons, was 
estimated at 117,130 metric tons in 1922. The 
United States in 1922 produced 52,000 tons, 
against 28,750 in 1921 The value of new alu- 
minium produced in the United States during 
1923 was estimated by the United States Geo- 
logical Survey at $28,305,000, more than double 
the value produced in 1922 at domestic plants. 
Domestic aluminium was quoted at $.22 to $.23 
during January, 1923, but by the end of April 
the price had reached $.27 per pound for a 99 
per cent grade; it remained practically sta- 
tionary at this point throughout the year. The 
98 per cent grade was quoted $.01 lower, and 
foreign aluminium was somewhat less expensive. 

The expansion in the consumption of alu- 
minium between 1914 and 1924 was largely due 
to the increase in the construction of automo- 
biles. It was estimated that 25 per cent of the 
domestic aluminium produced in the United 
States was consumed by makers of automobiles, 
who used 72,700,000 pounds of the metal in 
1922. In fact the consumption of aluminium 
followed quite closely the status of the auto- 
mobile industry and the number of cars pro- 
duced, as it was being employed more and more, 
not only in sheets for bodies and in small cast- 
ings, but also in aluminium alloys for engine 
parts. 

Duralumin connecting rods were employed in 
several motor car engines, while duralumin rims 
for motor car wheels alsc had been developed. 
Duralumin was the most important of the alu- 
minium alloys which had been developed, and 
it also found application in airships and air- 
planes. It was an alloy of aluminium with 
copper, Manganese, and magnesium, having a 
maximum specific gravity of 2.75 and a tensile 
strength of 55,000 pounds per square inch. This 
alloy proved very useful in Europe and was 
employed in the United States for the airship 
Shenandoah and other aircraft. Several plants 
were developed for the production of this metal, 
and by 1924 an important industry in the man- 
ufacture of duralumin shapes and forgings had 
been developed. See Motor VEHICLES. 

Other uses of aluminium, in addition to house- 
hold ware and various sorts of containers, were 
in bronze powder and in solid rubber tires for 
motor cars. There was also an increased use 
of aluminium foil for wrapping food and confec- 
tionery products. In steel metallurgy it was 
employed for oxidizing and for thermite pur- 
poses and for alloys. In 1923 there were impor- 
tant developments of silicon-aluminium alloys. 
Formerly silicon had been believed to be very 
harmful in the metal, and in all steps in min- 
ing the ore and in making aluminium, precau- 
tions were taken to remove silica, but it seemed 
from later research that bauxite of lower grade 
than had been considered usable could be em- 
ployed in making the metal. The imports and 
exports for the years 1922 and 1923, given in 
the accompanying tables, indicated that the pro- 
ducers of aluminium in the United States were 
well able not only to take care of the domestic 


63 


ALWOOD 


demand but to supply a considerable amount to 
the rest of the world. 


IMPORTS OF ALUMINIUM INTO THE UNITED 


STATES IN 1922 AND 1923 
Class Quantity (pounds) 
1922 1923 


Metal, crude and alloy .... 39,951,690 43,065,039 
Manufactures of plates, sheets 
and bars 


Hollow . ware 


1,288,651 
648,933 


EXPORTS OF ALUMINIUM FROM THE UNITED 
STATES IN 1922 AND 1923 


Not given 
Not given 


B @ Al 6 M06 9 «6 © 04 


Class Quantity (pounds) 
1922 1923 

Ingots, Scrap, ana salloys. . = a). 1,538,079 1,169,753 
Plates, sheets, bars, strips and 

TOS ENA L SIGE Fah seve als 2,808,941 4,369,918 
Tubes, moldings, castings, and 

OLNEr MSU ADOS Weas eie tetas ee ces 353,847 442,370 
Table, kitchen, and _ hospital 

tens sy ty eI GAAS su Added tthe 15255)743/) 43 175,659 

Other manufactures ......... 2,935,359 3,820,406 


ALUMINIUM SALTS. See CHEMISTRY and 


BAUXITE. 
ALVEAR, Marceto T. dE (1868-— iin 
president of the Argentine Republic, born at 


‘Buenos Aires, educated at the University of 


Buenos Aires, and elected to the National Con- 
gress in 1912. In 1916 he was appointed min- 
ister of Argentina to Paris, and in 1922 he was 
elected to the presidency. He was a member of 
the Radical party. His efforts while in Paris 
to foster good feeling between France and Ar- 
gentina were greatly appreciated in both coun- 
tries. 

ALVORD, CLARENCE WALWORTH (1868- fe 
American scholar and educator (see VoL. I). 
Since 1914 Professor Alvord has been one of 
the most prominent American historical schol- 
ars. He served as editor of the important /I- 
linois Centennial History and the Mississippi 
Valley Historical Review. The latter under 
his management rapidly assumed a command- 
ing place in American scholarship. His work, 
The Mississippi Valley in British Politics 
(1917), which received the Loubat Prize, was 
an excellent example of good technical research 
aided by the exercise of a real imaginative un- 
derstanding and the power to envisage the 
whole field under treatment as a unit. It was 
another example of the gratifying work being 
done in the history of American sectionalism. 
Professor Alvord published The Illinois Coun- 
try in 1919. In 1920 he took the chair of his- 
tory at the University of Minnesota. 

ALVORD, Jonun WATSON (1861-— igen An 
American engineer, born at Newton Centre, 
Mass., and educated at the Harvard University 
Preparatory School and at J. W. Hunt’s Nor- 
mal School, Wash. In his extensive career he 
has undertaken innumerable important engi- 
neering enterprises, the majority of them in the 
Middle West. He was associated with the Chi- 
cago Water Works (1880-84), Chicago Exposi- 
tion (1890-93), Illinois and Michigan Canal 
(1897-1901), United States Steel Corporation, 
Gary, Ind. (1907), Illinois State Board of Nat- 
ural Resources and Conservation (1918), ete. 
In 1918 he was appointed director of the Amer- 
ican Society of Civil Engineers. He has con- 
tributed to periodicals articles on engineering, 
sewage disposal, and water works, to which he 
gave particular study. He is the author of 
Relief and Floods (1918). 

ALWOOD, OLIN Goop )a 


(1870- An 


AMADE 


American bishop, born at Delta, Ohio, and edu- 
cated at Hartsville College, Ind. He was or- 
dained in the ministry of the Church of the 
United Brethren in Christ (old constitution) 
in 1892. He held various pastorates in Michi- 
gan and Ohio (1892-1903), was presiding elder 
(1903-05), and became bishop in charge of the 
North District in 1905. He became editor of 
The Christian Conservator in 1921. 

AMADE, Apert GrERARD D’ (1856- ee 
A French general, born at Toulouse, and edu- 
cated at La Fleche. He entered the army in 
1876, and served as military attaché in China, 
with the British forces during the South Afri- 
can war, in London, and in 1907 as commander 
of. the expeditionary force in Morocco. In the 
War he was in charge of the Army of the 
Alps till Italy came out on the side of the Al- 
lies; he was then given other commands at 
Lille and Douai. In 1915 he led the French 
forces at the Dardanelles. In May of that 
year he was recalled to France and sent on a 
military mission to Russia. He was inspector 
general at Lyons in 1916 and commandant of 
Rennes in 1917. See WAR IN EvuROPE, Western 
Front. 

AMATOL. See EXPLOSIVES. : 

AMBASSADORS, Councit or. See PEACE 
CONFERENCE AND TREATIES. 

AMBLER, CuHarteS HENRY (1876- y. 
American college professor and historical stud- 
ent. He was born at New Mattamoros, Ohio, 
and studied at West Virginia and Wisconsin 
Universities. In 1908 he became professor of 
history at Randolph-Macon College, from which 
he went to the University of West Virginia in 
1917. He has edited many valuable historical 
collections and has written monographs for 
the journals of learned societies. While Pro- 
fessor Ambler’s work has been concerned pri- 
marily with problems in Virginian local his- 
tory, he has succeeded in carrying over into 
his researches an understanding of the great 
importance which sectionalism played in the 
development of America; in this regard he is 
an important exponent of the school headed by 
Frederick J. Turner. His most important 
work is Sectionalism in Virginia from 1777 to 
1861 (1910). Other writings include Thomas 
Ritche, A Study in Virginia Politics (1918) 
and Life and Diary of John Floyd (1918). 

AMBROSE, Paur (1868- ). An Ameri- 
can organist and composer, born at Hamilton, 
Ont., and educated in the public schools and 
at Hamilton Collegiate Institute. He studied 
piano with his father, a composer, and other 
teachers. He was organist in various New 
York churches from 1886-1917; in 1917 he be- 
came organist and choirmaster of the First 
Presbyterian Church of Trenton, N. J. He 
was professor of music in the New Jersey State 
schools, 1903-17, and was formerly engaged as 
soloist and accompanist. He is the composer 
of many sacred and secular songs, vocal duets, 
instrumental works, ete. He has held the vice- 
presidency of the Synthetic Guild of New York 
City and was president of the New Jersey sec- 
tion of the National Association of Organists, 
1913-15. 

AMBROSETTI, JuAN BaAvrista (1865- 
1918). An Argentinian anthropologist. He was 
born in Gualeguay and educated at Buenos 
Aires. He was an early student and collector 
of archeological specimens and at the age of 
21 was made director of the Zodlogical Museum 


64 


AMHERST COLLEGE 


of Parana. Among his publications are Al- 
gunos Vasos Ceremoniales de la Region Col- 
chaqui (1902); Antigwedad del Nuevo Mondo 
(1903); Los Grandes Hachas Ceremoniales de 
Patagonia (1903), and Apuntes sobre la Ar- 
quelogia de la Puna de Atacama (1904). His 
latest work, a contribution to the Pan-Ameri- 
can Congress (1915-16), was Los Vasos del 
Pekara de Tilcara. 

AMERICAN ASSOCIATIONS AND SO- 
CIETIES. For organizations whose official 
titles begin with the word American, see under 
Important descriptive word of the title, thus: 
American Bar Association. See Bar As- 
SOCIATION, AMERICAN; American Legion. See 
Lrgion, AMERICAN; American Library As- 
Sociation. See Liprary ASSOCIATION, AMERI- 
CAN. 

AMERICAN COUNCIL ON EDUCATION. 
See EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 

AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCE. 
See WAR IN Europe, Western Front. 

AMERICAN FARM BUREAU FEDERA- 
TION. See AGRICULTURE. 


AMERICAN INDIANS. See ETHNoGRA- 
PHY. 
AMERICAN LAW INSTITUTE. See 


LAW, PROGRESS OF THE. . 

AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL 
HISTORY. See EXPLORATION. 

AMERY, Lerorporp CC. M. STENNETT 
(1873-— ). A British politician (see Vor. I). 
During the War he served with the British 
army in France and later in Saloniki, He was 
reélected to Parliament in 1918. He was as- 
sistant secretary of the War Cabinet (1917) ; 
member of the staff of the War Council, Ver- 
sailles, and of the staff of Secretary of State for 
War (1917-18); and Parliamentary Under-Sec- 
retary for the Colonies (1919-21). 

AMES, JOSEPH SWEETMAN (1864— ) ei ean 
American physicist and writer (see Vou. 1). In 
1917 he was a member of the National Advisory 
Committee for Aéronautics, and later became 
chairman of the foreign service committee of 
the National Research Council which visited 
France and England for the purpose of investi- 
gating the organization and development of 
scientific activities in connection with warfare. 

AMES, OAKES (1874—- ). An American 
botanist, born at East Eaton, Mass., and edu- 
eated at Harvard University. Beginning as an 
assistant in botany and assistant director of 
the Botanical Gardens at Harvard in 1899, he 
became assistant professor of economic botany 
in 1915 and was director of the Botanical Gar- 
dens, 1910-22. He has been recognized as an 
authority on orchids, concerning which he has 
written a great deal. He has contributed to 
botanical periodicals and is the author of 
Orchidaceew (1905-08) and Notes on Philippine 
Orchids (Boston, 1920). 

AMHERST COLLEGE. A nonsectarian in- 
stitution for men at Amherst, Mass., founded 
in 1821. The enrollment increased from 416 in 
1914 to 561 in 1923, the faculty from 43 to 51 
members, and the library from 107,800 to 130,- 
000 volumes. The productive funds were in- 
creased from $2,776,000 to $6,500,000, and the 
income from $224,800 to $534,000. The George 
Daniel Olds professorship in economics was 
established in 1914; Edward C. Converse gave 
$250,000 for a new library building for a mem- 
orial to his brother, James B. Converse; and 
Mrs. Rufus Pratt Lincoln endowed a professor- 


AMIDON 


ship in science in memory of her son, Rufus 
Tyler Lincoln, in 1916. The Amherst Memorial 
Fellowships were established in 1919 and the 
John Woodruff Simpson Fellowships and Lec- 
tureships in 1922. Important additions were 
made to the biological and geological collec- 
tions. During three years beginning with 1920, 
experiments were made in conducting classes 
for workers in Holyoke and Springfield. The 
Amherst plan for alumni reading and study 
was initiated in 1922. The college celebrated 
its hundredth anniversary at commencement 
time, June, 1921 The alumni subscribed a cen- 
tennial gift fund of $3,000,000 for the college 
during the centennial year, and a series of 
publications, to he known as the Amherst 
Books, was started. Alexander Meiklejohn, 
Ph.D., LL.D., president, resigned in June, 1923, 
to take effect June, 1924, and was on leave of 
absence, 1923-24. President-elect and acting 
president for the year 1923-24, George Daniel 
Olds, LL.D. 

AMIDON, SAMUEL BARKER (1863- ). An 
American lawyer and banker, born at Perry, 
Ohio, and educated at the Geneva (Ohio) Nor- 
mal School, Oberlin College and Hiram College. 
He began practicing in 1886, belonging succes- 
sively to the firms of Amidon and Conly, and 
Amidon, Buckland, Hart and Porter. Presi- 
dent or director of numerous banks and busi- 
ness concerns, he was also a member of the 
Democratic State Committee of Kansas from 
1902 to 1904 and was appointed to the Demo- 
eratic National Committee in 1917. He _ be- 
came vice-chairman of the latter in 1919, as 
well as assistant to the Attorney-General of 
the United States in the prosecution of the 
I. W. W. cases in Kansas. 


AMMONIA. See CHEMISTRY; CHEMISTRY, 
ORGANIC; COKE; EXPLOSIVES. 
AMMONS, Exias MILtTon (1860- jenA 


governor of Colorado (1913-15). He was born 
in Macon County, N. C., and educated at the 
East Denver High School. He worked at vari- 
ous odd jobs during his boyhood and _ later 
joined the staff of the Denver Times. Subse- 
quently he went into ranching and in 1890 en- 
tered politics as clerk of the District Court of 
Douglas County, Colo. After holding several 
political offices, he was elected governor of 
Colorado in 1913. He did much for the ad- 
vancement of agriculture and agricultural edu- 
cation in that State. 


AMMUNITION, See ORDNANCE; ARTIL- 
LERY; SMALL ARMS. 

AMUNDSEN, Roatp (1872- .). A Nor- 
wegian explorer (see Vor. I). In 1918 he 


started in the Maud from Norway to begin his 
drift across the Arctic Ocean. By July, 1920, 
he had completed the northeast passage and 
had landed at Nome, Alaska. Subsequently 
the trip by boat was abandoned and in June, 
a flight to the North Pole was arranged; but 
this also ended in failure. See PoLaR RE- 
SEARCH. 

ANEMIA. Between 1914 and 1924 progress 
in the relief of incurable primary anemias by 
surgical intervention, especially by the removal 
of the spleen, was considerably practised. 
Hundreds of such operations were performed. 
The removal of the organ is not followed by in- 
jurious after-effects, and the operation is not 
especially hazardous. Usually there is reason 
to suspect that the anemia is due to some dis- 
ease of the spleen, but in these pernicious 


65 


ANDERSON 


forms of primary anemia the cause is often 
quite obscure; the spleen is. then removed as a 
last resort. Another surgical resource now 
much used in these cases is repeated transfu- 
sion of blood and the two may be combined. 
There is even a third surgical possibility, the 
removal of any focus of suppuration present 
in the body of one of these patients, as in- 
fected teeth or tonsils; for it may be that from 
some such apparently insignificant lesion the 
morbid blood state has taken its origin, at 
least in part. Only a few years ago the proph- 
ecy that pernicious anemia would come under 
the head of a surgical disease would have 
sounded highly fanciful. It is too much to 
claim that a disease hitherto regarded as in- 
curable can be radically cured by surgical 
means, when we are still ignorant of its exact 
causation, but many patients have shown im- 
provement and have obtained a new lease of 
life from such treatment. Only time can de 
cide the question of its value finally. 

ANATOLIA. See Turkey. 

ANATOMY. See ZodLoey. 

ANCIENT MAN. See ANTHROPOLOGY. 

ANDAMANESE. See ETHNOGRAPHY. 

ANDERSEN, HENDRIK CHRISTIAN (1872- 

). An American sculptor, born in Bergen, 
Norway. He studied art and _ architecture 
in Boston, Paris, Naples, and Rome. An- 
dersen has also distinguished himself as the 
author of The Creation of a World Centre of 
Communication, which contains a detailed plan 
for the founding of a monumental city devoted 
to human progress; a second volume enumer- 
ates the legalizing and the economic advantages 
of a world centre. He devoted nine years to 
this work and succeeded in enlisting the inter- 
est of the rulers of leading European countries 
and the United States in his project, but just 
about this time the War broke out. He was 
also founder of the World Conscience Society. 
His leading works in sculpture include “The 
Fountain of Life,” ‘The Fountain of Immortal- 
ity,’ “Jacob Wrestling with the Angel,” “Study 
of an Athlete,’ and busts, medallions, and por- 
traits of Pope Benidictus XV. 

ANDERSON, ALsertT BARNES (1857- ke 
An American judge, born near Zionsville, Ind., 
and educated at Wabash College. He was ad- 
mitted to the bar in 1881. In 1902 he was ap- 
pointed United States district judge of the 
District of Indiana. He presided at the trial 
of the so-called dynamite conspiracy case at 
Indianapolis in 1912. In 1919 he had charge 
of the case against the United Mine Workers 
of America. Basing his decision on the Lever 
Act, he issued an injunction against the min- 
ers’ officials, demanding that the strike order 
be rescinded. The legality of this injunction 
was questioned, but the miners’ officials gave in. 

ANDERSON, CartotTA ADELE (Mrs. J. 
Scott ANDERSON) (1876- ). An American 
educator, specially interested in the Montessori 
method and in the instruction of the deaf and 
dumb. She was born in New York City, and 
studied at various colleges and universities, 
among them the Wright Humason School for 
oral teaching of the deaf, and Teachers College, 
Columbia University. She studied the Montes- 
sori method in Rome. Herself a teacher of the 
deaf for some years, she was from 1901 to 1916 
the owner of oral schools for the deaf and of 
teacher-training schools in New York and Penn- 
sylvania. For many years, too, she interested 


ANDERSON 


herself in introducing the Montessori method in 
the public schools. . She was in charge of train- 
ing teachers of the deaf at the New Jersey 
State Normal School at Trenton (1918-21). 
She was United States delegate to the third In- 
ternational Congress on Home Education at 
Brussels in 1910 and was general secretary of 
the fourth International Congress. 

ANDERSON, CHANDLER PARSONS 
(1866-— ). An American lawyer, born at 
Lakeville, Conn., and educated at Yale Uni- 
versity and the Harvard Law School. He was 
admitted to the bar in 1891 and soon attained 
prominence in the field of international law. 
In 1896-97 he was secretary for the United 
States and Great Britain of the Bering Sea 
Claims Commission, and in the following year 
secretary for the United States of the Joint 
High Commission with Great Britain for the 
settlement of Canadian questions. He was 
counsel in various boundary disputes, notably 
those of Alaska (1903), Passamaquoddy Bay 
(1909), Costa Rica and Panama (1913-14), 
Guatemala and Honduras (1918), and Nica- 
ragua and Honduras (1920). From 1905 to 
1909 he was special counsel for the Department 
of State under Secretary Root, and the follow- 
ing year under Secretary Knox, in the negotia- 
tion of treaties with Great Britain concerning 
British North America. He has also been 
United States agent in the North Atlantic 
Coast fisheries arbitration at The Hague in 
1910, counselor to the Department of State 
(1910-13), United States arbitrator in the 
British-American pecuniary claims arbitration 
(1913), legal adviser for the American embas- 
sies and legations in Europe on questions of 
American interests growing out of the War, and 
for the Department of State (1914-15), coun- 
sel on international questions for the United 
States War Industries Board (1917-18), coun- 
sel for the International Committee of the Red 
Cross Societies in France (1919), United 
States arbitrator in the American-Norwegian 
Shipping Claims Arbitration (1921), and 
United States legal expert for the Washington 
Conference (1921-22). 

ANDERSON, Dice Rosins’ (1880- . 
An American college president, born at Char- 
lottesville, Va., and educated at Randolph-Macon 
College and the University of Chicago. After 
teaching in various colleges and academies, he 
was president of Willie Halsell College, Vinita, 
Okla. (1906-7). He was instructor in history 
in the University of Chicago (1908-9), profes- 
sor of history and political science (1909-19), 
and professor of economics and political science 
and director of the School of Business Adminis- 
tration (1919) in Richmond College, Va. In 
1920 he became president of Randolph-Macon 
Woman’s College. He is author of William 
Branch Giles. a Study in the Politics of Virgin- 
ia and the Nation, 1790-1815 (1914), and is 
editor of the Richmond College Historical Pa- 
pers '(1915; 1916) 1017) . 

ANDERSON, EDWIN HATFIELD (1861- ). 
An American librarian (see VoL. I). Ag direc- 
tor of the New York Public Library, Mr. An- 
derson has pressed forward the perfection of 
organization and administrative methods which 
has been all the more essential because of the 
unprecedented increase in the use of the differ- 
ent departments and the limited accommoda- 
tions of the Library. He was president of the 
New York Library Association in 1914, 


66 


-icals. 


ANDERSON 


ANDERSON, HEnry WarkKins (1870- ). 
An American lawyer, born in Dinwiddie Coun- 
ty, Va., and educated at Washington and Lee 
University. He began the practice of law in 
Richmond, Va., in 1898, and three years later 
became a member of the firm of Mumford, 
Hunton, Williams and Anderson. He has been 
president of the Richmond-Washington High- 
way Corporation, vice-president and general 
counsel of the Atlantic Life Insurance Com- 
pany. In 1912 he was the reorganizer of the 
International and Great Northern Railroad 
Company of Texas, and its general counsel from 
1912 to 1914. In 1921 he was appointed trus- 
tee by the United States government for the 
Armour and Swift interests in the Stockyards. 
During the War he engaged in Red Cross work 
in the Balkans and received decorations from 
many foreign governments. 

ANDERSON, Isaset (Mrs. LARZ ANDERSON) 
(1876- ). An American author, wife of 
the sometime Minister to Belgium and Ambas:- 
sador to Japan. She was born in Boston, 
Mass., and educated in private schools. She 
is author of stories for children and reminis- 
cences of travel and diplomatic and social life, 
written in a lively and entertaining manner. 
Her works include Captain Ginger’s Fairy 
(Boston, 1910), Captain Ginger’s Playmates 
(Boston and Philadelphia, 1911; translated in- 
to French and German, 1911), Every Boy and 
Other Children’s Plays (New York, 1914), The 
Spell of Japan (Boston, 1914), The Spell of 
Belgium (Boston, 1915), Presidents and Pies 
(Boston, 1920), Topsy Turvy and the Gold 
Star (Boston, 1920), Polly the Pagan (Boston, 
1922). She has also contributed to  period- 
During the War she served on several 
relief committees and in French and Belgian 
front line hospitals. She has been decorated 
by the Japanese, Belgian, French, and American 
governments. 

ANDERSON, Joun FISHER (1873- yi 
An American physician born at Frederickburg, 
Va. (see Vout. I). Since Jan. 1, 1918, Dr. An- 
derson has been director of the research and 
biological laboratories of E. R. Squibb and 
Sons, New Brunswick, N. J. He was co-editor 
of the United States Dispensatory, 20th ed. 


(1918), and was professor of hygiene at Rut-— 


gers College. 

ANDERSON, Kart (1874— ). An Ameri- 
can painter and illustrator, brother of Sher- 
wood Anderson, the novelist. He was born at 
Oxford, Ohio, and educated at the Art Institute 
of Chicago and in Paris. He began his career 
as an illustrator and writer but turned to 
painting and soon achieved distinction for the 
beauty of his colors and the imaginative qual- 
ity of his pictures, which were exhibited in gal- 
leries both in Europe and America and won 
numerous prizes. Among his best known 
works are “The Idlers” (Art Institute of Chi- 
cago), “Sisters” (City Museum, St. Louis), 
“Apple Gatherers” (Cleveland Museum), and 
“The Heirloom” (Pennsylvania Academy, Phil- 
adelphia). 

ANDERSON, Pavut Lewis (1880- }2°S An 
American expert in pictorial photography, born 
at Trenton, N. J. He studied electrical engi- 
neering at Lehigh University and from 1901 to 
1907 held engineering positions in various elec- 
trical companies. He founded the Struss-An- 
derson Laboratories for the manufacture of 
kalogen, a photographic developer which he 


a 


. 


ANDERSON 


originated. His photographs have been exhib- 
ited abroad and in this country. He is the 
author of some excellent textbooks in photogra- 
phy, Pictorial Landscape Photography (1914), 
Pictorial Photography, Its Principles and Prac- 
tice (1917), and The Fine Art of Photography 
(1919). 

ANDERSON, PIERCE (1870— )ar tAn 
American architect, born in Oswego, N. Y. He 
graduated from Harvard in 1892 and _ took 
post-graduate courses at Johns Hopkins and 
Paris. He was with D. H. Burnham and Com- 
pany and their successors from 1900 to 1917, 
and from the latter year he was a member of 
the firm of Graham, Anderson, Probst, and 
White. In 1912 he was appointed to member- 
ship in the Federal Commission of Fine Arts. 
He was chairman of the Central Department 
of the Military Training Camps Association. 

ANDERSON, SHERWOOD’ (1875— ). 
prominent American author. He was born in 
Camden, Ohio, and was educated in the public 
schools. He then engaged in both business and 
newspaper work. From 1916 to 1923 he pub- 
lished four novels, three collections of stories, 
and a volume of poems. His writings were 
hailed as being among the most significant 
works of the new American novelists, and with 
the publication of Winesburg, Ohio (1919), he 
was immediately accorded popular recognition. 
This collection of portraits and short narra- 
tives, concerned with the characters of a typi- 
cal Mid West town, is a book of the highest 
order. The plain American figures in it are 
handled with tenderness; a loving’ sympathy 
is displayed for their real spiritual lives, al- 
though they happen to be cramped and twisted 
underneath the drab exterior of commonplace 
persons and existences. Mr. Anderson’s thesis 
is not leveled at the village, for his works are 
neither provincial nor regional, as it is against 
the whole character of the contemporary life 
with its bustle, its garishness, and its want 
of satisfying aspiration. His Triumph of the 
Egg (1921), also a volume of short stories, 
catches up the theme and manner of the earlier 
work, only with a more perceptible incisiveness 
of diction and a more rounded narrative art. 
These two books are, artistically, the best of 
Mr. Anderson’s work. 

In his novels, his vague, mystical, still 
adolescent reveries and his romantic wonder 
are given too free a play, with the result 
that scenes and characters very often overstep 
the probable. Windy McPherson’s Son (1916), 
Marching Men (1917), and Poor White (1920), 
all display the same preoccupations; they are 
concerned with rather inarticulate, restless 
young men who rebel against the confine- 
ment of their native villages and plunge in- 
to the life of the larger cities, only in the end 
to be thwarted in their quest for real happi- 
ness. Mr. Anderson fumbles a little too much 
with theme and character. There is also a good 
deal of tactless though never really objec- 
tionable writing. In Many Marriages (1923), 
Mr. Anderson’s faults and virtues stand out 
conspicuously. The story is loosely constructed 
and highly improbable in incident; its mys- 
tical symbols very often cloud rather than clar- 
ify its issues; and yet it is a work that touches 
depths rarely plumbed before. It proves Mr. 
Anderson a great artist although his art is 
still imperfectly formed. His other works in- 
clude Mid-American Chants (1918), a volume 


67 


ANDLER 


of poems, and Horses and Men (1923), a col- 
lection of stories. 

ANDERSON, WILLIAM FRANKLIN 
(1860— ). A Methodist Episcopal bishop, 
born at Morgantown, W. Va., and educated at 
West Virginia University, Ohio Wesleyan Uni- 
versity, Drew Theological Seminary, and New 
York University. He was ordained in the 
Methodist ministry in 1887. After holding sev- 
eral pastorates and offices on the Board of Edu- 
cation of the Methodist Episcopal Church, he 
was elected bishop in 1908. In 1914-18 he 
traveled widely as official supervisor of Method- 
ist missions in Europe and Africa. During the 
War he served on the Committee of Emergency 
and Reconstruction of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church in Europe and in the Army Y. M. C. A. 
He was delegate of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church to the English and Irish Wesleyan Con-. 
ferences in 1918 and 1919 respectively and fra- 
ternal delegate from the Federal Council of 
Churches of Christ in America to the Assem- 
blée Générale du Protestantisme Francais in 
Lyons, France. In 1922 he was decorated by 
the French government. He is author of The 
Compulsion of Love (1904) and The Challenge 
of To-day (1915). 

ANDERSON, WILLIAM HAMILTON 
(1874- ). An American temperance work- 
er, born at Carlinville, Ill., and educated at 
Blackburn College, Carlinville, and the Univer- 
sity of Michigan. After teaching school and prac- 
ticing law, he became attorney of the Anti-Sa- 
loon League of Illinois in 1900 and was State 
superintendent of the Illinois League, 1900-06. 
This determined the trend of his whole subse- 
quent life. Beginning in Illinois, he later held po-, 
sitions in the Anti-Saloon Leagues of New York 
and Maryland and in 1914 was elected general 
superintendent of the Anti-Saloon League of 
New York; at the same time he held various 
offices on the Board of Temperance of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, in the Anti-Saloon 
League of America, and in the World League 
Against Alcoholism. Besides articles contrib- 
uted to various periodicals, he is the author of 
The Church in. Action against the Saloon 
(Westerville, Ohio, 1906; revised edition, 1910) 
and The “Yonkers Plan” for Prohibition En- 
forcement (Westerville, 1921). 

ANDLER, CHARLES (1866- ). A French 
professor. After his graduation from the Sor- 
bonne he devoted himself to German philosophy 
and literature. At the outbreak of the War 
he had gathered around him in the University 
of Paris quite a group of young Germanistes 
francais, whose object it was to bring about 
an intellectual rapprochement between France 
and Germany. He had a six-volume critical 
biography of Nietzsche in press, but the War 
put off its publication until 1919. The first 
four volumes, Les Précurseurs de Nietzsche, La 
Jeunesse de Nietesche, Nietzsche et le Pessim- 
isme Esthétique, and Nietzsche et le Transform- 
isme Intellectuel, have now been published, and 
the two final volumes, La Maturité de Nie- 
tesche and La Derniére Philosophie de Nie- 
esche: le Renouvellement de Toutes les Valeurs, 
were in preparation in 1924. They portray the 
German philosopher as an opponent of modern 
Prussianism and essentially a French genius 
nourished by the work of the French psycholog- 
ical moralists like Montaigne, Pascal, La Roche- 
foucauld, and Stendhal. During the war Pro- 
fessor Andler published four volumes on the 


ANDORRA 


rise and menace of the Pan-Germanist move- 
ment. He also wrote a volume on La Philo- 
sophie de la Nature dans Kant and a history 
of contemporary socialism in Germany. 

ANDORRA. A semi-independent republic in 
the Eastern Pyrenees between the French de- 
partment of Ariége and Catalonia in Spain. 
Its total area is 191 square miles; its popula- 
tion at the latest count available in 1924, 5231, 
scattered among 30 villages, the largest of 
which is the capital, Andorra la Vella. It is 
ruled jointly by the Bishop of Urgel and the 
French Republic, which maintains a permanent 
delegate in the country. Both authorities re- 
ceive a biennial due from the native govern- 
ment. The excellent pasture land of the valley 
in which the republic is located furnishes the 
livelihood of its inhabitants. Coarse cloth is 
made from the wool of the flocks, some of 
which is exported. Grains are imported from 
France. The projected trans-Pyreneean rail- 
way was to pass within a few miles of the 
frontier and thus facilitate communications 
with the outside world. In 1924 communica- 
tions were maintained by means of wagon-road 
with both Spain and France. Catalan is spok- 
en by the natives, who embrace Catholicism. 
French and Spanish currency are both in use, 
though the French exert a predominant in- 
fluence. 

ANDRASSY, JuLius (1860- ). A Hun- 
garian statesman (see Vor. I). In 1915 he 
urged the making of peace and an extension of 
the franchise in Hungary. As Foreign Minis- 
ter, in 1918, he declared the alliance with Ger- 
many dissolved and tried to conclude a separate 
peace. He retired from office in the same year, 
but was returned in 1920 to the National As- 
sembly as non-partisan delegate. He _ subse- 
quently became leader of the Christian Nation- 
al. party. His later works include, in Hunga- 
rian and German, Wer Hat den Krieg Ver- 


brochen? Interessensolidaritat des Deutsch- 
tums and Ungartums, and Diplomatik und 
Weltkrieg. 

ANDREEV, Leonip NikxonaEviton (1871- 
1919). A Russian writer and novelist (see 
Vout. I). The last years of Andréev’s life 


formed a tragedy whose bitter pathos he alone 
could have expressed adequately. Idealist and 
rebel, he lived to see the Russian Revolution, 
the long-predicted cataclysm to which so many 
hopes had been pinned, but he saw it evolve 
in a direction contrary to his aspirations. Un- 
like his friend and fellow reformer, Maxim 
Gorki, who accepted the Bolshevik revolution 
as a fact and devoted his energies to saving its 
intellectual heritage from the old régime from 
destruction, Andréev could not make peace with 
the new order. He retired to a villa in Fin- 
land and addressed manifestoes to the world 
at large against the excesses of the Bolsheviks. 
Ironically enough, these writings were used as 
grist in the interventionist. propaganda of the 
reactionary counter-revolutionists, whom An- 
dréev hated as bitterly as he did the Bolshe- 
viks. His death, on Sept. 12, 1919, was large- 
ly the result of his mental anguish over the 
Russian débicle; for his social sympathies were 
as serious as only a Russian idealist’s and 
mystic’s could be. Aside from his_ political 
writings, Andréevy published little after 1914. 
A play, The Sorrows of Belgium, was written 
at the beginning of the War to celebrate the 
heroism of the Belgians against the invaders. 


68 


ANDREWS 


It was produced in the United States, and so 
were the earlier plays, The Life of Man (1917), 
The Rape of the Sabine Women (1922), He Who 
Gets Slapped (1922) and Anathema (1923). 
ANDRESS, JAmes Mace (1881-— ). An 
American psychologist and author of works on 
physical education, born at Chesaning, Mich., 
and educated at the Michigan State Normal 
College, the University of Chicago, Harvard 
University, and Clark University. He was in- 
structor in history and education at Manches- 
ter College (Inds), 1906-07, and head of the 
department of psychology and school hygiene at 
the State Normal School, Worcester, Mass., 
1908-15, and became head of the department of 
psychology and child study, Boston Normal 
School in 1915. He was special lecturer on the 
history of education and on health education 
in various institutions, and in 1920 he was 
special agent of tlre bureau of education and 
taught at Chautauqua Institution, N. Y. He 
is author of Johann Gottfried Herder as an 


Educator (1916); Teaching Hygiene in the 
Grades (1918); Health Education in Rural 
Schools (1919); Rosy Cheeks and Strong 


Heart, in collaboration with Annie Turner An- 
dress (1920) and Suggestions for a Programme 
of Health Teaching in the Elementary Schools, 
with M. C. Bragg (1921). 

ANDREW, A(BRAM) PIATT, JR. (1873- i 
An American economist and public official (see 
VoL. I). During the War he served first with 
the French and later with the American forces 
(1914-1919) and organized and directed Amer- 
ican Field Service with the French army. He 
subsequently received the Croix de Guerre and 
the D. S. M. (1919) and became Chevalier de 
la Légion d’Honneur (1917). 

ANDREWS, ArtTHUuR Irvine (1878- y 
An American college professor born in Provi- 
dence, R. I., and educated at Brown University, 
the University of Wisconsin, and Harvard Uni- 
versity. He was professor of history and pub- 
lic law at Tufts College (1912-20) and profes- 
sor of diplomacy at Charles University, Prague 
(1921). He has contributed to the American 
Journal of International Law, Historwal Out- 
look, Science Review, ete. 

ANDREWS, Avery pg& LANo (1864— y3 
American lawyer, capitalist, and soldier, born 
in Massena, N. Y. A graduate of the United 
States Military Academy in 1886. He re- 
ceived his law education at George Washing- 
ton University and the New York Law School 
and was admitted to the New York Bar in 
1891. He soon attained prominence as a cor- 
poration lawyer, and played an _ important 
part in the activities of large corporate indus- 
tries. He was an officer or director of the Gen- 
eral Asphalt Company, the Uintah Railway 
Company, the Mexican Eagle Petroleum Com- 
pany, and several banks. He was a staff of- 
ficer in the Spanish-American War and saw 
service in France (November, 1917—May, 1919), 
as a staff member attached to General Head- 
quarters. In 1918 he was made a brigadier- 
general. The United States, France, Belgium, 
and Italy decorated him. He was police com- 
missioner of New York City, 1895-98. 

ANDREWS, CuHartes McLEAN (1863- ie 
An American historian and college professor 
(see VoL. I). Professor Andrews continued his 
work in the interpretation of colonial institu- 
tions; his Boston Merchants and the Nonim- 
portation Movement (1917), Fathers of New 


ANDREWS 


England (1919), and Colonial Folkways (1919) 
were of particular importance. The last-named, 
written for the Chronicles of America series, 
is a kindly and understanding study and con- 
stitutes a real contribution to American belles 
lettres. In 1921 he edited with his wife The 
Journal of a Lady of Quality and in 1923 
published British Colonial Policy and_ the 
American Revolution. 

ANDREWS, CHARLTON (1878- ). Ameri- 
ean author and teacher, born at Connersville, 
Ind., and educated at De Pauw University and 
Harvard. Formerly he did newspaper work 
and taught and lectured in English at various 
schools. He was on the editorial staff of the 
New York Tribune (1914). He has contrib- 
uted to many magazines and is the author of 
The Drama To-day (Philadelphia and London, 
1903), The Technique of Play Writing (1915), 
and several plays. 

ANDREWS, FANNIE FERN’ (PHILLIPS) 
(?- ). An American lecturer, social worker, 
and writer, born at Margaretville, N. S., 
and educated at the Salem (Mass.) Normal 
School, Radcliffe College, and Harvard Summer 
School. She is known as a lecturer on educa- 
tion in Europe and America, as secretary and 
organizer of the American School Citizenship 
League, and as a member of the advisory coun- 
cil of the Institute of International Education 
and the International Peace Bureau (Berne, 
Switzerland), etc. She was delegate to the In- 
ternational Conference on Education in 1914 
and represented the United States Bureau of 
Education at Paris during the Peace Confer- 
ence. Her works include The United States 
and the World (1918), The World Family 
(1918), The War—What Should Be Said about 
1t in the Schools? (Boston, 1914), Central Or- 
ganization for a Durable Peace (Boston, 1916), 
Freedom of the Seas (The Hague, 1917), and 
A Course in Foreign Relations, prepared for 
the Army Education Commission (Paris, 1919). 

ANDREWS, FRANK (1872- ). An Ameri- 
can statistician, born at New Albany, Ind. 
He graduated from Johns Hopkins University 
in 1893 and took post-graduate courses in eco- 
nomics in that university. Until 1900 he was 
a teacher in the public schools of Maryland 
and Pennsylvania and in 1902-3 was employed 
in the United States Navy Department. From 
1903 to 1914 he was assistant at the Bureau 
of Statistics for the United States Department 
of Agriculture, and from 1914, chief of the Di- 
vision of Crop Records of this Bureau. He 
was a member of several economic societies and 
the author of bulletins on the marketing of 
crops, statistics of sugar, etc. In 1914 he bhe- 
came a member of the United States Crop 
Reporting Board. 

ANDREWS, IRENE Oscoop (Mrs. Joun B. 
ANDREWS’ (1879-— ). An American writer 
on problems of women in industry. She was 
born at Big Rapids, Mich., and educated at the 
School of Philanthropy in New York and the 
University of Wisconsin. She began her ca- 
reer as agent for the Associated Charities at 
Minneapolis, Minn., and in 1906 was appointed 
special agent for relief work in the American 
Red Cross in San Francisco, and factory in- 
spector in Wisconsin. She was head resident 
of the Northwestern University Settlement, 
Chicago, in 1907. She became assistant secre- 
tary of the American Association for Labor 
Legislation in 1908 and a member of the Y. W. 


69 


ANGELL 


C. A. National Industrial Commission to Eu- 
rope (1918). She is author of Minimum Wage 
Legislation, Working Women in Tanneries, Ir- 
regular Employment and the Living Wage for 
Women, The Economic Effects of the War upon 
Women and Children in Great Britain (Oxford, 
1918, 1921; reprinted by the Carnegie Endow- 
ment for International Peace, Washington, D. 
C.), and of contributions to the Legislative 
Review. 

ANDREWS, JoHN BertTrRAmM (1880- ¥: 
An American economist, born at South Wayne, 
Wis. He was educated at the University of 
Wisconsin and Dartmouth College. After 
teaching economics at both of these institu- 
tions, he founded in 1911 the American Labor 
Legislation Review with the purpose of re- 
cording advances in social reform. During the 
10 years 1914-24, he served on various commit- 
tees and organizations devoted to labor and in- 
dustrial problems. In 1921 he was called by 
President Harding to serve on the Unemploy- 
ment Conference. He was a member of the 
secretariat to the League of Nations’ first of- 
ficial International Labor Conference in Wash- 
ington. With Prof. John R. Commons he was 
the author of Principles of Labor Legislation 
(1916) and History of Labor in the United 
States (1918). He was also associate editor of 
Documentary History of American Industrial So- 
ciety in 1910 and has written some United 
States government reports on occupational dis- 
eases. 

ANDREWS, Roy CuHapmMan (1884- ee 
An American naturalist and author, associate 
curator of mammals of the Eastern Hem- 
isphere at the American Museum of Natural 
History, New York. He was born at Beloit, 
Wis., and educated at Beloit College and 
Columbia University. In 1908 he traveled 
and made explorations in Alaska and was 
special naturalist with the U. S. S. Albatross in 
an expedition to Borneo and Celebes (1909-— 
10). He explored Northern Korea, 1911-12, 
joined the Borden Alaska Expedition in 1913, 
and was leader of the three Asiatic expeditions 
of the American Museum of Natural History, 
first to Thibet, Southwest China, and Borneo 
(1916-17); then to northern China and outer 
Mongolia (1919), and finally to Central Asia 
(1921-267). In 1918 he was in the intelli- 
gence service in China. He is author of Whale 
Hunting with Gun and Camera (Chicago, 
1916); Camps and Trails in China, with 
Mrs. Yvette Borup Andrews (Chicago, 1918) ; 
Across Mongolian Plains (Chicago, 1921), and 
the American Museum of Natural History pub- 


lications, The California Gray Whale, with 
Hermann von W. Schulte (1914) and The Set 
Whale (1916). 

ANET, CLaubE (1866- ). The pseudonym 


of Jean Schopfel, a French novelist and essay- 
ist. His novel Quand la Terre Trembla (1921) 
is a good naturalisti¢ reproduction of the peo- 
ple’s emotions during the War. His other 
works include Les Roses d@JIspahan (1907); 
La Révolution Russe (1917); Les 144 Qua- 
trains @Omar Khayyam (1914); Ariane, Jeune 
Fille Russe (1920); Petite Ville (1921), and 
L’Amour en Russie (1922). 

ANGELL, JAMES RowLAND (1869— ). 
An American psychologist and educator (see 
Vou. I). He was the Sorbonne exchange lec- 
turer for 1915. On America’s entry into the 
War he became a member of the Psychology 


ANGELL 


Committee of the National Research Council 
and was assigned by the adjutant-general’s of- 
fice to the work of classification of personnel 
in the army. He was chairman of the National 
Research Council (1919-1920) and president of 
the Carnegie Corporation (1920). In 1921 he 
was chosen president of Yale University. He 
published in 1918 An Introduction to Psy- 
chology. 

ANGELL, Norman. See Love, RAtpuH N. 
ANGELL. 

ANGINA PECTORIS. Not a little has been 
learned of this condition in the years 1914~24. 
It is not infrequently a consequence of remote 
syphilis and of imperfect treatment of the lat- 
ter in its early stages. While it bears all the 
earmarks of a degenerative and destructive af- 
fection it has been found amenable, even when 
well advanced, to the operation of division of 
the sympathetic nerve, and apparent cures of 
desperate cases by Jonnesco and other surgeons 
are on record. 


ANGLICAN CHURCH. See ENGLAND, 
CHURCH OF. 
ANGLIN, MARGARET (1878- ye LRA 


American actress born in Ottawa (see VoL. I). 
She took leading réles in The Trial of Joan of 
Are (1921), Electra and Medea (New York, 
1918). It was in the Athenian tragedies par- 
ticularly that she excelled. Both critics and 
audiences received her Shakespearean produc- 
tions in 1914 with warm approbation. Miss 
Anglin has been described as having the cour- 


age of the grand style, although her most dis-. 


tinetive gift is for high comedy, as in Lady 
Windermere’s Fan. 

ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE. On Jan. 
30, 1902, England and Japan concluded an al- 
liance whereby the two Powers, “actuated sole- 
ly by a desire to maintain the status quo and 
general peace in the extreme East,” recognized 
the independence and territorial integrity of 
China and Korea and bound themselves to come 
to the assistance of each other in case more 
than one power joined in hostilities against 
either one. On Aug. 12, 1905, the treaty was 
renewed in a revised form, inasmuch as it pro- 
vided that war with one power was to be suf- 
ficient cause for common action. It was to 
run for five years and thereafter until one year 
after either contracting power should have 
denounced it. Moreover, while the phrase of 
maintaining general peace was retained, noth- 
ing further was said about the maintenance of 
the status quo. The changes in the Far East, 
particularly the annexation of Korea by Japan, 
brought again a renewal and revision of the 
treaty in 1911. While the objects of the new 
pact were essentially the same as those of the 
treaty of 1905, an additional article was 
adopted which read, “Should either of the high 
contracting parties conclude a treaty of gen- 
eral arbitration with a third power, it is agreed 
that nothing in this agreement shall impose on 
such contracting party an obligation to go to 
war with the power with whom such an ar- 
bitration treaty is in force.” This was in- 
serted to exclude the United States from the 
list of powers with whom Great’ Britain 
might find herself at war as a result of the 
treaty. 

The Anglo-Japanese Alliance had originally 
been formed against Russia, and-it had been a 
factor in bringing about the Russo-Japanese 
War and Russia’s defeat. After 1907, when an 


70 


ANGLO-JAPANESE 


understanding had been reached by Great Brit- 
ain and Japan on one side and Russia on the 
other, Germany became the potential enemy, 
and a direct result of these developments was 
the withdrawal of the British squadron from 
the Far Eastern Waters to the North Sea. 
When the War broke out, Japan declared war 
on Germany “in accordance with the terms of 
the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.” The ultimatum 
which Japan delivered to Germany on Aug. 9, 
1914, contained, however, only terms which 
would have been equivalent to a surrender of 
German territory and rights in the Far East. 
This fact leaves open the question whether 
Japan would have declared war in case Ger- 
many had accepted the terms, or whether Japan 
was not, after all, more interested in eliminat- 
ing a rival than in fulfilling the terms of the 
Alliance and protecting British possessions in 
Asia, notably India. While outwardly fulfill- 
ing her treaty obligations arising out of the 
Alliance, Japan in reality used the Alliance 
as a screen behind which she furthered her own 
aims in the Far East. The preoccupation of 
the Allies gave her a free hand. Occasional rep- 
resentations and protests from the Allies were 
of no avail. Primarily as a result of the An- 
glo-Japanese Alliance, the conclusion of the 
War found Japan, with the connivance of Great 
Britain, in a powerful position, from which she 
receded only after the Peace Conference. 

In 1914 Great Britain and the United States 
signed the Peace Commission Treaty, which, 
strictly speaking, was not an arbitration treaty. 
Nevertheless, Sir Edward Grey, the English 
Foreign Secretary, notified the Japanese goy- 
ernment that the British government would re- 
gard the treaty as a “general arbitration 
treaty” within the meaning of the exemption 
clause of the Alliance. The fact that this noti- 
fication was kept secret until 1921 served to 
strengthen the impression that the Alliance 
would operate against any power whatsoever, 
and thus worked materially to the benefit of 
Japan. After Japan had eliminated in succes- 
sion, by means of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 
Russia and Germany as competing powers in 
the Far East, the most serious obstacle to 
Japanese power in the eastern Pacific was the 
growing ascendancy of the United States. 
Aside from the question of Japanese immigra- 
tion in western Pacific territories, which was 
in itself serious enough, Japanese and Ameri-. 
can interests came more and more into conflict 
in the Far East. For example, the United 
States stood for the “Open Door” in China, 
while Japan was the strongest protagonist of 
the policy of zones of interest in that country. 
It had been made clear to Japan that the Anglo- 
Japanese Alliance would not operate in case of 
a clash between Japan and the United States. 
Hence there appeared in Japan signs of cold- 
ness toward a continuation of the treaty with 
England. It was no mere coincidence that in 
1916, simultaneously with vigorous demands in 
the Japanese press for abrogation of the Alli- 
ance, the Japanese government concluded a se- 
cret treaty with Russia for cojperation in the 
Far East, which would have superseded the 
pact with England had not the Russian Revo- 
lution occurred. (See JAPAN and SIBERIA AND 
THE FAR EASTERN REPUBLIC.) Japan, thrown 
back on the Anglo-Japanese Alliance for the 
time being, concluded thereupon in 1917 the 
Lansing-Ishii Agreement, whereby she obtained 


ANGOLA 


liberty of action in China, at least for the dura- 
tion of the War. See JAPAN. 

The period following on the Peace Conference 
witnessed further accord between Great Britain 
and the United States, and the two Powers be- 
gan more and more to codperate in all the 
main issues of world affairs. At the same time 
the points of conflict between Japan and the 
United States grew sharper. Japan was com- 
pelled under pressure from the Powers to fore- 
go a large part of her position on the Far East- 
ern mainland and, nolens volens, had to accept 
the Open Door policy in China. It became 
evident, moreover, that no full accord or alli- 
ance between Great Britain and the United 
States was possible while the Anglo-Japanese 
Alliance was in existence. As a matter of fact 
the Alliance had outlived its usefulness, since 
Japan would not be able to count on British as- 
sistance against her only possible rival. Hence 
demands were made in the press of both coun- 
tries for the discontinuation of the treaty. 
When, therefore, after the lapse of the 10-year 
term the renewal of the Alliance came up for 
consideration in July, 1920, it was decided in 
accordance with the clause contained in the text 
of the 1911 treaty to let the Alliance run for 
another year. Meanwhile Great Britain desired 
to consult the Dominions, whose attitude to- 
ward Japan was akin to that of the United 
States. At the same time Great Britain and 
Japan discovered that the text of the 1911 
treaty was “inconsistent” with the Covenant of 
the League of Nations and in a note apprised 
the League of this fact, promising that on the 
renewal of the treaty this inconsistency would 
be remedied. When after the lapse of the year 
no agreement had been reached as to a proper 
basis for renewal, the treaty was declared by 
mutual agreement in July, 1921, to remain in 
force for three months, and the League was in- 
formed that this automatic extension conflicted 
in no way with the note to the League of the 
preceding year. At the end of the stipulated 
three months the Washington Conference (q.v.) 
convened (November, 1921) and there treaties 
and agreements were concluded in consequence 
of which the Anglo-Japanese Alliance became 
completely obsolete. The Alliance was allowed 
to lapse in consequence of the Four Power 
Treaty. The Lansing-Ishii Agreement was su- 
' perseded by the Nine Power Treaty of the 
Open Door in China. What actually took place 
was that Great Britain and the United States 
reached a complete accord as to the chief issues 
in the Pacific and that Japan, under pressure 
from the two English-speaking powers, had to 
make concessions and forego her liberty of ac- 
tion in the Far East. The British change of 
front from the Anglo-Japanese Alliance to co- 
operation with the United States had become a 
fact. In consequence of these events and of the 
American immigration legislation in 1924, Ja- 
pan subsequently pursued a policy which indi- 
cated a desire to reach an agreement with Soviet 
Russia on Far Eastern questions, similar to 
that concluded with Imperial Russia in 1916. 

ANGOLA, or PorTUGUESE WEST ArricA. A 
Portuguese colony situated on the West coast 
of Africa, bounded on the North and East by 
the Belgian Congo, and on the South and East 
by Rhodesia and the Union of South Africa. 
It presents a coast-line of 1000 miles to the At- 
lantic and has an estimated area of 484,800 
square miles. In 1914 the population was 


71 


ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY 


placed at 2,124,361, which was considered too 
low. Later estimates gave Angola 4,119,000 
souls, of whom all but some 30,000 whites, 
mostly Portuguese, were natives of Bantu- 
Negro stock. Loanda, the capital, situated on 
the coast, has an estimated population of 18,- 
000. Other important towns are Cabinda, Am- 
briz, Novo Ridondo, Benguela, Mossamades, 
and Port Alexander. The chief products contin- 
ued to be coffee, rubber, wax, sugar, vegetable- 
oils, cocoanuts, ivory, oxen, fish, and whale oil. 
The rubber industry steadily declined, with the 
result that the government applied itself to the 
encouragement of cotton and sugar-cane culture. 
The colony contained considerable quantities of 
copper, iron, petroleum, salt, and some gold, 
none of which was worked extensively. The 
trade, largely with Portugal and carried in 
Portuguese bottoms, consisted of imported tex- 
tiles and exported rubber, coffee, dried fish, and 
whale oil. In 1921 these totaled 39,995,382 
escudos for imports and 23,597,548 escudos for 
exports, both exclusive of the Congo. Commu- 
nications were of course still in a primitive 
state. There were 818 miles of railway, 375 
miles of which were purchased by the Portu- 
guese government in 1918. The completion of 
the railroad out of Benguela, designed to tap 
the British copper region of Katanga, Belgian 
Congo, was under way in 1921. The removal 
of Germany from Africa as a result of the War 
left British influence dominant. Rivalry be- 
tween British and German interests had been 
keen for the gaining of economic concessions 
and the Germans had been particularly active 
in southern Angola. German agents recruited 
native workers for transportation to the Otavi 
copper mines in German territory and thus 
gained the enmity of the Portuguese. During 
the War, border conflicts took place between 
German and Portuguese forces. 

ANGORA GOVERNMENT. See TURKEY. 

ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY. In 1914 animal 
psychology was just emerging from the anec- 
dotal stage and was fighting for the right to 
be regarded as a legitimate branch of experi- 
mental psychology. This right 10 years later 
had been achieved through the perfection of ob- 
jective methods of control. Indeed, the tech- 
nique of animal psychology, necessitating the 
study of external behavior without regard to 
states of consciousness, had a powerful reper- 
cussion on psychology proper (see BEHAVIOR- 
1sM). Unfortunately, the development of an 
experimental technique did not bring the stu- 
dents of animal psychology much nearer the 
synthetic viewpoints for which they had all 
hoped. Many problems were attacked but few 
comprehensive theories discovered. The great- 
est amount of experimenting was done on habit 
formation, with white rats learning to pick 
their way in a maze. The topics treated in- 
cluded learning ability, distribution of effort, 
retention of motor habits, and transfer of train- 
ing. While many hypotheses of learning abil- 
ity were suggested, none stood the test of crit- 
icism. When the assumption of a conscious 
directive force was abandoned, the pleasure-pain 
explanation was attempted. But this was seen 
to prove nothing except that animals prefer 
pleasure to pain, when they have a choice be- 
tween the two. As for the more complex senti- 
ments, the experimental technique generally 
proved insufficient (Psychological Bulletins, 
1921, vol. 15, p. 573). The theory of the con- 


ANISFELD 


ditioned reflex formulated by the Russians, 
Bechterev and Pavlov, has not received any new 
developments. That certain reflexes, such as the 
salivating reflex in the case of dogs, can be 
made to function by conditions habitually asso- 
ciated with the adequate stimulus, was definite- 
ly established. But the theory cannot be used 
greatly to anticipate experience, although it 
does explain it after the fact. 

Two other fruitful subjects of research were 
the study of tropisms and instincts among the 
lowest animals and the higher mental processes 
among animals most closely resembling man. 
The first seems by its nature to favor a mechan- 
istic explanation and the second a conscious 
explanation. Jacques Loeb, in his two works, 
The Organism, considered as a whole from the 
physico-chemical standpoint, and Tropisms, 
forced movements and animal conduct, attempt- 
ed to extend the physico-chemical explanation 
to the entire animal kingdom, man _ included. 
However, experiments with the lowly ameba re- 
vealed an unexpected degree of complexity even 
in the movements of unicellular animals. Kep- 
ner and Edwards (Journal of Haperimental 
Zoology, 1917, vol. xxiv, p. 381) find that the 
Ameba pelomyxa has two types of feeding re- 
actions, one to nonmoving objects which have 
no possibility of escape, the other to objects in 
motion, which may escape. Schaeffer (Journal 
of Animal Behavior, 1917, vol. vii, p. 220) 
points out that the ordinary ameba can choose 
between digestible and nondigestible particles. 
He regards the movement of the particle as the 
most important condition of the feeding reac- 
tion. Glass particles are eaten if they are in 
motion but not otherwise. Numerous experi- 
ments with light waves led to no important 
conclusion as to the behavior of the lower ani- 
mals, inasmuch as the light stimulus produces 
immediate reactions from the higher animals 
and from man. The mental life of primates 
was investigated by Robert M. Yerkes (Behav- 
ior Monographs, No. 12) and by Wolfgang 
Koehler (Psychologische Forschung, 1922, vol. 
i, p. 2). The latter developed an interesting 
support to the Gestalt theory of perception 
(see PERCEPTION) by showing that chimpanzees 
and apes react to the form of the stimulus 
rather than to any specific element of it. Hen- 
ning (Zeitschrift fiir Biologie, 1919, vol. 1xx, 
p- 1) has found that untrained dogs gave no 
reaction to odors without biological significance 
but could be trained to respond to any type of 
odor detectable by man. See INSTINCT. 

Bibliography. Most of the discussion of 
animal psychology is scattered through the psy- 
chological and _ biological periodicals. Wash- 
burn’s The Animal Mind continued as the stand- 
ard textbook on the subject. For a popular 
exposition of animal psychology, consult the 
first section of McDougall’s Outline of Psy- 
chology. 

ANISFELD, Boris IsRAeELEVIcH (1879- 

). A Russian painter and scenio decora- 
tor. He was born at Bieltsy, Bessarabia, and 
received his chief artistic training in five years 
at the Odessa Art School. At the Academy of 
Petrograd he was allowed to develop independ- 
ently. A series of South Russian landscapes 
brought his first artistic triumph at Petrograd 
and Paris in 1905. The same season saw his 
first scenic production, the ‘Marriage of 
Zobeide,” which in its daring color schemes and 
original conception was epoch-making in Rus- 


72 


ANSELL 


sian scenic art. It attracted the attention of 
Diaghilev, who employed him on the Russian 
ballet. (See PAINTING, section Russia.) Among 
other scenic triumphs were ‘“‘Boris Godounov” 
(1908), “Ivan the Terrible” (1909), “Sadko” 
(1911), “‘Islamey,” “The Preludes,” “Egyptian 
Nights,’ and “La Reine Fiammette” (New York, 
1918). This scenic work gave his easel and other 
paintings an increasingly imaginative character. 
The chief influence was undoubtedly Oriental 
art, and he is primarily a colorist, but he sub- 
ordinates color and all else to constructive 
synthesis. Among his best known canvases are 
“Clouds on the Black Sea,” “Alder Grove— 
Iver,’ and “Gray Day on the Neva’—land- 
scapes; a series of still lives; “The Blue 
Statue,” “The Exodus,” “Garden-of Eden,” “The 
Golden God,’ “Garden of the Hesperides,” 
“Buddha and the Pomegranates.” His _ por- 
traits include several of himself, the singer 
Chaliapine and L. M. Wourgaft. He is repre- 
sented in all important Russian museums and 
in Brooklyn and Buffalo. In 1917 he escaped 
through Siberia to the United States, where he 
held exhibitions in 1917 and 1924, and became 
an, important factor in stage decoration. 

ANNAM. See Frencu INDO-CHINA. 

ANNAPOLIS. See Unirep Stares Navan 
ACADEMY. 

ANN ARBOR MUSIC FESTIVAL. See 
Music, Festivals. 

ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE dD’ (1864—- }eyeen 
Italian novelist and poet (see Vor. I). When 
the War broke out in 1914 he was in France, 
but he sent many messages to the Italian peo- 
ple urging them to join on the side of the Al- 
lies. He returned to Italy in 1915, and al- 
though 55 years of age he volunteered for active 
service. He took part in many torpedo and 
submarine raids, and later joined the flying 
force, and in August, 1918, flew over Vienna, 
but dropped pamphlets instead of bullets on 
the unfortified city. He was promoted to the 
rank of lieutenant-colonel. After the Armis- 
tice, his bitter denunciation of President Wil- 
son and the Allied Powers was effective in 
straining relations between Italy and the Amer- 
ican President, already upset by the dispute 
over Fiume. When D’Annunzio led an expedi- 
tion into that city, many of his most ardent ad- 
mirers fell away from him, but a large body of 
important Italian opinion supported him in his . 
role of “Commandant” of Fiume, and many of 
the army and navy officers served loyally under 
him. For 15 months he reigned in Fiume, and 
refused to submit to the Italian government in 
enforcing the provisions of the Rapallo treaty. 
He was overcome by the government and obliged 
to leave Fiume in January, 1921. He settled 
at Gardone on the lake of Garda. Among his 
later writings are Le Chévrefewille (1914); Per 
la pit Grande Italia (1915); La Leda senza 
Cigno (1916); La Beffa di Buccari (1918); La 
Riscossa (1918), and Notturno (1918). 

AWNSELL, SAMUEL TILDEN (1875-— ar a S) 
American lawyer, born at Coinjock, N. C., and 
educated at the United States Military Acad- 
emy and the University of North Carolina. Be- 
ginning with the commission of second lieuten- 
ant in the infantry in 1899, he became major 
judge advocate in 1913, and brigadier general in 
1917. He served with the civil government as 
prosecuting attorney in the Philippines (1909- 
11). By special assignment of the War De- 
partment, he was attorney before the Federal 


ANSPACHER 


courts of the United States for Porto Rico and 
the Philippines and acting judge advocate gen- 
eral of the United States of America (1917- 
18); for this work he was awarded the D.S. M. 
He inaugurated the movement which resulted 
in the reformation of the army court martial 
system. In 1919 he resigned from the army 
to practice law. 

ANSPACHER, Louis KAurMAN (1878- )G 
An American dramatist and lecturer, born at 
Cincinnati, Ohio, and educated at the College 
of the City of New York and Columbia Univer- 
sity. He was secular lecturer at Temple Eman- 
uel, New York (1902-5), and became a member 
of the lecture staff of the League for Political 
Education of New York (1906), and of the 
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences (1908). 
Subsequently he was lecturer for the University 
Extension Centre, New York, and a member of 
the staff of the Civic Forum Lecture Bureau at 
its formation. He is the author of several suc- 
cessful plays which include Tristan and Isolde 
(New York, 1904), Embarrassment of Riches 


(New York, 1910), Anne and the Archduke 
John (1907), The Woman of Impulse (New 
York, 1909), The Glass House (1912), The 


Washerwoman Duchess (1913), Our Children 
(New York, 1915), The Unchastened Woman 
(New York, 1915), That Day (Los Angeles, 
1917), Madame Cécile (1918), The Rape of 
Belgium, with Max Marcin (1918), Daddalums 
(London, 1920), The Dancer, in collaboration 
(New York, 1919), All the King’s Horses 
(1920), and The New House (1921). 

ANTARCTIC REGIONS. See Porar RE- 
SEARCH. 

ANTHONY, AtLrrep WILLIAMS (1860- yta 
A leading American theologian, born in Provi- 
dence, R. I., and educated at Brown University, 
the Cobb Divinity School, and the University of 
Berlin. He was ordained in the Free Baptist 
Ministry in 1885 and appointed pastor in Ban- 
gor, Me. (1885-8), professor of New Testa- 
ment exegesis at the Cobb Divinity School 
(1890-1908), and professor of Christian litera- 
ture and ethics at Bates College (1908-11). 
Since 1911 he has devoted himself chiefly to ex- 
ecutive work in Baptist church affairs. Among 
his recent works are The Conscience and Con- 
cessions (1918) and The Church in the Commu- 
nity (1919). 

ANTHONY, KATHERINE (SuSAN) 
(1877— ). An American writer on femi- 
nism, born at Roseville, Ark., and educated at 
Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn., 
the Universities of Heidelberg and Freiburg, 
Germany, and the University of Chicago. She 
was instructor in Wellesley College (1907-8) 
and did research work in economics for the 
Russell Sage Foundation, New York (1909-13). 
She is author of Mothers Who Must Earn 
(1914) ; Feminism in Germany and Scandinavia 
(1915); Labor Laws of New York (1917); and 
Margaret Fuller—a Psychological Biography 
(1920). She was author of the essay on “The 
Family” in Civilization in the United States— 
an Inquiry by Thirty Americans (1921) and 
editor of The Endowment of Motherhood (New 
York, 1920). 

ANTHRACITE. See Coat. 

ANTHRAX. This communicable disease, in 
the form known as malignant pustule or malig- 
nant carbuncle, came much before the public be- 
cause of its transmission through infected 
horsehair shaving brushes. Ordinarily it is an 


73 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


occupational disease which occurs in workers in 
rawhide, wool, horsehair, bristles, ete. During 
the past few years numerous cases have oc- 
curred especially in Pennsylvania, both in horse- 
hair workers and tanners on the one hand and 
among the general public on the other, as a re- 
sult of infection from the use of horsehair shav- 
ing brushes. As a consequence of these infec- 
tions the Health Department of that State is- 
sued a ruling that all horsehair should be sub- 
jected to dry heat for 24 hours at 200°F., or for 
2 hours to steam at 15 pounds pressure, and 
finally to continual boiling in water for 3 hours. 
The public has been repeatedly warned by health 
authorities against the use of cheap shaving 
brushes, but this warning is insufficient for the 
protection of the community; and in New York 
State a law was passed which became effective 
on Jan. 1, 1922, prohibiting the manufacture, 
sale and offering for sale of shaving brushes 
made of horsehair. The general decline in the 
use of the shaving brush in recent years must 
be set down as due in part to this possibility of 
contamination. In the larger exposed indus- 
tries, as tanneries, the men are notably indiffer- 
ent toward self-protection, and only a small 
proportion are directly exposed to contagion. 
Statistics have shown that about 10 per cent 
of those exposed will contract the disease, with 
a mortality of about 20 per cent. In the past 
12 years 119 workers in the Pennsylvania tan- 
neries have been infected. 

ANTHROPOLOGY. The decade 1914-24 
witnessed a series of important discoveries in 
biological anthropology bearing on human evo- 
lution and new interpretations of older finds. 
Among these Boule’s Les Hommes Fossiles 
(1921) is a work of outstanding merit, while 
the English-speaking public found convenient 
summaries in A. L. Kroeber’s Anthropology 
(1923), G. Elliot Smith’s pamphlet on Primi- 
tive Man (1916), and H. F. Osborn’s Men of 
the Old Stone Age (1914). It was generally 
admitted, largely as a result of A. Hrdlicka’s 
critical inquiries, that the New World must. be 
excluded as a possible centre of origin of the 
family Hominide, and that southern Asia was 
the most likely place. Nevertheless, the Asi- 
atic expedition organized by R. Andrews, with 
W. Granger serving as paleontologist, concen- 
trated its attention on a region considerably to 
the north, in Mongolia, while the possibility 
of a European origin was suggested to Dr. 
Hrdlicka by his inspection of the Piltdown re- 
mains. At all events by far the fullest infor- 
mation came from Europe, where the Neander- 
thal type (Homo neanderthalensis) has been 
definitely established as a distinct species of 
man, very much lower morphologically than the 
Australian or Tasmanian. 

This conclusion is based on a succession of 
finds which definitely rule out the older hypoth- 
esis of pathological deformation. The type is 
associated with the cultural subdivision of the 
Paleolithic known as Mousterian. Toward the 
end of 1921 a startling discovery was made in 
Broken Hill, Rhodesia, where for the first time 
human remains of archaic type were unearthed 
from African soil. Paleontologically, the as- 
sociated fauna does not indicate great antiqui- 
ty, but the skull itself has a tremendous devel- 
opment of brow-ridges suggestive of the Nean- 
derthalers. No complete description was avail- 
able up to 1924, and some features, such as the 
close approximation to erect posture inferred 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


from the position of the foramen magnum, in- 
dicated important deviations from that species. 
(See G. G. MacCurdy, in American Anthropolo- 
gist, 1922, p. 97 et seq.) On the other hand, 
fragments of two jaws found near Weimar in 
1914 and since described in H. Virchow’s Die 
Menschlichen Skeletreste ... von Ehringsdorf 
bei Weimar are accepted as Neanderthaloid. 

Respecting the much lower form represented 
by the Heidelberg jaw, found in 1907, there was 
no dissension. It was recognized as belonging 
to a member of the human family but of a spe- 
cies distinct from both recent and Neanderthal 
man. Some inclined to the view that it belongs 
to a separate genus, Palewoanthropus. On the 
other hand, there is considerable dispute as to 
the interpretation of the Piltdown remains un- 
earthed in 1912. The reconstructions of the 
cranium made by different investigators varied 
appreciably, and non-British students were 
strongly inclined to consider the jaw as that 
of a chimpanzee and unconnected with the skull. 
G. Elliot Smith, however, maintained that it is 
impossible to maintain this opinion when it is 
tested by examination of the actual remains in- 
stead of mere casts, because the mandible and 
its teeth are indisputably human. Since the 
same holds for the skull in far greater measure, 
the brain falling within the range of living 
races and displaying a marked overgrowth of 
what corresponds in position to the speech cen- 
tres, Smith sees here a corroboration of his fa- 
vorite theory that the brain led the way in hu- 
man evolution. Pithecanthropus erectus, the 
ape-man of Trinil, Java, had not, up to the mid- 
dle of 1924, received monographic treatment at 
the hands of its discoverer, Dr. E. Dubois. It 
is recognized as the lowest member known to 
date of the family Hominide. In 1923 Dr. 
Hrdlicka had access to the actual specimens 
and was reported to have evolved a new inter- 
pretation of the find. 

The origin of the races now in existence was 
still enveloped in doubt, though the Cro-Magnon 
man of the Upper Paleolithic—tall, narrow- 
skulled, and broad-faced—was usually conceived 
as Caucasian and indeed was believed by some 
to survive in different parts of Europe, for ex- 
ample in Seotland. A female skeleton and that 
of a youth found in Grimaldi and roughly con- 
temporaneous with the Cro-Magnon remains 
were sometimes conceived as Negroid, but the 
determination was not universally recognized, 
while evidence of a prehistoric Mongolian race 
seems to be lacking. On the other hand, a 
fossilized Australian skull, found in Talgai, 
Queensland, and supposed to be of considerable 
antiquity, was regarded by G. Elliot Smith and 
S. A. Smith as ancestral to the present abori- 
gines. The only distinctive feature was the 
great size of the palate and teeth, especially the 
canines. As to the cause of racial differentia- 
tion, two suggestive hypotheses found some fol- 
lowing. In his presidential address on The Dif- 
ferentiation of Mankind into Racial Types, A. 
Keith (British Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, 1920) explains the evolution 
as the result of differences in the ductless 
glands. On the other hand, Eugen Fischer in 
the Eduard Hahn Festschrift and elsewhere pro- 
pounds the view that man is a domesticated an- 
imal and hence naturally has developed varia- 
tions on a considerable scale in the same direc- 
tions as such species as horses, dogs, cattle. 
As a matter of fact, the very traits distinctive 


74 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


of breeds of cattle, dogs, ete.—type of skull, 
hairiness, hair texture, size—are the criteria 
employed by anthropologists in their classifica- 
tions. 

A conservative statement on classifications, 
with brief summaries of older schemes, will be 
found in Kroeber’s Anthropolgy. G. Elliot 
Smith, e.g. in Primitwe Man, injects a genetic 
point of view into the problem. Appraising the 
Australian as the lowest type extant, he re- 
gards him as something of a survival of the 
primeval Homo sapiens; he is supposed to have 
become localized in India, leaving the _ pre- 
Dravidians there when he migrated to his his- 
toric home. The Negroids became segregated 
at a later period, and still later four stocks 
with less pigmentation evolved, the Mongolian, 
Alpine-Armenoid, Mediterranean, and Nordie. 
The Polynesians are interpreted as a Mediter- 
ranean and Armenoid mixture, which even af- 
fected the essentially Mongolian population of 
aboriginal America. The last of these proposi- 
tions—the partly Polynesian affiliation of the 
Americans—is likewise championed by Von- 
Luschan and R. B. Dixon. The latter, in his 
book on The Racial History of Man, advances, 
however, a far more radical position. Taking 
three cranial features, the cephalic index, 
height index, and nasal index, he bases a sys- 
tem of races on them alone, to the exclusion of 
such hitherto universally accepted features as 
pigmentation and hair texture. As a result he 
discovers proto-Negroid, as well as Mediterra- 
nean, Alpine, and Caspian, i.e. Nordic, strains 
in the American Indian population and arrives 
at equally startling conclusions for races of 
other regions. So far these have been met with 
reserve or skepticism by most writers. Cer- 
tainly Boas’s observations on the mutability of 
the cephalic index in successive generations of 
southern and eastern European immigrants in- 
to America and those on the change of the Rus- 
sian index in the direction of dolichocephaly as 
a result of the famines (Alexis Ivanovsky, 
American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 
1923, pp. 231-353) hardly tally with the as- 
sumption that this index expresses a profound 
biological verity. On the other hand, the at- 
tempt made by Dixon to consider the combina- 
tion of traits in individual subjects, e.g. to re- 
gard the association of dolichocephaly, leptor- 
rhiny, and hypsicephaly, as distinctive of a 
separate strain in a population, rather than to 
define the whole group on the basis of statisti- 
cal averages, is in accord with a widespread 
tendency among recent investigators. Thus, V. 
Lebzelter (Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen 
Gesellschaft in Wien, 1923, pp. 1-48) splits up 
his Serbian subjects into a Dinarie group with 


tall stature, dark hair, and broad heads; an-. 


other strain with short stature, dark hair and 
broad heads; and so forth. 

The War, which in some respects blighted 
scientific work, including that in anthropology, 
nevertheless stimulated research along anthro- 
pometric lines. Investigations were made on 
prisoners of war. Thus, F. G. Parsons in his 
Anthropological Observations in German Pris- 
oners of War tested and confirmed the funda- 
mental differences between northern and south- 
ern Germans. Highly suggestive are the con- 
clusions of J. Czekanowski (Bulletin et Mémoire 
de la Société @ Anthropologie, 1920, pp. 48-69), 
who denied that the time-worn classification of 
European races into Nordic, Alpine, and Medi- 


= 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


terranean is at all applicable to Eastern Eu- 
rope. Thus, he finds at least four additional 
stocks in Poland alone, of which a short, mes- 
ocephalic group is said to represent the oldest 
element, while a tall, blond, drachycephalic type 
and an obsolescent short, fair and dolichoce- 
phalie variety are equally noteworthy. These 
observations have been partly paralleled in 
Russia. 

A model study of a particular people, made 
from a morphological and genetic point of view, 
is furnished by F. Sarasin’s Anthropologie der 
Neu-Caledonier und Loyalty Insulaner (1920). 
These aborigines are shown to have affiliations 
with the Australians and Tasmanians. The 
technique of anthropometry found detailed 
treatment in Rudolf Martin’s monumental Lehr- 
buch der Anthropologie (1914), of which a 
second edition was in process of preparation in 
1924. Besides this classic there are several 
lesser treatises, such as Fabio Frassetto’s 
Lezioni di Antropologia and A. Hrdlicka’s 
Anthropometry and Physical Anthropology. 
Apart from descriptive anthropometry, various 
biological questions engaged attention as to 
their bearing on man. Much of the avowedly 
eugenicist literature that flooded the market 
may be unqualifiedly stigmatized as unscientific 
trash, but the relevant data as seen by a eugen- 
icist were set forth in a spirit of exemplary 
caution in S. J. Holmes’s The Trend of the Race 
(1921). Closely correlated with these problems 
is that of Mendelism and of heredity generally. 
By far the most thorough inquiry into misce- 
genation was Fischer’s investigation of Dutch- 
Hottentot breeds (1913), which seemed to 
prove Mendelian inheritance for some features. 
At all events, certain traits such as tallness ap- 
peared dominant, and the mutually independent 
transmission of distinct traits was demonstrat- 
ed by the coexistence of spiral hair with blond- 
ness in breed children. In northernmost Nor- 
way, where Lapps and Scandinavians have in- 
termarried, H. Bryn (Troms Fylkes Antropol- 
ogt, 1922) likewise finds evidence for Mendel- 
ism, but it must be admitted that exact proof 
for the typical .ratios has not yet been fur- 
nished for the human species. This point is 
made in F. Boas’s Report on an Anthropometric 
Investigation of the Population of the United 
States (Journal of the American Statistical 
Association, 1922), where the basic interrela- 
tions of environment and heredity are discussed. 
A large number of important articles on biolog- 
ical ‘anthropology appeared in the American 
Journal of Physical Anthropology, founded and 
edited by Dr. A. Hrdlicka. 

A whole series of semipopular treatises he- 
came available for the layman’s orientation. 
The account in A. L. Kroeber’s Anthropology 
(1923) may be recommended for its conciseness 
and the infusion of a sense for culture-history 
as a whole, frequently lacking in more detailed 
discussions. <A clarification of the highly mis- 
leading connotation of the term Neolithic is 
among the merits of this exposition. Since the 
grinding of stone did not begin in Europe until 
a relatively late stage of this period a new defi- 
nition in terms of the first appearance of the 
bow, pottery, and the dog is imperative. In 
this view Kroeber more or less coincided with 
G. Elliot Smith, who, however, not only divided 
off the Neolithic along similar lines but also 
regarded as more fundamental the division of 
the Upper from the Lower Paleolithie (Primi- 


75 


ANTIOCH COLLEGE 


tive Man, 1916). M. C. Burkitt’s Prehistory 
and R. H. 8S. Macalister’s Jext-book of Huro- 
peam Archeology are storehouses of fact. The 
former emphasized prehistoric art. H. F. Os- 
born’s Men of the Old Stone Age and Sollas’s 
Ancient Hunters are also convenient summaries. 
For the Neolithic, J. M. Tyler’s The New Stone 
Age in Northern Europe is an accessible guide. 
A great deal of valuable research in France and 
Spain has been done or stimulated by Abbé H. 
Breuil, whose reports appear from year to year 
in the issues of L’ Anthropologie. 

Outside of Europe relatively little work of 
fundamental value for the early history of man- 
kind was done, though in America much was 
accomplished with important bearings on later 
epochs tying up with historic populations. Si- 
berian data were well summarized in Gero von 
Merhart’s essay in the American Anthropologist 
(1923, pp. 21-55), which described the Yenisei 
finds as corresponding to the European Upper 
Paleolithic; the Solutrean technique is absent, 
but Aurignacian types are paralleled, nor are 
Magdalenian features wanting. Sensational 
conceptions of extra-European Palzoliths were 
developed by J. Bayer (Mannus, vol. xi-xii, pp. 
215-223), who synchronized them with the 
proto-Neolithic of Europe. This he coupled 
with a rejection of the traditional glacial chro- 
nology by combining the Riss and Wiirm peri- 
ods into one, with the Lower Paleolithic at its 
commencement and the proto-Neolithic at its 
close. See ETHNOGRAPHY; ETHNOLOGY; EU- 
GENICS; MAN, PREHISTORIC RACES OF; RACE 
PROBLEMS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

ANTHROPOMETRY. See ANTHROPOLOGY. 

ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNS. See Smarr 
ARMS. 

ANTI-AIRCRAFT ARTILLERY. See Ar- 
TILLERY. 

ANTIBODIES. See HEReEpITy. 

ANTIN, Mary (1881- ). An American 
writer on the immigrant. She was born at 
Polotzk, Russia, came to America in 1894, and 
was educated in the public schools, the Girls’ 
Latin School (Boston), Teachers College (Col- 
umbia University), and Barnard College. Her 
books, especially The Promised Land (Boston, 
1912) and They Who Knock at Our Gates (Bos- 
ton, 1914), made an instant and deep impres- 
sion by their sincerity, their idealism, and the 
vividness with which she shows, from her own 
experience, what America means to the immi- 
grant. Her other works are From Polotzk to 
Boston (Boston, 1899); At School in the Prom- 
ised Land (selections from The Promised Land, 
Boston, 1916), and The Lie (Boston, 1919). 

ANTIOCH COLLEGE. A nonsectarian, co- 
educational institution at Yellow Springs, Ohio, 
founded by Horace Mann in 1853. The student 
enrollment increased from 230 in 1913 to 500 
in 1923-24, the faculty from 20 to 48 members, 
and the library from 12,000 to 16,000 volumes. 
In the fall of 1921, the college was completely 
reorganized. The Antioch plan undertook to 
determine what were the controlling demands 
and opportunities of modern life and to furnish 
in a single orderly programme those elements 
of discipline and training which would best pre- 
pare students for all the relationships of life, 
personal, social, and vocational. In pursuance 
of this plan, the college united, in a single co- 
ordinated course of six years, a liberal college 
education, guidance in the choice of a_profes- 
sion or other calling and training for it, and a 


ANTI-SALOON LEAGUE 


practical apprenticeship to life through part- 
time, practical work. Students were not ac- 
cepted who desired to confine themselves solely 
to technical training. The purpose of the part- 
time, practical work was primarily to develop 
self-reliance and responsibility and to give the 
student first-hand acquaintance with practical 
life and his own powers. The part-time work 
also helped the student to discover and prepare 
for his calling and more than cut in two the 
cost of a college education. Half the students 
studied while the other half worked, in alter- 
nate periods of five weeks. More than a hun- 
dred firms codperated with the college in this 
programme. The enrollment was limited, and 
very close relations were maintained between 
students and faculty. The professional and 
other vocational courses prepared for engineer- 
ing, business administration, education, journal- 
ism, and institutional management. Emphasis 
was placed on administrative and managerial 
training rather than on specialized technique. 
Arthur E. Morgan succeeded A. D. Fess, LL.D, 
as president in 1921. 

ANTI-SALOON LEAGUE OF AMERICA. 
See PROHIBITION. 


ANZACS. See War IN EvuroPe, Turkish 
Front. 
AOSTA, EMANUELE FILIBERTO, DUKE OF 


(1869— ). An Italian general, son of Prince 
Amadeo of Savoy. He commanded the Ist Di- 
vision at Turin and the 10th Army Corps at 
Naples. When the War began he was on the 
reserve list but was appointed to succeed Gen- 
eral Zuceari in command of the 3rd Army and 
remained in that position till the end of the 
War. He made a most successful record. See 
Wark IN EvuROPE, Italian Front. 

APES, Fossiz. See MAN, PREHISTORIC RACES 
OF. 

APICULTURE. See 
NOMIC. 

APOLLINAIRE, GumtAaumMeE (1880-1918). 
A French poet and novelist. He distinctly rep- 
resented the extreme modernist tendencies of les 
jeunes. He did not live to see the crystalliza- 
tion of the Dadaist movement, but the inspira- 
tion for its new formula of esthetics, with its 
suggestion of a juggler doing tricks before spec- 
tators, came largely from his writing. As edi- 
tor of Le Festin d’Esope (1903-04) and Les 
Soirées de Paris (1913-18), he influenced both 
the younger school of French poetry and cubist 
painting. He hoped to develop an esthetics 
which would unite poetry and painting into a 
single art. His works include L’Enchanteur 
Pourissant (1903) and Hérésiarque et Compag- 
nie (1912), his prose masterpiece. Alcools 
(1913) is a collection of his more finished 
poems. Le Poéte Assassine (1918) is a lyric 
autobiography relating his impressions of the 
War. Calligrames (1918) contains verses com- 
posed at the front. La Femme Assise, published 
posthumously in 1921, is a novel in the new 
manner. 

APPLETON, WILLIAM ARCHIBALD 
(1859-— ). A British Trade Union leader, 
born at Nottingham, England. He was a lace- 
maker in Nottingham until 1896, when he be- 
came secretary of the Lace-Makers’ Trade Un- 
ion. In 1907 he was elected secretary of the 
General Federation of Trade Unions of Great 
Britain, an organization to provide strike bene- 
fits for members of unions affiliating with the 
General Federation. He was accepted as 


EntTomoLoey, Eco- 


76 


AQUEDUCTS 


spokesman for British labor by the British gov- 
ernment during the War, although it was main- 
tained that his organization was usurping the 
powers of the British Trade Union Congress 
and the Labor party. 

APPONYI, ALBERT, Count (1846— BS 
Hungarian statesman (see Vout. I). He served 
in the Hungarian Chamber of Deputies during 
the War but retired in 1918 as a result of the 
October revolution. In the next year he sat in 
the National Assembly and also represented his 
country at the Peace Conference. Later he took 
his place in the Lower House of the newly con- 
stituted Hungarian Parliament, and as a trib- 
ute to his avowed nonpartisanship, though his 
sympathies were with the exiled royal family, 
he was chosen speaker. His influence on Hun- 
garian policy was great, and he was recognized 
abroad as one of Hungary’s authentic spokes- 
men. In 1923 he visited the United States at 
the invitation of the Institute of International 
Education and was cordially received. 

AQUEDUCTS. With the notable growth of 
cities and town development generally in the 
United States the extension and increase of ex- 
isting water supplies, and the provision of new 
sources of water supply became an important 
consideration. Not only was there a large and 
sudden gain in population in many American 
cities, but at the same‘ time improved stand- 
ards of living and in some instances industrial 
needs rendered necessary more abundant water 
supplies. In some cases, such as New York 
and Los Angeles, California, provision already 
had been made and the increased facilities were 
availed of with the ever-growing demands. In 
certain of the cities on the Great Lakes it was 
found necessary to increase the tunnels by 
which the supply was received, and also the 
purification plants, while in other cities, such 
as San Francisco, notable projects were de- 
signed to take care of future needs. 

In Europe also the needs of an increased wa- 
ter supply were appreciated in many districts. 
The conditions following the War were hardly 
such as to make important developments possi- 
ble. In Italy a comprehensive. scheme in Apul- 
ia was brought to a successful completion in 
1923, and other work was under way. 

Aside from the size and length of the more 
important projects there was but little novelty 
in their construction. In many cases they in- 
volved rock tunneling, sometimes on an un- 
precedented scale, as in the case of the 
Shandaken Tunnel of the Schoharie develop- 
ment of the Catskill Aqueduct, while elsewhere 
long pipe lines of steel covered with concrete 
or other types of construction were involved. 

Shandaken Tunnel. The Schoharie develop- 
ment, referred to above, involved the construc- 
tion of an 18-mile tunnel in rock to connect 
a reservoir formed by the construction of the 
Gilboa Dam (for description and plate see 
DAMS) across the Schoharie Creek, with Eso- 
pus Creek, whence the water would flow along 
the original stream bed into the Ashokan Reser- 
voir and augment the available supply for the 
City of New York by some 500,000,000 gallons 
daily. The Shandaken tunnel, which was opened 
early in 1924, was designed for a maximum 
capacity of 600,000,000 gallons per day to be 
operated intermittently and at varying rates 
depending upon the conditions of the stream 
flow and storage requirements. 

The tunnel had a horseshoe cross-section with 


AQUEDUCTS 


a maximum internal height of 11 feet, 6 inches, 
and an internal breadth of 10 feet, 3 inches. 
It was driven from each portal and by sinking 
six intermediate shafts, conerete lined, 14 feet 
in diameter, and driving headings from them 
in both directions. The total length was 95,- 
740 feet, or 18.1 miles, and the tunnel was 
lined throughout with concrete. It was the 
longest continuous tunnel in the world, being 
1787 feet longer than the New York City aque- 
duct tunnel for the delivery of Catskill water 
within the city limits. 

Greater New York. Aqueducts. Notwith- 
standing the large capacity of the Catskill wa- 
ter supply system as planned it became evident 
in 1922 and 1923 that additional conduits must 
be provided to afford an adequate supply to 
the boroughs of Brooklyn, Queens and Rich- 
mond, where there had been a_ phenomenal 
growth in the residential. districts. Portions 
of the boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens had 
drawn their supply from Kings, Queens and 
Nassau counties, while Richmond (Staten Is- 
land) had been supplied not only from local 
sources but from the main Catskill Aqueduct 
by a 36-inch cast-iron siphon under the Nar- 
rows. The new construction involved a cast- 
iron 42-inch pipe line across the Narrows from 
Brooklyn to Staten Island, and a series of 
steel pipe conduits, most of which were 72 
inches in diameter, taking the water from the 
main city tunnels in Brooklyn. Thus one of 
the lines extended from Shaft 23 at Flatbush 
and Third Avenues, Brooklyn, to Silver Lake 
Reservoir in Richmond, and comprised the 
Park Slope and Fort Hamilton conduits in 
Brooklyn, 41,430 feet in length; the new Nar- 
rows Siphon No. 2, already mentioned, 9400 
feet long, across the Narrows, and the Clove 
conduit, 16,600 feet long, in Richmond Borough. 

These conduits which vary from 72 inches in 
diameter for the Park Slope and Fort Hamilton 
conduits to 66 inches in diameter for the Clove 
conduit on Staten Island, were designed pri- 
marily to supply Richmond Borough, but also 
afford direct connection with the mains of the 
Brooklyn high pressure service and with the 
intermediate and low service in South Brooklyn 
and Bay Ridge. Another conduit was an inde- 
pendent line in Brooklyn, 16,800 feet in length, 
known as the Mt. Prospect conduit, extending 
from Shaft 24 of the city tunnel in Fort Greene 
Park to the Flatbush district, in order to re- 
lieve the draft on the shaft from which the 
supply previously was drawn. It was proposed 
also to construct a line from Shaft 24 to Long 
Island City. 

These various pipe lines were noteworthy in 
that steel pipe was used in place of cast iron as 
it was considered more economical and more 
reliable in conduits of large size. These pipes 
are made up in sections not less than 30 feet 
in length, fabricated in taper courses 714 feet 
long with double-riveted lap joints for the lon- 
gitudinal seams and single-riveted lap joints for 
the transverse seams. 

Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct. After many years 
of discussion and plans the city of San Fran- 
cisco started a much-needed water supply de- 
velopment in 1919 by awarding the contract for 
the Hetch Hetchy dam situated on the Tuo- 
lumne River about 150 miles east of the city. 
From the reservoir thus formed water was to 
be carried to San Francisco and the metropol- 
itan district by means of a system of aqueducts 


77 


AQUEDUCTS 


with an ultimate capacity of 400,000,000 gal- 
lons a day. At the same time due to the 
height of the reservoirs in the mountains there 
could be developed 200,000 hydro-electric horse 
power. The aqueduct was being constructed in 
sections as needed, the first or Mountain sec- 
tion beginning at Early Intake and extending 
after a short open canal in a tunnel through 
the mountains 18.3 miles to Moccasin Creek, 
where a power plant was located. The Foothill 
division has about 17 miles of aqueduct from 
Moccasin Creek to Oakdale Portal and then 
there are 45 miles of steel pipe across the San 
Joaquin Valley to Tesla Portal. The' Coast 
Range tunnel would extend 31 miles to the 
east side of San Francisco Bay at Irvington 
Gate House where the line would divide in 
three, the main portion extending westerly un- 
der the bay through a pipe line of 200,000,000 
gallons capacity to the San Francisco penin- 
sula, another section going to the east bay 
cities, and the third southwest to San José. 
The new aqueduct by means of a connection of 
23 miles between the Alameda Creek and the 
Crystal Springs reservoir of the Spring Valley 
Water Company was to be connected with that 
system. The Hetch Hetchy supply thus could 
be made available through the Spring Valley 
system as required so that the distribution fa- 
cilities could be used so long as they are 


‘adequate. 


Hetch Hetchy Dam. The total  esti- 
mated cost of the entire Hetch Hetchy project 
from the mountain reservoir to Crystal Springs 
Reservoir, San Francisco, in 1924 was placed at 
$78,000,000, and of this amount some $45,000,- 
000 had been spent up to Jan. 1, 1925. This 
sum covered the 18-mile tunnel, the dams and 
other work in the mountain district, most of the 
work on Moccasin Creek hydro-electric plant and 
the 60-inch pipe line from the Crystal Springs 
reservoir to Irvington. It was estimated that 
the section of the aqueduct not put under con- 
struction by 1924, from Moccasin Creek to Irv- 
ington, would cost $33,000,000, this portion, it 
would be noted, including 17 miles of tunnels 
on the eastern side of the San Joaquin tunnel to 
30 miles of tunnels to the west of that valley. 
This part of the project was to be known as 
the San Joaquin Valley Division. 

Winnipeg Aqueduct. A different type of 
aqueduct was this important water supply sys- 
tem put under construction in 1913 and com- 
pleted so that in 1919 the first water could 
be passed through. The country traversed is 
generally flat and the aqueduct is 80 miles in 
length from the intake at the lake reservoir 
to within 17 miles of Winnipeg. It is built of 
concrete pipe and arch sections and has a nom- 
inal capacity of 85,000,000 gallons a day, though 
this is exceeded. 

Apulian Aqueduct. One of the longest aque- 
ducts in the world, including some 152 miles of 
main trunk and 841 miles of main and sub- 
sidiary branches or a total length of supply 
conduits of 993 miles, was put into service in 
1924 in southern Italy. This project, which as 
regards total length could be compared with 
the Coolgardie pipe line in Australia, is 350 
miles long and may be compared with the Los 
Angeles aqueduct, the longest in America, about 
240 miles in length. It was constructed to sup- 
ply some 266 communities with a population 
of about 300,000 people, scattered over some 
8100 square miles, and included in the ancient 


ARABIA 


Apulia on the eastern or Adriatic slope of the 
Apennine Peninsula. 

This work had been under construction since 
about 1907, and involved a main trunk conduit 
beginning at the Caposele Springs at the head 
of the Sele River on the western slope of the 
Apennines, and extending in an easterly direc- 
tion piercing the Apennine Mountains by means 
of a series of 38 grade tunnels, aggregating al- 
most 50 miles in length. At a point 15 miles 
away from the Adriatic Coast, the main aque- 
duct turns southeast and runs practically par- 
allel with the coast for about 90 miles until it 
reaches Villa Castelli in the province of Lecce. 
For this portion of the aqueduct the construc- 
tion was largely a cut-and-covered conduit. 
The total length of the main trunk aqueduct is 
244 kilometers (152 miles), and in this are 
included 99 tunnels of about 67 miles total 
length, about 76 miles of cut-and-covered con- 
duit, 93 aqueduct approaches, having a total of 
4.25 miles in length, and six siphons having a 
total length of 4.6 miles. From the main 
trunk branches were built to such towns and 
districts as Foggia, Bari, Brindisi, Toranto, ete. 

Tulsa, Oklahoma, Aqueduct. In 1924 one 
of the longest reinforced concrete pipe lines that 
had been attempted was constructed to bring 
mountain water from Spavinaw Creek 55 miles 
distant from the city. Here there was a reser- 


78 


voir formed by a gravity concrete dam of 55°: 


feet maximum height. From this reservoir a 
pipe line made of 54- to 60-inch reinforced 
concrete formed a conduit to carry the water to 
a pumping station at the end of the pipe line. 
In connection with this conduit, the pipes for 
which were made in the field, there was also 
constructed the Tiawah Tunnel, a 7000-foot solid 
rock tunnel of horseshoe section 84 inches in 
diameter which was lined with concrete. This 
tunnel was constructed from four headings— 
one at each end and two from the intermediate 
shaft. See Dams; TUNNELS; WATER SUPPLY. 

ARABIA. A peninsula of southwestern Asia. 
The area is estimated at 1,000,000 square miles, 
the population from 4,000,000 to 5,000,000. 
Because of the nomadic habits of the Bedouin 
tribes inhabiting the peninsula accurate popu- 
lation figures are impossible. The settled com- 
munities are to be found in the oases of Cen- 
tral Arabia and in the fertile districts along 
the coasts. The boundaries of the various prin- 
cipalities are ill-defined and the loyalties of the 
various tribesmen are equally tenuous. The 
political divisions in existence in 1924 were: 
(1) The Kingdom of the Hedjaz, which has an 
estimated area of 170,000 square miles and an 
estimated population of 900,000. It is the 
chief principality of Arabia because of its pos- 
session of the holy cities of Mecca (population 
80,000) and Medina (population 10,000). The 
capital is Mecca and the chief port Jidda (pop- 
ulation 20,000). The gathering of dates forms 
the leading activity of the natives; the more 
important imports are foodstuffs and building 
materials. Through the heart of the kingdom 
runs the Hedjaz railway with its terminus at 
Medina (815 miles), and it was the possession 
of this route which rendered Turkish power 
supreme in Western Arabia. On June 6, 1916, 
the Sherif Hussein threw off the suzerainty of 
the Turkish Sultan and assumed the title of 
King of the Hedjaz. (2) The Emirate of Nejd 
and Husa, in Central Arabia, which has an 
estimated population of 400,000. Its capital is 


ARABIA 


Rujadh (population 20,000). Other towns are 
Boreida (15,000) and Anciza (10,000). Hides, 
butter, dates, textiles, and live stock were pro- 
duced and exported to some extent. In 1914 
the Emir Ibn Saud expelled the Turks from 
Hosa and pushed his dominions to the borders 
of the Persian Gulf. (3) The Emirate of Jeb- 
el Shammar in Central Arabia north of Nejd. 
The estimated population is placed at 250,000. 
The capital is Hail. The ruler in 1924 was Ab- 
dullah Ibn Mitab, who ascended the throne on 
the assassination of his cousin Ibn Rashid 
(1920). During the period 1914-24, the prin- 
cipality fell, to some extent, under the power of 
Nejd. (4) Asir, a small area on the Red Sea 
coast, South of the Hedjaz, with an estimated 
population of 1,000,000. The ruler was Mo- 
hammed Ibn Ali-el-Idrisi, but Highland Asir 
was controlled by the Aidh family. (5) The 
Imamate of Yemen, at the southwestern ex- 
tremity of the peninsula. Its estimated area 
is 75,000 square miles; estimated population, 
1,000,000. The capital, Sanaa, had 25,000 in- 
habitants; the chief port, Hodeida on the Red 
Sea, 40,000. Mocha was another port. The 
leading economic resource was coffee, which was 
exported through Aden. On the East the lead- 
ing principalities were virtually British pro- 
tectorates, for Great Britain supported the 
reigning houses and controlled their external 
policies. These principalities were: (6) The 
Sultanate of Oman, in southeastern Arabia, 
with a coast line of 1000 miles on the Oman 
and Persian Gulfs. Its area is 82,000 square 
miles; population, 500,000. The largest cities 
are Muscat and Matrah, which together have 
20,000 inhabitants. Dates are produced, and ex- 
ported, while the imports include rice, cotton 
goods and coffee. All these enterprises are con- 
trolled by British Indians, and it is with In- 
dia that intercourse is mainly carried on. The 
Sultan’s independence was guaranteed by Great 
Britain and France, a step made necessary by 
the turbulence of the interior tribes which rec- 
ognized the sovereignty of the local Ibadhi 
imamate rather than that of the sultanate. 
(7) Trucial Oman, on the eastern coast, made 
up of five sheikdoms. (8) Hl Qatar, a sheik- 
dom on the peninsula of that name, from which 
the Turks were driven out in 1913 by the Emir 
of Nejd. (9) Bahrein, made up of a group of 
islands of which Bahrein Island is the chief. 
The ruling sheik was maintained by a British 
subsidy. (10) The Sultanate of Koweit, in the 
southeast on the Persian Gulf. It has an esti- 
mated population of 50,000. The town of 
Koweit is of considerable importance and most 
of its trade is carried on with India. In 1914 
the sultan renounced the sovereignty of Turkey 
and threw in his lot with the Allies. The pres- 
ent ruler is subsidized by the British govern- 
ment. The remaining political divisions are: 
(11) The Protectorate of Aden (see ADEN) ; 


(12) The Kingdom of Transjordania (see 
TRANSJORDANIA), Irak (q.v.), Syria (q.v.), 
and Palestine (q.v.) are also Arab lands, 


though situated north of the Arabian peninsula. 

Explorations. The War greatly retarded the 
exploration and subsequent mapping of the 
country, so that it is doubtful whether much 
more was known of this land in 1924 than in 
1914. While some new knowledge was _ ac- 
quired of the topography and social and eco- 
nomic life of Asir and Yemen, the only real ad- 
vances were made in Central Arabia and in the 


ARABIA 


Hedjaz Kingdom. The outstanding achieve- 
ment was the work of H. St. J. B. Philby, who, 
in 1917, on his way to the court of the powerful 
Emir of Nejd, penetrated into the heart of Cen- 
tral Arabia and thus was the first European in 
100 years to cross from sea to sea. His jour- 
ney lay from Ojair on the Persian Gulf to Jid- 
da on the Red Sea, by way of Hofub, Riyadh, 
and Taif. In the following year he journeyed 
into the southern provinces of Nejd, laying his 
course from Riyadh to Dam, the capital of the 
little known Wadi Dawasir. As a result of 
these activities cartographers were able to set- 
tle more accurately the locations of such places 
as Riyadh, Hair, Sulaiyil, and Dam. His dis- 
coveries of a large lake near Laila and of sev- 


79 


eral reservoirs were of particular importance. . 


Two other travelers achieved notable success. 
In 1914 Miss G. L. Bell and Capt. W. H. I. 
Shakespear each added 1500 miles of survey by 
their observations. The latter, in a three and 
one-half months’ journey just before the out- 
break of the War, crossed Arabia by a northern 
route, traversing 1200 of the total 1810 miles, 
through country hitherto unknown to Euro- 
peans. His line lay from Koweit, on the Per- 
sian Gulf, to Kuntilla, the first Egyptian out- 
post in Sinai. Shakespear was killed in Janu- 
ary, 1915, in a clash between forces of Ibn Saud 
and Ibn Rashid. During war operations, Brit- 
ish military and naval officers carried on ex- 
tensive researches in the Hedjaz. 

Communications and Trade. The only rail- 
way in Arabia was still the Hedjaz line, though 
the construction of two branch lines was con- 
sidered during the period 1914-24. The first 
was to run from Medina to Mecca (280 miles) 
and the second from Maan to Akaba on the 
Red Sea. Internal communications continued 
to be carried on by means of the native caravan 
routes, the most important of which was the 
transpeninsular track from Zobeir to Jidda by 
way of Boreida and Mecca (913 miles). Eco- 
nomically the activities of the Arabs were de- 
voted largely to the satisfaction of their local 
needs. Cereals were cultivated, and camel, 
horse and ass rearing was carried on to some 
extent. Articles of export included dates, hides, 
coffee, pearls, and the native butter; imports 
were made up of cotton goods and. foodstuffs. 
On the western coast the important ports of 
call were Aden, Hodeida, Jidda, Mocha, and 
Jeizan; on the eastern coast, Muscat, Manama, 
and Koweit. The only ports carrying on a con- 
siderable commerce with Europe and the East 
were Aden and Manama, which were becoming 
the entrepots for Arabia. For Aden, for ex- 
ample, imports totaled £4,377,000 in 1913-14, 
and £6,000,000 in 1921-22; exports for the two 
years, £4,149,000 and £5,000,000. 

History. The story of Arabia, over the 
period 1914-24, may be divided into two phases, 
the first that of the ascendancy of the British 
in Arabian affairs, exerted largely through the 
control of. the King of the Hedjaz; the second 
that of the passing of this influence with the 
growing suspicion of British purposes and the 
increasing importance of the native Wahabi 
movement, led by the Emir Ibn Saud. Arabs 
had looked coolly on the Pan-Turanian move- 
ment before the War; what nativist sentiment 
there was was largely centred in the idea of an 
Arab empire free from Turkish control. At 
one pole was thus the ambition of the Ottoman 
Sultan to absorb Arabia completely; at the 
/ 4 


ARABIA 


other stood the asnirations of the various local] 
leaders to head a nationalistic movement. It 
was the ability on the part of the British to 
capitalize this discontent that saved Arabia 
from a holy war and freed British possessions in 
Arabia and East Africa, as well as India, from 
the threat of serious Ottoman attack. In Hus- 
sein, the Sherif of Mecca, the British found the 
key to the situation, for in 1915 they succeeded 
in making a treaty with him which guaranteed 
the establishment of an independent Arab state 
under the Sherifian family for the support of 
the war against the Turks. Thus buttressed 
by British arms, Hussein, who up to 1913 had 
fought in the Turkish cause, threw off his al- 
legiance to the Sultan and in June, 1916, de- 
clared his independence. In December he as- 
sumed the title of King of the Hedjaz; in the 
next year he was recognized by the Allies. The 
Anglo-French declaration of Nov. 8, 1918, re- 
newed the promise of Arab independence; the 
Hedjaz was represented at the Peace Conference 
by Hussein’s ambitious son, the Emir Faisal; 
and in 1920 the country gained admittance into 
the League of Nations. But after 1920 it was 
perceptible that neither was. Hussein a domi- 
nating power in the Arab world nor was it at all 
likely that Hedjaz would ever grow to be a 
united Arab kingdom. In the first place Pan- 
Arab ideals envisaged the incorporation of the 
Sudan, Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia with 
Arabia, an amalgamation which Great Britain 
and France were prepared actively to oppose. 
By the Sykes-Picot agreement of 1916 and the 
Balfour Declaration of November, 1917, the 
French and British had indicated their interest 


in Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine, which 


they took as mandates when the War was over, 
regardless of Pan-Arab protests. To some ex- 
tent, however, the British government was will- 
ing to utilize Hussein’s aspirations; indeed on 
June 14, 1921, the British Colonial Secretary 
announced that Great Britain would thence- 
forth pursue the policy of Sherifianism; that is, 
of placing members of Hussein’s Sherifian dy- 
nasty on the thrones of other Arab kingdoms. 
Accordingly two of Hussein’s sons were given 
thrones. Emir Faisal was established in Irak 
(see MrsopoTaAmMIA) and Emir Abdullah in 
Korak or Transjordania (q.v.).. The British 
administration in India vehemently opposed 
any further extension of the Sherifian power; 
in fact the Indian government had proposed to 
create an Arab state based on Bagdad and 
ruled by Ibn Saud of Nejd, Hussein’s rival. 
The reason for this attitude was that in view 
of the Moslem desire to have the Holy Places 
controlled by an independent Moslem power, 
the maintenance of an admittedly British-con- 
trolled kingdom of Hedjaz seemed an act of fol- 
ly. The abandonment, however, of the Otto- 
man caliphate (q.v.) by the Turkish national- 
ists in 1924 played into the hands of the ad- 
vocates of Sherifianism, and King Hussein in 
that. year not only revived his political ambi- 
tions but also indicated his aspirations to the 
caliphate. On the other hand the Arabs of 
Central Arabia looked askance at a dynasty 
so obviously used as a pawn by British im- 
perialism; increasingly they pinned their hopes 
on Nejd as the nucleus of Arab nationalism. 
This attitude was strengthened when King 
Hussein, during the course of treaty negotia- 
tions with Great Britain in 1923-4, indicated 
his intention to recognize the British interest 


ARBITRATION 


at least in Mesopotamia and Transjordania, if 
not in Palestine as well. 


80 


During the period 1914—24, Ibn Saud, Emir 


of Nejd and spiritual leader of the Wahabi or 
Akhwan movement, steadily extended the out- 
posts of his domain, so that 1924 saw him the 
most influential individual in Arab affairs. 
In 1914 he wisely allied himself with Great 
Britain and thus was able to wage war without 
hindrance against his neighbor to the North, 
Ibn Rashid, Emir of Jebel Shammar, who had 
espoused the cause of the Turks. His cam- 
paigns were generally successful, with the re- 
sult that in 1918 Ibn Saud controlled Central 
Arabia. It was plain that Ibn Saud had am- 
bitions to the West; his relations with Hussein, 
never heretofore cordial, became strained 
1919-23, and here and there fighting took place 
over boundary questions; but the presence of 
Great Britain served as a check. Meanwhile 
Ibn Saud continued to consolidate his position 
and advance his power to the East. Koweit 
was his immediate objective. The Akhwan 
movement showed no signs of abating, and 
Hussein’s pretensions to the caliphate were re- 
garded with indifference in 1924. But Hus- 
sein’s political mancuvres were the cause for 
a deeper concern. In 1924 he showed a re- 
newed energy in the furtherance of his own 
fortunes. A trip was made to Amman, the cap- 
ital of his son Abdullah, Emir of Transjor- 
dania, where conversations were carried on 
with the British and French High Commission- 
ers; there was much talk on the part of Arabs 
in the Hedjaz, Transjordania, Palestine, and 
Mesopotamia, of an Arab confederation; Hus- 
sein began to style himself King of Arabia. 
To all this, Ibn Saud’s reply was bluntly that 
Hussein was not acceptable as leader to Cen- 
tral Arabia. On this discordant note the 
events of the summer of 1924 closed. 

ARBITRATION, 1n INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES. 
See LABor ARBITRATION. 

ARCHAOLOGY. A considerable portion of 
the period 1914-24 was occupied by the War, 
during which archeological investigation was 
curtailed. Yet enough was done to throw new 
light on old problems and following the close 
of the War a considerable intensification of 
archeological exploration was _ observable. 
Egypt perhaps less than any other country felt 
the impact of the War, so that here there was a 
more consistent development of work than else- 
where. At Abydos in 1914, behind the West 
wall of Seti’s temple was found what is probably 
the mystic tomb of Osiris. This is an under- 
ground structure, thirty feet below the level of 
the temple. It may be described as a rectangu- 
lar hall about 60 x 100 feet with walls 20 feet 
thick. There are three aisles separated by huge 
monolith piers 8 and a half feet square and 15 
feet in height, 5 on each side of the central 
aisle. These piers support an enormous archi- 
trave, 6 feet in height, which in turn carries a 
ceiling of granite blocks 6 feet in thickness. In 
1917 the expedition sent out by the University 
of Pennsylvania investigated at Gizeh the an- 
cient necropolis near the pyramid of Cheops. It 
was found that the tombs belonged to princes 
and lesser officials. The burials took the form 
of shaft graves. From one tomb was recovered 
an inscription containing the cartouches of 
Cheops, Chephren, and Dedefra, which estab- 
lished the fact that these kings followed each 
other in the order given. 


_demotic papyri yet found. 


in - 


ARCH AOLOGY 


The most consistent work, at least in con- 
tinuity of exploration, was that of the Metro- 
politan Musuem of Art, which from 1910 in- 
vestigated its chosen site at Thebes. In 1918 
it carried to completion the excavation of the 
palace city of Amenhotep III. On this site in 
1922 was discovered one of the most important 
It throws light on 
the history of Egypt during the period 309-246 
B.c. During his work at Ilahun in 1920, in 
which he cleared the 12th dynasty pyramid and 
its surroundings, Petrie came most unexpected- 
ly on a small undisturbed prehistoric cemetery 
which contained about one hundred burials. 
Practically every stage was represented from 
the open grave to the shaft tomb. In all, 30 
different types were counted. One of the most 
interesting finds of the year 1920 was the dis- 
covery of the 11th dynasty tomb of Mehenk- 
wetre. It lay to the South of Deir el-Bahari. 
In the monument was a small chamber which 
contained a complete set of funerary models of 
gardens with pools, fruit trees, covered walks, 
slaughter houses, carpenter shops, breweries, 
bakeries; in fact the complete equipment of a 
princely house. 

In 1921 the Egypt Exploration Fund resumed 
its work at Tel el-Amarna. This had been in- 
terrupted by the War. Had the town no other 
claim to distinction than its association with 
the name of Akhenaten it would still be inter- 
esting. But excavations showed that it pre- 
sents a beautiful illustration of organized town- 
planning. One of the most interesting discov- 
eries was that in some instances the streets 
reached a width of 180 feet. The digging af- 
forded much information as to the character 
of the private houses of the Egyptians. Of 
course in this case the houses were for the use 
of workmen, and, doubtless for economy, they 
were arranged according to one plan; yet it 
may be assumed from that very fact that the 
plan was usual. It showed in the centre of the 
house a square living room with its clerestory. 
In this-room was a large clay brazier for heat- 
ing and an ablution slab for the ceremonial 
washing of hands and feet. The work of the 
succeeding year, 1922, was concentrated on the 
workmen’s village, the main city, the river 
temple and the precinct of the South pool. 
From this campaign was derived an excellent 
idea of a princely villa. About the time of this 
discovery, Petrie was doing interesting work a 
mile or so distant from the Royal Tombs -at 
Abydos. Here it was found that each king 
had laid out a great square of graves about 
240x400 feet. In this area were discovered 
some 500 graves in which was evidence of the 
practice of human sacrifice. Apparently at the 
death of a potentate court officials were buried 
alive with their master. One might imagine 
that such a custom must have had a depressing 
effect on the desire to hold office. The dates of 
the interments are from the third to the fifth 
dynasty, that is to say, 5437-5363 B.c. Among 
the objects found was an ivory comb of King 
Zet. Many bone arrow heads and_ neatly 
trimmed flints were recovered. 

The most spectacular discovery since Theo- 
dore N. Davis’s finding of the tomb of Youa and 
Touya was the opening of the rockcut tomb of 
Tutankhamen (q.v.) by Lord Carnarvon and 
Howard Carter in the Valley of the Tombs of 
the Kings at Luxor in 1922. Here below the 
tomb of Rameses VI was uncovered the opening 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


BY CCURTESY OF MR. HOWARD CARTER 


THE ROYAL CEMETERY IN THE VALLEY OF THE TOMBS OF THE KINGS AT LUXOR 
Showing the Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen below that of Rameses VI. 


By COURTESY OF MR. HOWARD CARTER 


THE TOMB OF TUT-ANKH-AMEN 


Interior of the Antechamber of the Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen. 


ARCH Z0LOGY 


of the tomb of this king. A flight of stairs led 
down to two rock-hewn chambers which were 
literally crammed with golden treasure. The 
intrinsic value of the find, estimated: at $40,- 
000,000, is astounding enough in: itself. The 
tomb was a revelation of the luxurious life of 
an Egyptian king in the second millennium B.c. 
(ec. 1350). Owing to differences between the 
Egyptian government and Mr. Carter, who car- 
ried on the work after the sudden death of 
Lord Carnarvon, the exploration of the tomb is 
incomplete. Just at the moment when the Brit- 
ish archeologist was about to open the sar- 
cophagus of the king work was_ suspended. 
Especial interest attaches to the find historical- 
ly, because this prince was the son-in-law of the 
famous heretic king, Akhenaten. 

Perhaps the most important result of the 10 
years’ work was the gradual collection of data 
on the early history of predynastic Egypt As 
far back as 1911 the Archeological Survey of 
Nubia showed a certain correlation of the cul- 
ture of this land with that of early Egypt. So 
far as can be made out, the indigenous popula- 
tion of the Nile Valley was closely related to 
this Nubian stock. In the course of time this 
primitive civilization was overrun by the in- 
vasion of a race which seems to have come in 
from Asia and to have begun this dynastic his- 
tory of Egypt. As if in retribution, this Nubian 
stock appears to have returned, at a much 
later date, to its ancient dominion of the Nile 
valley. This is borne out by the results of the 
expedition sent to Nubia in 1921 by Harvard 
University and the Boston Museum of Fine 
Arts. At Napata the explorers examined royal 
cemeteries and at Nuri a group of pyramids 
belonging to kings and queens who lived in the 
years 660-250 B.c. Not the least interesting 
event was the uncovering of the burial chamber 
of Tihagqa, who is mentioned in Isaiah. From 
the data collected by the expedition it is fairly 
well established that this Ethiopian people, of 
Libyan origin, entered the land about 900 B.c. 
and eventually became the conquerors of Egypt. 

Asia Minor, because of the operations of the 
War, was a less profitable archeological field 
than Egypt. The Mesopotamian valley became 
a seat of war, and the great excavations inau- 
gurated by the Germans at Babylon in the last 
years of the nineteenth century by Koldewey 
came to a close with the opening of hostilities. 
The resumption of archeological work through- 
out this territory was tardy. In a measure the 
delay was occasioned by the manifest hostility 
of the Turks toward western people. In 1920 
the British Museum resumed its work at Carch- 
emish, which had been interrupted in 1914. 
The efforts of the excavators were concentrated 
upon the site of the double ring of the city 
walls. On the land side all the gates, the for- 
tifications of the acropolis, and the great river 
wall were cleared out. On this site of Carch- 
emish were discovered a number of Hittite 
tombs and certain other archeological material 
belonging to this race. All evidence illuminat- 
ing this mysterious people is welcome, but in 
spite of attempts to show an Indo-European 
source for the race, results at the end of this 
period had not been conclusive. One particu- 
lar bit of evidence for the story of prehistoric 
Greece at least is the discovery of an inscrip- 
tion which records a treaty between a certain 
Hittite king and Atreus of Mycene. Not only 
is this document important for establishing 


81 


ARCH AMOLOGY 


contact between the Greek mainland and the 
coast of Asia Minor, but it also strengthens the 
value of Homer as an _ historical document. 
Work at Nippur produced new tablets narrat- 
ing the stories of the creation and the deluge. 
Moving westward into Palestine, the diggings 
of the English at Bethshemish threw some light 
on the origin of the Philistines, who appear to 
have been a people penetrating from the Medi- 
terranean area. The establishment of the 
American School at Jerusalem was expected to 
produce results which would help to clear up 
the early history of this part of Palestine. 
Greece was the scene of renewed archeologi- 
cal activity at the close of the War, as well as 
the islands of the Augean, and the eastern 
shores of the Mediterranean. In 1922 the 
American School of Classical Studies, in asso- 
ciation with the Fogg Art Museum of Harvard 
University, began explorations at Rhodes. At 
Colophon the French had been engaged in ex- 
cavating. At the latter place evidences of geo- 
metric culture, probably of the sixth century, 
were discovered, and at one place a Mycenean 
beehive tomb was found, which shows that 
about 1000 B.c. the culture of Ionia was about 
the same as that of the Augean and the Greek 
mainland. As in Egypt, considerable of the 
archeological work in Greece was connected 
with the problem of the prehistory of the coun- 
try. For a long time it had been the concern 
of scholars to discover the source from which 
came the pre-Mycenean stock. As early as 
1912 Wace and Thompson worked in Thessaly 
and were able to establish that at least in that 
part of Greece the inhabitants had penetrated 
into the peninsula from the North. In this 
early period, contact with the southern, Myce- 
nean culture of the Mediterranean was not 
established until well on toward the close of 
the Bronze Age. This pre-Mycenxan  civi- 
lization was latterly given the somewhat vague 
name of Helladic. That the people represented 
by this culture penetrated gradually southward 
until they overran Greece is proved by Blegen’s 
discoveries at Korakou, not far from Corinth. 
From the evidence already accumulated it 
would appear that this Helladic culture repre- 
sented what might be called the original civili- 
zation of the Greek mainland and that its crea- 
tors continued in control of the country until, 
fairly early in the second millenium before our 
era, the race represented so well in the remains 
in Crete and later at Tiryns and Mycene in- 
vaded from the Mediterranean, and conquering 
the native stock, made themselves overlords 
and gave us what we call Mycenzan culture. 
The use of the term Helladic indicates an ef- 
fort to discover a name‘ which will describe 
more accurately than Mycenean or Minoan 
that culture which in the days of the florescence 
of Mycene, to use the words of one of its in- 
ventors, Dr. Blegen, extended “from Thessaly 
to Southern Laconia and from Thoricus to 
Pylos.” The name, as can be seen, is intended 
more closely to fit the breadth of culture which 
obtained in early Greece than any local or dy- 
nastic name could. This culture, or rather .the 
period covered by this name, follows upon the 
Neolithic Age in Greece. It is synonymous 
with the Age of Bronze. Its dates are about 
2500 B.c. to 1200 B.c. Since it is a period in 
which dates are all too vague, it hag been 
found convenient to divide it, as in Crete, into 
three divisions, known respectively as Early 


ARCH AZOLOGY 
Helladie (2500-2000), Middle Helladic (2000- 
1600), and Late Helladic (1600-11502). Late 


Helladic is meant to be synonymous with 
Mycenean. This was the time when the power 
of Minoan Crete had extended northward and 
overcome the indigenous culture which, devel- 
oping on the mainland, had stemmed from the 
north before the coming of the A®gean folk. 

Wace, who had already worked in Thessaly, 
showed by work at Mycene that this place was 
already inhabited at the close of the Neolithic 
Age and became a flourishing city about 2000- 
1500 B.c. He discovered that the famous cir- 
cle of graves within the Lion Gate belonged to 
this time. His examination of the palace made 
it clear that the structure was much more elab- 
orate than had previously been believed. It ap- 
peared that, after Cnossus fell, the city was 
fortified by a wall which was also carried 
around the famous circle of graves. At that 
time the ground was leveled, the circle of 
slabs erected and new gravestones put in place 
to mark the site of the original burials. These 
tombs belong to an earlier dynasty than that 
represented by the beehive tombs. To return 
to the palace, Wace found that the structure, 
which dates 1400-1100 B.c., is of the megaron 
type. Under it were traces of first or second 
Late Helladic culture (1600-1400). To this 
latter time belong the circle of graves which 
continued in use until 1400 n.c. Under the pres- 
ent palace remains were remains of an earlier 
palace dating about 2200-1800 B.c. This struc- 
ture, older than the palace at Tiryns, was later 
replaced by one belonging to the first Late Hel- 
ladie period, and that in turn by one much 
larger. This one recalls the building at Cnos- 
sus and helps to show the relationship of this 
culture with that of Crete. The accumulated 
evidence makes it clear that the earliest settle- 
ment on the site goes back to the beginnings 
of the Bronze Age. The place became impor- 
tant in the period reaching from 1800 to 1600 
Bc. By the year 1300 Mycene had become the 
chief city of that part of Greece and so con- 
tinued until the coming of the Dorians. 

At Carthage notable work was done by the 
French, who excavated two Punie temples and 
a Punie acropolis dating about 700 B.c. Near 
the Punic parts of the city was discovered the 
temple of Tanit in the midst of a field which 
was practically covered with votive inscriptions 
set up in her honor and to Baal Ammon. Un- 
der these inscriptions was uncovered a bed of 
urns containing the bones of birds and sheep 
as well as those of a few children. In the 
deepest stratum, third from the top, many jars 
were found containing the bones of children 
whose ages ranged from four months to twelve 
years, grim evidence of the human sacrifice 
practiced in the name of the goddess Tanit. 
The date of these remains is about 800 B.c. 
So far as can be made out, Carthage was a 
flourishing Egyptian colony at the time Dido 
was supposed to be building it. Egypt had 
established a settlement there some 500 years 
before the coming of the Pheenicians. 

In Italy little that is remarkable. occurred. 
War gripped the country too hard: One no- 
table discovery was made in 1921], when an im- 
portant hypogeum was located outside Porto 
Maggiore. The building dates from the end 
of the second or early in the third century of 
the Christian era. In the upper part is a 
sepulchral chamber down ‘to which leads a 


82 


ARCHIBALD 


staircase that ends on a landing just outside 
the room. The main chamber is 15x17 feet 
and has a vaulted roof with an opening for 
light in the middle. Besides the two main 
rooms there are several galleries. After the 
close of the War excavations were pushed at 
Ostia and Pompeii. In addition to this many 
smaller, unimportant places had been more or 
less spasmodically dug. Possibly the most in- 
teresting work was in connection with the ex- 
cavations at Pompeii where not only much in- 
teresting material was actually recovered but 
much that would otherwise have been lost was 
saved by the skillful use of plaster poured into 
the natural molds made by the voleanic deposit 
on the various objects covered by it. In this 
way it was possible to restore the appearance 
of such things as house doors, even to the 
bronze hinges, the nails, and the very grain of 
the wood. The same care was displayed in the 
reconstruction of houses, with the result that 
in several places it was possible to reconstruct 
the overhanging balconies and the window 
frames of the fronts of houses in such a way 
that much of the original appearance of the 
street was obtained. At Syracuse excavations 
were conducted on the site of the temple of 
Athene. Under the foundations of the building 
the Italians discovered traces of pre-Hellenic 
settlement. These remains were succeeded by 
early colonial Greek remains. In Spain, 
France, England, and Germany discoveries of 
minor importance were made from time to 
time, usually unpremeditatedly. 

ARCHER, GLEASON LEONARD (1880- ie 
An American lawyer and educator, born at 
Great Pond, Me., and educated at Boston Uni- 
versity. He was admitted to the Massachusetts 
bar in 1906; in the same year he founded the 
Suffolk Law School, and became dean and treas- 
urer. He was appointed chief arbitrator by the 
State of Massachusetts in the Springfield Street 
Railway dispute of 1914. He is author of Law 
Office and Court Procedure (1910), Law of Con- 
tracts (1911), Law of Agency (1915), Law of 
Torts (1916), Equity and Trusts (1918), Law 
of Evidence (1919), Introduction to the Study 
of Law (1919), and Building a School (1919). 

ARCHER, WILLIAM (1856- ). An Eng- 
lish dramatic critic (see Vout. Il). Within re- 
cent years Mr. Archer has ventured into play 
writing. War is War appeared in 1919 and 
The Green Goddess in 1921; the latter was pro- 
duced by Winthrop Ames at the Booth Theatre 
in New York. It was a melodrama, and a pop- 
ular success, although relatively of much less 
importance to the art of the drama than his 
critical work. 

ARCHIBALD, Raymonp CLARE (1875- ). 
An American professor of mathematics and au- 
thor, born in Colchester County, N. S., and edu- 
cated at the University of Mt. Allison College, 


'N. B.; Harvard University, the University of 


Berlin, the University of Strassburg, the .Sor- 
bonne, and the University of Rome. He began 
his career in Canada as professor of mathemat- 
ics and in 1908 was called to Brown University. 
He was promoted to the rank of assistant pro- 
fessor of mathematics in 1911, and associate 
professor in 1917. In 1912 he was a delegate 
to the Congress of Universities of the British 
Empire in London. He was elected member of 
the Council of the American Mathematical So- 
ciety in 1918, and librarian in 1921. In the 
latter year he became president of the Mathe- 


ARCHIPENKO 


matieal Association of America. Besides con- 


tributing extensively to mathematical journals 
and reviews in Europe and America, he is au- 
thor of The Cardioid and Some of Its Related 
Curves (1900), A Bibliography of the Life and 
Works of Simon Newcomb (1905), Carlyle’s 
First Love: Margaret Gordon, Lady Bannerman 
(New York, 1910), Mathematical Instruction in 
France (1911), Mathematical Instruction and 
the Professors of Mathematics in the French 
Lycées for Boys (191u), Huclid’s Book on Divi- 
sions of Figures with a Restoration (1916), 
The Training of Teachers of Mathematics for 
the Secondary Schools of the Countries Repre- 
sented in the International Commission on the 
Teaching of Mathematics (1918). He was edi- 
tor of the Bulletin of the American Mathemat- 
ical Society, 1914-20, and of the American 
Mathematical Monthly, 1917-18, and became 
editor-in-chief of the latter in 1919. 

ARCHIPENKO, ALEKSANDR PORFIRIEVICH 
(1887— ). A Russian sculptor, esteemed 
the foremost of radical modernists. He was 
born at Kiev, ‘studied two years at the Moscow 
Art School, and went to Paris at 20. But he 
was more influened by the Byzantine art of his 
native land, the monumental sculpture of 
Egypt, archaic Greece and the Gothic, which he 
studied in the Louvre, and by Central Ameri- 
can carvings. Rejecting Cubism, he aimed to 
achieve pure, abstract sculpture independent of 
natural form. His figures are slender and 
rhythmic, the heads unfinished and: very smell. 
His art is the embcdiment of plastic absolutism. 
One of his innovations is to hollow out the parts 
of the figure he wishes to emphasize, which the 
imagination of the spectator is expected to fill; 
another is “sculpto-paintings’” in which wood, 
metals and papiermache are combined jin dec- 
orative panels. His school at Paris was dis- 
persed by the War during which he worked at 
Nice. In 1921 he removed to Berlin, where he 
established an important school, and in 1924 to 
the United States. He is represented in 28 
continental museums, including Berlin, Vienna, 
Frankfort and Rotterdam, and Nisaka in Japan, 
and the Société Anonyme in New York. Com- 
pare his biography by Hans Hildebrandt (Ber- 
lin, 1923). 

ARCHITECTURE. It was inevitable that 
the economic and emotional chaos that accom- 
panied and followed the War should profoundly 
affect the architecture of all nations. There 
were neither materials nor men available for 
general building; and except in a few absolutely 
indispensable lines, building, and _ therefore 
architecture, the art of building, languished. 
Nor did architecture recover after the close of 
the War in 1918. Indeed, the confusion of eco- 
nomic policies that resulted all but killed the 
last dying embers, and forced deflation proved 
temporarily more disastrous to building than 
wartime stringency. This was true in both vic- 
tor countries and defeated; the discussions be- 
tween Germany and France with regard to the 
possibility of German labor and German materi- 
als being used directly for the rebuilding of the 
devastated areas in France, as part of the repara- 
tions payments, is but one of many indications 
of the direct result of post-war conditions on 
building and architecture. Little by little, how- 
ever, adjustments have been made, and in one 
country after another the amount of building 
has increased until the United States, at least, 
has had a building boom which has gone far 


ARCHITECTURE 


to compensate for the necessary stagnation of 
wartime and post-war years. The economic 
results of the War have not stopped with the 
mere reduction of the amount of building. 
They include vast changes in the types of build- 
ing produced and in the design of those types. 
It is this particular class of war results, which 
have led to the most striking movement in ar- 
chitecture during the past decade, a movement 
entirely international, as true of Germany as of 
England, France, and the United States. That 
is the immense impetus given to the so-called 
industrial housing question, in all its broadest 
implications of city planning and a deep study 
of its economic and sociological effects. See 
Crry PLANNING and HOUSING. 

But the results of the War were not only 
economic; they affected the entire emotional 
life of the people as well, and that, in turn, 
affected all art. The idea of force cannot be 
paramount without entailing in art either on 
the one hand a sharp brutalism, or on the other, 
by compensation, a wishy-washy sentimental- 
ism. Architecture was no exception, and where 
the sobering demands of a stark economy did 
not enter, as they so deeply do into housing, 
the results were either the extravagances of the 
secessionist movement—with its demand, heard 
often from critics who should have realized the 
temporary character of this unrepressed emo- 
tionalism, that art must be utterly personal, 
unaffected by tradition—or the equally sterile 
protest of those who blindly followed the past 
in the vain pursuit of a golden age. The end 
of the War, with its cumulative and almost uni- 
versal disappointment of popular hopes, and its 
absolute demonstration of the futility of a na- 
tional philosophy based on force, wrought a 
great change, reflected architecturally with sur- 
prising directness in the gradual modification 
of style ideas all over the world. The worst 
extremes of secessionism have been everywhere 
discredited. Even in Germany, where the doc- 
trine of Machtpolitik had produced its most 
terrifically brutal expressions, design since the 
War, although free and untrammelled, is also, 
for the most part, quiet, restrained, and the 
best of it remarkably consistent with the gen- 
eral traditional forms of the country. ‘This is 
typical of style development throughout the 
western world. There was a corresponding de- 
velopment in so-called conservative design. All 
over the world the strict classicism or strict 
Gothic of the “revival” spirit was finally killed 
by the War. Its artistic futility was too evi- 
dent. Instead, there was developed a new real- 
ization of the fluid character of style; prece- 
dent was not neglected or tradition flouted, but 
neither were they worshipped. Classic or Goth- 
ic forms came to be accepted. merely as a con- 
venient vocabulary, to be modified, combined, 
and used or not as the designer’s temperament 
or the demands of the problem required. It has 
come at last to be almost universally realized 
that in design it is not style that should con- 
trol, but rather planning, mass-composition, and 


‘structural system. 


United States. This style development can 
be seen at work with particular clarity in this 
country, because the amount of building has 
been so great. Between the creative Gothic of 
the Intercession Chapel or St. Thomas’s in New 
York (both by Bertram Goodhue) or even the 
more conservative design for the nave of the 
New York Cathedral of St. John the Divine, by 


ARCHITECTURE 


Ralph Adams Cram, and the strictly archxolog- 
ical Gothic of much earlier church work, there 
is a great gulf. The architecture of the 
Panama-Pacific International Exposition at San 
Francisco in 1915 was prophetic of what was to 
come. In style throughout, whether in the con- 
servative Court of the Universe, by McKim, 
Mead and White, or the radical Court of Abun- 
dance, by Louis C. Mullgardt, it shows how 
style itself is subordinated to the demands of 
pure design. It was the least archxological 
and at the same time the most colorful and im- 
aginative of all American expositions. Style 
in America has had during the past decade sev- 
eral characteristic developments. Most notable 
among these has been the growing popularity 
of free versions of the Georgian or Colonial 
style for houses, schools, and smaller public 
buildings, such as town halls or _ libraries. 
Many houses of John Russell Pope, of H. T. 
Lindeberg, of Charles A. Platt, of Dwight 
James Baum, of Murphy and Dana, show this 
trend. The popularity of this style—a popu- 
larity founded on its fitness to the American 
climate and the American landscape as well as 
its traditional character—extended to larger 
buildings as well; the group of Johns Hopkins 
University, for instance, by Parker, Thomas 
and Rice, or the Waterbury Municipal Building, 
by Cass Gilbert. 

Another interesting development is the growth 
of various local styles based on local climate, 
local materials, or special local traditions. The 
stonework of the neighborhood of Philadelphia 
is an example of a local style dependent on ma- 
terial; a very freely adapted Spanish Renais- 
sance in California is a local style dependent on 
climate, and the forms of Indian. Pueblo origin 
occasionally used in the Southwest is a local 
style dependent on local tradition. This is an 
important development, because it goes far to 
compensate for the deadening and unifying ef- 
fect of the centralized manufacture of building 
materials by large industrial corporations whose 
market is nation-wide. There are other trends 
of almost universal scope in recent American 
design which deserve mention. The first is the 
increasing love for effects of dramatic climax 
produced by sharp contrasts of restrained sur- 
faces with a few accents of richness. This is 
evidenced not only in all the best California 
houses of Spanish style (the Dater house, by 
Bertram Goodhue, and much work of Myron 
Hunt and William Templeton Johnson) but 
also in the Georgian work of the East (as, for 
example, the smaller houses of Dwight James 
Baum or the houses at Pelham Bay Gardens 
by Electus Litchfield). Another of these trends 
is the growing delight American architects take 
in the frank expression of materials. A higher 
standard of craftsmanship allows greater free- 
dom in design. This development is specially 
marked in the use of rough or unusual textures 
in stucco walls, stonework and brick, and iron 
and bronze work, such as doors, grilles, and 
bank screens. The work of Samuel Yellin, of 
Philadelphia, in wrought iron is particularly 
noteworthy; and the results he has achieved 
have done much to raise the standard, of archi- 
tectural design in metal. . 

The two greatest and most marked achieve- 
ments of American architecture during the. dec- 
ade were matters of larger implication. These 
were the development of a truer emotionalism 
and romance in design of all kinds and a new 


84 


ARCHITECTURE 


grasp of the importance of a sense of form and 


mass. They are inextricably bound together, 
and both, strange as it may seem, owe not a 
little to the purely practical necessity of build- 
ing in accordance with the new zoning laws 
which regulate building heights. New York’s 
adoption of this type of building regulation 
served not only to improve the architectural 
standards of high building design by forcing a 
study of the interplay of big masses but has 
also been an example followed by an ever in- 
creasing number of American cities. The re- 
sult has been the reéntry of shadow into archi- 
tecture; mere decorated facades could no longer 
be depended on; detail became at once less im- 
portant, and the piling of mass on mass, the 
governing composition, was seen as the impor- 
tant matter. True romance was the inevitable 
result. One of the finest examples of the ef- 
fects produced by height regulation is the Shel- 
ton Hotel for men in New York City by Arthur 
Loomis Harmon (see ARCHITECTURE in the 1923 
New International Year Book). The dominance 
of mass composition is also easily visible in all 
the best designs submitted in the Chicago 
Tribune’s competition, particularly in the de- 
signs placed first and second, that of John M. 
Howells and Raymond Hood, and that of Eliel 
Saarinen, and in the honorable-mention design 
of the late Bertram Goodhue. 

The great Lincoln Memorial in Washington, 
by the late Henry Bacon, illustrates the re- 
strained emotionalism of modern American ar- 
chitecture. Built in a severe Greek style, it is 
nevertheless without coldness or academic mo- 
notony: instead its simplicity, its directness, 
its perfection of proportion, express perfectly 
the deep and quiet reverence in which the name 
of Lincoln is held. The same qualities of emo- 
tion characterized the winning design of H. Van 
Buren Magonigle in the competition for the 
JXansas City War Memorial, and to an even 
greater extent the piled mass of Bertram Good- 
hue’s design for the same competition. A sim- 
iiar romantic yet unsentimental emotionalism 
is the most outstanding quality of Mr. Good- 
hue’s design for the Nebraska State Capitol, 
now under construction. This is an _ epoch- 
marking building in American architecture, be- 
cause of its perfect style freedom without a 
hint of eccentricity or sensationalism. 

In new expressions for structural systems, ad- 
vance has been less encouraging. The problem 
of the treatment of a steel frame so that the 
structure will be frankly expressed in the nec- 
essary fireproof covering is still unsolved, and 
it is perhaps unsolvable in the strict manner 
demanded by some logicians. Concrete remains 
a material of purely practical use; its treat- 
ment is still often a mere matter of engineer- 
ing, and its architectural opportunities remain 
largely unknown. Exception must be made of 
a few serious attempts to find a true architec- 
tural expression for concrete; among these the 
Army Supply Base in Brooklyn, by Cass Gil- 
bert, is preéminent. There are evidences, how- 
ever, of a changing attitude toward architec- 
tural engineering. Many architects are grow- 
ing disgusted with the method in vogue, by 
which the structural framework is hidden by 
an interior cage of wire lath and plaster that 
forms vaults and beams and entablatures hav- 
ing little or nothing to do with the actual con- 
struction. The attempt is growing to lay out 
structural members with a carefully planned 


ARCHITECTURE 


AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 


Raymond M. Hood, Architect 


Fraternity Clubs Building, New York. Murgatroyd & Ogden, Architects 
3. ‘‘Killenworth’’, Glen Cove, New York. Trowbridge & Ackerman, Architects 


American Radiator Building, New York. 


1; 
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ARCHIE GRURE 


> caereposwattcenernsan ae BANE teal seca g 


sain Neha 


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PHOTOGRAPH BY KENNETH CLARK 


VAN BUREN MAGONIGLE 


COPYRIGHT BY H,. 


CHURCH OF ST. VINCENT FERRER, NEW YORK CITY 


KANSAS CITY WAR MEMORIAL 


Bertram G. Goodhue, Architect 


H. Van Buren Magonigle, Architect 


ARCHITECTURE 


and definitely articulated relation to the de- 
sired interior effect, so that the structural form 
shall count, and to confine enrichment to sur- 
face decoration. But this movement is still in 
its infancy. 

In the science of planning, the greatest ad- 
vance has been made in the domain of popular 
housing. The acute housing crisis during the 
War forced the development, under the auspices 
of the Shipping Board and the Department of 
Labor, of many important housing developments, 
in which economy of space and materials was a 
governing factor. Minimum standards were 
set, and many excellent types of pldn were 
evolved, in which waste space was absolutely 
eliminated. The combinations of standard 
plans and details in such a way as to give the 
maximum of livable variety was achieved in 
some of the developments to a remarkable de- 
gree. The most outstanding examples are York- 
ship Village, N. J., by Electus Litchfield, and 
several developments in and around Bridgeport, 
Conn., by Clipston Sturgis. It is an interest- 
ing fact that the direct result of the Bridgeport 
developments was the forming of the Bridgeport 
Housing Company, which is still building and 
selling low- and medium-priced houses whose 
architectural quality is exceptionally high. 
Yet the underlying economic questions are still 
unsettled. (See Housine). In this connection, 
mention must also be made of the Architects’ 
Small House Service Bureau, a corporation de- 
veloped under the auspices of the American In- 
stitute of Architects, whose purpose is the de- 
velopment of small house designs that shall 
combine economy with durable construction and 
high architectural quality. Its work so far has 
been principally in the West, but new divisions 
are being formed continuously, and the impor- 
tance of the work it is doing, not only by the 
example of houses actually built, but also by the 
careful use of well planned publicity, cannot be 
overestimated. 

In urban housing, similar advances in plan- 
ning have been made. Economy has worked 
continuously to produce large-scale groupings, 
in which court spaces are concentrated to give 
additional light and air and in which corridors 
and halls are as far as possible eliminated. 
Andrew J. Thomas of New York has been a 
pioneer in this development and has produced 
some remarkable results, such as (with D. Ev- 
erett Waid) the great group of cheap apart- 
ments for the Equitable Life Insurance Company 
and apartments of a more expensive type in 
Jackson Heights, N. Y. The work he has done 
here and elsewhere is certain to be the founda- 
tion on which later apartment house designers 
will build. In factory architecture, the United 
States has lagged. Comparatively few factories 
show any architectural study whatsoever, and 
in many which are “architectural,” the design 
consists merely of an “architectural” dressing 
of the stark forms with detail, often of mod- 
ernized Gothie type. Certain of the smaller 
plants and power houses have beauty of a sort 
due to the frank treatment of large windows, 
but of the true architectural mass composition 
of an entire factory group there has been sur- 
prisingly little. Development in the design of 
theatres, and particularly of moving picture 
theatres, has been marked. Not only has there 
come a mastery of the practical points involved, 
and the consequent development of a new type 
of theatre for moving pictures, but also there 


85 


ARCHITECTURE 


has been a great liberation of decorative imagi- 
nation, The best interiors are dramatic, gay, 
lavish, and well composed. In California, nu- 
merous interesting style experiments have been 
made. Particularly noticeable are Grauman’s 
Hollywood Theatre, in Hollywood, by Meyer 
and Holler, done in a clever Egyptian style, 
and Grauman’s enormous Metropolitan Theatre, 
in Los Angeles, by William Lee Wollett, which 
has a strange and imaginative interior in which 
classic eclecticism, modernism, the decorative 
treatment of concrete, and a queer symbolism 
all play their parts. It is a little incoherent 
but typically American and extremely effective. 

England. The greatest English architectural 
achievements of the decade have been in the de- 
sign of rural or suburban housing, in which 
English craftsmanship and traditional English 
cottage forms have the fullest scope. The num- 
ber of examples of this type of work which pos- 
sess a charm and vitality unknown in America 
is enormous, particularly when one considers 
the conditions under which they were erected. 
Developments in various suburbs by the London 
County Council, the City of Birmingham, and 
the City of Bristol are noteworthy; the London 
houses particularly are grouped into masses of 
delightful color, texture, and composition. De- 
spite much criticism in England both of design 
and construction, English war and post-war 
housing seems to an American remarkable alike 
for economy and for beauty. The Well-Hall de- 
velopment, near Greenwich, is particularly love- 
ly; despite the fact that it was built in the 
midst of the War, it has a variety, a truth to 
its tradition and environment, a livable quality, 
an unostentatious charm that make a total ef- 
fect of real beauty. In public and commercial 
buildings, English architects seem to keep close 
to that habit of overornamented and restless 
classic fixed so deeply before the War. The 
London County Council Hall, by Ralph Knott, 
with W. E. Riley as consulting architect, is 
typical; it has a great colonnaded hemicycle, 
high roofs, many chimneys, heavy rustication, 
end-motives of huge arches filled with modern- 
istic sculpture, that altogether produce an effect 
of unstudied chaos. Even the beautiful colon- 
nade of the new wing of the British Museum by 
J. J. Burnet, completed in 1914, where an ob- 
vious attempt was made to follow the severe 
classic of the older Greek portion, has its effec- 
tiveness lessened by end motives insufficiently 
classic and monumental. Victory House, in 
London, by Trehearne and Norman; the Mid- 
land Adelphi Hotel, in Liverpool, by R. A. At- 
kinson, and the Regent Palace Hotel, in Lon- 
don, by Tanner, Wills, and Ansell, are all typi- 
cal of this modern overladen English classic. 

Since the War there has been a development 
toward greater simplicity. The influence of 
modern American classic design is widespread. 
Moorgate Hall, London, by Richardson and Gill, 
is a typical example of this trend to simplicity ; 
the building for Heal and Son, London, by 
Smith and Brewer, shows the same restraint 
despite its “new art’? guise, and the lovely new 
buildings for University College in London, by 
F, M. Simpson, reveal this tendency toward a 
more restrained simplicity. In public  build- 
ings, the Cardiff Technical Schools, Cardiff, 
part of an ambitious civic centre layout, by 
Jones and Thomas; Australia House, London, 
by A. M. Mackenzie and A. G. R. Mackenzie, 
particularly in its lavish interiors; and the 


ARCHITECTURE 


building for the Metropolitan Water Board, by 
H. Austin Hall, all show an attempt to break 
away from the fashion of overdecorated rich- 
ness. The Port of London Authority Building 
by T. Edwin Cooper is another outstanding at- 
tempt at monumental and restrained classic de- 
sign. In the design of houses, English archi- 
tects continued their successful free adapta- 
tions of the tradition that has made so many 
Fnglish houses models for reproduction else- 
where. Despite occasional eccentricities, Eng- 
lish houses built since 1914 are of a high qual- 
ity and remarkably in tone with their land- 
scape; the work of Ernest Newton, Stanley 
Hamp, Ernest Willmot, T. Lawrence Dale, Rob- 
ert Atkinson, and Guy Dawber has all the 
charm of homelikeness, picturesqueness, a care- 
ful use of materials, and especially a harmony 
with environment and tradition, which have 
long characterized the best English domestic 
work. English churches are remarkable chiefly 
for their use of brick. Less and less purely 
Gothic work is produced, despite the very beau- 
tiful modern Gothie of the recent work in Liv- 
erpool Cathedral by G. Gilbert Scott; and more 
and more English architects are working out 
fresh forms based on the frank use of brick for 
both exterior and interior, with either stucco 
vaults or open timber ceilings. St. Cuthbert’s 
Church, Copnor, Portsmouth, by F. Stanley 
Hall, is an example. 

Modern English architecture in India de- 
serves a brief notice. A serious attempt has 
been made to produce forms in harmony with 
the double tradition of British imperialism and 
of native Indian Mogul architecture. To blend 
these is exceptionally difficult. In the New 
High Courts at Allahabad, by Frank Leshman, 
the result has been a strange mixture of Indian 
and classic forms, not without impressiveness 
though not wholely convincing; but in the build- 
ings for New Delhi, and particularly in the 
Secretariat, by Herbert Baker, greater simplic- 
ity has led to greater power and a new and 
dramatic beauty. 

England has the honor of having the most 
impressive war memorial that the great War 
has yet produced. Its greatness is all the more 
remarkable because in size it is small, and in 
decoration restrained And yet the Cenotaph 
in Whitehall, London, by Sir Edwin Lutyens, 
has, in the perfection of its simple form, an 
impressiveness, a dignity, and an emotional 
power that are marks of great architecture, and 
of great architecture alone. 

France. French architecture during and 
since the War was going through a period of 
transition. The old quiet traditional classic 
that made Paris the most harmonious city in 
the world was passing, and there was as yet 
uncertainty as to what would take its place. 
Examples of it were still built, suchas the 
building for the Messageries Maritimes, Paris, 
by St. Maurice, and the beautiful new work in 
the Hotel du Louvre, by Vaudroyer. Yet the 
old mastery is often gone. The French archi- 
tect seems striving after something new and 
fresh. French War memorial schemes, without 
one exception, are characterized by this striv- 
ing for originality, and sometimes the striving 
is forced and the results strained. The Verdun 
monument, on the other hand, attains tremen- 
dous and sombre grandeur in its use of “seces- 
sionist” forms. The same striving for original- 
ity is to be seen in the somewhat incoherent 


86 


ARCHITECTURE 


Palais de la Mutualité in Paris by Bélesta, 
which, however, contains a meeting room of the 
most delicate beauty, decorated by Hannotin. 
The Ecole Nationale des Arts et Métiers of 
Paris, by G. Roussi, achieves repose and orig- 
inality by the use of a fresh style whose roots 
in néo-grece can be easily seen, and the Musée de 
Paléontalogie Humaine at Menton by Pontre- 
moli, also has freshness, simplicity, and beauty, 
with an added interest given by a unique sculp- 
tured frieze. 

Despite the uncertainty of French style de- 
velopments to-day, French planning retains its 
old brilliance. This is particularly noticeable 
in the results of various town-planning compe- 
titions that have been held since the War. Par- 
ticularly noteworthy is the great competition of 
the City of Paris for its enlargement and the 
design for the treatment of lands adjacent to 
the fortifications by Hébrard, Trévelas, and 
Dumail; and the plans for the City of Lille, 
by Gréber and Cordonnier. The most note- 
worthy monument of the housing agitation in 
France was the great competition of 1918 for 
house types to be used in the reconstruction of 
the devastated areas. Hundreds of designs 
were submitted, and in all the best traditional- 
ism, the spirit of the particular locality, was 
allowed, rightly, to dominate. The result was 
that that tight, new-looking squareness which 
characterizes so much of the modern rural work 
in France was happily absent. Of actual con- 
structed work, the Cité Jardins de Draveil, by 
Jean Walter, and the town of Le Trait, with its 
factories, docks, and workmen’s houses, are es- 
pecially noteworthy. The latter especially is an 
interesting attempt to compose, not a pure gar- 
den city, but a modern industrial city that shall 
nevertheless have its gardens and open spaces, 
and the great docks dominate the whole in a 
bold and picturesque fashion. 

Germany. The two most outstanding facts 
in German architecture during the decade were 
the unexpectedly large amount of notable work 
produced under the most adverse and trying 
conditions, and the vitality, originality, and 
high quality of design. It is as if modern ar- 
chitecture in Germany had during the War 
grown out of the eccentricities of adolescence 
into a maturity that preserves originality but 
realizes the value of restraint. Almost all the old 
brutality is gone; the ostentatiously aggressive 
loudness and blatancy of the early twentieth 
century is dead. Instead, an innate tradition- 
alism has again asserted itself, working in and 
through the new forms in most interesting 
ways. The Berlin Naval Offices, for instance, 
by Reinhardt and Siissenguth, is charmingly re- 
strained, and its delicate shadows and curved 
roof lines are delightfully consistent with much 
late eighteenth century work. Yet there is no 
archeology in the design; it is as free and orig- 
inal as it is delicate and restrained. The great 
Town Hall of Hanover shows the same influ- 
ences. This characteristic combination of un- 
derlying traditionalism, and individual freedom 
and originality, governs most of the houses and 
housing of this period, as well as much school 
work. It is, however, in industrial and com- 
mercial buildings that German originality has 
found its most congenial field. Even before the 
War there had been built shops that had all the 
originality but none of the brutality of the cur- 
rent German official building, and since then 
development has been startling. The Waren- 


ARCHITECTURE 


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AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 
“The Towers’? Apartment House, Jackson Heights, New York. Andrew J. Thomas, Architect 


Interior Court of “The Towers’’ 


Allison & Allison, Architects 


3. Grammar School No. 2, Glendora, California. 


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ARCHITECTURE 


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EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE | 


1. Ross Way and Estate Office, Well Hall Estate 2. Sandby Green of Well Hall Estate : 
3. City Hall, Stockholm. Ragnar Oestberg, Architect [- 


ARCHITECTURE 


haus Wertheim, by Eugen Schmol, in Berlin, is 
typical; its bold yet quiet vertical lines and its 
lovely and intricate detail have just the right 
note of elegance. The great building of the 
“Nordstern” Insurance Company, Berlin, by 
Paul Mebes, has a truly Roman dignity, a 
grand monotony like that of the Colosseum that 
leads not to fatigue but to impressive beauty. 
The Automobilausstellungshalle, by Hans Rich- 
ter, is simple, clear, expressive; and the rail- 
road station at Oldenburg, by Mettegang, in 
dignity, beauty of proportion and detail, and 
expressiveness, is the equal of any station of its 
size anywhere. 

It is in frankly industrial work that the Ger- 
mans are preéminent. German architects are 
the only architects in the world who have real- 
ized to the full the possibilities of factory de- 
sign as a whole. They have seen the problem 
not as a matter of a designed head-building 
with hidden ugly shops behind, but as a great 
opportunity for concerted mass-composition of 
the entire plant. Simplicity, direct expression, 
imagination, these serve to give often to mod- 
ern German factories a new and thrilling beau- 
ty, closely allied to the new beauty of the best 
modern American building under the zoning 
laws. The Deutsches Biicherei at Leipzig is 
typical; the Kraftwerk Prinzengruben at Kot- 
towitz, by Alfred Malpricht, is a remarkable 
piece of straightforward brick design, in which 
simple forms and towering chimneys give an 
effect truly romantic. The work of one man in 
this field is particularly remarkable—Hermann 
Muthesius, who seems to have a genius for be- 
ing direct without ugliness, and original with- 
out eccentricity. The silk mills of Michels and 
Company at Nowawes show his imaginative 
and masterly handling of industrial forms,— 
but perhaps it is the great wireless station at 
Nauen in which his genius has achieved ‘the 
simplest and most impressive results. In mod- 
ern Germany alone has factory architecture re- 
ceived the attention it deserves or attained to 
any true and organized beauty. 

Other Countries. Scandinavian work is 
characterized by the same combination of tra- 
ditionalism and independence that dominates 
German architecture. In general, tradition is 
stronger in the Seandinavian countries; many 
delightful houses have resulted. The Gothen- 
burg Exposition, by Bjerke, on the other hand, 
revealed individualism run riot. The Exposi- 
tion buildings were interesting attempts to 
build counter to the prevailing tradition of 
overrich and overmonumental exposition build- 
ing. They were frankly temporary; although 
they had an appealing simplicity, much of the 
detail seemed attenuated, effeminate, and un- 
convincing. In monumental work, the great 
Stockholm Town Hall by Ragnar Oestberg 
shows Swedish architecture at its best; the 
mosaicked Golden Hall in it is a unique and 
beautiful piece of modern interior design. 

Holland produced some amazingly original 
designs; but although they possess verve and a 
certain picturesqueness, they seem often forced 
and outlandish, like some of the German work 
before the War. The Marine Hotel, in Am- 
sterdam, by Von der May, and the Amster- 
dam Housing, by Klerk, are especially not- 
able examples. The latter is a particularly in- 
teresting example of modern work in the variety 
it attains in one city block. 

Much interesting modern work has been done 


87 


ARGENTINA 


in Finland, so that Helsingfors to-day is one of 
the most interesting cities in Europe as an ex- 
hibition of frankly ‘‘modernist” architecture. 
The Railroad Station, by Eliel Saarinen, who 
was placed second in the Chicago Tribune com- 
petition, is particularly noteworthy. 

Beyond spasmodic housing, Italy produced 
but little during the ten years. Austrian work 
is characterized by much of the same spirit as 
that of Germany, but classicism plays a more 
important role in Vienna than in Berlin. The 
Konzerthaus and Akademie fiir Musik is a typ- 
ical piece of modern Austrian classic, and the 
Osterreichische-Ungarische Bank by Leopold 
Bauer shows the typical Viennese classic of a 
freer and more original type. Since the end of 
the War there has been little building in Aus- 
tria. 

In the Orient, the struggle of East and West 
goes on, with disastrous architectural effects. 
The great port cities are rapidly assuming the 
air of an awkward European city, and all sorts 
of caricatures of western styles are produced 
by native architects. In China, to be sure, a 
certain vitality in native work is in evidence, 
connected with the Buddhist revival; but it is 
almost entirely confined to the rebuilding of 
temples destroyed during the Tai-Ping rebellion. 
The cultural chaos of the modern Orient has 
produced architectural conflict, and the future 
is uncertain. 

ARCTIC REGION. See Potar RESEARCH. 

ARGENTINA. A South American republic 
lying on the eastern coast of the southern part 
of the continent, consisting of 14 provinces, 10 
territories, and one federal district. Its area 
is 1,153,119 square miles, and its population 
(Jan. 1, 1921), 8,698,516. This represented a 
gain of 1,526,606 or 21.3 per cent over the of- 
ficial estimate of Jan. 1, 1911. The popula- 
tions of the larger cities were estimated thus 
in June, 1922: Buenos Aires, 1,720,000; Ro- 
sario, 265,000; Cordoba, 156,000; La Plata, 
151,000; Tucumién, 100,000. Because of the an- 
nual return of Spanish and Italian laborers to 
their homes after the harvests, immigration 
and emigration almost balanced, the numbers 
in 1917 being 51,665 immigrants to 83,999 emi- 
grants; in 1919, 69,879 immigrants to 67,710 
emigrants, and in 1920, 188,688 immigrants to 
148,907 emigrants. The males still continued 
in excess of the females, the totals in 1918 be- 
ing 4,440,367 males to 3,838,792 females. Im- 
migration from Germany, Belgium, and the 
Slavic countries began to increase. 

Agriculture. In 1920, out of a total area 
of 250,000,000 acres available for farming, 62,- 
500,000 acres were being tilled. This was a 
gain of 12,170,000 acres, or 24, per cent, over 
the season of 1910. The following were the 
acreage, yield in metric tons, and quantity ex- 
ported, of the leading crops for 1922-23: 


Acreage Metric Tons Tons 
exported 
NVVI@a Uterete crotarete ¢ 15,939,494 5,145,031 3,964,641 
OstsPeyrGe.%aies. 3 2,617,854 97,967 283,205 
Baie APRA 7,850,750 3,890,000 2,771,325 
PED aS at die, oi. et 
Eiraned aac. 4,111,793 1,124,769 925,958 


Because of the virgin fertility of the soil, the 
food crop harvests were bountiful with the re- 
sult that Argentina in late years led the world 
in the exportation of maize, as well as linseed, 
and stood next to the United States and Canada 


ARGENTINA 


in the exportation of wheat. The danger of 
sapping the soil was always real, and the gov- 
ernment wisely applied itself to teaching the 
advantages of a more varied husbandry and in- 
tensive cultivation. This fact, together with 
the higher prices during the War, resulted in 
an increasing application to cotton, tobacco, 
and sugar cane culture. 

The grazing industries of course stand next 
to agriculture in prominence. In 1920 .there 
were 27,392,126 cattle (29,116,625 in 1908) ; 
9,366,455 horses (7,531,376 in 1908); 825,226 
asses and mules (750,125 in 1908); 45,303,419 
sheep (67,211,754 in 1908); 4,670,130 goats 
(3,945,086 in 1908); 3,227,346 pigs (1,403,591 
in 1908). 

Industry. By the industrial census of 1920, 
48,779 factories, employing 410,201 persons, 
with a capital of 1,787,662,000 pesos, were enu- 
merated. The value of manufactured products 
was 1,861,789,710 pesos ($782,000,000). The 
most important single industry was that of 
food production; 19,000 establishments were en- 
gaged in it. Packing plants, flour mills, cream- 
eries, and wool-washing plants were at the 
head. 

Mining. This industry reached no great im- 
portance. Control of the mines was vested in 
the state and national governments, and con- 
cessions were strictly regulated. Petroleum 
was the most important of the products mined, 
the output of the Commodoro Rivadavia wells 
in 1921 being 1,730,500 barrels. During the 
War, wolfram and mica were in considerable 
demand. 

Commerce. The total foreign trade of Argen- 
tina in recent years is shown below. The fig- 
ures given represent the real rather than the 
nominal value adopted for tariff purposes and 
are stated in gold pesos with a par value in 
United States money of 96.5 cents per peso. In 
1919, the average exchange value of the gold 
peso was $.99: in 1920, $.907; in 1921, $.731, 
and in 1922, $.818. 


Year Imports Exports 

POLS I alos stele, sleleterstotere 496,230,000 519,160,000 
GEO EEE teepe folie late 655,772,000 1,030,965,000 
NOD ONGy sl cdcte tobe taleceuetshexe vets 934,968,000 1,044,085,000 
MQ 2MMNs « alete tele cheretenene wale 749,534,000 671,129,000 
VOD DFT. Hae State. hele s 686,000,000 672,600,000 


The chief articles imported were textiles, iron 
and steel, glassware and crockery, foodstuffs, 
oils, chemicals, timber and wood, and coal. The 
exports were chiefly foodstuffs, including wheat, 
corn, frozen beef and mutton, linseed, hides and 
skins, wool and quebracho. The United States 
advanced to a commanding position in Argen- 
tina’s import trade, while the United Kingdom 
remained the best customer for Argentine ex- 
ports. The trade with the more important 
countries for 1913 and 1920, the latest year for 
which details were available, are given in thou- 
sands of gold pesos. 


1913 1920 

Country Imports Exports Imports Exports 
United States...... 73,013, 22,895. 310,395 154,136 
United Kingdom 154,055 120,378 218,605 279,677 
Pe TANCO Welter sien ee AG Sine ont lomo L043 =a Oreae 
ILBAULVimt Siete tas seis ere fs A0,947 20,039. 41,337. 34.272 
SUEZ ete i <0'e 3 = oaks 10.898 24,309 50,435 22,407 
SPAM: cledae Gieteie te J 14,582 4,818 49.068 14.639 
Germany,) } = isit.. tess 83,934 57,915 44,620 23,756 


For the 12 months ending June 30, 1923, the 


88 


ARGENTINA 


United States exported goods to Argentina val- 
ued at $109,384,460 as compared with $80,495,- 
064 for the same period of 1921-22. Imports 
from Argentina to the United States for the 
fiscal year 1922-23 totaled $131,591,656 com- 
pared with $60,767,964 in the preceding year. 
By July, 1923, it was evident that Argentina 
had emerged from the commercial depression 
that had started with 1921 and was rapidly on 
the way to a renewed economic activity. 

Communications. After 1912, railroad build- 
ing was retarded, only 1521 miles having been 
added by 1922. Work was under way on the 
Argentine section of the Trans-Andean railway 
designed to connect the Argentine state railway 
system from Salta, Argentina, with the port of 
Antofagasta, Chile, on the Pacific. On Jan. 1, 
1923, of the total mileage, 3947 miles were 
state-owned, and 18,400 miles privately owned. 
In 1921, there were 52,470 miles of telegraph 
lines; 3619 post offices; and 12 stations for 
wireless telegraphy. Aérial communications 
were established between Buenos Aires and 
Salta, Catamarca, Posadas, and other cities, as 
well as with Montevideo, Uruguay. 

Finance. The budget charges, in paper pesos, 
for 1912 and 1922, were as follows, one paper 
peso equaling 44 centavos gold money: 


Year Revenue Expenditure 
TOTO’, sare hte eiceeticters 128,751,718 248,764,942 
1 QOD hak Silos teeters 551,931,685 599,956,504 


In 1922, the external debt was 561,537,364 pa- 
per pesos ($239,000,000 at par), and the inter- 
nal debt, 698,235,344 paper pesos ($297,000,- 
000). The floating debt was 628,836,663 paper 
pesos ($267,000,000). An idea of the expan- 
sion of Argentina’s activities may be gained 
from comparing the last charge with the 1911 
figure of 34,064,123 paper pesos ($14,477,000). 
The 1922 budget carried 128,736,485 paper pesos 
for interest and amortization of the debt; in 
1911 the same item was about 70,000,000 paper 
esos. 

: Education. In 1920, 1,121,311 pupils at- 
tended 9009 primary schools; 11,022 pupils 
were attending 38 secondary schools supported 
by the national government; 14,202 pupils were 
attending normal schools. The following new 
universities were organized after 1910: Nation- 
al University of the Litora] in Rosario (1920) 
and the provincial universities at Tucumén 
(1912) and Cuyo (1921). In 1920 the federal 
expenditure for education was 71,885,335 paper 
pesos, as compared with the 1911 figure of 19,- 
200,000. 

Defense, In 1910, two dreadnaughts were 
laid down in American yards. These, finished 
in 1917, were the Moreno and Rivadavia, both 
of 27,940 tons displacement and capable of 22.5 
knots per hour. For 1922, the military budget 
was 48,812,937 paper pesos, and the naval budg- 
et 41,940,209 paper pesos. 

History. The period of the War saw Argen- 
tina confronted by local problems in many ways 
analogous to those of the United States. The 
conflicting sympathies of the foreign-born pop- 
ulation, many of whom returned to their native 
lands to fight in the armies; the active Allied 
and German propaganda; the rising cost of liv- 
ing; and the increasingly articulate character 
of labor, which expressed itself in strikes and 
disturbances; all added to the vexations of the 
government and distracted attention from mat- 


ARGENTINA 


ters which had hitherto been Argentina’s main 
concern; i.e. its economic expansion and de- 
velopment. In 1917 a general railway strike 
temporarily paralyzed business, and sporadic 
strikes continued throughout 1918 and 1919. 

Argentina’s role as a neutral was made diffi- 
cult in 1917 by the intensification of the Ger- 
man submarine campaign and the subsequent 
arrogance displayed by the German Foreign Of- 
fice. The famous spurlos versenkt despatch of 
the German Ambassador, which the papers pub- 
lished on Sept. 8, 1917 (“I advise that they 
[Argentina’s ships] be sunk without trace’’), 
brought matters to a head, and after serious 
anti-German disturbances in Buenos Aires, the 
Argentine Congress voted for the severance of 
diplomatic relations. The President thereupon 
refused to intervene, and in spite of the entry 
of the United States into the War, Argentina 
remained aloof from the struggle. 

In 1910 Roque Saenz Pefia was elected Presi- 
dent, and on his death in 1914, the Vice-Presi- 
dent, de la Plaza, continued the term. In 1916 
a split in the governing party caused the elec- 
tion of Hipdlito Irigoyen, the Radical candi- 
date, and Argentina viewed an administration 
of hitherto unknown men. Leaders in the new 
party included Honorio Pueyrredon, Diego Luis 
Molinari, Elpidio Gonzales, and Alfredo Dem- 
archi. Business men and technicians were ap- 
pointed to important offices, and civilians held 
the war and navy portfolios. In the Congres- 
sional eléctions of 1919 both houses remained 
Radical. The President’s known sympathies for 
labor threw him into many difficulties, notably 
with the foreign-owned public service corpora- 
tions. His able administration and his success 
in maintaining Argentina’s neutrality won uni- 
versal recognition for his talents. In 1922 
Marcelo T. de Alvear, likewise of the radical 
party, was elected President. 

The growing amity between Argentina and 
the United States was displayed by the number 
of loans placed with American bankers in spite 
of the competition of English capitalists, who, 
up to the War, had played the most important 
part in Argentina’s industrial affairs. During 
1922 and 1923 loans for $27,000,000, $50,000,- 
000, and $13,000,000 were floated. These bor- 
rowings reflected the most important problem 
before the Alvear administration; i.e. the un- 
satisfactory fiscal situation. One of the most 
pressing needs was the funding of the large 
deficits which were annually accumulating; in 
1922 alone the deficit was 90,000,000 paper 
pesos. Another was the necessity for consoli- 
dating the floating loan. The solutions pro- 
posed by the government were radical: an in- 
come tax law,ean upward revision of the tariff, 
double taxatitn for absentee landlords, higher 
land valuations, and a tax on bank deposits. 
In spite of its straitened finances, the govern- 
ment was moving toward an ambitious defense 
and public works policy, the budget for 1923 
calling for 30,000,000 pesos for modernizing the 
navy and renewing army equipment, 300,000,- 
000 pesos for railroad extensions, and 20,000,- 
0CO pesos for oil. refineries. 

Though Argentina was the first state to rati- 
fy the Covenant of the League of Nations, July 
7, 1919, she withdrew from active participation 
in League affairs the following year, when the 
first League Assembly refused to take favorable 
action on the amendments to the Covenant pro- 
posed by the aa delegation, viz., admis- 

UPP.— 


89 


ARIZONA 


sion of enemy states; admission, without vote, 
of very small quasi-sovereign states; compul- 
sory jurisdiction for the Court; and systematic 
rotation of the members of the Assembly in the 
elective seats on the Council. Thenceforth the 
Argentine Republic refused to send delegates to 
Geneva and to pay its dues. In 1923 it was an- 
nounced that Argentina meant to pay up ar- 
rears and assume an active rdle. See also 
NAVIES OF THE WORLD, and PAN-AMERICAN 
CONFERENCES, 

ARGENTINE ANT. See ENTomonocy, Eco- 
NOMIC. 

ARIZONA. The fifth of the United States 
in size (113,956 square miles), and the forty- 
fifth in population; capital, Phoenix. During 
the decade 1910-20, the population of the State 
increased from 204,354 to 334,162, a gain of 
63.5 per cent. The white population increased 
from 171,468 to 291,449, while the Negro pop- 
ulation increased from 2009 to 8005, and the 
Indian population from 29,201 to 32,989. The 
Chinese in the State in 1920 numbered 1137, 
against 1305 in 1910; the Japanese, 515, against 
301. The native white population increased 
from 124,644 to 213,350, while the foreign-born 
whites increased from 46,824 to 78,099. The 
urban population rose from 63,260 to 117,527, 
while the rural population increased from 141,- 
094 to 216,635. The largest cities in the State 
are Phoenix and Tucson. The population of 
the former increasing from 11,134 to 29,053, 
while the population of the latter grew from 
13,193 to 20,292. 

Agriculture. Agriculture is not the lead- 
ing industry in Arizona, nor did the agricul- 
tural development of this State keep pace with 
the growth of its population. This will be 
noted from the fact that while the increase in 
population in the decade 1910-20 was 63.5 per 
cent, the number of farms in the State in- 
creased only 8.1 per cent, from 9227 to 9975. 
It should be noted that in 1910 individual 
schedules were secured for farms‘on Indian res- 
ervations, whereas in 1920, in a number of 
cases where the farming operations of a reser- 
vation were returned on a single schedule, the 
reservation was recorded as one farm, a dif- 
ference of at least 2000 farms being thus ac- 
counted for. The land in farms increased from 
1,246,613 acres in 1910, to 5,802,126 acres in 
1920, or 365.4 per cent. The improved land in 
farms also showed a considerable increase, from 
350,173 acres to 712,803, or 103.6 per cent. The 
total value of farm property made an apparent 
increase of 210.9 per cent, from $75,123,970 to 
$233,592,989; the average value per farm, from 
$8142 to $23,418. In interpreting these values, 
and indeed all comparative values in the decade 
1914-24, the inflation of the currency in the 
latter part of the period is to be taken into 
account. The index number of prices paid to 
producers of farm products in the United 
States was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 1920. The 
proportion of land used for agricultural pur- 
poses in 1910 was 1.7 per cent, and in 1920, 
8 per cent. The percentage of farm land im- 
proved decreased from 28.1 to 12.3. Of the 
total of 9975 farms in 1920, 7869 were operated 
by owners, 1801 by tenants, and 305 by man- 
agers, a decrease in the decade of about 400 
farmers, and an increase of about 1000 tenants. 
The great proportion of farmers in Arizona are 
natives. In 1920 there were 8262 native white 
farmers and 1067 foreign-born. Indian farms 


ARIZONA 


in 1910 numbered 38159; in 1920, 537 (but see 
above). The farms free from mortgage numbered 
3708 in 1920, and 7038 in 1910; those under 
mortgage numbered 3380 and 10438. Arizona is 
one of the most important States in live stock 
production. Cattle in 1920 numbered 821,918, 
compared with 767,042 in 1910; but sheep de- 
creased from 916,600 to 881,914. It is also one 
of the most arid States, and its possibilities 
for agriculture are controlled almost entirely 
by the development of irrigation. The number 
of farms irrigated in 1920 was 6605, compared 
with 4481 in 1910. The acreage irrigated in- 
creased from 320,051 in 1910 to 467,565 in 1920. 
Cotton growing came into considerable promi- 
nence in favored localities, notably the Salt 
River Valley. Fruit growing, especially of cit- 
rous fruits and grapes, increased, and vegeta- 
ble growing for early market was developed 
locally. The estimated production of the chief 
farm crops for 1923 was as follows: corn, 898,- 
000 bushels; wheat, 1,092,000 bushels; oats, 
678,000 bushels; barley, 1,224,000 bushels; po- 
tatoes, 348,000 bushels; and hay, 607,000 tons. 
Comparative figures, for 1913, were corn, 476,- 
000 bushels; wheat, 928,000 bushels; oats, 301,- 
000 bushels; barley, 1,482,000 bushels; pota- 
toes, 75,000 bushels; hay, 540,000 tons. 
Mining. Arizona has a great wealth of 
mineral resources which have not as yet been 
fully developed. Its principal mineral prod- 
ucts are copper, gold, silver, and asbestos. Of 
these, copper is by far the most important and 
valuable, and in its production Arizona far out- 
ranks any other State. The fluctuation in the 
value of copper during the War and post-War 
period was reflected in the copper situation of 
the State, as will be noted from the following 
comparative production figures: 1914, 393,- 
017,400 pounds, valued at $52,271,314; 1915, 
459,972,295 pounds, $80,495,152; 1916, 721,833,- 
169, $177,570,960; 1917, 712,166,891, $194,421,- 


561; 1918, 764,855,874, $188,919,401; 1919, 
538,100,844, $100,086,757; 1920, 588,256,302, 
$102,719,160; 1921, 185,034,194, $23,869,411; 


1922, approximately 400,043,128 pounds, valued 
at $54,005,822. The peak of production was 
reached in 1918. The sharp decline from 1920 
to 1922 resulted from the general business de- 
pression, which limited the demand for copper 
and also reduced its price. In 1922 there was 
a recovery, Which continued in 1923. An esti- 
mate of production in 1923 was 624,000,000 
pounds. The output of gold in. the State re- 
mained practically constant in the decade 1913- 
23. The production in 1914 was 202,167 fine 
ounces, valued at $4,179,155. After a slight 
decline in 1915 and 1916, it rose in 1917 to 
245,174 fine ounces, valued at $5,068,193, and 
in 1918, to 262,919 fine ounces, valued at $5.,- 
435,027. The production for 1919-20 was prac- 
tically the same. In 1921 the output was val- 
ued at $2,930,303, and in 1922, at $3,524,134. 
The decline in the last two years was due to 
the general depression in the mining’ field. 
Conditions greatly improved in 1923, however, 
and indications were that the output of gold 
in that year would be considerably increased, 
especially as several new ore bodies had been 
discovered. Since the silver output in Arizona 
is derived largely from treatment of the copper 
ores, it fluctuates with the production of cop- 
per. In 1914 the silver output was 4,377,994 
fine ounces, valued at $2,421,031; in 1917, 6,- 
983,913 fine ounces, $5,754,744; 1919, 5,266,605, 


go 


ARIZONA 


$5,898,598; 1920, 5,355,303, $5,837,280; 1921, 2.- 
469,394, $2,469,394; 1922, approximately 4,531,- 
864 fine ounces, valued at $4,531,864. As the 
Pittman Act, regulating the price at $1 an 
ounce, expired in the latter part of 1923, every 
effort was made in the first part of that year 
to increase the production, and indications were 
that it would considerably surpass the produc- 
tion of 1922. Arizona is an important pro- 
ducer of lead. The production of this metal 
during the decade is indicated by the figures. for 
several of the years: 1914, 15,003,068 pounds: 
1917, 23,465,445; 1920, 14,599,765; 1921, 6,- 
541,433; 1922, 15,070,894. A small amount of 
zine is also produced, as well as a considerable 
quantity of asbestos. According to the State 
Geologist, the total production of the mines 
of Arizona from the beginning of mining to the 
beginning of 1923 was approximately as fol- 
lows: copper, 9,966,150,966 pounds; gold, $121,- 
451,432; silver, $143,801,602; lead, 140,117,- 
828 pounds; zinc, 110,000,000 pounds; asbestos, 
4000 tons; manganese ore, 40,000 tons; molyb- 
denum, 750,000 pounds; precious stones, $60,- 
000. The total value of mineral production in 
1921 was $30,818,363, compared with $116,383,- 
335 in 1920, $112,512,239 in 1919, $203,992,- 
915 in 1918, and $60,420,362 in 1914. 

Industries. Arizona is not an important 
manufacturing State, and its chief industries 
depend largely upon mining, having to do chiefly 
with smelting and other mineral processes. The 
growth of its industries from 1909 to 1919 
is indicated by the following figures. The num- 
ber of establishments in 1909 was 311; 1914, 
322; 1919, 480. Persons engaged in manufac- 
ture in 1909 numbered 7202; 1914, 8014; 1919, 
10,347. The capital invested amounted to 
$32,872,935 in 1909; $40,300,365 in 1914, and 
$101,486,070 in 1919, while the value of the 
products in those years was $50,256,694, 
$64,089,510, and $120,769,112, respectively. 
The large increase in the value of the products 
was due chiefly to the change in industrial 
conditions brought about by the War and there- 
fore is no true measure of the growth of manu- 
factures during the census periods. The most 
significant evidence of growth is found in the 
increase in the average number of wage 
earners and in the horse power used. The 
percentage of increase in the cost of mate- 
rials, 135.8, as compared with that for the 
value of products, 88.4, resulted in an in- 
erease of only 13.4 per cent in value added 
by manufacture. This increase was due to the 
copper smelting and refining industries, which! 
in 1919 contributed more than two-thirds of the 
total value of the products for the State. The 
value of the products of copper smelting and 
refining during the period was as follows: 
In 1909, $41,059,000; 1914, $53,438,000; 1919, 
$94,184,000. Phoenix and Tucson, with 48.8 
per cent of the total population of the State, 
reported 9.9 per cent of the State’s products 
in 1919. 

Education. Arizona has been from _ its 
earliest history one of the most progressive of 
the States in educational matters. The Legis- 
lature has willingly passed measures to improve 
the administration and efficiency of the school 
system. The fifth State Legislature enacted 
several measures of unusual importance. One 
of these established a new basis for the distri- 
bution of the State school fund and greatly 
increased its amount; another provided that 


; 
; 


ARIZONA 


the rural schools shall receive from the county 
fund a minimum of $1500 for each district em- 
ploying one teacher and $3000 for each district 
employing two teachers. <A third measure gave 
greatly increased powers to the State Board of 
Edueation, especially with regard to the manage- 
ment of institutes and certification of teachers; 
and compulsory school attendance’ law was 
strengthened by a measure making possible 


stricter enforcement in rural districts. The 
most pressing problem in education in the 
State was the improvement of the rural 
schools. A definite step in that direction was 


taken in providing increased support and re- 
quiring higher teaching standards. <A consti- 
tutional amendment providing for reorganiza- 
tion of the State Department of Education was 
defeated in the general election in November, 
1922, but the discussion aroused by the measure 
was valuable in centring attention on the 
defects of the existing system. Vocational edu- 
eation is carried on through the State Board 
of Vocational Education. During the decade 
this board conducted very valuable research 
work and brought about a uniform accounting 
system for the schools. It also entered into a 
cobperative arrangement with some of the 
larger mines and industries of the State for 
part time class work in the evening for those 
who are employed. Classes had been organized 
in trade and industrial work with an enroll- 
ment of approximately 2000; and a similar ar- 
rangement was being worked out with the 
Farmers’ Bureau of the State. Home econ- 
omics has been extended ‘into various commu- 
nities, and a decided interest in the subject has 
been shown. The enrollment in the high and 
elementary schools in 1914-15 was 46,069. 
This had increased in 1922-23 to 69,077. In 
the high schools in 1921 the total enrollment 
was 6716. The expenditures from the State 
school fund for 1920-1 amounted to $1,115,717, 
while the expenditures by school districts was 
$4,449,883. The percentage of illiteracy in the 
State decreased from 21.9 in 1910 to 16.3 in 
1920. Among the native whites it had ap- 
parently decreased from 2.4 in 1910 to 1.4 
in 1920; among the Negro population, from 8.4 
to 4.8; and among foreign-born whites, from 
31.4 to 28.7. 

Finance. For finance, see STATE FINANCES. 

Political and Other Events. Several events 
of unusual importance marked the political 
history of Arizona during the decade 1914-24. 
In the elections of 1914 George W. P. Hunt was 
reélected governor and Marcus A. Smith to the 
United States Senate. A constitutional amend- 
ment providing for prohibition was carried 
by a majority of about 3000 votes. Two years 
later this amendment was amended = and 
strengthened to meet a decision of the Federal 
court that the original amendment did not 
prohibit the introduction and personal use of 
intoxicating liquors. In the election of 1914 
an initiated measure abolishing capital punish- 
ment was passed, but two years later the death 
penalty was restored. The Legislature of 1913 
had passed a law prohibiting the owning of 
land by aliens. This was amended so that it 
applied only to aliens not eligible to citizen- 
ship and was later further amended by special 
reference to the Japanese prohibition of alien 
ownership in that empire, so as to be directly 
aimed at the Japanese. The Legislature of 1913 
had passed a law requiring that mining com- 


gi 


ARIZONA 


panies and other employers of large bodies of 
men in hazardous occupations should be limited 
to the employment of not more than 20 per 
cent who could not speak and understand the 
English language. This act was found by the 
United States Supreme Court two years later 
to be in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment. 
In the election of 1916, Thomas E. Campbell, 
Republican, was candidate for governor against. 
George W. P. Hunt. The election was so close 
that a recount was necessary. Hunt refused 
to surrender the office on the face of the re- 
turns but a week later gave it up, pending the 
result of the recount, Campbell in the mean- 
time having been declared by the Supreme 
Court to be governor de facto. The recount 
being decided in favor of Campbell, Hunt ap- 
pealed, and in December of 1916 the Supreme 
Court reversed the lower court and _ seated 
Hunt. In the election of 1916 Henry F. 
Ashurst was reélected United States Senator. 
In the presidential election of 1916 Woodrow 
Wilson received 33,170 votes, compared with 
20,524 for Charles E. Hughes. In 1918, Gov- 
ernor Campbell was reélected. He was re- 
elected for a third term in 1920. In the presi- 
dential election of that year, W. G. Harding 
received 37,016 votes and James M. Cox 
29,546. On the recommendation of Governor 
Campbell, a special session of the Legislature 
was called in April, 1922, and a State financial 
code was passed. This measure provided that 
appropriations for the government must be in- 
cluded in a single appropriation bill accom- 
panying the governor’s budget. In elections 
held in November of this year, the Democrats 
were universally successful. Senator Ashurst 
was reélected, and George W. P. Hunt was 
elected governor. Governor Hunt was inau- 
gurated for the fourth time in January, 1923. 
In his address to the Legislature he laid 
special stress on the State’s Educational prob- 
lems and placed before the Legislature the 
Colorado River compact. This compact was 
negotiated by representatives of six States, 
New Mexico, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming 
and Arizona. It was aimed to settle questions 
relating to flood control, power development and 
irrigation projects on this river. The Legis- 
lature failed to ratify the compact. In April, 
1924, the Arizona memorial stone was dedicated 
at the Washington Monument in Washington. 

Legislation. An attempt was made in the 
Legislature of 1915 to pass a substitute meas- 
ure for the anti-alien laws, but the measure 
was defeated in the Senate. In 1917 the Legis- 
lature revised the laws relating to criminal 
procedure and provided for mothers’ pensions. 
A special session in 1920 ratified the national 
woman suffrage amendment. In 1921, meas- 
ures were passed creating a State child and 
welfare commission, a_ soldiers’ land  settle- 
ment commission, and an immigration commis- 
sion. The Legislature of 1923 passed a law 
aimed especially at the Japanese, prohibiting 
the leasing of farm property to aliens ineligible 
to citizenship. 

ARIZONA, University oF. <A coeducational 
State’ university at Tucson, Ariz. founded in 
1885. The size and activities of the university 
broadened greatly between 1914 and 1923-24. 
In the latter year it included the College of 
Letters, Arts, and Sciences; College of Agri- 
culture; College of Mines and Engineering, Col- 
lege of Education; School of Law; University 


ARKANSAS 


Extension Division; Steward Observatory; State 
Museum, and the Arizona Bureau of Mines. 
The student enrollment increased from 249 at 
the beginning of the decade, to 1750 for 1923-24, 
and 175 in the summer session of 1923. There 
was a corresponding increase in the faculty, 
from 43 to 118, and in the number of volumes 
in the library, from 20,000 to 60,000. Several 
new buildings were erected during the period: 
the agricultural building, mines and engineer- 
ing building, Steward Observatory, the home 
economics practice house, the greenhouse for 
the agricultural experiment station, a dormi- 
tory for girls, and a dormitory for men. The 
new College of Education was organized in 1922. 
General public interest in the institution was 
shown by the gift of $100,000 by mining in- 
terests to be added to a $75,000 State appro- 
priation for the erection of a mines and en- 
gineering building, and a gift of $60,000 from 
Mrs. Lavina Steward, which made possible the 
erection of the observatory. Two changes were 
made in the presidency of the university. In 
the fall of 1914 Rufus Bernard von Klein Smid, 
A.M., Se.D., succeeded A. H. Wilde, Ph.D., as 
president, and was succeeded in turn in 1922 
by Cloyd H. Marvin, Ph.D., LL.D. 
ARKANSAS. Arkansas is the twenty-sixth 
of the United States in size (53,335 square 
miles), and the twenty-fifth in population; 
eapital, Little Rock. The population of the 
State increased during the decade 1910-20 
from 1,574,449 to 1,752,204 or 11.3 per cent. 
The white population increased from 1,131,026 
to 1,279,757, while the Negro population 
showed an increase from 442,891 to 472,220. 
The population of Arkansas is very largely 
native. The native whites numbered 1,265,782 
in 1920 as compared with 1,114,117 in 1910, 
while the foreign-born population decreased 
from 16,909 to 13,975. The urban population 
rose from 202,681 to 290,497, while the rural 
population increased from 1,371,768 to 1,461,707. 
The largest cities in the State are Little Rock 
and Fort Smith. The population of the former 
increased from 45,941 in 1910 to 65,142 in 


1920, and that of the latter from 23,975 
to 28,870. 
Agriculture. As Arkansas is an important 


cotton-growing State, agricultural conditions in 
the decade 1914-24 were affected, as in the 
case of the other southern States, by the 
devastations of the boll weevil. For a detailed 
account of the influence of the weevil on agri- 
culture and cotton growing, see ENTOMOLOGY, 
Economic: Boll Weevil. In 1923, in certain 
districts of Arkansas, the leaf worm defoliated 
95 to 98 per cent of the plants, which dried 
up, and the immature bolls produced practically 
no crop. - The boll weevil attack, however, was 
less than in 1922, because conditions were less 
favorable for the insect. In spite of these 
handicaps, however, the area planted in cotton 
was practically constant during the decade. 
In 1913 this area was 2,502,000 acres, with a 
production of 1,073,000 bales; in 1915, 2,170,000 
acres, 816,000 bales; in 1918, 2,991,000 acres, 
987,000 bales; in 1921, 2,382,000 acres, 797,000 
bales; and in 1922, 2,844,000 acres, 1,040,000 
bales. In 1923 the estimated production was 
926,000 bales. 

While the population of Arkansas increased 
11.3 per cent in the decade 1910-20, the number 
of farms increased 8.4 per cent (from 214,678 
to 232,604). In 1910 the acreage in farms 


92 


ARKANSAS 


was 17,416,075; in 1920, 17,456,756, an  in- 
crease of only 0.2 per cent. The improved land 
in farms increased from 8,076,254 to 9,210,556 
acres, or 14 per cent. The total value of farm 
property apparently increased from $400,089,303 
in 1910 to $924,395,483 in 1920, and the average 
value of farm property from $1864 to $3974, 
In interpreting these values, and indeed all 
comparative values in the decade 1914-24, the 
inflation of the currency in the latter part of 
that period is to be taken into account. The 
index number of prices paid to producers of 
farm products in the United States was 104 in 
1910 and 216 in 1920. The total percentage of 
land used for agricultural purposes was 51.8 
per cent in 1910 and 51.9 per cent in 1920, 
while the percentage of improved land increased 
from 46.4 to 52.8. Of the 232,604 farms in 
1920, 112,647 were operated by owners, as com- 
pared with 106,649 in 1910; 736 by managers, 
as compared with 763; 119,221 by tenants, as 
compared with 107,266. There was an increase 
in the decade of about 6000 owners and about 
12,000 tenants. The white farmers in 1920 
numbered 160,322, as compared with 151,085 
in 1910; colored farmers, 72,282 as compared 
with 63,593. The farms free from mortgage 
in 1920 numbered 64,881; in 1910, 82,321. 
Those under mortgage numbered 33,990 in 
1920, compared with 22,374 in 1910. In 1920 
the total number of cattle in the State was 
1,072,966, compared with 1,028,071 in 1910; 
sheep numbered 100,159 in 1920 and 144,189 
in 1910. The estimated production of the chief 
farm crops in 1923 was corn, 36,141,000 
bushels; wheat, 770,000; oats, 6,584,000; rice, 
5,254,000; potatoes, 1,764,000; sweet potatoes, 
3,938,000; and hay, 563,000 tons. Comparative 
figures for 1913 are corn, 47,025,000 bushels; 
wheat, 1,313,000; oats, 6,360,000; rice, 3,769,- 
000; potatoes, 1,800,000; and hay, 384,000 tons. 
Mineral Production. Arkansas, while not 
one of the more important of the mineral pro- 
ducing States, has mineral resources of great 
value. The most notable feature of the min- 
eral production of the State was the develop- 
ment of the petroleum field. The results of 
this development on a large scale were shown 
only as late as 1921, since previous to that time 
the reports of production were included with 
those of other States. In 1921 the oil produc- 
tion had reached 10,473,000 barrels, valued at 
$12,746,000; and this increased in 1922 to 12,- 
712,000 barrels. Coal mining ranked second in 
importance, and steadily increased in the dec- 
ade 1914-1924. In 1914 the production was 
1,836,540 tons, valued at $3,158,168; in 1916, 
1,994,915 tons, $3,836,845; 1918, 2,227,369 tons, 
$8,172,376; 1920, 2,103,596 tons, $9,592,000; 
1921, 1,227,777 tons, $5,360,000. The output 
in 1922 was about 1,110,046 tons. Arkansas is 
chief among the States producing bauxite, from 
which aluminum is taken. The production in 
1914 was 195,247 long tons, valued at $976,- 
686; 1916, 375,910 long tons, $2,011,590; 1920, 
481,279 long tons, $2,897,892; 1922, 266,790 
long tons, $1,682,890. The total value of the 
mineral products of the State increased con- 
siderably in the decade, rising from $5,787,199 
in 1914, to $14,081,691 in 1918 and $22,515,412 
in 1921. In addition to the minerals already 
mentioned, natural gas is important. 
Manufactures. Arkansas is not an im- 
portant manufacturing State, but there was a 
substantial increase in its industrial develop- 


ARKANSAS 


ment from 1909 to 1919. The number of estab- 
lishments in 1909 was 2925; 2604 in 1914; and 
3123 in 1919, while the number of persons en- 
gaged in manufacture in those years was 51,730, 
48,440, and 58,202, respectively. The capital 
invested in 1909 amounted to $70,174,345; in 
1914, $77,162,485, and in 1919, $138,817,974. 
The value of the products apparently increased 
from $74,916,367 in 1909, to $83,940,587 in 
1914, and $200,312,858 in 1919. The increase 
of 1914-19 was due in great measure to the 
changes in industrial conditions brought about 
by the War. The principal industries, with 
the value of their product, in the three census 
periods, were as follows: lumber and timber 
products, 1909, $40,640,000; 1914, $43,115,000; 
1919, $91,852,000; cottonseed oil and meal, 
1909, $7,789,000; 1914, $9,249,000, and 1919, 
$25,304,000; car construction and repair, 1909, 
$4,154,000; 1914, $4,971,000, and 1919, $11,030,- 
000; rice cleaning and polishing, 1909, $945,000; 
1914, $1,837,000, and 1919, $8,996,000. The 
most important manufacturing cities of the 
State are Little Rock and Fort Smith. The for- 
mer had 125 manufacturing establishments in 
1909, 149 in 1914, and 242 in 1919; the value of 
their products was $6,882,000, $7,755,000, and 
$23,168,000, in those respective years. Fort 
Smith, in 1909, had 83 manufacturing establish- 
ments, 103 in 1914, and 115 in 1919; the value 
of the products for those years was $3,739,000, 
$4,646,000, and $14,813,000, respectively. 

Education. Educational conditions in Arkan- 
sas showed a steady improvement in the decade 
1913-23. Important local legislation was en- 
acted during that time; and several important 
commissions and associations carried on work 
with excellent results. The Arkansas Illiteracy 
Commission undertook to give as speedily as 
possible to all adult illiterates in the State 
the opportunity of at least learning how to 
read and write; and the School Improvement 
Association was exerting its force in the life of 
many schools and communities in the State. 
In 1923 there were over 600 organized school 
improvement associations, with a membership 
of approximately 15,000. The Legislature of 
1919 passed a measure accepting the provisions 
of the Smith-Hughes Federal Act, providing 
for vocational education, and levied a $.0002 
State tax for vocational ' educational work. 
Educational progress in the State is indicated 
by the fact that the enrollment in the schools 
increased from 395,978 in 1910 to 446,525 in 
1916 and to 509,351 in 1922, while the average 
daily attendance increased from 255,135 in 1910 
to 292,750 in 1916 and 367,516 in 1922. The 
census of the Bureau of Education, taken in 
1919-20, showed an enrollment in the elemen- 
tary and kindergarten schools of the State 
of 455,362, and in the secondary schools, 27,- 
810, or a total enrollment of 483,172. This 
may be compared with the enrollment in 1922 
of 509,351. The total enrollment in the white 
schools of the State in 1922 was 379,751 and 
in the colored schools, 129,600. The permanent 
school fund of the State in 1919-20 amounted 
to $1,200,000. The total expenditures for 
schools in the same year was $7,706,621; in 
1922, $8,946,237. The percentage of illiteracy 
in the State decreased from 15.1 in 1910 to 
11.5 in 1920, the percentage among those of 
native white parentage decreasing from 8.5 
to 5.7, and among the negroes from 32 to 
26.52) 9: 


93 


ARKANSAS 


Finance. For finance, see STATE FINANCES. 

Political and Other Events. No striking 
changes were effected in political conditions in 
Arkansas in the decade 1914-24. The State 
remained consistently Democratic. Elections 
were held in 1914 for governor and other State 
officers and for United States Senator. Gover- 
nor Hays was reélected. On Jan. 1, 1916, 
State-wide prohibition went into effect as a re- 
sult of laws passed by the Legislature of 1915. 
Senator Clarke died, Oct. 1, 1916, and W. 
F. Kirby was chosen as his successor. In 
the same election Charles H. Brough, Dem- 
ocrat, won the governorship. In the _presi- 
dential election of that year, Woodrow Wilson 
received 112,282 votes and Charles E. Hughes 
47,135. A proposed amendment substituting 
local option for State-wide prohibition was de- 
feated, and another, for a new primary election 
law, was adopted. A constitutional convention 
created by the Legislature of 1917 met on 
November 19 of that year and after organiza- 
tion adjourned until July, 1918. The right to 
vote in primary elections was granted to women 
by the Legislature in 1917, and a “bone dry” 
amendment to the constitution was adopted. 
The constitutional convention held its sessions 
in 1918 and submitted a new constitution to 
the people, who defeated it in December. In 
the elections held in 1918, Governor Brough was 
reélected and J. T. Robinson was elected to the 
United States Senate. Three constitutional 
amendments submitted to the people at this 
election were defeated. Much activity resulted 
from the War, and between Apr. 1, 1917, and 
Oct. 30, 1918, Arkansas furnished 63,632 men 
to the military and naval forces. Camp Pike 
was established near Little Rock. In October, 
1919, five white men and a larger number of 
negroes were killed in Phillips County, in 
troubles that resulted in collisions between 
armed whites and negroes. Five hundred Uni- 
ted States troops were sent to the scene of the 
disorder from Camp Pike. As a result of these 
disturbances, 86 negroes were convicted on va- 
rious charges and 12 condemned to death. In 
1920, Thomas C. McRae was elected governor, 
and Thaddeus H. Caraway, Congressman, was 
elected United States Senator. In the presi- 
dential election of this year, James M. Cox re- 
ceived 105,618 votes, and W. G. Harding, 69,- 
874. Constitutional amendments providing for 
changes in the initiative and referendum, equal 
suffrage, and an increase in the membership of 
the Supreme Court were carried; but as a ma- 
jority of the total vote cast at the election of 
governor is required, and they failed to receive 
this, the amendments failed of adoption. In 
1921 suit was instituted in the United States 
Supreme Court to settle a long-standing bound- 
ary dispute between Arkansas and Mississippi. 
In 1922, Governor McRae was reélected; a pro- 
posed amendment to the constitution, providing 
for a new initiative and referendum law, and 
other amendments relating to taxation and 
revenue, were defeated. In 1923 a special elec- 
tion was held for a successor to L. E. Sawyer, 
Congressman, deceased. J. B. Reed was the 
successful candidate. During this year strikes 
on the Missouri and North Arkansas Railroad 
were ended in December as a result of an agree- 
ment reached by the parties and the Governor. 
In January, 1923, serious rioting occurred in 
Harrison, and on January 18 a committee of 
12 took charge of the situation. On May 14, 


ARKANSAS 


1923, flood and fire at Hot Springs did damage 
amounting to over $20,000,000. 

Legislation. Among the more important 
laws passed during the decade 1914-24 were 
the following: The Legislature of 1915 passed 
a State-wide prohibition bill and measures rec- 
ommended by the commissioners on uniform 
State laws. In 1917 several amendments were 
passed in the Legislature, but, as noted above, 
they failed of adoption. In 1919 the Legisla- 
ture adopted the prohibition amendment; at an 
extra session it adopted also the Federal suf- 
frage amendment. At extra sessions many 
measures were passed to create special road im- 
provement districts. In 1921 the Legislature 
abolished certain commissions and offices in- 
cluding the corporation commission and the 
paid penitentiary commission, substituting 
therefor the Arkansas Railroad Commission and 
an honorary penitentiary commission. At this 
session of the Legislature a resolution was 
adopted for an amendment to permit the taxa- 
tion of personal property by improvement dis- 
tricts, but it was defeated at the polls. The 
Legislature of 1923 passed conservation meas- 
ures for the protection of oil and gas lands, 
provided for instruction in patriotism in the 
public schools, made several amendments to the 
election. laws; and passed a uniform stock 
transfer act. 

ARKANSAS, UNIversiry or. A_ coeduca- 
tional State institution at Fayetteville, Ark., 
founded in 1871. Departments at Fayetteville 
are agriculture, engineering. liberal arts and 
sciences, and education. The medical depart- 
ment is at Little Rock. The enrollment in- 
creased from 665 in 1913 to 1257 for the year 
1923-24 and 789 in the summer school of 1923; 
the faculty was increased approximately 42 per 
cent, from 80 to 114, and 10,000 volumes were 
added to the library, making a total number of 
45,000 volumes at the end of 1923. Depart- 
ments added during the decade were home 
economics, philosophy, journalism, secondary 
education, school administration, public speak- 
ing, agriculture, architecture, and an engineer- 
ing experiment station. The tax levied for the 
support of the university was somewhat more 
than doubled, to $.001. President, John Clinton 
Futrall, M.A., LL.D. 

ARLISS, Grorcpe (1868— ). An English- 
American actor born in London, England, where 
he was educated. He made his first appearance 
on the English stage at the Elephant and Castle 
Theatre, London, in 1887, and _ subsequently 
toured in America with Mrs. Patrick Campbell’s 
company. He has played with Blanche Bates, 
Mrs. Fiske, and other prominent stage artists. 
Some of his best performances have been in The 
Darling of the Gods, Leah Kleschna, The Devil, 
Disraeli and The Green Goddess (1921). He 
has also played leading roles in several success- 
ful sereen productions and is the author of 
Widow’s Weeds, There and Back, The West End, 
The Wild Rabbit, What Shall It Profit? (with 
Brander Matthews), and Hamilton (with Mary 
P. Hamilton; 1917). 

ARMAMENTS, Limiration or. See WASH- 
INGTON CONFERENCE. For effect on naval de- 
sign ‘and shipbuilding, see VESSEL, NavaL; Na- 
VIES; SHIPBUILDING, NAVAL. 

ARMENTA, Armenia, as the term was 
generally employed before the’ War, did not 
designate a sovereign state. There was no Ar- 
menian state in modern times until the Ar- 


94 


ARMENTA 


menian Republic of Erivan arose in 1918. 
What the name did signify was portions of Tur- 
key, Russia, and Persia inhabited by Arme- 
nians. In the six Armenian vilayets of Turkey, 
i.e. Erzerum, Van, Bitlis, Diarbekr, Mamut-el- 
Aziz, and Sivas, lived approximately 1,000,000 
Armenians, scattered among more than 3,000,- 
000 Kurds, Turks, and other races, chiefly Mos- 
lems. Cilicia, styled Lesser Armenia by na- 
tionalists, was also claimed by virtue of histor- 
ical tradition and a large Armenian population. 
Russian Transcaucasia, chiefly the provinces of 
Erivan, Elisavetpol and Tiflis, included some- 
thing over 1,000,000 Armenians, mingled with 
other races. In addition, perhaps 150,000 Ar- 
menians dwelt in northwestern Persia, where- 
fore the Persian provinee of Azerbaijan was 
often included in nationalist dreams of a great- 
er Armenia. Throughout this large area, held 
under three sovereignties, the Armenians con- 
stituted only a minority, if the total popula- 
tion be considered, and only in relatively few 
districts outnumbered other races. Yet na- 
tional consciousness, fanned into life by con- 
tact with western civilization, demanded inde- 
pendence and unity, insuperable though the ob- 
stacles appeared. After the outbreak of the 
War, the Young Turk government charged the 
Armenians with pro-Ally sympathy and revolu- 
tionary purposes, and on this pretext, the Turks 
began a brutal and systematic campaign of ex- 
tirpation and banishment. Massacres_ took 
place in the centres where groups of Armenians 
were to be found, in Bitlis, Sivas, Kharput, and 
Trebizond. Deported to Syria, Arabia, and 
Mesopotamia, and gathered in huge concentra- 
tion camps, they suffered all the privations of 
hunger and lack of shelter, and they died in 
great numbers. From 1,000,000 to 1,200,000 
were deported, and of these at least half met 
death by actual murder or as a result of neglect. 
Many thousands sought shelter in Russian 
Transcaucasia, and large numbers of the male 
population fought in the Russian armies. 
Their war losses must have totaled 100,000, 
The Russian advance into Asia Minor in 
1915-16 and the fall of Erzerum served to dis- 
tract the Turks and was the means of saving 
many Armenians. But the collapse of Russia 
in 1917 and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 
1918 placed the Armenians at the mercy of the 
Turks once more. The Armenians in Trans: 
caucasia tried to halt the ruin that awaited 
them by creating the Republic of Erivan, but 
the Turks swept into Transcaucasia in the 
spring of 1918, and only the Armistice in the 
autumn saved the remnants of the Armenians 
from complete obliteration. The Peace Con- 
ference seemed favorable to Armenian hopes. 
An Armenian delegation, composed of Russian 
and Turkish Armenians, laid their people’s as- 
pirations before the Supreme Council. The 
creation of an independent Armenia in the 
midst of Turkish territory, no matter how just, 
was beset by many difficulties, and attempts 
were made to induce the United States to accept 
a mandate over it. The refusal of the Amer- 
ican people to involve themselves in Eastern 
politics and intrigue delayed the settlement of 
the Armenian question until the completion of 
the Treaty of Sévres. By this instrument a 
greater Armenia in Russia and Turkey was 
provided for in 1920 and President Wilson was 
chosen- to map out the confines of the territory 
in Turkey. President Wilson made public his 


a 


a eid 


+ 
a if 
g 


ARMENIA 


decision in March, 1921, three months after 
Erivan had fallen before Turkish and Russian 
invaders. By the Wilson line Armenia was giv- 
en some 30,000 square miles in the Turkish vi- 
layets of Trebizond, Erzerum, Bitlis, and Van, a 
coast-line of 150 miles on the Black Sea, and the 
port of Trebizond. It was a fair enough award, 
but unfortunately, it was conditioned on the ca- 
pability of the Armenians to take possession. 
Their inability to do this, the appearance of the 
Turkish Nationalist government at Angora, the 
alliance between Bolshevist Russia and’ Na- 
tionalist Turkey, the helplessness of the Euro- 
pean powers who dared not embark on a new 
war, rendered nugatory the Treaty of Sévres 
and wrecked all hopes for an independent Ar- 
menia. Meanwhile the entry into Erivan of 
the Bolshevists and the creation of a Soviet 
Republic, Dee. 2, 1920, heightened the indiffer- 
ence of the Allies. 

Almost the last hope of the Armenians fell 
with the evacuation of Cilicia (q.v.) by the 
French in 1921. In 1919-20 about 500,000 
Armenians, placing their faith in French aid, 
had pushed into Cilicia and put themselves un- 
der the protection of French arms. But’ the 
Turkish Nationalists turned on the French in 
force, invaded Cilicia, and took their usual 
vengeance on the Armenians. It is estimated that 
25,000 of them perished here in 1920. The 
Franco-Turkish Treaty of Oct. 20, 1921, pro- 
vided for the departure of the French forces, 
abandoning the Armenians. Finally in 1923 
the last chapter was written. By the Treaty of 
Lausanne a perplexed and war-weary Europe 
sought relief through the restoration of the 
status quo, and Turkey in Asia Minor was 
left intact. The roseate promise of an _ inde- 
pendent Armenian State was now definitely 
ended and the Armenians were again Russian, 
Turkish, and Persian subjects. 

Armenian Republic of Erivan. Since 1918 
a state belonging to the Transcaucasian Fed- 
eration and affiliated with the Union of So- 
cialist and Soviet republics. The republic, 
made up of the former Russian government of 
Erivan, is, like Georgia and Azerbaijan, sit- 
uated on the Transcaucasian peninsula and has 
an estimated area of 15,092 square miles and a 
population, according to the latest Russian 
census, of 1,214,319 as against 1,184,600 in 


1914. Eighty per cent of the population was 
rural. The population was largely Armenian 


and Christian, about 60 per cent, while minor- 
ities of Turco-Tatars, Russians, Greeks, Kurds, 
and Georgians were also to be found. Erivan, 
the capital, had a population of 110,000; Alex- 
andropol, 70,000. A university with but one 
faculty, however, was opened at Erivan in 1920. 

Industry and Trade. Agriculture engaged 
the great proportion of the population, wheat, 
rice, licorice root, tobacco, and wine being the 
leading products. Prior to the War, Armenia 
produced up to 150,000 bales of ginned cotton 
annually, but cotton growing decayed complete- 
ly after the Bolshevist Revolution. Mining 
made up the most important economic activity 
before the War, for here were found copper ore, 
rock salt, and iron pyrite deposits. In fact, 
before the War, the Government of Erivan pro- 
duced 20 per cent of Russia’s whole copper 
output. From 18,000 to 20,000 tons of salt 
were extracted annually, 6500 tons of copper, 
and 50,000 tons of iron pyrites. Three-quarters 
of the mines, however, had no aecess to rail- 


95 


ARMENIA - 


roads. ‘Actually, having no seafront, the coun- 
try was almost wholly cut off from contact with 
the outside world, and being compelled to de- 
pend for its communications on the single 
Transcaucasian railway that passed through its 
territory on the way from Batum to Baku. 
The country had great industrial possibilities, 
for it was estimated that 9,000,000 h.p. could be 
utilized from the water courses. 

History. The destinies of Armenians were, 
after all, to be cast in-with the lot of Russia 
and not the West or the United States. Five 
days after the collapse of the Russian Empire, 
on Sept. 20, 1917, Armenia, with Georgia and 
Azerbaijan, established the Federal Republic of 
Transcaucasia. The career of this federation 
was stormy; the sympathies of its members in- 
dicated marked dissimilarities; and a_ break, 
hastened by the Turkish invasion of Transcau- 
casia in the spring of 1918, came on May 26-28, 
1918. War-torn Erivan was evacuated by the 
Turks late in 1918; a brief respite followed; 
and then hostilities were renewed, this time 
with Georgia, in January, 1919. Meanwhile, 
without the formality of a popular election, a 
government keenly nationalistic in tone had 
been created at Erivan in the Russian Arme- 
nian provinces, by the Dashnakzagan | party 
(moderate or Menshevist Socialist), and the 
country was organized not for reconstruction 
and peace, but for expansion and war. The 
Turks and the Kurds were the enemies. En- 
couraged by the fair promises of the Allied 
statesmen to believe that Armenia, like Poland, 
was to be regenerated, Armenians fell easy prey 
to the war temper. In July, 1919, a high com- 
missioner was despatched to Armenia, and 
credits were extended to the Dashnakzagan gov- 
ernment; in August, Major-General Harbord 
appeared to ascertain the possibilities of an 
American mandate over the country; on Apr. 
23, 1920, the government was formally recog- 
nized by the United States; three days later, 
the San Remo Conference called on President 
Wilson to delimit the boundaries of a free and 
Greater Armenia. No power, however, seemed 
willing to assume a mandate over Armenia or 
to give the struggling republic of Erivan the 
aid of which it stood sorely in need; British 
troops, having temporarily occupied the region 
in the winter of 1917-18, had been withdrawn 
in the following summer, to be replaced by <Al- 
lied troups after the armistice, which in turn 
had been evacuated in 1920. The United States 
Senate, unwilling to follow President Wilson’s 
generous impulse, refused to consider a United 
States mandate. Britain and France were 
equally reluctant. Although alternative plans, 
such as protection by the League of Nations, 
were discussed, Armenia was left to its own 
slender resources and extravagant pretensions. 
Somewhat unreal, therefore, were the paper 
promises contained in the Treaty of Sévres sof 
Aug. 10, 1920, whereby, out of the major por- 
tions of the Turkish vilayets of Van, Bitlis. 
Erzerum, and Trebizond, a republic was to be 
erected, and the final act, the drawing of the 
frontiers on the West, was delegated to President 
Wilson. It was merely necessary for Arme- 
nians to take possession, without aid from the 
Allies, it is true, but with their good wishes. A 
general mobilization was ordered, 34.000 men 
were collected, and a move was commenced :on 
the Turkish provinces by bands of unskilled, 
undernourished men. To defeat them was a 


- ARMIES 96 


surprisingly easy task. Kars fell without a 
struggle, Oct. 31, 1920; a week later, Alexan- 
dropol was entered. By Nov. 7, 1920, when a 
Tureo-Armenian armistice was signed, not only 
were Armenians in flight from the Turkish 
provinces, but they saw Erivan wholly occupied 
by the Nationalist Turks. The conduct of the 
latter was typical: for the six months the coun- 
try remained in their possession, 140 towns were 
destroyed, 400,000 people were rendered home- 
less, the countryside was stripped of every plow, 
horse, ox, and milch cow. It was Russia, and 
not the United States or Great Britain, that 
was able to save something of the Armenian 
hopes. Meanwhile the Russian Bolsheviks, now 
acting more or less in concert with the Turks, 
had massed 10,000 Red troopers at Akstafa on 
the Northwest frontier, invaded ‘the country, 
and codéperated with Armenian Bolshevists in 
setting up a Soviet Republic. The new govern- 
ment at once signed a provisional treaty at 
‘Alexandropol on Dec. 2 with the Turkish Na- 
tionalist commander, Kiazym Kara_ Bekir 
Pasha. This treaty handed over to Turkey the 
districts of Kars and Ardahan and renounced 
all claim to Turkish Armenia. This disaster 
was confirmed by the Russo-Turkish treaty of 
Moscow in March, 1921, and by the treaty ar- 
ranged at Kars the following October between 
Turkey and the ‘Transcaucasian republics. 
The temporary restoration of the districts of 
Karabagh, Zangezoor, and Nakhitchevan to Ar- 
menia was but an ephemeral and inadequate 
consolation. A final effort of the Dashnakzagan 
party to regain power was unsuccessful. On 
Feb. 18, 1821, through a coup d’état Erivan was 
seized, but by April 2, the party was in flight, 
and the Soviet reéstablished. On April 21, the 
Turks evacuated what remained of the republic; 
on October 13, in the above mentioned Treaty of 
Kars, Armenia was recognized by ‘Turkey. 
Russian aid was profuse but, in the face of the 
great suffering, ineffective. In 1921, as a result 
of the evacuation of Cilicia (q.v.) by the 
French, it was reported that Erivan was filled 
with 400,000 Turkish Armenian refugees. Rus- 
sia sent clothing, agricultural implements, 
1,500,000 gold rubles for the purchase of grains 
and animals from Persia, medicines and nurses; 
yet in 1922 alone the death toll in Erivan was 
150,000 from starvation and cholera. There 
was, during 1922-24, an application to local 
problems purely, for under the Soviet leaders 
the hope of the greater Armenia had been for- 
saken: the Armenian national home was in 
Erivan. Kars, Ardahan, and the Armenian 
vilayets of the former Ottoman Empire had 
definitely reverted to Turkey, and Turkish pos- 
session of them was tacitly recognized by the 
Allies when they signed the Treaty of Lausanne 
with Turkey in 1923, from which the Sévres 
clauses on Armenia were quietly omitted. Nor 
was the tiny Republic of Erivan itself really in- 
dependent. From the Red invasion, it had been 
overshadowed by the power of Moscow, and at 
the end of 1921 it had been reintegrated in a 
Federal Transcaucasian Republic which entered 
into the Alliance of Socialist Soviet Republics, 
dominated by Moscow, by the treaty of Dec. 
30, 1922. See RussrA, and WAR IN EuROPE, 
Turkish Front. 

ARMIES AND ARMY ORGANIZATION. 
Military organization comprises the correct and 
systematic arrangement of the man power and 
economic resources of a nation to provide that 


ARMIES 


unity of effort essential to success in war. It 
is employed to carry out the military policy of 
a nation, which is formulated for the protection 
and promotion of its national policies. Mil- 
itary organization is divided into the organiza- 
tion of land forces whose mission it is to carry 
out in the field the military policy of the na- 
tion, and the organization of noncombatants 
and of industries to provide equipment, muni- 
tions and supplies to enable the land forces to 
fulfill their mission. Previous to the War the 
major European powers and Japan in the Far 
East had carried military organization to a 
high degree of development, while the United 
States, with no definite military policy, was in 
a period of transition. 

During the first three years of the War, the 
increase in fire power due to improvement in 
rifles and machine guns, the increased mobility 
and rate of fire of heavy artillery, the develop- 
ment of aéroplanes not only for observation and 
reconnoissance but for bombing and combat, the 
introduction of grenades, light mortars and 
tanks, and the utilization of gas and other 
chemical agencies, gave rise to the formation 
of small units to take advantage of these ad- 
ditional tactical opportunities, but resulted in 
no radical reorganization either by the Cen- 
tral Powers or the Allies. In the United 
States, during this period, trouble with Mexico 
caused the mobilization of a large part of the 
Regular Army and the National Guard on the 
Mexican border and the organization of an 
expeditionary force which conducted a cam- 
paign in Mexican territory. There resulted 
a grouping of units which made possible some 
training and experience in the mancuvring 
and supply of larger units, and although little 
or no definite preparation was made for the 
possible contingency of entry into the War, 
the foundation was laid for the expansion 
which became necessary after that contingency 
materialized. 

The establishment of Military Training 
Camps, first for college students and then for 
business men in 1915 and 1916, resulted in 
the partial training of many citizens who 
formed the nucleus of the body of officers re- 
quired when the emergency arrived. When the 
United States entered the War it became ap- 
parent that the forces to be raised should be 
organized and equipped to utilize to the full- 
est extent the newly developed weapons and 
should conform as far as practicable to the 
organization of the Allies’ forces, in conjunc- 
tion with which the troops would operate. The 
available forces at the outbreak of the War 
were the Regular Army and the National Guard, 
but the prompt enactment of the Selective 
Service Act provided means for expanding these 
forces to war strength beyond the natural ex- 
pansion by enlistment and for the creation 
of new units to the full extent of the man 
power of the nation. 

The armed forces of the United States were, 
therefore, organized primarily into three com- 
ponents: first, the Regular Army; secondly, the 
National Guard; and thirdly; the National 
Army. The last was provided with officers in 
the higher commands from the Regular Army 
and in the lower grades from the officers’ re- 
serve corps and from graduates of officers’ train- 
ing camps which were immediately established. 
These forces were all organized under new 
tables of organization prepared after a study 


ARMIES 


of the organization of the Allied armies; the 
basic unit was a division of some 28,000 officers 
and men. The division was made up of a division 
headquarters, two infantry brigades, a field 
artillery brigade, a division machine gun _ bat- 
talion, a field signal battalion, an engineer 
regiment, and divisional trains. An infantry 
brigade was composed of a headquarters, two 
infantry regiments, and one machine gun bat- 
talion. The artillery brigade was composed of 
a headquarters, two 75 millimeter gun regi- 
ments, one 155 millimeter howitzer regiment, 
and a trench mortar battery. An _ infantry 
regiment was composed of a headquarters and 
three battalions with four rifle companies of 
250 men, a supply company, and a machine 
gun company, each. An artillery regiment 
comprised a headquarters and two battalions of 
three four-gun batteries, a headquarters com- 
pany and a supply company, each. An en- 
gineer regiment was composed of a headquarters 
and two battalions with three companies of 
250 men each. The divisional trains comprised 
a headquarters and military police company, an 
ammunition train, a supply train, an engineer 
train, usually attached to the engineer regi- 
ment, a sanitary train, and a mobile ordnance 
repair shop, attached to the ammunition train. 

The road space occupied by a division was 


301%, miles with foot troops marching in 
column of squads. 
General headquarters, reserve, army, and 


corps troops comprising heavy artillery units, 
engineer units of various kinds, pioneer in- 
fantry, and service units, were organized and 
assigned as required and as they were avail- 
able. Engineer, quartermaster, signal, and va- 
rious other special units were organized for 
service in the base and intermediate zones and 
along the lines of communication. The divi- 
sions so organized proved unwieldy and lacked 
mobility, their transportation was complicated, 
their entry into and withdrawal from battle 
was difficult, deployment was retarded, and the 
smaller units could not be adequately super- 
vised by the division commander and his staff. 
They had great striking and penetration power 
and under the conditions on the Allied front 
they proved very effective. In 1920 the National 
Defense Act of 1916 was thoroughly revised 
in the light of war experience, and a definite 
military policy for National defense was 
adopted; provision was made for the main- 
tenance of a small and highly trained peace 
establishment consisting of the Regular Army, 
the National Guard and the organized reserves, 
all so organized and trained as to be readily 
expanded to war strength in emergency. Pro- 
vision was further made for voluntary military 
training of citizens through reserve officers’ 
training corps established at various high 
schools, colleges and universities, and by means 
of annual civilian military training camps. 
The Regular Army constitutes a permanent 
military force. Its peace-time strength was 
limited by Congress in 1924 to 12,000 officers 
and 125,000 enlisted men. The National 
Guard is, first, the organized militia of the 
State to which it belongs, and secondly, a com- 
ponent of the army of the United States in 
time of war. The National Guard is so organ- 
ized and trained under supervision of the Fed- 
eral authorities that when mobilized in time 
of war it will constitute with the Regular Army 
the first line of defense. The organized re- 


97 


ARMIES 


serves, comprising the officers’ reserve corps 
and the enlisted reserve corps, composed of 
citizens who voluntarily accept commissions or 
enlistments, are grouped into skeleton organi- 
zations for rapid expansion in time of war. 
In time of peace the regular army, the National 
Guard and the organized reserves are organized, 
so far as practicable, into brigades and divi- 
sions, and for purposes of administration, train- 
ing and tactical control, the continental area 
of the United States in 1924 was divided on a 
basis of military population into nine corps 
areas. The Regular Army, owing to its limited 
strength, is assigned to the corps areas accord- 
ing to military necessities; the National Guard 
and the organized reserves are distributed so 
that each corps area contains two divisions of 
the National Guard and three divisions of or- 
ganized reserves and various corps and army 
troops. In a major emergency the complete 
mobilization would provide land forces con- 
sisting of six field armies with a total of 
2,000,000 men, each corps area furnishing one 
Regular Army division, two National Guard 
divisions and three organized reserve divisions 
and corps and army troops according to their 
varying military population, skeletonized units 
being brought to war strength by enlistment 
and the operation of selective service. In a 
major emergency mobilization would be effected 
progressively, the Regular Army and the Na- 
tional Guard being first mobilized and moved 
to the theatre of operations, followed by the 
mobilization of the reserves, including the 
necessary troops for lines of communication and 
the interior. 

The amended National Defense Act of 1920 
further provided for the organization of a gen- 
eral staff in the War Department, modeled after 
the general staff which operated in France with 
the American Expeditionary Forces during the 
War. It consists of the chief of staff, a deputy 
chief of staff, and four divisions dealing with 
personnel, intelligence, operations and training, 
and supply: these divisions are designated, re- 
spectively, G-1, G-2, G-3, and G-4. The duties 
of the general staff, as defined in the Act, are 
to prepare plans for national defense and the 
use of the military forces for that purpose, and 
for the mobilization of the manhood of the 
nation and its material resources in emergency, 
to investigate and report. on all questions 
affecting the efficiency of the army of the 
United States and its state of preparation for 
military operations, and to render professional 
aid and assistance to the Secretary of War 
and the chief of staff. To carry out one phase 
of these duties a war plans division has been 
constituted, to study and develop plans for de- 
fense; this is so organized that in case of a 
major emergency it could take the field as the 
staff of general headquarters in the theatre 
of operations. In time of peace, command and 
administration are carried out through the 
nine corps areas; no commanders are appointed 
or staffs organized for units greater than a 
division. 

Subsequent to the adoption of the amended 
National Defense Act of 1920, a board of officers 
was assembled who defined a general plan of 
organization for the army of the United States 
as provided for in the Act. The strategical 
and tactical organization of the military forces. 
it was recognized, might include a_ general 
headquarters, groups of armies, corps or divi- 


ARMIES 


sions, depending on the theatre of operation, the 
general strategical situation and the size of 
the forces engaged. Under the plans outlined 
by the special board of officers, tables of or- 
ganization were prepared by the general staff 
and put into operation. Tables were prepared 
for such general headquarters reserve, army, and 
corps troops as might be required in a major 
emergency, and which should be included in the 
organized reserves. A typical organization of an 
army comprises two or more corps temporarily 
assigned; two cavalry divisions; heavy artillery 
from the general headquarters reserve; @ 
brigade of anti-aircraft artillery; an air 
service consisting of headquarters, an observa- 
tion group, and an attack wing; and certain spe- 
cial troops of the signal corps, engineer corps, 
medical corps, and Ordnance corps, with the req- 
uisite trains. A typical organization of a corps 
comprises two or more divisions temporarily 
assigned, an artillery brigade of three regi- 
ments of 155 millimeter howitzers and a regl- 
ment of 155 millimeter guns, with an observa- 
tion (flash) battalion and an ammunition 
train, an air service of two observation squad- 
rons and four balloon companies, an anti-air- 
craft regiment, a medical regiment, an engineer 
regiment with three auxiliary battalions, and 
the requisite trains. 

In order to meet the objections to the divi- 
sion as organized during the War, the new 
tables of organization provided for a reduction 
in strength to about 20,000 officers and men. 
This reduction was secured by transferring 
the regiment of heavy artillery to the corps, 
reducing the strength of the companies in the 
engineer regiment to 100 men and the strength 
of a rifle company in an infantry regiment to 
200 men, with a corresponding reduction in 
the number of machine guns, but leaving the 
percentage of machine guns to rifles the same. 
This reduction in strength was in line with the 
changes in European armies based on the ex- 
perience of the War. A division so organized 
still occupies a road space with foot troops 
marching in columns of squads of about 27 
miles, and it is probable that further reduction 
in the strength of a division will be made in 
the future, without making any reduction in 
the strength of a battalion. 

The retention of the two-brigade four-regi- 
ment organization has to a certain extent sac- 
rificed manceuvring and mobility to striking 
power, but in view of the modern tactics of 
organization in depth, the three-unit scheme 
was not adopted until the battalion was 
reached in organization. 
nized that the machine gun was purely an 
infantry weapon, the machine gun battalions 
of the former organization were abandoned, 
and machine gun companies were organized in 
each battalion. 

An infantry division as now organized com- 
prises two infantry brigades of two regiments 
each, a field artillery brigade of two regiments 
of 75 millimeter guns, one combat regiment of 
engineers, an observation air squadron, a medi- 
cal regiment, and special troops consisting of 
a signal company, a light tank company, an 
ordnance company, a service company, a mili- 
tary police company, and the requisite trains. 
A cavalry division comprises two cavalry 
brigades, each having two regiments and a 
machine gun squadron; a hattalion of horse 
artillery of 75 millimeter guns; a combat en- 


98 


Since it was recog- ~ 


ARMSBY 


gineer battalion, mounted; an ambulance com- 
pany, and the requisite trains. An infantry 
regiment comprises a headquarters, a service 
company, a howitzer company; three battalions, 
each of three rifle companies; and a machine 
gun company. An artillery regiment comprises 
a headquarters, a headquarters battery, a serv- 
ice battery, and two battalions of three. bat- 
teries and one combat train each. A cavalry 
regiment comprises a headquarters, a head- 
quarters troop, a service troop, and two squad- 
rons of three troops each. An engineer regi- 
ment comprises a headquarters, a headquarters 
and service company, including the engineer 
train, and two battalions of three companies 
each. A medical regiment comprises a head- 
quarters, a service company, a collecting bat- 
talion of three companies, an ambulance bat- 
talion of one animal-drawn ambulance com- 
pany and two motorized ambulance companies, 
a hospital battalion of three motorized hospital 
companies, and a veterinary company. 

The increase in strength of units and the 
addition of new and improved weapons have 
made increasingly difficult the problem of 
supervision and administration; consequently 
tables of organization now provide for staff 
officers with functions similar to general staff 
officers down to and including battalions, ex- 
cept that in brigades, regiments, and battalions 
the functions of the adjutant and the person- 
nel division are combined under one officer. 
To provide trained officers for staff positions the 
National Defense Act has directed the forma- 
tion of an eligible general staff list composed of 
officers of suitable training and experience and 
all staff appointments in the larger units down 
to and including divisions are made from this 
list. See ARTILLERY; STRATEGY AND TACTICS. 

ARMIN, Frieprich Sixt Von (1851- i. 
A German general, born at Wetzlar. In 1917 he 
was appointed Chief-in-Command of the Fourth 
Army in Flanders which, in 1918, took Armen- 
tiéres and Keminel Hill. See War In Europe, 
Western Front. 

ARMISTICE, Tue. 
Western Front. 

ARMISTICES. See War, 
THE. 

ARMORED CRUISER. See 
NAVAL. 

ARMORED SHIP. See VESSEL, NAVAL. 

ARMOUR, (JONATHAN) OGDEN (1863- ye 
An American capitalist and merchant born in 
Milwaukee, Wis. He left Yale University in 
1883 to enter his father’s business, Armour and 
Company, one of the “Big Five” packers of. the 
United States. After Armour became head of 
the company in 1901, sales grew approximately 
from $250,000,000 in 1910 to $1,038,000,000 in 
1919, with a ‘total net income ranging from 
$9,808,305 to $27,186,124. A suit was im- 
pending in 1920 for violation of the Sherman 


See War IN Europe, 
DIPLOMACY OF 


VESSEL, 


Anti-Trust law, but an agreement was reached ' 


with the United States government whereby Ar- 
mour and Company, as well as other big pack- 
ers, should restrict their business to meat-pack- 
ing alone and sell out their interests in public 
stockyards, public cold storage warehouses, etc. 

ARMSBY, Henry PrReENTISS (1853-1921). 
American agricultural chemist born at North- 
bridge, Mass. (see Vor. II). Among his more 
recent activities’ may be noted his services as 
member of the Agricultural Committee of the 
National Research Council (1917) and as dele- 


—_———— oe 


ARMSTRONG 


gate to the Inter-Allied Scientific Food Commis- 
sion (1918). He is a recognized authority on 
animal nutrition. His later works include The 
Nutrition of Farm Animals (1917) and Con- 
servation of Food Energy (1918). 

ARMSTRONG, Epwarp Cooke (1871- ¥ 
An American educator (see Vou. II). ‘After 
heading the Romance Department at Johns 
Hopkins for seven years, he became professor 
of the French language at Princeton in 1917. 
During the War he served as national recruit- 
ing secretary for the Foyer du Soldat and 
as national director of French instruction in 
the training camps (1918). After the armis- 
tice of 1918 he lectured at the University of 
Bordeaux. 

ARMSTRONG, HELEN MAITLAND 
‘(1869-— ). An American artist, born at 
Florence, Italy. She was the daughter of the 
United States Consul General in Italy. Her 
early education was at home; later as a pupil 
of Rhoda Holmes Nicholls, she studied at the 
Art Students’ League. She also studied with 
Irving R. Wiles and William M. Chase. Her 
work includes the designing and painting of 
many stained glass windows, mosaics and 
mural decorations. She is a junior partner in 
the firm of Maitland, Armstrong and Com- 
pany. Among her works are the windows of 
All Saints’ Chapel, Biltmore, N. C., and win- 
dows in the Memorial Chapel of Mrs. O. H. P. 
Belmont, the armory of Mrs. Belmont’s New 
York house, the New York Church of the Ascen- 
sion and St. Michael’s Church, and five in the 
chancel of the chapel at Sailors’ Snug Harbor, 
Staten Island. 

ARMY. See ARMIES AND ARMY ORGANIZA- 
TION. 

ARMY INTELLIGENCE TESTS. See 
MENTAL MEASUREMENT; RACE PROBLEMS. 

ARNHEIM, Fritz (1866- ). A German 
historian and traveler, born in Berlin and 
educated at the Universities of Berlin and 
Halle. In: the course of his studies he made 
prolonged tours through Sweden, Belgium, and 
Norway (1900-12), and subsequently lectured 
on these countries. He became editor of 
Mitteilungen an der Historischen Litteratur 
(1915) and co-editor of Schwedische Blitter 
(1920). His numerous works on _ historical 
subjects, literature, etc., include Der Hof 
Friedrichs des Grossen (1912); Schweden 
(1917); and Arteilung Skandinairscher Staaten 
in der Illustrierten Weltgeschichte (1920). 

ARNOLD, Bion Josepu (1861- pea) An 
American electrical engineer (see Vou. II); 
During the years 1914—21 he reviewed plans for 
steam railway terminals for the city of Chicago 
and advised the officials of Boston, Des Moines, 
Omaha, Winnipeg, and many other cities of the 
United States in regard to traction matters. 
He was a member of the Naval Consulting 
Board during the War and commanded the 
Engineer Reserve Corps in 1917. He was trans- 
ferred to the regular army in December, 1917, 
with the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the Avia- 
tion Section, Signal Corps. He made reports 
on the aluminium situation and controlled the 
development and production of aérial torpedoes. 
He was commanding major, then colonel, of: the 
Aviation Section, Officers’ Reserve Corps, in 


* 1919. 


ARNOLD, Jurean (HERBERT) (1876-— ys 
An American commercial attaché for China. 
He was born in Sacramento, Cal. and educated 


99 


ARSONVAL 


in the University of California. In 1902 he 


‘was commissioned by President Roosevelt stu- 


dent interpreter to China, and from 1904 to 
1906 was vice and deputy consul general and 
mixed court assessor in Shanghai. He was 
vice and deputy consul in Foochow in 1906 
and consul at Tammi, Formosa (1906-08), at 
Amoy, China (1908-12), at Chefoo, China 
(1912-14). He was consul general at Hankow 
from 1914 to 1915, becoming American com- 
mercial attaché for China in the latter year. 
He received various. decorations from the 
Chinese government. An _ enthusiastic  pro- 
moter of more extensive trade relations be- 
tween the United States and China, he is the 
author of numerous magazine articles on China, 
and the compiler of the Commercial Handbook: 
of China. In 1918 he was chairman of the 
American delegation to the China Tariff Revi- 
sion Commission, as well as organizer and field 
representative of the American Red Cross in 
China. 

ARNOLD, Rarpn (1875- ). An Amer- 
ican geologist, born at Marshalltown, Iowa. 
He was graduated at Leland Stanford Junior 
University in 1899. Meanwhile he served as 
an assistant in geology until 1902, when he en- 
tered the service of the United States Geologi- 
eal Survey passing through the subordinate 
grades until 1908, when he became a consulting 
geologist. During these years he devoted his 
attention to the. Tertiary paleontology and 
stratigraphy of the western coast of North 
America and thus acquired an intimate knowl- 
edge of the geology and paleontology of the 
California oil fields. In 1909 he retired from 
the survey to enter on the private practice of his 
profession as an oil expert; he became an ac- 
cepted authority on the oil resources of the 
world. He gave courses of lectures on petro- 
leum at Chicago (1914) and at Harvard and 


the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 
(1915). In 1914 he became an associate editor 
of Economic Geology. Dr. Arnold is the 


author of numerous papers, the more impor- 
tant of which have appeared as publications 
of the United States Geological Survey or 


as memoirs of the California Academy of 
Sciences. 
ARNOUX, ALEXANDRE (1884- je A 


French novelist born at Digne (Basses-Alpes), 
France. He is the author of realistic stories 
and of a fantastic play. His style is alert, 
lively, dramatic. His works include L’Allée 
des Mortes, poems (1906), Au Grand Vent, 
poems (1909), La Mort de Pan, drama (1909), 
Le Roman Littéraire IV, with D. Flaboche 
(1912), Abisag ow VEglise Transportée par la 
Loi (1918), Indice 33, awarded the Prix de la 
Renaissance (1922), La Nuit de Saint-Barnabé, 
describing Parisian urchins (1920), La Légende 
du Roi Arthur et des Chevaliers de la Table 
Ronde, a translation of Malory (1920), and 
Huon de Bordeaux, a fairy melodrama (1922). 
ARRAS, BATTLE or, See WAR IN EUROPE, 
Western Front. 
ARRHENIUS, Svante 
Swedish chemist (see Vor. II). Among his later 
books are Quantitative Laws in Biolog‘cal 
Chemistry (1915), The Destinies of the Stars 
(1918), and. Chemistry and Modern Life (1919). 
ARSONVAL, ARSENE Db’ (1851- ar. 
French physician, physiologist and_ physicist. 
He was co-discoverer with Hertz, Tesla, and 
E. Thomson of high frequency electrical cir- 


(1859— ) yee 


ARTHUR 


cuits and sole originator of their use in the 
treatment of disease. Every piece of apparatus 
for this purpose was separately invented by 
him, and the application of the method is 
known as arsonvalization. Born at La Borie 
(Haute-Vienne), he was educated in Limoges 
and received his medical degree from the Uni- 
versity of Paris in 1877. He began his career 
as assistant in the laboratory of Claude Ber- 
nard and’ in 1882 was made director of the 
newly created laboratory of biological physics 
in the Ecole des Hautes Etudes. In 1889, he 
collaborated with Brown-Séquard in the pioneer 
research into the internal secretions. In 1894, 
he was appointed professor of medicine in the 
.Collége de France. Beginning in 1881 and 
through the ensuing quarter century he pub- 
lished a continuous series of articles on elec- 
trophysiology in all of its aspects. His pioneer 
work on the action of high frequency circuits 
on man and animals was done during 1890-95. 
In 1903, assisted by Chauveau and others, he 
produced his magistral work Traité de Physique 
Biologique. D’Arsonval seems to have been 
singularly indifferent to publicity and priority 
claims, although when the diathermie circuit 
was introduced he is said to have shown that 
he had anticipated the discovery by many years. 
He became vice-president of l’Académie des 
Sciences in 1916, and its president in 1917. 
ARTHUR, Juria (1869- ). An Ameri- 
ean actress, born at Hamilton, Ont. (see VOL. 
II). On her return to the stage in 1914 after 
an absence of 14 years, Miss Arthur acted the 
role of the woman in The Eternal Magdalene 
at the Forty-eighth Street Theatre, New York. 
Other of her appearances were in Liberty 


I0O 


ARTILLERY 


Aflame (1917), Out There (1918), as Mrs. 
Cheveley in An Ideal Husband (1918), and as 
Lady Macbeth in Macbeth (1921). 

ARTHUR’S PASS-TUNNEL. See 
NELS. 

ARTIFICIAL GEMS. See MINERALOGY. 

ARTIFICIAL SILK. See SILK, ARTIFICIAL; 
CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC. 

ARTILLERY. The dictum of the great 
Napoleon that artillery has been and always 
will be the determining factor of armies and 
peoples was abundantly confirmed by battle ex- 
perience of the decade 1914-24. One of the 
outstanding lessons of the War was the in- 
creasing relative importance of artillery in 
modern warfare. The combatant troops of all 
the nations engaged in this greatest of all 
conflicts insistently demanded not only more 
artillery, but artillery of greater power and 
increased mobility. With entire populations of 
nations engaged in the struggle, scientific, en- 
gineering, and manufacturing knowledge was 
focused on the production of more and more 
powerful weapons to a degree never before 
experienced. The natural result of this condi- 
tion of affairs is the great array of more 
powerful ordnance which owes its existence to 
the stimulus given inventive genius by the 
World War. 

In addition to greater range and greater mo- 
bility, the modern artillerist demands greater 
rapidity of fire; greater permissible elevation, 
with a view to possible use against aircraft; 
all-around fire or the nearest practicable ap- 
proach to it, in order to avoid constant shifting 
of the entire gun carriage; increased quickness 
of going into action and limbering up for quick 


TUN- 


EXPENDITURE OF ARTILLERY AMMUNITION IN RECENT WARS 


Previous Wars Compared with One Month of World War 


ROUNDS EXPENDED DURING WAR 


Italian Austrian 15,326 l 
1861-65) Civil Union 5,000,000 =! 
Prussian 36,199 | 
1866 Austro-Prussian, ‘ 
4 Austrian 96,472 | 
1870-71] Franco-Prussian | German 817,000 
1904-05] Russo-Japanese | Russian 954,000 Hil 
1912-13] Balkan Bulgarian 700,000 
One Month 
1918 World War ; Brit. & Fr. {12,710,000 


Expenditures for One Year, Civil and World War 


Civil Union 


World War 


1918° 
1918° 


U.S. 


World War British 


World War -° 


French 


& Average, year ended Nov. 10, 1918. 


ROUNDS EXPENDED FOR ONE YEAR 


1,950,000 @ 

8,100,000 Sill 
71,445,000 es 
81,070,000 [aaamES ant nnn tunieemeerene 


DYear ended June 380, 1864. 


¢ Year ended Nov. 10, 1918. 


ARTILLERY 


ARTILLERY 


EXPENDITURE OF ARTILLERY AMMUNITION IN MODERN BATTLES 


YEAR 


BATTLE ARMY {ROUNDS OF ARTILLERY AMMUNITION EXPENDED 
2 


1863 | Chickamauga Union 7,325 | 

1863 | Gettysburg Union 32,7811 

1870 | St.Privat German 39,0001 

1904 | Nan Shan Japanese 34,0471 

1904 | Liao Yang Russian 134,400 8 

1904 |Sha Ho Russian 274,360 

1915 | Neuve Chapelle British 197,000 @ 

1915 | Souchez French 300,000 Hl 

1916 | Somme 4,000,000 Saaz aie ae ieeia het AT) 
1917 | Messines Ridge 2,753,000 ane 
1918 | St.Mihiel 1,093,217 

Artillery preparation lasted: a, 35 minutes. 6, 4hours.  ¢, Intermittent 7 days. 


abandonment of untenable positions; and inter-. 


changeability of the gun with its companion 
howitzer of a slightly larger calibre on com- 
bination gun-howitzer mounts in order to sim- 
plify supply and maintenance problems in the 
field. Manifestly these conflicting requirements 
involve considerable compromise. The ingenuity’ 
of ordnance engineers has therefore been di- 
rected toward securing the most desirable com- 
bination of characteristics. To arrive at this 
result, practically all of the War Departments 


of the nations involved in the conflict, as soon 
as the Armistice afforded proper opportunities, 
made a special effort to review the artillery sit- 
uation not only in their own armies but in the 
armies of all nations involved in the War. In 
the United States Army this desire to benefit 
by the lessons of the strife just ended, led to 
the convening of a Board of Officers with in- 
structions to make an exhaustive study of the 
entire artillery situation, and then to recom- 
mend the types and calibres of artillery which 


RATES OF ARTILLERY FIRE PER GUN PER DAY IN RECENT WARS 


WAR 


1854-56, Crimean Brit. & Fr. 
1859, Italian Austrian 
1861-65, Civil Union 

Austrian 
1866,  Austro-Prussian 


Prussian 


1870-71, Franco-Prussian | German 


1904-05, Russo-Japanese | Russian 


1912-13, Balkan 
World War 


September, 1914 


Bulgarian 


French 


Jan. 1 to Oct. 1, 1918 Italian 


APPROXIMATE ROUNDS PER GUN PER DAY 
5* ia 

3 1 
| 
2.2 

8 i 

1.1°H 

4 7 

7 
o** 
Q** a 


Jan. 1 to Nov. 11, 1918 
Jan. 1 to Nov. 11, 1918 


Jan. 1 to Nov. 11, 1918 


* Siege of Sebastopol 


30) SERRE Re 
34°" RRS aca 
357 


** Field gun ammunition only, 


United States 


French 


British 


ARTILLERY 


ROUNDS CONSUMED 
DURING ONE YEAR 


ESTIMATED AVERAGE 
SIZE OF AMMUNITION 


152,515,000 


12 POUNDS 


1,950,000 


CIVIL WAR - WORLD WAR CIVIL WAR - WORLD WAR 


should be developed for future armament. 
Similarly constituted Boards of Officers repre- 
senting the armies of the Allied Powers made 
extended visits to the United States in the years 
immediately following the War, admittedly or 
presumably engaged in similar research. Few 
of the great nations of the world disclose the 
details of their ordnance designs, but under the 
present form of government and existing insti- 
tutions of the United States, it would be quite 
impossible to keep secret information of this 
nature except in time of war. It is probable, 
however, that the information in regard to 
recent developments in artillery design pub- 
lished in the United States represents in the 
main a fair gauge of progress in similar direc- 
tions in other countries, inasmuch as ordnance 
information was freely interchanged among the 
Allied Powers, and successful attempts were 
made to secure similar information from the 
authorities of the Central Powers after the 
Armistice. The following descriptions of ar- 
tillery matériel may, therefore, be taken as 
typical of the state of the art of ordnance de- 
sign and manufacture throughout the world. 
Light Field (Division) Artillery. Prior to 
the War, weight was the determining factor in 
the design of division artillery. Motor trac- 
tion had not arrived at a degree of dependa- 
bility which would justify its employment in 
mancuvring artillery over varying terrain. The 
main reliance was still on animal transport, as 
it had been for the preceding century. Assum- 
ing that a horse could pull 650 pounds at all 
gaits and that a six-horse team was the maxi- 
mum number that could be manecuvred effec- 
tively, 3900 pounds became the maximum 
weight for any complete single unit of divi- 
sion artillery. Within this limit the ordnance 
engineers of all countries strove to arrive at the 
best combination of range, striking velocity 
and explosive effect on burst. In the United 
States Army a division field gun 3 inches in 
calibre, firing a projectile weighing 15 pounds, 
was adopted as standard, and other countries 
varied only slightly from these figures. In 
order to achieve greater bursting effect a heavier 
projectile carrying a larger explosive charge 
was needed. Since the degree of mobility of 
the division gun must be maintained, it was 
found necessary to design a companion. piece, 
the division howitzer, using a projectile ap- 
proximately twice as heavy as that of the gun 
and attaining approximately the same range by 
providing for greater elevation of the howitzer 


102 
COMPARISON OF ARTILLERY AMMUNITION VALUES 


CIVIL WAR - WORLD WAR 


ARTILLERY 
CIVIL-WAR - WORLD WAR 


ESTIMATED TOTAL COST 
OF ARTILLERY AMMUNITION 


ESTIMATED COST 
OF AVERAGE ROUND 


$50.00 30 BILLIONS 


$2.00 10 MILLIONS 


CIVIL WAR - WORLD WAR 


carriage than provided by the gun carriage, 
thereby avoiding the increased weight which 
would have resulted through strengthening the 
gun to fire the heavier projectile at low angles 
of elevation. 

During the War, motor transport was devel- 
oped to a high degree of dependability, and 
the maximum permissible weight of divisional 
artillery units was considerably increased. Ac- 
cordingly, the Calibre Board of the United 
‘States Army laid down these requirements for 
ideal divisional artillery: 


REQUIREMENTS OF THE CALIBRE BOARD FOR 
LIGHT FIELD (DIVISION) ARTILLERY 


Gun Howitzer 
Calibre. ote About 3 inches 105 millimeter 
Weight of projectile .. Not over 20 30to 35 pounds 
pounds 


Maximum range 15,000 yards 12,000 yards 


Carriage to permit el- 


ste de 


OVAtiOl OL, 6 ess oes 80° 65° 
MUraVverseds.ae nee eee 360° 360 
WieIzht ae ch cate ce ete eis Not over 4500 Not over 4500 
pounds pounds 


Range with normal or 
reduced charge .... 
Rate of fire, rounds per. 
DALAL LO ms reese bneeetows ee 0) 


11,000 yards 


Carriage to be interchangeable for gun and 

howitzer. 
Perfection of split-trail type recommended. 
Wheels to have rubber tires when motorized. 
Development of self-propelled mounts recommended. 
Simple firing mechanism, preferably of lanyard 

type, desired. ; 
One type of breech block for both gun and howitzer. 
For normal use, a maximum speed of 12 miles per 


hour. 


Division guns and howitzers which gave the 
required ranges within the prescribed limits of 
weight were designed and successfully fired, 
the increase in range over that of pre-War 
types having been attained principally by im- 
provements in the contour of the projectile 
and by increasing muzzle velocities of the 
pieces. Increased velocities necessitated corres- 
ponding increases in length of the piece, for 
the division gun 131.7 inches in the new de- 
sign as compared with 87.8 inches in the pre- 
War type. Increased length of the piece in 
turn made it necessary to support it as near the 
breech as possible in order to avoid the neces- 
sity of digging holes in the ground, to permit 
recoil of the gun when fired at high elevation. 
The consequent unbalancing of the gun requires 
the addition of an equilibrator system to main- 
tain ease of manual elevation. Fortunately 


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AY3ATIULYY AWYVY S3LVLS G3LINNA 


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AYSTIILYYV 


ARTILLERY 


PHOTOGRAPHS, ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT, UNITED STATES ARMY 


UNITED STATES ARMY ARTILLERY 


1. EIGHT-INCH HOWITZER NO. 2, 1920, MARK I, Mounted on an 8-inch Howitzer-155-millimeter Gun Car- 
riage, 1920 E, Elevation 45 degrees. 

2. A155-MILLIMETER GUN ON TRAILER MOUNT, 

3. FOURTEEN-INCH GUN ON RAILWAY MOUNT. 


ARTILLERY 


the increased weight due to the equilibrator sys- 
tem and the increased length of bore is more 
than offset as far as mobility is concerned by 
the introduction of dependable motor transport 
in place of animal transport. 

The requirement for a maximum elevation of 
80 degrees was due to a desire to provide for 
possible use against aircraft and added nothing 
to the maximum range inasmuch as elevation 
in excess of 45 degrees tends to decrease range 
rather than to increase it. In order to provide 
for angles of elevation greater than 45 degrees 
it was necessary to increase the capacity and 
therefore the weight of the equilibrator system, 
to provide variable recoil with consequent in- 
creased complication and weight of the equili- 
brator system. While entirely practicable from 
an engineering and manufacturing standpoint, 
complication of design necessary to meet re- 
quirements which were outside of the ordinary 
functions of the piece led to a lowering of the 
maximum required elevation in the ideal mount 
from 80 degrees to 45 degrees, at which eleva- 
tion practically maximum range is secured. 
Similar experiences led to the reduction in the 
requirements for maximum elevation of the how- 
itzer from 65 degrees to 45 degrees. A traverse 
of 360 degrees as originally prescribed for the 
ideal division gun and division howitzer was 
likewise caused by a desire to provide a piece 
suitable for use against aireraft, but this re- 
quirement was abandoned in favor of two 
types of carriages, the split-trail, which per- 
mits considerable changes in azimuth without 
moving the gun carriage, and the box-trail, 
which permits only a limited change in the 
azimuth of 10 degrees but reduces complica- 
tions of design and decreases weight and cost. 

The requirement of a carriage to mount inter- 
changeably, both the 75 millimeter gun and its 
companion piece, the 105 millimeter howitzer, 
was due to the feeling that it would expedite 
manufacture in the shops and simplify main- 
tenance in the field. Strict adherence to this 
requirement, however, necessitated a combina- 
tion carriage much heavier than either a 
specially designed gun carriage or howitzer car- 
riage alone. Inasmuch as the howitzer mounted 
on the combination carriage required elevation 
mechanism of only 65 degrees, it did not fully 
utilize the weight of that part of the mechan- 
ism needed to provide the 15 degrees greater 
elevation for the gun. Further, as the how- 
itzer imposed upon the carriage greater firing 
stresses than the gun, the combination car- 
riage was of necessity made stronger and, 
therefore, heavier than was absolutely needed 
when mounting a gun. The need for all pos- 
sible mobility not only en route but while being 
manned in action was found to outweigh the 
theoretical advantages which might be ob- 
tained by interchangeability of mounting, and 
it is entirely probable that in the future the 
division gun and the division howitzer will each 
have its specially designed carriage in order to 
keep the weight down to a minimum and 
thereby effect the greatest degree of mobility 
without decreasing power. 

The increased application of motor transport 
to military problems permitted not only the 
hauling of greater loads at a speed equal to 
that of animal transport but greatly increased 
the speed at which these increased loads can be 


moved. These increased speeds in themselves 


affected artillery design by necessitating the 


103 


——- 


ARTILLERY 


rubber-tiring of wheels and in many cases 
spring-supporting of loads, which had never 
been found necessary before. .Here as_ else- 
where, no advantage is obtained without an 
off-setting .disadvantage. The application of 
rubber tires to artillery wheels increases the 
total weight of the unit by several hundred 
pounds. Great progress was also made in 
the design and manufacture of self-propelled 
mounts for division artillery. Requirements of 
an ideal mount were set by the Calibre Board 
at a maximum speed of 12 miles per hour 
and a maximum weight not to exceed the ca- 
pacity of a light pontoon bridge, or 9000 
pounds. It is an interesting commentary on 
the rapid advances in automotive engineering 
that within three years of the establishment of 
this required maximum speed, a self-propelled 
mount for 75 millimeter guns or 105 milli- 
meter howitzers actually attained a maximum 
speed of 30 miles per hour or two and a half 
times what was deemed possible of attainment 
when the Calibre Board established its require- 
ments. 

Medium Field (Corps) Artillery. These 
characteristics for ideal Corps artillery pieces 
were established by the Calibre Board: 


MEDIUM FIELD (CORPS) ARTILLERY 


Gun Howitzer 
GalibrG 2. hcrecstevedateye.¢ Between 4.7 in- About 155 mm. 
F and 5 in. 
Weight of projectile . Not over 60 lb. Not over 100 
pounds 
Maximum range .... 18,000 yd. super- 16,000 yd. 
charge 
Range, normal charge 12,000 yd. Zones 
WIeVALION + oot. aes — 5to+ 80° — 5to+ 65° 
MTPAVETSOL Mace ie o cacue 3603: 360° 
Maximum rate of fre 6 rounds per 5 rounds per 
minute minute 
Generalties : 
A split-trail carriage should be developed for 
howitzer interchangeable, if practicable, with that 


for gun. 

Maximum speed of 8 miles per hour. 

Wheels for carriage should be rubber-tired. 

Transport fully motorized, with wheel trailers for 
long rapid hauls. 

Weight limit, 12,000 pounds for wheeled vehicles, 
and 15,000 pounds for caterpillars. 


The objections to unnecessarily high eleva- 
tion and 360 degrees traverse as well as to the 
interchangeable requirement for the carriage 
proper are the same as discussed above for 
division artillery, but the disparity in stresses 
imposed upon the mount by the corps gun and 
corps howitzer is even greater than that of 
the division gun and the division howitzer. 
Since the carriage had to be designed to mount 
the howitzer successfully, it was possible to de- 
sign a gun of even greater power than was at 
first held to be ideal, and still to adhere to the 
desired degree of mobility. Accordingly a gun 
firing a 50 pound projectile to a maximum of 
20,500 yards has been found practicable. Self- 
propelled mounts for either the 4.7 gun or the 
155 millimeter howitzer with a maximum speed 
of 15 miles per hour have been designed, manu- 
factured and successfully tested. 

Heavy Field (Army) Artillery. Of still 
larger calibres are the army artillery where 
ideal characteristics were formulated as follows: 


Gun Howitzer 
About 155mm. About 8 inches 
.. Not over 100 lb. Not over 240 Ib. 
25,000 yd. 18,000 yd. 


Calibre 
Weight of projectile 
Maximum range 


ARTILLERY 


Gun Howitzer 
Range, normal charge 18,000 yd. Zones 
Mlevation st. czs > oe oe Zero to 65° Zero to 65° 
PVAVErses 2. FER s ie re 360° 360° 
Type of projectiles ... H. E. Shell H. E. Shell 


Self-propelled caterpillar unit desirable for 155mm. 
un. 

z, Certain proportion should be retained on rubber- 
tired wheel mounts. 

It is desirable to develop a carriage which can be 
used interchangeably for 155 mm. gun and 8 in. 
howitzer. 

Maximum speed of S. P. caterpillar 6 m.p.h.; wheel 
mounts, 12 mph. 

Conventional caissons for this calibre are obsolete. 


Transport: All of this type should be motorized. 
Ammunition vehicles to correspond should _ be 
developed. 


Requirements of heavy field artillery as given 
above can be met except in regard to maximum 
elevation of 65 degrees and traverse of 360 de- 
grees for the reasons previously discussed under 
division and corps artillery. Unlike the preced- 
ing classes, however, it is entirely practicable to 
design a carriage on which the 155 millimeter 
gun and 8 inch howitzer can be mounted inter- 
changeably. 


REQUIREMENTS FOR SUPER-GUNS 


Guns Howitzers 

Calibre 8orl10in. 14in. 12in. 16in. 

Length in calibres ... be\5 50 20 25 

Weight - of projectile 240-510 1,400 700 1,600 

Maximum range ..... 35,000 40,000 25,000 30,000 
18,000 

BHlévations .. 2.5 sicoeeiece O;to. Of tome2oustos 25, to 

50° 50° 60° 65° 

ET AVOIRG 64/0 sso. stekstene « 300; soOUmmeabOn SOO, 

15° 10 

Type of projectile ... Shed Oe ELD. del yiope yo sled a 

Time for occupying position— 
Prepare din ejsc ie scatter soehcger) A COMI iets 5 
Unprepared ....... 1 to 4hrs. 8 hours 1 hour 
Maximum rate of fire . 1 shot, 2 Bi Sia2 Be ic 
minutes 
Gauge of Track Stand- Stand- Stand- Stand- 


ard, 60° ard ard ard 
em.—24 in. 12-—in. 
Ammunition for all cannon: Smokeless, 
Related zone charges for howitzers. 
Fuses: Bore safe, instantaneous, and selective delay. 


flashless. 


Of the super-guns listed above, a 14 inch 
50 calibre gun on a railroad mount has been 
designed, manufactured and successfully tested. 
The 16 inch 25 calibre howitzer has also been 
successfully fired from a _barbette carriage. 
This howitzer can be used in combination with 
the railroad mount for the 14 inch 50 calibre 
gun. 

Coast Defense Artillery. The superiority of 
land fortifications over battleships where land 
guns have approximately the same range as 
those on the ships has always been accepted by 
artillery authorities. The failure of the joint 
‘British and French naval attacks on the Turk- 
ish coast defenses at the Dardanelles and the 
lack of success which attended the constant 
shelling of hastily erected German defenses on 
the Belgian coast, supplemented by bombing 
from the air, strengthened the contention that 
battleships cannot hope to attack with success 
coast fortifications provided with armament 
of approximately equal power. However, due 
to the increased elevation and the correspond- 
ingly greater range of guns mounted on battle- 
ships built since the War, artillery intended 
for coast defense purposes must of necessity be 
provided with carriages permitting elevation to 
develop the maximum range of the piece. In 
1914 the American 14 inch 40 calibre gun 


104 


ARTILLERY 


mounted on a disappearing carriage and the 
12 inch long range mortar were typical of stand- 
ard heavy coast defense armament. Through 
the development of airplane carriers to ac- 
company attacking fleets, and the steeper angle 
of fall of projectiles fired at the 30 degrees to 
40 degrees elevation now required for long 
range naval fire and provided in recent designs 
of battleships, the protection formerly given 
to guns mounted on disappearing carriages by 
extensive concrete emplacements was materially 
diminished. This consideration, together with 
the difficulty encountered in providing the re- 
quired high angles of elevation on disappearing 
carriages, resulted in the adoption of the sim- 
pler barbette carriage for future installations. 
The best example of modern high-powered coast 
defense artillery is probably in the 16 inch 
50 calibre gun mounted on a barbette carriage 
following designs of the United States Army 
Ordnance Department. This gun is of wire- 
wound construction, is approximately 70 feet 
in length over all, and with its recoil band 
weighs about 200 tons. It is equipped with a 
drop breech-block of the Smith-Asbury type, 
operated by compressed air. The normal 
charge for this gun consists of 850 pounds of 
smokeless powder, giving a maximum interior 
pressure of 38,000 pounds per square inch. 
With this charge a range of 50,000 yards is given 
an armor-piercing projectile weighing 2340 
pounds and capable of penetrating 14 inches of 
battleship armor at all ranges. The barbette 
carriage on which this gun is mounted is simple 
and rugged in design; yet it has adequate pro- 
vision for rapid and accurate maneuvring of the 
gun. The recoil of the gun is controlled by 
four recoil cylinders symmetrically located and 
integral with the cradle. The energy generated 
on discharge of the piece is dissipated by forc- 
ing oil through throttling grooves in the wall 
of each cylinder as the piston rods and heads 
securely fastened to the recoil band of the gun 
move to the rear with it. The piston rod pull 
amounts to 1,250.000 pounds for every 40 
inches of recoil, so that the recoil cylinders dis- 
sipate 4,567,000 foot-pounds of energy each 
time the gun is fired. To insure the rate of 
fire of one round per minute, a power rammer 
is located on the racer near the breech of the 
gun. The powder charge and projectile are 
brought up to the carriage on special cars and 
rammed home by means of an electric motor 
actuating the rammer through hydraulic speed 
gears. The carriage is equipped so that all 
operations are normally performed by electric or 
mechanical power, but the mechanisms are so 
arranged as to permit mancuvring by hand 
power in emergencies. 

German Long Range Guns. All military 
weapons are appraised, in general, on the basis 
of the amount of destruction they can cause. If 
the performance of the German long range guns 
used for the bombardment of Paris from Mar. 
23 to Aug. 9, 1918, are judged on the usual 
basis, they must be set down as failures. The 
casualties caused by them averaged only about 
two and a half per round, notwithstanding that 
a thickly populated city was being bombarded. 
The property damage per round fired was ap- 
proximately that of an ordinary 6 inch shell 
and in the aggregate was of negligible military 
value. However, these guns were not primarily 
weapons of destruction but were rather psycho- 
logical weapons, for their purpose was served 


ARTILLERY 


when the German High Command was able to 
say without fear of contradiction that their 
troops were bombarding Paris by artillery fire. 
At first, no mention was made in their com- 
muniqués that super guns of much greater 
range than had ever before been even proposed 
for use in battle were responsible for the ar- 
tillery bombardment. 

The known fact that Paris was under fire 
of German artillery served two purposes. 
First, it greatly heartened the German civilian 
population as well as troops in the field with 
the knowledge that the ultimate goal had prac- 
tically been reached. Secondly, it caused con- 
sternation among the civilian population of the 
Allies, who could not at first believe but that 
the Germans had succeeded in arriving at the 
gates of Paris. Before it was learned that the 
shells were coming from guns situated more 
than 75 miles from the city, a considerable ex- 
odus of Parisians to the South and West of 
France threw such a load on the railroad sys- 
tems that a serious interference with the move- 
ment of supplies and troops was narrowly 
averted, but when the French technical experts 
had succeeded in reconstructing the projectile 
from fragments found at the point of burst 
and had deduced from their angle of fall the 
exterior ballistic characteristics which must 
have been used to produce the observed results, 
the situation was immediately relieved. 

Although over 300 shells fell in the environs 
of Paris, none of them was known to have 
failed to explode. Exact information in regard 
to the ammunition remained unavailable. The 
guns themselves were withdrawn into Germany 
and broken up prior to the Armistice. Al- 
though the terms of this undertaking provided 
for delivering one of these pieces to the Allies, 
Germany never lived up to the agreement, and 
exact information as to the design of the gun 
and carriage still remains in the sole possession 
of the small group of Germans who conceived 
and successfully carried out this spectacular 
performance. As an artillery curiosity, this 
type of gun attained a range never before con- 
sidered possible and also demonstrated that 
greater range could be attained at an angle of 
50° elevation than the previously accepted 42° 
or 43°, provided that extremely high muzzle 
velocity was used and the projectile attained 
extremely high altitudes early enough in its 
flight to get full benefit from the more highly 
rarefied strata of air, instead of attempting to 
force the projectile against denser strata of air 
encountered at lower altitudes. 

The following table gives the characteristics 
of the German Long Range Gun as computed by 
Maj. J. Maitland Addison of the British Army 
and in a parallel column, the reconstructed 
characteristics as determined by the French 
General Staff. 


British French 
Peurtanee bi Miles: ssi. sf see ee 76 76 
2. Maximum height in miles 23.9 25.7 
3. Time of flight in seconds .... LTT LU 
4. Muzzle velocity, ft. per second 5,000 5,620 
Db. Angle’ of elevation... ok. 50° 48°—39’ 

6. Velocity of Vertex, ft. per 
ROGON Clee Bis kees cg sandie<oiciene seks 2,267 2,270 

7. Velocity point of fall, ft. per 
BOCULIM: eels eee oS eae else 2,626 2,380 
S-Ballistie;coefiicient ~..A)ii). t's ' 8.78 
PA EEC OLS ok cs ot chaos 6,0 gels ev oi 54—40 54-51 
10. Weight of projectile in pounds 330 265 
Pig. Calibretfin inches 1) 872. 2°.)..70'. 8.3 8.66 
12. Weight of powder in pounds .. 400 441 


ON OC IN Cali DEG siciioece ic svcke « 130 168 
UPP.—8 


105 


ARTS AND LETTERS 
British French 
14. Maximum pressure, lbs. per 
Beatle sn < v0 4 MENS swe 0 She 47,000 57,000 
15. Volume of powder chamber in 
OMe AN sc cee ee ee bee te alolae 22,000 21,400 
16. Volume of bore in cu. in. ..... 70,700 88,500 


17. The breech construction to be 
either of a number of pow- 
der chambers in the gun it- 
self or a specially designed 
cartridge case to give succes- 
sive or prolonged explosions 
of increment powder charges. 


Bibliography. The most satisfactory source 
of information on modern artillery is the cur- 
rent issues of the magazine Army Ordnance 
published at Washington by the Army Ord- 
nance Association. There are also various of- 
ficial pamphlets published by the War Depart- 
ment. Few if any authenticative treatises deal- 
ing with modern artillery were produced after 
the Great War. See EXPLOSIVES; ORDNANCE; 
TRENCH WARFARE; ARMIES AND ARMY ORGANI- 
ZATION; STRATEGY AND TACTICS. 

ARTS AND LETTERS, American Acap- 
EMY OF. A society founded in 1904 by seven 
members of the National Institute of Arts and 
Letters in emulation of the French Academy. 
The membership is limited to fifty; vacancies are 
filled by election by the members from the Na- 
tional Institute on the basis of a lifetime 
achievement in literature, painting, sculpture, 
architecture, or music. Twice during the dec- 
ade the gold medal of the Academy was awarded: 
to Dr. Charles W. Eliot, president emeritus of 
Harvard University, in 1915, and to Mrs. 
Schuyler Van Rensselaer, for distinction in lit- 
erature. In 1921 the Academy received the gift 
of a four-story building at West 8lst Street, 
New York, which it occupied to February, 1923. 
The Academy also received a gift of $200,000 
for the purpose of erecting a building at 633 
West 155th Street, New York; the corner stone 
was laid by Marshal Foch in 1921 and the 
building was completed and opened in 1923. 
The centennial of the birth of James Russell 
Lowell was celebrated in 1919, and the tercen- 
tenary of the birth of Moli¢re was commemo- 
rated in 1922. 

The complete list of members in 1924 was as 
follows: John Singer Sargent, Daniel Chester 
French, James Ford Rhodes, William Milligan 
Sloane, Robert Underwood Johnson, George 
Washington Cable, Henry van Dyke, William 
Crary Brownell, Arthur Twining Hadley, Henry 
Cabot Lodge, Edwin Howland Blashfield, Thomas 
Hastings, Brander Matthews, George Edward 
Woodbury, George Whitefield Chadwick, George 
de Forest Brush, William Rutherford Mead, 
Bliss Perry, Abbott Lawrence Lowell, Nicholas 
Murray Butler, Paul Wayland Bartlett, Owen 
Wister, Herbert Adams, Augustus Thomas, 
Timothy Cole, Cass Gilbert, Robert Grant, Fred- 
erick MacMonnies, William Gillette, Paul Elmer 
More, Carl Melchers, Elihu Root, Brand Whit- 
lock, Hamlin Garland, Paul Shorey, Charles 
Adams Platt, Archer Milton Huntington, Childe 
Hassam, David Jayne Hill, Lorado Taft, Booth 
Tarkington, Charles Dana Gibson, Joseph Pen- 
nell, Stuart Pratt Sherman, John Charles Van 
Dyke. On the death of William Dean Howells, 
who had been president of the Academy since its 
foundation, William Milligan Sloane, formerly 
chancellor, became president, and was succeeded 
in the chancellorship by Brander Matthews, 
who resigned in 1924, and was in turn succeeded 
in the chancellorship by Nicholas Murray 


ARTZYBASHEF 106 


Butler. Robert Underwood Johnson was secre- 
tary throughout the period. 

ARTZYBASHEF, #£=MIKHAIL PETROVICH 
(1878- ), Russian novelist (see Vou. II). 
He produced little after 1914, but his earlier 
works were translated into English, and his 
reputation spread to Anglo-Saxon countries. 
Sanin was translated in 1915, as was also 
U polsledneii chertiy (The Breaking Point): 
Voina was put into English in 1918 as. War. 
Other works brought before the English-reading 
public were The Savage and the plays, Jealousy, 
Enemies, and The Law of the Savage (1923). 

ARZ VON STRAUSSENBURG, ARTHUR 
Baron  (1857- ). An Austro-Hungarian 
general, born at Hermannstadt, Transylvania. 
At the beginning of the War he commanded the 
15th Division on the Russian front, and later 
the command of the 6th Army Corps was given 
to him. Acting in conjunction with General 
Freiherr von Roth, he was successful in halting 
the Russian offensive. In 1915 he was asso- 
ciated with Mackensen in the vicinity: of 
Przemysl and later took Brest-Litovsk. In 
1916 he commanded the Ist Army and defended 
Transylvania against the Rumanians. He was 
appointed to succeed Conrad von Hotzendorf as 
chief of the general staff of the Austro-Hun- 
garian armies. 

ASAKAWA, Kwan-Icu1 (1873- ). An 
American university professor and author of 
works on Japan. He was born at Nihonmatsu, 
Japan, and educated at the Fukushima Middle 
School, Waseda University (Tokyo, Japan), 
Dartmouth College, and Yale University. He 
was lecturer on the history and civilization of 
Eastern Asia at Dartmouth College in 1902; 
professor of English at Waseda University, 
1906-7; and instructor in the history of Jap- 
anese civilization in Yale University, 1907-10. 
He became an assistant professor at Yale in 
1910. He carried on special investigations in 
Japan, 1906-07 and 1917-19. He is author of 
many works on Japan of sound, dispassionate. 
scholarship. These include The Early Institu- 
tional Life of Japan (1903); The Russo-Jap- 
anese COonflict—Its Causes and Issues (1904); 
The Origin of Feudal Land-Tenure in Japan 
(1914), and Some Aspects of Japanese Feudal 
Institutions (1918). His works also include 
contributions to the publications Japan edited 
by Capt. F. Brinkley (1904); the History of 
Nations Series (1907); China and the Far Hast 
(1910); Japan and Japanese-American Rela- 
pei le ; and The Pacific Ocean in History 
(1917). 

ASCH, SHotom (1880- yor Arey tadisn 
playwright and popular producer of fiction 
who came to the United States at the age of 30 
after establishing a reputation as a novelist 
and- dramatist in Germany and Russia. In 
1907 Max Reinhardt produced his God of 
Vengeance in Berlin. The beauty and poetry of 
Asch’s early work in novel and sketch are due 
to a certain literary naiveté enabling him to 
express himself most completely. His plays are 
eonsidered inferior to his other work. As a 
dramatist he takes great liberties with his 
forms, but as a craftsman he has the requisite 
elements of the art. His later dramatic pieces 
include Die Familie Grossgliick, Der Bund der 
Schwachen, The God of Vengeance, Jephthah’s 
Tochter, and Shabbethai Zebi. Other published 
works include Uncle Moses, Mottke the Vaga- 
bond, and other stories of Jewish life. As an 


ASHANTI 


artist Asch is rather to be classed with the 
modern Russian novelists and playwrights than 
with any of his Yiddish contemporaries. 

ASCHAM, Jonn Bayne (1873- tA 
Methodist Episcopal clergyman and author, 
born at Vanlue, Ohio, and educated at Ohio 
Wesleyan University, Harvard University, and 
‘Boston University, in Italy and Germany, and 
at the American School of Oriental Research in 
Jerusalem. He entered the ministry in 1897 
and was ordained in 1899. He served in va- 
rious churches in Ohio and was chaplain with 
the American army in France, at Allerey, 1918- 
19.. He was special visitor from the American 
Waldensian Aid Society to the Waldensian 
Church of Italy in 1921, and in the same year 
he was delegate to the Fifth Ecumenical Meth- 
odist Episcopal Conference in London. 
being a contributor to religious journals, he is 
author of Help from the Hills (Cincinnati, 
1910); A Syrian Pilgrimage ‘(New York, 
1914); The Religion of Israel (New York, 
1918); The Religion of Judah (New York, 
1920), and Apostles, Fathers, and Reformers 
(New York, 1921). 

ASCHE, Oscar (1872- ). An Australian 
actor, born at Geelong. He was educated at the 
Melbourne Grammar School and studied for the 
stage at Christiania, Norway. His first appear- 
ance was at the Opéra Comique. Subsequently 
he played Shakespearean repertory for eight 
years with F. R. Benson and joined Sir Herbert 
Tree’s company in 1902. In the following year 
he acted with Ellen Terry in The Vikings. 
With Otho Stuart he managed the Adelphi The- 
atre in 1904; in 1907 took over the manage- 
ment of His Majesty’s Theatre in London. 
Tours of Australia and South Africa followed. 
It was in 1916 that he appeared as Abu Hasan 


in his own play Chu-Chin-Chow, which reached . 


its 2238th performance in July, 1921, thereby 
breaking all records of previous stage successes. 
With F. Norreys Connell he wrote Count Han- 
nibal (1910); he is also the author of The 
Spanish Main (1915), Chu-Chin-Chow (1916), 
Hastward Ho! 1919), and Mecca (1920). 

ASHANTI. A British protectorate in West 
Africa on the Gulf of Guinea, included in the 
Gold Coast Colony. It has an estimated area 
of 12,000 square miles, and in 1921, a popula- 
tion of 407,000, of whom 400 were Europeans. 
Though administratively Ashanti is an inde- 
pendent unit with a local judicial system in 
which the natives play an increasingly impor- 
tant part, economically it is to be considered a 
division of the Gold Coast. Railroad revenues 
and custom duties are all credited to the entire 
colony, with the result that the two territories 
cannot be disassociated (see GoLtp Coast). 
Startling growth appeared in the native indus- 
try of cocoa-culture, the output increasing from 
9000 tons in 1913 to 44,000 tons in 1921. The 
result was an increase in native prosperity and 
the appearance of private property. On _ the 
other hand, the gold output steadily dwindled, 
the 1921 yield having been 85,000 ounces (val- 
ued at £361,300), as compared with the 1911 
yield of 124,900 ounces (valued at £530,800). 
The native population consistently remained 
tranquil; schools were spreading through the 
protectorate; about 400 miles of motor road 
were built; European imports increased. In 
short, Ashanti was an example of a native Af- 
rican- state rapidly on the road toward Euro- 
peanization, 


Besides — 


———— 


: 


ASHFIELD 


ASHFIELD, Atpert HENry (1874- ). 
An English politician born at Derby. He was 
educated at technical schools in the United 
States, and after successful American expe- 
rience in railway management, he returned to 
England to undertake important positions in 
the same field. In 1916 he was included in 
Lloyd George’s government as president of the 
Board of Trade (1916-19), for business rather 
than political reasons. He was knighted in 
1914. 

ASHLEY, Roscor Lewis (1872- y. An 
American author of works on civics and history. 
He was born at Rochester, N. Y., and educated 
at the University of Rochester and Columbia 
University. He has been a member of the ex- 
ecutive committee of the National Council of 
Teachers of Social Studies. His special inter- 
est has been the improvement of high school 
courses and texts. He has published The Amer- 
ican Federal State (1902); American Govern- 
ment, for use in secondary schools (1910); 
Ancient Civilization (1915); Harly European 
Civilization (1916); Medieval Civilization 
(1916); Modern European Civilization (1918), 
The Practice of Citizenship (1922), and other 
works. 

ASHMUN, Maracarer EuizaA (?—). An 
American writer of stories for girls and books 
for English study. She was born at Rural, 
Wis., and educated at the Stevens Point (Wis.) 
Normal School and the University of Wisconsin. 
After teaching in schools, she was instructor in 
English at her alma mater from 1907-12. Be- 
sides contributing to magazines, she is author 
of several English textbooks, and Stephen’s 
Last Chance (1918); Marion Frear’s Summer 
(1920); Topless Towers (1921); Including 
Mother (1922), and Support (1922). 

ASHURST, Henry F. (1875- ). United 
States Senator from Arizona, born at Win- 
nemuceca, Ney., and educated at the University 
of Michigan. He began the practice of law in 
1897 at Williams, Ariz., and was admitted to 
practice before the Supreme Court of the 
United States in 1908. He was district attor- 
ney of Coconino County, Ariz., 1905-08. Dur- 
ing these years he was active in politics. He 
was elected to the Legislature of Arizona in 
1897, 1899, and 1903, and in 1899 was the 
youngest man who ever held the office of 
Speaker of such a body in the United States. 
In 1911 he was elected to the United States 
Senate on the Democratic ticket and was re- 
elected in 1917. He was active in the debates 
in the Senate, and was at many times member 
of important Senate committees. 


ASIA, See ExpLorAtTion, Asia; ErHNoc- 
RAPHY. 

ASIA MINOR. See TurKkrEy; SMyRNA; 
ARMENIA; Crzicid; and other divisions. See 
also ARCH AZOLOGY. 

ASIR. See ARABIA. 

ASKWITH, Gerorce RANKIN (1861- yt 


An English lawyer and arbitrator in industrial 


disputes; born in Morley, Yorks, and educated . 


at Marlborough and Brasenose College, Oxford. 
He was knighted in 1911 in recognition of the 
services he rendered his government. He was 
eonciliator in many trade disputes, and in 1907 
he was Assistant Secretary of the Board of 
Trade, in 1911 chairman of the Industrial Coun- 
eil and chairman of the Fair Wages Advisory 
Committee (1909-1919), president of the Mid- 
dle Class Union (1921), and president of the 


107 


ASSOCIATION TESTS 


British Federation of Iron, Steel, and Triplate 
Merchants (1920-22). He was raised to the 
peerage in 1919. 

ASPHALT. The production and manufacture 
of asphalt in the United States in the years 
1914-24 involved native asphalt and related 
bitumens. Of thesa substances, 92,604 short 
tons valued at $750,713 were produced in 1913, 
but this production had increased to 327,792 
tons, valued at $2,253,180, coming principally 
from Utah, Oklahoma, Texas, California, and 
Kentucky. In addition, considerable asphalt was 
manufactured in the United States from petro- 
leum, both domestic and Mexican. With the 
growth and extension of the western oil fields 
an important industry was developed in recover- 


‘ing petroleum asphalt from crude petroleum 


oils of so-called asphalt-base obtained from 
California, Texas, and the mid-Continent fields 
of the United States, while crude oil from Mex- 
ico was also treated for this purpose at the va- 
rious refineries. Three main processes were 
employed in the United States, steam refining. 
air refining, and a combination of steam and 
air refining. The largest amount was supplied 
by the use of the last process, which produced 
a ductile asphalt with highly cementatory qual- 
ities. 

In 1913 the asphalt manufactured from do- 
mestic petroleum sold at the refineries, in the 
United States amounted to 436,586 short tons, 
valued at $4,531,657. An important increase 
was effected by 1922, when the output was 805,- 
145 short tons, valued at $10,385,925. In the 
latter year California was the principal pro- 
ducer, with nine operators; Texas had three, 
and Illinois five. Fourteen American manufac- 
turers were producing asphalt from petroleum 
of domestic origin exclusively, and 10 from pe- 
troleum of Mexican origin. 

The imports of asphalt and bitumen which 
came into the United States free of duty in 
1923 amounted to 129,138 tons, ‘valued at 
$1,079,906. In 1922 Barbados, Trinidad, and 
Tobago supplied the United States with 85,480 
short tons valued at $721,891, and Venezuela 
with 37,449 short tons valued at $247,920, out 
of a total of 124,659 short tons valued at 
$1,000,463. In 1922, 57,362 short tons of un- 
manufactured asphalt to a value of $1,344,440 
were exported, along with manufactured ma- 
terial worth $1,261,125, including 58,845,352 
square feet of roofing asphalt valued at $870,- 
200. This made a total value of asphalt manu- 
factured and unmanufactured, exported from 
the United States, of $2,605,565. 

The asphalt and asphaltic materials manu- 
factured in the United States from petroleum 
and sold at the refineries were used for paving, 
roofing, waterproofing, mineral rubber, road oil, 
and other purposes. In most of these fields de- 
mand had increased in the 10 years, and the 
corresponding industries had developed. See 
PETROLEUM; ROADS AND PAVEMENTS, 

ASSOCIATION TESTS. A technique de- 
vised by the Swiss psychiatrist, Dr. C. G. Jung, 
for probing into a patient’s neuroses. A list of 
words’ is read to the patient, who is asked to 
respond each time with the first word that 
comes to mind. By charting the time of re- 
sponse and by studying the patient’s demeanor 
for any symptoms of emotion, the psychiatrist 
is able to get an insight into the type of ideas 
which worry him and by means of these to 
diagnose his condition. Dr. Jung also uses the 


ASQUITH 


association test in preparation to the interpreta- 
tion of a dream. 

ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY (1852- eA 
British statesman and former prime minister 
(see Vol II). The months following the out- 
break of the War found Mr. Asquith, as ex- 
premier, beset by many vexing problems. The 
question of conscription, the placing of the 
country’s industries on a war footing, the tur- 
bulence of labor, and the series of unfortunate 
military expeditions, notably the Dardanelles 
campaign, on which the military. command had 
embarked, embarrassed his ministry and aroused 
general discontent. In May, 1915, as a result of 
popular pressure, he was compelled to form a 
Coalition government, which included most of 
the prominent Unionist leaders and two Labor 
members. Mr. Asquith’s hesitations and delays, 
howeve:, estranged many of his colleagues, with 
the result that Winston Churchill, Sir John Si- 
mon, and Sir Edward Carson resigned from his 
cabinet in dissatisfaction. Meanwhile his position 
rapidly became insupportable as a result of the 
loss of Lord Kitchener, who had been one of the 
mainstays of his government, failure to ter- 
minate the War speedily, and his inability to 
tighten the lines of the German blockade. The 
end came with the sudden resignation (Dec. 5, 
1916) from his cabinet of Lloyd George, who 
had become identified by the country with a 
programme of vigorous aggression. Mr. As- 
quith’s resignation soon followed, and _ thus 
ended a premiership of nine years. Until the 
end of the War he supported the Coalition from 
the front opposition bench, but his decision to 
champion the Liberal principles once more met 
with a setback in his defeat in Lloyd George’s 
khaki campaign of 1918. In 1920 he returned 
to Parliament as the result of a by-election. 
From then to 1922 he labored unceasingly in 
the interests of his party, but how little he had 
succeeded in restoring its prestige was shown 
by the election of November, 1922, when Labor 
moved up to second place and thus became the 
party of opposition. In 1918 Mr. Asquith pub- 
lished Occasional Addresses, a volume of his 
speeches, and The Genesis of the War in 1923. 

ASQUITH, Marcot (TENNANT) (1864— )s 
English society was very much perturbed when 
Mrs. Asquith’s An Autobiography appeared in 
1920. By a few it was regarded as remarkable, 
while others refused to take her publication as 
anything but a bid for publicity through im- 
pertinent self-esteem. She is the wife of Her- 
bert Asquith, former premier of England. 

ASTOR, NAncy WITCHER LANGHORNE, VIS- 
COUNTESS, (1879- ). An American by birth 
and the first woman member of the British Im- 
perial Parliament. She was the daughter of 
Chiswell Dabney Langhorne of Virginia and is 
the wife of Viscount William Waldorf Astor. 
When she won the election in Plymouth as 
Coalition Unionist candidate, it was not as 
a woman wholly ignorant of politics that she 
took her place in the House of Commons. She 
had always taken an active interest in her hus- 
band’s former constituency. By her devotion 
to the welfare of English women and the youny- 
er generation, and her vivacious personality, 
the former Nancy Langhorne has received the 
admiration of her native and adopted country. 

ASTRONOMY. The period 1914-24 wit- 
nessed rapid extensions of astronomical knowl- 
edge; new and powerful methods of investiga- 
tion, leading to accomplishments formerly un- 


108 


ASTRONOMY 


dreamed of, opened up whole new fields of in- 
quiry and provided data for the solution of 
many problems of astronomy which used to be 
regarded as hopelessly beyond the power of man 
to solve. One of the most significant features 
of contemporary astronomical research is its 
tightening connection with the sciences of phys- 
ics and chemistry; scores of illustrations might 
be advanced to show how often the clue to fun- 
damental physical and chemical problems may 
be found in the stars, and, conversely, how fre- 
quently advances in pure physics aid in the so- 
lution of astronomical problems. Close rela- 
tions are now maintained at Pasadena, Cal., 
between the Mount Wilson Observatory, the 
Gates Chemical Laboratory, and the Norman 
Bridge Physical Laboratory, to the great mu- 
tual advantage of astronomy, physics, and 
chemistry. 

The Solar System. Sun. The spectrohelio- 
graph, enabling photographs to be taken in the 
light of a single chemical element at any de- 
sired level in the solar atmosphere, has re- 
vealed many remarkable details of structure en- 
tirely lost in ordinary photographs, which con- 
fuse all levels and the light from all elements 
in one picture. Investigations with this instru- 
ment, by Hale and others, have demonstrated 
that sunspots are great whirling or vortical 
storms in the solar atmosphere. The motion 
of the vapors overlying the ‘spots is radially 
outwards from the centre of the spot in the 
lower levels and inward in the higher levels; 1e- 
newed visual investigation of spot structure is 
needed to harmonize this low level outflow with 
the visual appearance of inflow in the penum- 
bra. The actual vortex appears to be deep- 
seated, beneath the photosphere, with its top 
near the reversing layer; the inflow from the 
chromosphere, which causes the vortices ex- 
hibited by the hydrogen flocculi, is a secondary 
effect produced in the high levels, where the 
direction of whirl may be independent of that 
of the spot vortex below. 

Shortly after J. J. Thomson and others had 
shown that negatively and positively electrified 
particles must occur in great numbers in a hot 
gaseous body like the sun, Hale, by means of 
the Zeeman effect, found that a magnetic field 
existed in and about every sunspot. This field 
presumably is produced by the vortical whirling 
of charged material, preponderantly of one sign, 
although no Stark effect has been detected in 
the solar spectrum and it seems almost certain 
that no electric field exists in the spots. The 
strength of the magnetic field increases, up to 
a maximum of 3500 gausses, with the diameter 
of the spot. “Invisible sunspots” have ac- 
tually been detected at Mount Wilson by search- 
ing for evidences of their Zeeman effect in prom- 
ising regions, and this confirms the view that a 
spot represents a vortex which becomes visible 
only when cooling due to expansion is sufficient- 
ly great to produce a perceptible decrease in the 
brightness of the photosphere. The sun has 


_ been found to possess a general magnetic field 


also, the intensity of which diminishes rapidly 
with altitude above the photosphere; its max- 
imum intensity is about 50 gausses. 

Sixty per cent of the spots are definitely bi- 
polar; they consist of two spots or groups of 
spots of opposite magnetic polarity, as if they 
represented the two ends of a single vortex 
filament; 30 per cent of the remainder show a 
tendency toward the bipolar type. Before the 


ASTRONOMY 


sunspot minimum of 1912, the western member 
of each pair in the northern solar hemisphere 
was of South or negative polarity, the eastern 
member of North polarity, and vice versa in 
the southern hemisphere; these conditions were 
exactly reversed in the spots of the next cycle, 
the western members in the northern hemi- 
sphere being of North polarity; and another 
reversal, back to the conditions existing prior 
to 1912, took place at the minimum of 1923. 
Assuming, as seems probable, that the sign, as 
yet unknown, of the dominant charge is the 
same in all solar vortices, opposite polarities 
indicate opposite directions of whirl; and the 
reversal of polarities at minimum represents 
a periodic reversal of direction of whirl. The 
true period of solar changes is hence 22 years 
instead of 11. 

Four belts ae prolific in prominences, two of 
which coincide with the sunspot zones; and al- 
though the number of prominences is roughly 
proportional to the number of spots, O. J. Lee 
and Mr. and Mrs. Maunder have shown that 
there is rarely any direct association between 


the two phenomena, as was formerly thought . 


to be the case. The corona continued to be a 
puzzle. Strong polarization, extending to more 
than a solar diameter from the limb at the 
eclipse of June 8, 1918, was found, indicating 
the presence of reflected sunlight. The usually 
prominent green line in the spectrum was hard- 
ly visible at the eclipse of Aug. 21, 1914, while 
a previously unknown intense red line appeared. 
Many faint lines in the solar spectrum were 
identified with the lines composing the bands 
of various compounds. 

Solar Radiation Studies. At the Astrophysi- 
cal Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution, 
instruments and methods for measuring the in- 
tensity of solar radiation were constantly im- 
proved. Two additional stations were estab- 
lished, at Calama, Chile, and on Mt. Harqua 
Hala, Ariz. The striking accord between in- 
dividual observations taken simultaneously at 
different stations during a period of two years 
seems to show conclusively that the sun is a 
variable star, to a considerable per cent. The 
solar constant is low during years of solar 
quiescence and high during the years of sun- 
spot activity; and in addition to this 1l-year 
‘variation, it exhibits irregular fluctuations ex- 
tending over periods of a few days or weeks. 

It has been observed that when sunspots form 
or grow or are brought into view by the solar 
rotation, higher radiation values occur on the 
same day; but low values occur when spots 
transit across the central diameter of the solar 
disk, as if veiling coronal rays of diminished 
transparency extended out nearly radially from 
the spots. After taking into account this in- 
equality of radiation in different directions, 
measurements of the variations in the bright- 
ness of Saturn show almost exact correlation 
with the fluctuations in the solar radiation. 

Planets and Satellites. The radiation, ex- 
clusive of reflected sunlight, emitted by the 
planets, has been found to indicate large rises 
in temperature under the influence of solar 
radiation for the surfaces of Mars and the 
moon; Jupiter and Saturn have higher tem- 
peratures than could be maintained by solar 
radiation alone; the surface temperature of 
Mercury appears to be about the same as that 
of the moon, indicating a short period of rota- 
tion and a negligible atmosphere. Spectroscop- 


109 


ASTRONOMY 


ic studies of Venus have resulted in conclusive 
proof of the absence of both oxygen and water 
vapor above the visible cloud surface. Nearly 
1000 minor planets have permanent numbers at 
the present time. It is now certain that no 
intra-Mercurial planets exist. A ninth satel- 
lite of Jupiter, moving in a retrograde direction 
in an orbit interlocked with that of the eighth 
satellite, was discovered by Nicholson at the 
Lick Observatory in 1914. , 

Comets and Meteors. No comets conspicuous 
to the naked eye put in their appearance be- 
tween 1914 and 1924. The earth narrowly es- 
eaped a collision with Pons-Winnecke’s comet in 
June, 1921. There is no evidence at present of 
any comet having entered the solar system from 
without; all appear to travel in genuine ellipses 
of extreme eccentricity. H. N. Russell has 
shown that the supposed cometary families of 
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune have little or no 
foundation in fact; that of Jupiter, however, 
is genuine. Hoffmeister presented evidence 
tending to show that the majority of meteors 
are sporadic bodies that have entered the solar 
system from without and are traveling in 
strongly hyperbolic orbits. 

The Sidereal Universe. Past researches on 
the fundamental problems of sidereal astronomy 
had to deal with data limited to a comparative- 
ly small number of stars; this is rapidly ceasing 
to be the case. The Harvard Observatory had 
completed the Henry Draper catalogue, which 
contains the positions, magnitudes, and spectral 
types of over 225,000 stars, covering the whole 
sky and extending in places to the tenth mag- 
nitude or below. Work on the Astrographic 
Catalogue, the Kapteyn Selected Areas, and 
other great projects was rapidly nearing comple- 
tion in 1924. Through the use of photography, 
the determination of stellar magnitudes (photo- 
graphic and photovisual), color indices, and 
trigonometric parallaxes was greatly accelerat- 
ed; and the number of known proper motions 
and radical velocities was steadily increasing. 
Accurate measurements of the heat from the 
stars are now possible by the use of Coblentz’s 
improved thermocouple; and Abbot, with a spec- 
trobolometric apparatus capable of detecting 
temperature differences of 1/100,000,000 degree, 
has determined the spectral energy distribution 
and effective temperatures of several of the 
brighter stars. 

The most spectacular achievement was the 
measurement, at the Mount Wilson Observatory, 
of the angular diameters of several stars by 
means of an apparatus (devised by Michelson) 
consisting essentially of a 20-foot interferome- 
ter attached to the 100-inch reflector. On the 
night of Dec. 13, 1920, Betelgeuse was found to 
have a disk 1/20 of a second of are in di- 
ameter; the parallax is not known accurately, 
but the star cannot be less than 200,000,000 
miles in diameter. Antares and Arcturus have 
been found to be 400,000,000 and 21,000,000 
miles in diameter, respectively. 

Physical Conditions in the Stars. Over 99 
per cent of the stars fall into the spectral types 
B, A, F, G, K, and M on the Harvard Classifica- 
tion (corresponding to Types I-III of Secchi), 
which form a continuous and linear series; this 
is strong evidence that the principal differences 
in stellar spectra arise in the main from the 
variation of a single physical condition in the 
stellar atmospheres, and it is now generally 
agreed that this condition is temperature. If 


ASTRONOMY a 


we could gradually heat up a red star, the 
numerous metallic lines would fade out and 
the lines of helium, nitrogen, etc., would ap- 
pear. 

Saha, of the University of Calcutta, has 
shown that this would take place without any 
change whatever in the chemical composition of 
the stellar atmospheres, and he has thus cleared 
up some of the most puzzling problems of solar 
and stellar spectra. For example, the H and 
K lines of calcium, which are produced in the 
highest levels of the solar atmosphere far above 
the luminous region of sodium, magnesium and 
other lighter elements, are the enhanced lines 
due to a calcium atom which has lost: one elec- 
tron, the fundamental line of neutral caleium 
being that at wave length 4227; in the high 
levels of the chromosphere, where the ioniza- 
tion, which is only partial at the higher pres- 
sures of the lower levels, becomes complete, 
neutral calcium disappears,- while the lines rep- 
resenting the ionized atoms remain conspicuous; 
but the lines corresponding to the ionized atoms 
of the other elements present fail to appear be- 


cause they happen to lie in the extreme ultra- . 


violet. 

The percentage of ionized atoms depends upon 
temperature and pressure. As we pass from 
the cooler to the hotter stars we find the easily 
ionized atoms of the metals losing one electron. 
‘As the percentage of ionized atoms grows, the 
ordinary lines of the metals grow weak and 
vanish, while the spark lines appear and 
strengthen; at still higher temperatures the 
ionized atoms lose a second electron and pass 
into a state in which they give rise to practical- 
ly no lines at all in the visible spectrum, while 
the lines of hydrogen and helium, difficult to 
excite at low temperatures, appear. The stellar 
spectra unfold to us in an unbroken sequence 
the physical phenomena which succeed each 
other as the temperature varies from 3000° to 
perhaps 30,000°C. 

The spectral lines are produced in the outer- 
most, highly rarefied regions of stellar atmos- 
pheres. It is now possible to find the order of 
magnitude of the pressures existing in the solar 
‘and stellar reversing layers; St. John, Fowler 
and Milne find it to be negligibly small—per- 
haps that of the gas in the vacuum arc—con- 
trary to what was formerly supposed. The 
surface temperatures are also computable and 
run from about 16,000°C. for spectral type B2 
to 3900°C. for K5. Deep in the interiors of 
the stars the temperatures probably run to 
millions of degrees. 

The absolute magnitude of a star is defined 
as the magnitude it would have if at a distance 
corresponding to a parallax of 0.1 seconds of 
are. Obviously, the apparent magnitude de- 
pends jointly on the absolute magnitude and the 
real distance of the star, and the absolute mag- 
nitude in turn is determined by the intrinsic 
luminosity per unit surface area and ‘the ‘size 
of the star. It is to be expected that stars 
having the same type of spectrum, and hence 
the same temperature, will have the same sur- 
face brightness; if they differ in absolute mag- 
nitude, it will be by virtue of a difference in 
size. The differences in the sizes of the stars are 
mainly due to differences in density; for in strik- 
ing contrast to the enormous range of observed 
stellar luminosities, corresponding to a light 
ratio of over 100,000,000 to one, stands the com- 
parative uniformity of stellar masses, as - the 


ASTRONOMY 


study of the binary systems has shown. With 
very. few exceptions, the masses of the stars lie 
between 144 and 15 times that of the sun, the 
majority of them between 14 and two times the 
sun’s mass. It is found that stars of the same 
spectral type, but differing in absolute magni- 
tude, exhibit slight differences in the character 
and intensity of those spectral lines that are 
peculiarly sensitive to the physical conditions 
under which they are produced; these varia- 
tions in the lines are brought about by the dif- 
ferences in density and depth of the stellar at- 
mospheres. By a study of the spectra of stars 
of known parallax, curves may be drawn con- 
necting the differential intensities of selected 
lines with absolute. magnitude, by spectral 
types, and then applied empirically to deduce 
the absolute magnitudes; and hence the paral- 
laxes, since the apparent magnitudes can be 
measured, of other stars. This method, worked 
out by Adams and Kolilschiitter, has been ex- 
tended to practically all spectral types; and 
completely independent determinations of spec- 
troscopic parallaxes at Mount Wilson and at 
Victoria are in good agreement except for the 
late type K stars. The most far reaching re- 
sult of the study of the data provided by these 
new methods of sounding interstellar space has 
been the discovery of the existence of two great 
classes of stars to which the names giant and 
dwarf have been applied. 

If absolute magnitudes, obtained by whatever 
method, be plotted against spectral type, the 
stars show a well marked division into two dis- 
tinct groups. One group consists of stars of 
great intrinsic luminosity, varying little in ab- 
solute magnitude from type to type; the other 
consists of stars whose brightness falls off 
rapidly with increasing redness. The two 
groups are distinctly separated in types K and 
M, all K and M stars being either very faint 
or very bright, none intermediate, but are par- 
tially intermingled in. type F and thoroughly 
so in type A, all B and A stars being very 
bright. On the basis of these and many other 
facts, Russell and Hertzsprung independently 
put forth the giant and dwarf hypothesis about 
1914, although somewhat similar views had 
been maintained for some time by Lockyer, the 
evidence favorable to which is now overwhelm- 
ing. A mass of hot gas, ‘isolated in space,~ 
radiates heat and consequently contracts; 
Homer Lane in, 1870 showed that so long as the 
density is low enough for the ordinary gas laws 
to be obeyed . approximately, the temperature 
of the mass must rise with contraction, be- 
ginning to fall only when the density begins to 
approach that of a liquid. Hence, starting as 
an immensely inflated tenuous gaseous mass, 
of density perhaps 1/100,000 that of our sun, 
a star condenses, its temperature rises, and its 
original reddish color changes through yellow 
to white; the first of the above groups of stars, 
the giants, comprises the stars in this ascending 
stage of evolution; their absolute magnitudes 
depend but little on spectral type, because their 
rising temperatures compensate for the decreas- 
ing surface areas. Finally a critical point is 
reached, at a density of one or two tenths that 
of our sun, the temperature begins to fall, and 
the color goes through yellow to deepening 
shades of red asthe star approaches final ex- 
tinction; the second of the above groups, the 
dwarfs, comprises the stars-on this descending 
branch; here the decreasing temperature and 


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AWONOULSYV 


ASTRONOMY 


NEBULA ILLUSTRATING SUCCESSIVE STAGES OF EVOLUTION ACCORDING 
ORTOESLMEOR WeO ret tae) PANS 


INE Gr Gacilo. 2. N.G.C. 4594. 3. N.G.C. 891. 4. M101. 
(Courtesy of the Mount Wilson Observatory) 


All except the last lie in space so that we view them edgewise. 
5 &6. Two successive views of the extraordinary solar prominence of May 29, 1919, showing heights attained. 
White dot represents size of earth, (Courtesy of Yerkes Observatory) 


ASTRONOMY 


diminishing surface area cause a rapid fall in 
brightness with advancing type. 

During the life history of a star, any given 
temperature is passed through twice; the max- 
imum temperature is associated with middle 
age. It depends on mass, how far up in the 
spectral series a star gets on the ascending 
stage; it is well known that on the average the 
hot stars are more massive than the cool ones; 
a star of small mass is a poor self-heating af- 
fair. At maximum, the surface temperature of 
a star may be anything up to about 25,000°C. 
The average space-velocities of the stars in- 
crease continuously from type B to type M; in 
addition, there is a progressive dependence of 
velocity on absolute magnitude, the faintest 
stars having the greatest average speed. 

The energy radiated by the stars is brought 
to their surfaces, not by convective transfer of 
matter, as was formerly supposed, but as first 
pointed out by Sampson, mainly by radiation 
and absorption within the star. At any point 
within, the gases settle down to the tempera- 
ture at which they radiate an amount of en- 
ergy equal to that which they absorb from the 
radiation flowing through from below; radia- 
tion pressure plays a fundamental part in the 
dynamic equilibrium of the stars. A complete 
theory of the radiative equilibrium of giant 
stars has been developed by Schwarzschild and 
Eddington. At each point there is equilibrium 
between the gravitational compressive force 
due to the weight above, and the expansive 
forces of gas pressure and of outward radiation 
pressure. 

A typical giant star is a mass of gas with 
average density about that of our atmosphere, 
swollen to at least 1000 times the bulk of the 
sun. The energy of atomic motion constitutes 
a great store of heat, but not the principal part 
of the star’s total energy. The ether inside the 
star is full of radiation waves hastening in all 
directions; these waves are encased in the ma- 
terial, which prevents them from leaking into 
outer space except at a slow rate. An ether 
wave may thread the maze for hundreds of 
years before finding its way out at the surface. 
Of course, all hot bodies possess this double 
store of material heat and ethereal heat, but in 
all bodies with which we are directly familiar 
the ethereal portion is a most insignificant part 
of the whole—only in the giant stars does it 
rise to importance. : 

This intense ethereal energy inside the star 
exerts a strong pressure, distending the star, 
and bearing to some extent the weight of the 
overlying layers. For a star of mass half that 
of the sun, it may he shown that 0.044 of the 
weight is supported by radiation pressure; for 
one of mass five, 0.457 of the weight is so sup- 
ported. Shortly beyond this point, practically 
all the weight is thus supported, so that larger 
masses will in this way be rendered unstable. 
All over the universe we find that the actual 
stellar masses do not in general exceed those 
at which radiation pressure begins to play the 
dominant part. The theoretical diameters of 
the giant stars may be computed, and the values 
found are in good agreement with those that 
have been measured. This provides a final 
proof of the giant and dwarf theory, for it is 
inconceivable in the light of present known facts 
that the vast bulks of the giants can be due to 
anything other than the diffuseness of the mat- 
ter composing them. 


5 


rr ASTRONOMY 


A star must have some source of energy other 
than that coming from contraction in order to 
keep up its vast stores of material and ethereal 
energy and to maintain its radiation. Delta 
Cephei would have to increase in period by 1 
per cent in 40 years if its radiated energy came 
solely from contraction, whereas in reality the 
decrease is only 0.08 second per year; geologic 
evidence requires some source of energy other 
than contraction for solar radiation, likewise. 
In all probability this source is the release of 
sub-atomic energy when the complex chemical el- 
ements are built up from the simpler ones under 
the extreme conditions of pressure and temper- 
ature existing within the stars; modern physics 
shows that in such a process 0.8 per cent of the 
mass disappears, probably to reappear as vast 
amounts of ethereal energy. 

Variable Stars. Among the brightest and 
most massive of stars are the Cepheid variables, 
most of which are of spectral types F and G. 
The type, and presumably, therefore, the sur- 
face temperature, changes during the variation, 
the change in brightness being due to the pe- 
riodic heating and cooling. The most plaus- 
ible explanation of Cepheid variation is the 
pulsation hypothesis of Shapley, which postu- 
lates a regular dilation and contraction of the 
star. The semi-amplitude of the oscillations 
necessitated by observed spectroscopic radial 
velocities in Cepheids is from 4 to 14 per cent 
of the radii. 

A remarkable relation between absolute mag- 
nitude and period has been found for the Ce- 
pheids by Miss Leavitt. The globular clusters 
and the Magellanic Clouds contain many Ce- 
pheid variables, and this relation affords a means 
of determining their distances; the validity of 
the results is supported by so much corrobora- 
tive evidence that the reliability of the method 
seems clearly established. 

Nova Aquile III, discovered during the total 
solar eclipse of June 8, 1918, was the most 
brilliant nova since Kepler’s Star of 1604; 
normally an irregular variable of the tenth or 
eleventh magnitude, it attained a brightness of 
—0.5 magnitude on June 9. Nova Cygni III, 
normally a faint star below the fifteenth mag- 
nitude, rose to magnitude 3.5 on Aug. 20, 1920. 
So far as can be ascertained, nove are dwarfs 
before the outbreak; no satisfactory theory of 
the outburst has yet been proposed, but it 
must be essentially a mere surface phenomenon. 

Nebule. The nebule may be divided into 
planetary nebule, whose true character is still 
largely enigmatical, although their spectra in- 
dicate them to be composed of luminous gases; 
diffuse, or irregular, nebule, practically con- 
fined to the Milky Way and Magellanic Clouds, 
and lying in general at moderate distances; and 
regularly-shaped nebule, which appear of all 
forms from circles or spheroids, through mod- 
erate ellipses and greatly flattened ellipses 
drawn out at the ends of their major axes, 
sometimes almost to sharp points, to the va- 
rious forms of spirals. The irregular nebule 
are always associated with stars, usually with 
the very hottest stars. It was formerly sup- 
posed that these stars had just been born, and 
were immediate products of condensation of the 
nebule; but we have now learned that these hot 
stars are in reality at the middle of their life. 
About half the diffuse nebule show a gaseous 
spectrum; the remainder show a _ continuous 
spectrum crossed by dark lines, as if they were 


ASTRONOMY 


opaque and reflected the light of the neighboring 
stars. 

Whenever the spectra of both nebula and asso- 
ciated stars can be obtained, they are found 
to be identical; furthermore, if the stars are 
of the hottest types, the nebula shows a gaseous 
spectrum, but if the stars are of a cooler type 
a continuous spectrum with dark lines is ex- 
hibited by the nebula. Quantitative luminos- 
ity measurements by Hubble have solved the 
outstanding problem of the source of nebular 
luminosity by showing that the nebule derive 
their light from the associated stars. A gaseous 
nebula is stimulated in some way and set shin- 
ing by the stellar radiations, while an opaque 
one reflects the light of the stars. 

There are many large tracts of obscuring mat- 
ter in some regions, particularly in the Milky 
Way—great dark nebule, clouds of exceedingly 
minute dust particles—which cut off the stars 
behind; probably no hard and fast division 
exists between dark or faintly luminous neb- 
ule and bright irregular gaseous nebule; in 
fact, in some cases we can trace one grading 
into the other. It appears that only stars at 
the very highest temperatures are capable of 
lighting up surrounding nebulosity, which would 
otherwise remain invisible or else appear as 
a dark marking on ‘the sky. 

For a time the spirals were generally looked 
on as external galaxies, island universes, per- 
haps millions of light-years distant; in recent 
years, however, the trend of evidence is distinct- 
ly against this hypothesis, and toward a true 
nebulous character and more moderate distances 
for these objects. The spirals have extraor- 
dinarily great radial velocities, in general re- 
cessive. By comparing photographs taken at 
intervals of several years, van Maanen and 
others have detected internal motions in the 
arms, consisting of motion outward combined 
with a rotation of the whole nebula in periods 
of from 50,000 to 200,000 years; Jeans, how- 
ever, has found it impossible to account for the 
observed motions on any hypothesis of matter 
moving under the law of gravitation. The 
spirals are often hundreds of light-years in 
diameter, but are much smaller than galaxies; 
and M33 appears to be only about 6000 light- 
years distant. The density of the nuclei is in- 
credibly small, perhaps less than that of the 
gas in the best vacuum obtainable in the labo- 
ratory. 

The curious phenomenon of stationary cal- 
cium lines in the spectra of many spectros¢opic 
binaries has revealed the existence in interstel- 
lar space of great absorbing clouds of quiescent 
calcium vapor, at rest relatively to the stars. 
Miss Heger has recently discovered that the 
sodium D lines in Delta Orionis also are fixed in 
position. ) 

Structure of the Universe. The exceptional 
progress made in recent years in the accumu- 
lation of extensive and accurate statistical data 
concerning the objects composing the sidereal 
universe has rendered necessary considerable re- 
vision of older views on the size and arrange- 
ment of ‘the galactic system. We live in a 
finite universe, containing perhaps some 
1,500,000,000 suns altogether, in which, it has 
been shown, the stars thin out quite perceptibly 
within distances reached by telescopes of mod- 
erate size. It is generally agreed that the 
stellar universe as we know it, or galactic sys- 
tem, is a disk-shaped organization of stars, 


Ii2 


ASTRONOMY 


of planetary, diffuse, and dark nebule, and of 
loosely-organized open star clusters of great 
variety; all these objects concentrate, as we 
see them, along the region of the Milky Way, 
which is almost entirely a mere depth effect. 
The globular clusters, though not in the Milky 
Way, are also affiliated with the galactic sys- 
tem; while the spiral nebule, which emphati- 
cally avoid the Milky Way, are outside the 
most populous regions of space. 

After the vast gap beyond the confines of the 
solar system, we come first to our nearest stellar 
neighbor, Proxima Centauri, discovered in 1916 
by Innes, at a distance of 24 million million 
miles, then to Alpha Centauri at 25 mil- 
lion million miles, Munich 15,040 at 36 million 
million, Lalande 21,185 at about 47 million mil- 
lion, and Sirius at 50 million million. Within 
100 light-years of the sun the stars appear to 
be scattered with fair uniformity in space, to 
the number of about 6200. Beyond lies a steady 
succession of stars, mostly fainter than the sun, 
nebule, clusters, and starclouds, until finally 
we reach the globular cluster N. G. C. 7006, 
which Shapley finds to be 200,000 light-years 
distant and hundreds of light-years in diameter. 
To all appearances, the star cloud N. G. C. 
6822 is still more remote, outside the bounds 
of our stellar system entirely. According to 
Shapley, its distance is about six million million 
million miles, a distance which light occupies 
one million years in traversing. 

There still exists some difference of opinion 
as to the distances of the more remote clusters 
and star-clouds, as to scale of the total galactic 
system. One of the great outstanding. re- 
searches of the decade, an extensive study of 
known globular clusters carried out by Shapley 
with the aid of the period-luminosity relation for 
the Cepheids, the characteristics of the B-type 
stars, ete., from which the distribution of the 
clusters in space has been determined, has 
shown that a third of the known clusters are 
more than 100,000 light-years distant, and 
that the star-clouds of the galaxy extend at 
least as far as the furthest clusters. Shapley 
concludes that the diameter of the universe 
is at least 300,000 light-years. In the older 
views, of which H. D. Curtis, Schouten, and 
others were still adherents in 1924, the diame- 
ter of the universe is under 30,000 light-years. 
Quantitatively, Shapley’s results are admittedly 
approximate, but to reduce them tenfold would 
be to work havoc with a vast and beautifully 
concordant body of modern astronomical fact 
and theory which was not available when the 
former views were originated. 

In the system outlined by the globular clus- 
ters as determined by Shapley, the galactic 
plane is still a plane of symmetry and flatten- 
ing, though the clusters extend to great dis- 
tances both above and below this plane, to 
eight kiloparsecs on the average, the parsec 
being a distance, 3.26 light-years, correspond- 
ing to a parallax of 1 second of an are. The 
system is elongated in plan, and the sun is 
near one end of it, so that practically all the 
clusters are in one hemisphere; the dense star- 
clouds, numerous nove, ete., in the direction 
of Sagittarius, indicating a much greater depth 
for the system in that direction, confirm this 
conclusion. The sun is fairly centrally placed 
in a local subordinate star-cloud (about 90 
parsecs from the centre, according to Charlier) 
of about 1000 parsecs diameter, imbedded in 


ASTRONOMY 


and moving through the general star fields of 
the Milky Way, but this cloud is 50,000 light- 
years from the galactic centre. Stars of type 
B down to the sixth apparent magnitude are 
almost exclusively members of the local cloud. 
The central plane of the local cloud, which 
may be detected in the distribution of stars 
over the sky, is not coincident with the galac- 
tic plane by 10 to 15 degrees. The local cloud 
may possess an absorbing medium, but if so it 
must fall off rapidly beyond, for the existence 
of color indices (photographic minus _ photo- 
visual magnitudes) from -0.5 to 1.9 in cluster 
stars just as in the nearer stars shows that 
the general absorption of light in space is 
negligible. 

Only very uncertain and tentative theories 
ean be formulated regarding the exact space 
distribution and motions of the stars. Kap- 
teyn’s attempts along this line are the best 
known. Mathematical researches on the dy- 
namics of the stellar system, largely along 
the lines of statistical mechanics, seem to in- 
dicate that the universe is not in a steady state, 
has not yet reached equilibrium, and is prob- 
ably collapsing toward some more permanent 
form. 

The motions of the stars are quite complex. 
Strémberg finds that Kapteyn’s first stream 
among the type A stars may be identified with 
the Taurus group, and his second with the 
Ursa Major group; the remaining stars belong 
to a central group of small systematic motion, 
the % group of Halm, and with which the 
type B stars probably are associated. The 
giants of type F to M form a single group with 
a small systematic motion relative to the com-: 
monly adopted origin and an ellipsoidal veloc- 
ity distribution, the ellipticity diminishing with 
spectral type to very small values for late K 
and M stars; the.dwarfs also form a distinct 
group with regard to their motions. 

Celestial Mechanics. E. W. Brown’s Lunar 
Theory, developed according to the methods of 
G. W. Hill, was completed by the publication of 
the lunar tables in 1920. No terms of appreci- 
able significance have been omitted, yet the 
moon still deviates unmistakably from its pre- 
dicted position. The irregular deviations are 
at least partly due to irregular variations in 
the rate of rotation of the earth. The secular 
acceleration is undoubtedly due to the effects of 
tidal friction, which causes a direct acceleration 
of the moon’s orbital motion, as well as a 
spurious acceleration due to increase in the 
length of the day; the researches of Fothering- 
ham have shown that the solar and lunar ac- 
celerations can be accounted for by a slowing 
down of the rate of rotation of the earth by 
1/800 second per century, and Jeffreys and 
Taylor have shown that tidal friction in shal- 
low seas is fully capable of doing this. Fi- 
nally, there is a long period term in the mean 
longitude of the moon the cause of which is 
unknown. 

Important investigations relating to the reg- 
istration and prediction of tides, the dynamic 
theory of tides and tidal currents, and the 
meteorological effects on tides, were carried out 
by Proudman and Doodson at the Tidal In- 
stitute of the University of Liverpool, founded 
in 1919. One of their most successful efforts 
resulted in the construction of a more accurate 
map of the co-tidal lines in the North Sea and 
the Irish Sea; Sterneck’s map of the co-tidal 


113 ASTRONOMY 


lines of the North Sea (1920) was thus shown to 
be much closer to the facts than the previous 
map of R. A. Harris. 

Theory of Relativity. In the realms to which 
modern experimental physics has introduced 
us, phenomena transcending all the previous 
experience of man are encountered; and many 
of our scientific theories, which, being merely 
logical structures resting ultimately on axioms 
drawn from past experience, must always be 
regarded from an essentially pragmatic point 
of view, prove, as might have been expected a 
priort, incapable of subsuming under them- 
selves the sequences of phenomena here per- 
ceived as taking place. New conceptual 
schemes for the representation of the phenomena 
of the physical universe perceived to date must 
be constructed; and one of these, Einstein’s 
Generalized Theory of Relativity, is of par- 
ticular interest to astronomers because it sub- 
stitutes for Newton’s Law of Gravitation an- 
other law, and since the three crucial tests of 
the theory are all of an astronomical character. 

In the face of strong opposition, much of it 
of an untenable nature, however, the Theory of 
Relativity gradually compelled wider and 
wider recognition and acceptance solely by its 
merit. The continued agreement of this theory 
and its predictions with facts has been of such 
a nature that a logical and impartial con- 
sideration of the evidence available and its 
character as a whole indicates a probability of 
the ultimate complete vindication of Einstein’s 
views. In any event, the new and powerful 
methodology and point of view of the theory, 
the peculiar nature of which has unfortunately 
been the cause of much misconception concern- 
ing relativity, are permanent acquisitions of 
inestimable value, regardless of how the form 
of the theory itself may have to be modified 
in order to accord with fact. 

Einstein’s law of gravitation, besides explain- 
ing all that Newton’s law explains, accounts 
for the most conspicuous of the exceedingly 
few instances in which Newton’s law has 
failed, viz., the anomalous motion of the peri- 
helion of Mercury; every other explanation so 
far suggested has been shown to be untenable. 
The theory of relativity also predicts that a 
ray of light passing close by a massive body 
should be bent from a straight line; photo- 
graphs of the stars around the sun taken at 
the time of a total eclipse should show these 
stars in slightly different positions from those 
they normally occupy. The observations of the 
British expeditions during the eclipse of May 
29, 1919, and of the Lick Observatory expedi- 
tion during the eclipse of Sept. 20, 1922, have 
proved beyond reasonable doubt that a deflec- 
tion of the amount called for by LEinstein’s 
theory actually exists; here again, all alterna- 
tive explanations have been found inadequate. 
The theory of relativity also calls for a slight 
shift, toward the red, of the lines in the solar 
spectrum; this is the most difficult prediction 
to test, because such a multitude of factors in- 
fluence the positions of the spectral lines. Dif- 
ferent investigators arrived at contradictory re- 
sults for some time, but finally, after an ex- 
tremely thorough and extensive investigation at 
Mount Wilson, St. John obtained observational 
results according in general with those obtained 
earlier by Evershed and somewhat later by 
H. D. Curtis. St. John and Evershed conclude 
that the results show that after all other effects 


ASTRONOMY 


have been allowed for, differences remain _ be- 
tween solar and laboratory wave length of the 
order called for by the Einstein theory. Cur- 
tis does not accept this interpretation of the 
facts. 

Cosmogony. Apart from the comparatively 
small number of planetary nebule, Cepheid 
variables, long-period variables such as Mira 
Ceti, and a few other objects, the nature and 
interpretation of which are still enigmatic, all 
known celestial bodies can be arranged in one 
single continuous sequence, which is approxi- 
mately a sequence of increasing density, be- 
ginning with nebule of incredible tenuity and 
ending with solid stars as dense as iron. ‘There 
can be but little doubt that this sequence is evo- 
lutionary, for as a body radiates heat its den- 
sity increases until it can increase no more. 

In the difficult field of modern cosmogony, 
where mathematics, physics, astronomy, and 
eeology dispute the sovereignty, the masterly 
researches of J. H. Jeans stand out preéminent- 
ly. At some stage in the history of a star it 
must be completely gaseous, for only by the 
effect of radiation pressure in a gaseous mass 
ean we explain why 90 per cent of the stellar 
masses lie between a half and five times the 
mass of the sun. Jeans has shown that the 
nebular hypothesis, with some modifications 
and reservations, may be made to explain 
nearly everything except our solar system, which 
it was specifically invented to explain. The 
heavens have indeed been searched in vain for 
objects showing the rings required by the 
Laplace-Roche theory of the evolution of a ro- 
tating incompressible fluid mass; but numerous 
nebula show the flattened and lenticular forms 
indicated for the early stages by this theory; 
others show lenticular centres with definite in- 
dications of detached matter around an equa- 
torial sharp edge, but this detached matter is 
in the form of spiral arms. 

Spectroscopic examination of the regular neb- 
ule shows in every case a rotation with a high 
velocity about an axis which appears in the 
sky as the shortest diameter of the nebula. 
Now Jeans has proved that the classic “figures 
of equilibrium” will not be materially differ- 
ent for even highly compressible gases in the 
case of slow rotation; but as the rate of rota- 
tion increases through shrinkage, a compressible 
mass will finally, if the central density exceeds 
three times the mean density, take on the shape 
of a bi-convex lens, with a sharp equatorial 
edge. Further adjustment of equilibrium to 
increasing rate of rotation is no longer pos- 
sible by mere change of shape; additional 
shrinkage involves an actual break-up of the 
nebula, the excess of the angular momentum 
beyond that which can be carried by the shrunk- 
en mass being thrown off into space by the 
yee of matter from the equatorial sharp 
edge. 

Since the nebula is not alone in the universe, 
the equatorial edge will be deformed from a 
perfectly circular shape through the attraction 
of other bodies, and this deformation, however 
slight, will cause the ejected gas to stream out 
from two antipodal points on the equator, into 
spiral arms. This causes the dark equatorial 
band observed in nebulae which are viewed 
edge on. ‘The ejected matter comes in time to 
dwarf the central nucleus in size, until finally 
there is little nucleus left. 

The gigantic scale on which ejection takes 


II4 


ASTRONOMY 


place is such that gravitative attraction over- 
comes the expansive influence of gas pressure 
and is able to hold the jet together as a com- 
pact stream; the issuing filament will break 
up into separate aggregations, which give rise 
to the lumpy appearance of the arms of spirals. 
Dynamic theory enables us to calculate the size, 
mass, and distance apart of these aggregations; 
a comparison between their distance apart, as 
calculated in kilometers, and their angular dis- 
tances apart as we observe them in actual neb- 
ule, leads to the distance of these nebule, and 
the resulting estimates of nebular distances are 
in good agreement with those obtained in other 
ways; furthermore, in every nebula for which 
the calculation can be made, the calculated 
mass of a single condensation proves approxi- 
mately equal to the mass of the average star. 

In many nebule, the observed knots in the 
arms take the form of pronounced condensa- 
tions, and in the outer regions of some nebule 
these condensations have further developed into 
detached and almost star-like points of light. 
The family of stars thus born out of a single 
nebula may be millions in number; they may 
either mingle with the general mass of the 
stars, giving rise to a cluster such as the Great 
Bear group, or, if the original nebula was 
sufficiently remote from the main universe, they 
may form a separate colony, such as the Her- 
cules cluster. These alternatives perhaps rep- 
resent the two extremes of a continuous chain 
of possibilities. Quite possibly the main mass 
of the stars may be a collection of clusters, 
each originated out of a single nebula, now 
so intermingled that it is difficult to detect the 
separate groups. Kapteyn’s two star streams 
may be two intermingled moving clusters; the 
third stream of B and C stars found by Edding- 
ton and Halm, which Charlier has found to have 
the shape of a round biscuit lying parallel to 
the Milky Way with its diameter 2.8 times its 
thickness, has just about the shape and _ posi- 
tion that dynamic theory shows any cluster of 
stars of common origin ought to have after hav- 
ing been knocked about ad infinitum in our 
universe of stars. 

The above evolutionary process is essentially, 
at least in its early stages, that imagined by 
Laplace, except that it is on an incomparably 
grander scale. Each of the condensations, 
however, as it starts off into space, is a gaseous 
nebula about the size and mass postulated by 
Laplace; but dynamic theory proves that on 
account of the difference in scale, matter ejected 
from such a nebula could not condense into 
filaments, still less into detached masses, but 
would merely constitute a diffuse atmosphere 
about the parent mass. As the latter shrunk by 
radiation, the constancy of angular momentum 
would, wntil it had shrunk to a certain critical 
density, merely demand that more and more gas 
should be transferred to this atmosphere. A 
cataclysmic period would then ensue, from 
which the mass would emerge as a binary star 
with the two components almost in contact. 
As development went on, the two components 
would move apart, the orbits become more eccen- 
tric, the components themselves might repeat 
the process of fission, and so on. The distance 
which any particular system goes along this 
course would depend in effect on the amount of 
rotation with which it was originally endowed. 
Both theory and observation agree that not 
many systems stay out the whole course; prob- 


ASTROPHYSICS 


ably only half the stars in the sky are binaries, 
and only a tenth this number are multiple 
systems. 

Nowhere in this scheme is there a place for 
anything in the least degree resembling our 
solar system. However, it is to be expected that 
off the normal course of evolution would exist 
branch lines to which a few systems would be 
turned by some exceptional circumstance, 
such, for instance, as the close approach of two 
stars. It seems that the solar system must be 
added to those classes of objects which do not 
appear to fit in with any normal evolutionary 
scheme; our sun may be the only star attended 
by planets, our earth the only body in the 
universe capable of supporting life. A stellar 
collision, or an approach close enough for 
tidal disruption to take place, is an exceedingly 
improbable event; but it may have happened 
that our system had a tidal origin. At least, 
such an encounter would give rise, as Jeans has 
shown, to a system strikingly resembling ours 
in many ways. 

Miscellaneous. The 100-inch Hooker reflec- 
tor was put into regular operation at Mount 
Wilson in 1919; the Dominion Observatory at 
Victoria, B. C. with a 72-inch reflector, was 
opened in 1918. 

Turkey adopted the Gregorian calendar in 
1916; Russia in 1918, Greece and all adherents 
of the Eastern Orthodox Churches in 1923. The 
Julian Calendar is now followed only by the 
Ruthenian Catholics or Uniates of the Russian 
Ukraine. The question of the reform of the 
present calendar was much agitated, but noth- 
ing definite was done. 

International scientific organizations were 
all badly disrupted by the War. To carry on 
international codperation in scientific work, the 
International Research Council was organized 
after the War. The International Astronomical 
Union, a division of the Council, was organized 
at Brussels in July, 1919, and held a meeting 
at Rome in 1922. 

Necrology. The following éminent etrenbi 
mers died during the decade: Sir Norman 
Lockyer, Aug. 16, 1920; Percival Lowell, Nov. 
12, 1916; Karl Schwarzschild, May 11, 1916; 
EK. C. Pickering, Feb. 3, 1919; S. W. Burnham, 
Maraill; 192k3.J2:C. Kapteyn, June 18, 1922; 
K. E. Barnard, Feb. 7, 1923. 

Bibliography. Of books published in this 
period, the following are of unusual signifi- 
cance in different departments of astronomy : 
H. 8. Jones, General Astronomy (London, 1922) ; 
Newcomb-Engleman, Populdre Astronomie, 6th 
ed. (Leipzig, 1921); T..E. R. Phillips, ed., 
Hutchinson’s Splendor of the Heavens (Lon- 
don, 1923); R. G. Aitken, The Binary Stars, 
(New York, 1918); K. Schiller, Hinfiihrung in 
das Studium der Verdnderlichen Sterne (Leip- 
zig, 1923); J. Bosler, L’Evolution des Etoiles 
( Paris, 1923) ; Eh. C. Plummer, Jntroductory 
Treatise on Dynamical Astronomy (Cambridge, 
1918) ; H. Andoyer, Cours de Mécanique Céleste, 
vol. i, (Paris, 1923); J. H. Jeans, Problems of 
Cosmogony and Stellar Dynamics (Cambridge, 
1919); T. C. Chamberlin, The Origin of the 
Earth (Chicago, 1916). 


ASTROPHYSICS. See Astronomy; Puys- 
Ics. 

ATAVISM. See HEREDITY. 

ATHEARN, WALTER Scorr (1872- yi 


An author and professor of religious educa- 
tion at Boston University. He was born at 


115 


ATHLETICS 


Marengo, Iowa, and educated at the State 
University of Iowa and the University of Chi- 
cago. He began his career as a public school 
principal in lowa, and after holding professor- 
ships of religious education he became in 1919 
director of the School of Religious Education 
and Social Service. He has written numerous 
books on religious education which include Pe- 
ligious Education and American Democracy 
(1917), Making Democracy Safe for the World 
(Chicago, 1918), A National System of Educa- 
tion (New York, 1920), and Ten Lessons on the 
Organization of the Modern Sunday School (St. 


Louis, 1921). 
ATHERTON, GERTRUDE FRANKLIN 
1857— ). An American novelist (see Vot. 


II). Mrs. Atherton has continued her prolific 
authorship with her characteristic verve. She 


published Perch of the Devil in 1914; Cali- 
fornia—an Intimate History (1914); Before 
the Gringo Came (1915); Mrs. Balfame (1916) ; 


The Living Present (1917); The White Morn- 
ing (1918); The Avalanche (1919); Sisters-in- 
Law (1921); Sleeping Fires (1922); and 
Black Owen (1923). 

ATHLETICS. Interest in athletics of every 
description increased at a remarkable rate dur- 
ing the period 1914-1924 despite the fact that 
the World War intervened to curtail participa- 
tion in sports among the peoples of many na- 
tions. Perhaps the most striking feature of 
recent athletic history has been the growing 
popularity of international competition, along 
with the adoption of sports by countries in 
which formerly they were practically ignored. 
At the close of the period, it is true, the 
United States and the British Empire were still 
leading in their devotion to athletics of all sorts 
but other countries were rapidly falling into 
line and promising soon to threaten Anglo- 
Saxon supremacy, France, Italy, Spain, Japan, 
the Philippines, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, 
Finland and even the youthful Czecho-Slovakia 
having taken up athletics on a scale never at- 
tempted before. 

Another noticeable development has been the 
increased participation in sports among wo- 
men, Olympic Games (q.v.) for women having 
been held for the first time at Paris in 1922. 
The popularity of golf and tennis, particularly, 
with women has led to several international 
competitions in these sports. International 
rivalry between women swimmers has also been 
keen. 

Several new world records were established in 
track and field athletics since 1914. James 
E. Meredith of the University of Pennsylvania 
ran the quarter-mile in 47% seconds and the 
half-mile in 1 minute 52% seconds in 1916 and 
Norman S. Taber of Brown University set a 
new record of 4 minutes, 12% seconds for the 
mile the same year. Edward Gourdin of Har- 
vard University made the longest broad jump 
yet accomplished in 1921, his leap having been 
25 feet, 3 inches. 

Special articles on the various branches of 
athletics or sports such as BASEBALL, BASKET- 
BALL, FoorsBaLL, Gour, TENNIS, ete., will be 
found under those titles. 

ATHLETICS, Track and Fietp. This par- 
ticular branch of sports leads all others in the 
progress made during the ten-year period end- 
ing with 1924. The growth in popularity and 
the achievements as measured by the amazing- 
ly large number of new records established 


~ 


ATHLETICS 


which have characterized track and field athlet- 
ics furthermore have not been confined to any 
one country. This fact may be attributed 
largely to the constantly i Sate interest at- 
tracted by the Olympic Games (q.v.). 

A complete summary of the new standards set 
in this sport would require more space than 
is available. The most that can be done is to 
select a few outstanding names and performances 
from the long list evolved from 1914 to 1924. 

Among the runners who have distinguished 
themselves are James E. Meredith, Charles W. 
Paddock, Joie W. Ray and Norman S. Taber 
of the United States and Paavo Nurmi of Fin- 
land. Meredith eclipsed all past performances 
by covering 440 yards in 47% seconds and 
880 yards in 1 minute, 52% seconds. Both 
of these new records were made in 1916. 

Paddock ran 220 yards in 20% seconds in 
1921. Taber negotiated the mile in 4 minutes, 
1235 seconds in 1916. Nurmi, specializing in 
the longer distances, ran three miles in 14 
minutes, 8% seconds and also set new times 
for 2000, 3000, 5000 and 10,000 meters. All 
these achievements came in 1922. Ray, a con- 
sistently remarkable runner, owes his chief fame 
to the figures he established in 1923 for two 
miles. They were 9 minutes, 8% seconds. 

Athletes from Canada and Denmark divide the 
honors in walking. George H. Goulding of 
Canada covered seven miles in 50 minutes, 
4044 seconds in 1915. G. Rasmussen of Den- 
mark in 1918 outdid all previous walking 
efforts for practically every metric distance 
from 3000 to 15,000 meters and N. Petersen of 
the same country lowered all former marks for 
20,000 and 25,000 meters. 

KE. Beeson of the United States surpassed all 
rivals in the running high jump by leaping 6 
feet, 7546 inches in 1914 and in pole vaulting 
Charles Hoff of Denmark attained the height 
of 13 feet, 6 inches in 1922. 

E. J. Thomson of Canada tied the record of 
14% seconds for the 120-yard high hurdles 
in 1920 and also established the new time of 
1445 seconds for the 110 meter high hurdles 
the same year. J. K. Norton of the United 
States went over the 440-yard hurdles (3 feet) in 
54% seconds in 1920. 

The United States excelled all other nations 
in relay racing. In 1921 a team consisting of 
B. D. Wefers, jr., H. Ray, F. K. Lovejoy and 
Edward Farrell ran 440 yards in 42% seconds 
and 880 yards ‘in 1 minute, 27% seconds. 
During the same year another American quar- 
tette, C. D. Rogers, Lawrence Brown, Earl 
Eby and Robert Maxam sped one mile in 3 
minutes, 16% seconds and in 1922 G. F. 
Meredith, E. W. McMullen, J. C. Holden’ and 
1. BA. Brown ran two miles in 7 minutes, 49% 
seconds and Howard Yates, G. McGinness, B. 
Patterson and R. Wharton traveled four miles 
in 17 minutes, 45 seconds. 

The participation of women in track and field 
athletics on a wider scale than ever before was 
a noteworthy feature of the 1914-24 period. 
The Amateur Athletic Union of the United 
States gave its first official sanction to a 
women’s national championship in 1923 and the 
competitions were held in Newark, N. J. An 
Olympie Meet for women also was held at 
Paris in 1922. Twelve new world and Olympic 
records were set during the Olympic Games 
(q.v.) of 1924, of which seven were accepted 
by the International Amateur Federation. 


116 


ATTENTION 


ATLANTA. The capital of Georgia. The 
population of the city rose from 154,839 in 1910 
to 203,550 in 1920; to 222,963 by estimate of 
the Bureau of the Census for 1923, and to 249,- 
300 by local estimate in 1924. The area of the 
city was increased to 29 square miles by the 
annexation in 1922 of the neighboring town of 
Kirkwood. Three hundred acres in the residen- 
tial section were razed by fire in 1917 with a 
loss of $5,000,000. Building operations in- 
ereased from $3,685,663 in 1916 to $20,584,734 
in 1922 and to $27,094,912 in 1923, while real 
estate values rose 35 per cent between 1918 and 
1923. The bank clearings of the city increased 
from $574,164,917 in 1910 to $2,791,411,000 in 


1923. A comprehensive zoning ordinance with 
racial segregation districts was adopted in 
1923. The city spent $4,000,000 to extend the 


public school system, the same amount for the 
reconstruction and extension of the sewer sys- 
tem, $2,850,000 for improvements in the de- 
partment of water works, $750,000 for a large 
viaduct from Spring Street to Terminal Sta- 
tion, and $400,000 for a centrally located public 
market. Fulton County built a court house 
in the city at a cost of $1,200,000. 

Two universities were opened during the pe- 
riod, Emory University of the Methodist Episco- 
pal Church, South, which moved to Atlanta in 
1914, and Oglethorpe University, which was 
closed shortly after the Civil War, reopened in 
1916. A new hospital conducted by Emory 
University was completed in 1924 at a cost of 
$2,000,000. Three large new hotels were built, 
costing $6,500,000, $1,250,000, and $1,000,000. 
A colossal memorial to the Confederacy was be- 
ing carved by Gutzon Borglum on the face of 
Stone Mountain, a great “monolith of smooth 
solid granite near Atlanta. The finished work 
was to represent Lee and Jackson at the head 
of their armies; in January, 1924, the head of 
General Lee was unveiled. 

ATMOSPHERE. See METEOROLOGY. 

ATOMS, ATOMIC THEORY. See CHEM- 
ISTRY; PHYSICS: 

ATONALISM. See Music. 

ATTENTION. The development of the psy- 
chology of attention, 1914-24, has shown the 
two-fold nature of the problem. On the one 
hand attention can be expressed in terms of 
physical conditions, the conditions which attract 
or distract attention, and on the other hand it 
can be assimilated to subjective interest with 
peculiar laws of its own. The experiments of 
Dallenbach and Bowman sought to measure the 
importance of size, form, and intensity of stim- 
ulus as determinants of attention, but these rela- 
tionships seem to be largely empirical and do 
not obey any comprehensive law. They also in- 
dicated that attention varies with the different 
modalities of sensation, attention to touch be- 
ing highest, with sound and light following in 
the order named. Liddell (American Journal 
of Psychology, 1920 vol. xxx, p. 241) sought to 


‘verify the theory that attention waves in vision 


are due on the one hand to the adaptation of 
the part of the retina stimulated and on the 
other to eye movements. By using the Dodge 
apparatus he photographed the eye movements 
simultaneously with the disappearances and ap- 
pearances of minimal light. The result showed 
no correlation between the movements and the 
fluctuations of attention. The waves appeared 
to continue while the eyes were stationary, 
while movements neither brought back the light 


ATTERBERG 


during periods of no sensation nor prevented 
its disappearance during the periods of visibil- 
ity. 

In France and Italy attention was studied 
from the point of view of subjective interest. 
Professor Janet (Journal de Psychologie, 1921, 
vol. xviii, p. 140) on the basis of his observa- 
tions of neurasthenics brought out the intimate 
relation between the oscillations of nervous ten- 
sion and the emotional condition of the subject. 
Rignano also championed an affective theory of 
attention. See AcTION; PERCEPTION. 

ATTERBERG, Kurr (1887-— ). A Swed- 
ish composer, born at Giteborg, Dec. 12, 1887. 
After graduation as a civil engineer, in 1910, 
he studied composition in Stockholm with A. 
Hallen for one year, when he won the state 
stipend enabling him to continue his studies at 
the Hochschule in Berlin and with Schillings 
at Stuttgart, in conducting. He conducted 
symphony concerts in Stockholm, Goteborg, and 
Malmé6, and in 1920 made a very successful tour 
of Germany as conductor of his own works. 
His compositions, avoiding all modernistic ex- 
travagances, have placed him in the front rank 
of Swedish composers. He has written five 
symphonies, a concert overture in A minor, a 
violin concerto, a ’cello concerto, Vastkustbilder 
and a Rhapsody for orchestra, a symphonic 
poem for baritone and orchestra, a Requiem, 
incidental music to Didring’s Jefta, a panto- 
mime-ballet (Der Svinaherde), and an opera, 
Herwarth der Harfner (Stockholm, 1921). 

ATTERBURY, Grosvenor (1869- ). An 
American architect, born in Detroit. He grad- 
uated from Yale in 1891 and studied architec- 
ture at Columbia University and in Paris. He 
made a special study of town planning and in- 
dustrial housing. His best known work is in 
connection with the development of the Forest 
Hill Gardens in Long Island, founded by the 
Russell Sage Foundation. He also planned sev- 
eral industrial communities. He was architect 
for the restoration of the New York City Hall, 
and for other important buildings in New York, 
Philadelphia, and other cities. He was an As- 
sociate of the National Academy and was chair- 
man and director of the War Industry Housing 
Commission of the National Housing Associa- 
tion during the War. He served with the Army 
Educational Commission in France and was 
supervising architect of the A. E. F. University 
at Beaune, France. 

ATTERBURY, WILLIAM WALLACE 
(1866— ). An American railway official 
(see Vor. IIT). During the War he was dec- 
orated many times for his invaluable service in 
directing the construction and operation of 
United States military railways in France. He 
was appointed commanding brigadier general 
in 1917. After 1919 he returned to the corpo- 
rate service of the Pennsylvania Railroad and 
later devoted himself to the study of foreign 
railway systems. 

ATTERIDGE, Harotp Ricnarp (1886-— ). 
An American playwright and librettist. He 
was born at Lake Forest, Ill., and educated at 
the University of Chicago. He is well known 
as the author of many popular musical com- 
edies, and especially of The Passing Show (New 
York, 1912-19). Following are some of his 
works, all written in collaboration: The Honey- 
moon Eapress (New York, 1913); Dancing 
Around (New York, 1914); Maid in America 
(New York, 1915); Robinson Crusoe, Jr. (New 


117 


AUDITION 


York, 1916); Over the Top (New York, 1917) ; 
Sinbad (New York, 1918); Monte Oristo, Jr. 
(New York, 1919); The Little Blue Devil (New 
York, 1919); and Bombo (New York, 1921). 

ATTRIBUTE. In psychology, a unit of 
experience supplanting an earlier unit sensa- 
tion. The impossibility of producing in the 
laboratory a pure sensation and the necessity of 
introspecting only on the attributes of sensa- 
tional experience, such as quality, duration, 
intensity, etc., led to a revision of terminology. 
Psychological experience is regarded by the 
Titchener school as a process of which we are 
able to observe only the changing attributes. 
See PsycnoLoey. 

ATWOOD, ALserT WILLIAM (1879— ). 
An American writer and lecturer on financial 
topics, born at Jersey City and educated at 
Amherst College. He was financial editor of 
the New York Press (1906-12) and in 1915 
joined the faculty of the School of Journalism 
of Columbia University. He contributed finan- 
cial articles regularly to a number of magazines, 
including the Saturday Evening Post, McClure’s 
Magazine, and the Review of Reviews. He was 
the joint author with Thomas Conway, Jr., of 
Investment and Speculation (1911); How to 
Get Ahead (1917); The Exchanges and Specula- 
tion (1917); and Putnam’s Investment Hand- 
book (1919). 

ATWOOD, WALLACE WALTER (1872— Vi 
An American geologist, born at Chicago, III. 
He was graduated in 1897 at the University of 
Chicago. Meanwhile he began his career as a 
teacher of physiography in Lewis Institute in 
Chicago, whose director he became in 1900. He 
returned in that year to his alma mater and 
in 1910 became associate professor of physiog- 
raphy and general geology. In 1913 he was 
called to the chair of physiography in Harvard 
and remained there until 1920, when he accepted 
the presidency of Clark University with the 
chair of physical geography. As early as 1901 
he became connected with the United States Ge- 
ological Survey, in which since 1909 he has held 
the rank of geologist; he has had a similar re- 
lation since 1906 to the Illinois Geological Sur- 
vey. His many researches have included studies 
on the physical geography of the Devil’s Lake 
Region and of the Evanston-Waukegan Region 
of Illinois. The glaciation of the Rocky Moun- 
tain Region has received his attention, especial- 
ly that of the Uintah and* Wasatch mountains, 
and he has written a monograph on the econom- 
ic, geology of Alaska, especially the coal re- 
sources. — 

AUDITION. Among the significant develop- 
ments of 1914-24 in the psychology of audition 
was a new theory of audition by Sir Thomas 
Wrightson published in his Inquiry into the 
Analytical Mechanism of the Internal Ear 
(1918). On the basis of new histological re- 
searches he argued against the tenability of 
Helmholtz’s resonance theory and advocated the 
substitution of a pressure-balance theory of 
hearing. Much experimentation and discussion 
were devoted to the determination of the at- 
tributes of sound. Watt in his Psychology of 
Sound (1917) pleaded for a uniformity of at- 
tributes in all sense modalities. He accounted 
for pitch by the attribute of order and regarded 
volume as extensity. He brought forward a 
theory of auditory space paralleling the space 
of vision. Ogden, discussing the work of Koeh- 
ler and Revesez, would have psychologists ac- 


AUER 118g 


cept the attributes of pitch, volume, intensity, 
duration, and, probably, brightness. On the 
other hand Rich’s experiments (American Jour- 
nal of Psychology, 1919, vol. xxx, p. 121) seemed 
to point to the identity of pitch and brightness, 
but to make tonality a separate attribute. The 
existence of an after-image in audition analo- 
gous to the after-image of vision was called into 
question by H. G. Bishop (American Journal 
of Psychology, 1921, vol. xxxii, p. 305). Tones, 
he found, have a characteristic modified ending 
which depends for its intensity upon the inten- 
sity of stimulus and for its insistence upon in- 
tensity and duration of stimulation. Localiza- 
tion, investigated by H. M. Halverson (Amer- 
ican Journal of Psychology, 1923, vol. xxxiv, 
p- 178), is found to be dependent both on dif- 
ference of phase and on intensity, with the 
phase relation more important. See Psy- 
CHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL. 

AUER, Joun (1875- ). An American 
physiologist born at Rochester, N. Y. He grad- 
uated from the University of Michigan in 1898 
and four years later received his degree of doc- 
tor of medicine from Johns Hopkins. During 
the period 1908-21, he was an Associate Fellow 
of the Rockefeller Institute and conducted re- 
search into many physiological and pharmaco- 
logical subjects, in part in association with Dr. 
‘Meitzer. Since 1921 he has been professor of 
pharmacology at the St. Louis University School 
of Medicine. 

AUER, Leorpotp. A Hungarian violinist and 
teacher (see Vou. If). On Mar. 23, 1918, he 
made his American début in New York, where 
he settled permanently as a teacher. In the 
fall of 1919 he undertook the regular instruc- 
tion of a master-class for two months, Septem- 
ber and October, at the Chicago Musical College. 
Among his numerous pupils the most famous 
are Heifetz, Elman, Zimbalist, Kathleen Parlow, 
and Cecilia Hansen. The fundamental princi- 
ples of his method were published by his pupil 
Maia Bang in her Hlementary Violin Method 
(New York, 1920). He himself wrote a more 
extended treatise, Violin Playing as I Teach It 
(New York, 1921), and is the author of My 
Long Life in Music (1923). 

AUGSPURG, AniTA (1857- ). An active 
worker and lecturer in the German women’s 
movement and in municipal and communal re- 
forms. She came from a long line of lawyer 
ancestors, residents of Bavaria, and after study- 
ing drama and appearing for a short time on 
the stage, took up law and practiced for some 
years in Munich. She was identified with pro- 
paganda for radical reforms concerning women 
and children. Later she studied agriculture 
and managed her own large estate. 

AULARD, (FRANcoIS Victor) ALPHONSE 
(1849-— ). A French historian (see Vou. IT). 
Professor Aulard was active both during the 
War and after the Armistice. His work falls 
under two heads. On the one hand he continued 
his scholarly researches as a historian of the 
French Revolution, and on the other he sought 
to popularize the lessons of history in their 
bearing on the problems of war and _ peace. 
His scholarly works include the Recueil des 
Actes du Oomité du Salut Public, which by 
1918 he had earried forward to the year 1796; 
Paris sous VEmpire, three vols. to the year 1809 
(1916); Lettres et Bulletins de Barentin @ 
Louis XVI, avriljuillet 1789 (1915); and the 
Dictionnaires des Conventionnels de Auguste 


AUSTRALIA 


Kuscinski (1916-1919). In 1919 he published 
a volume of historical interpretation, La Rév- 
olution Frangaise et le Regime Féodal. His 
popular work comprises a volume of war ar- 
ticles, La Guerre Actuelle Commentée par V His- 
toire (1916), and two series of public courses 
at the Sorbonne on the French tradition, La 
Paix Ruture @apres la Révolution Francaise et 
Kant (1915) and Le Patriotisme Frangais de la 
Renaissance @ la Révolution. Since the Armis- 
tice, Professor Aulard has thrown his influence 
on the side of political liberalism. He was a 
candidate to the Chamber of Deputies in 1919, 
running as Républicain Socialiste, but was de- 
feated in the overwhelming victory of the Bloc 
National. By his articles in l’Fre Nouvelle and 
Progrés Oivique, by his speeches, and by his 
representation of France in the League of Na- 
tions Assembly, he has sought to bring about a 
reconciliation between France and the new dem- 
ocratic Germany. 

AULTMAN, Dwicut Epwarp (1872- ). 
An American army officer, graduated from the 
United States Military Academy in 1894 and 
promoted through the grades so that he reached 
the rank of brigadier-general of the United 
States Army in 1921. He was sent on a special 
mission to Germany in 1914-15, was instructor 
in the Army War College (1916-17) and went 
to France as commander of the Fifth Field Ar- 
tillery (1918). He was at the General Staff 
College in 1919. 

AUSTIN, Mary Hunter (1868- JagrAl 
American author and playwright (see Vou. II). 
Only after profound reflection did Mrs. Austin 
publish the results of her study of Indians in 
the western deserts of America. Her recent 
works, characterized above all by uncommon 
breadth of sympathy, include Love and_ the 
Soul-Maker (1914); The Man Jesus (1915); 
The Man Who Didn’t Believe in Christmas, a 
play, produced in New York (1916); The 
Young Woman Citizen (1918); Outland (1919) ; 
a chapter on Aboriginal Literature in Cam- 
bridge History of American Literature (1919) ; 
and 26 Jayne Street (1920). 


AUSTRALIA. A - self-governing British 


dominion including the island continent with 


its dependencies. The six states, New South 
Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, 
Western Australia, and Tasmania, and the twa 


territories, Northern Territory and Federal Ter- . 


ritory, which make it up, comprise an area of 
2,974,581 square miles, and a population in 
1922, exclusive of aborigines, of 5,634,552. In 
1911, the inhabitants numbered 4,455,105. By 
the 1911 census there were 108 males to 100 
females; by the 1921 census, the ratio had fallen 
to 103.3 males to 100 females. Immigration 
was slow, to the disadvantage of the develop- 
ment of the Commonwealth, which has un- 
bounded natural resources and the ability to 
support a population as great as that of the 
United States. During 1911-21 the excess of 
immigrants over emigrants was only 166,977, 
as compared with 46,695 in 1911 alone. In 
1921, net immigration was only 15,789. The 
population was almost wholly of British origin 
(97 per cent), highly literate, and well-to-do. 
The country’s development had taken an un- 
fortunate turn in the concentration of popula- 
tion in the cities and with the increasing ap- 
plication to industrial activities, to the neglect 
of the agricultural. For the Commonwealth, 
62 per cent of the population was urban in 


Sa. IE. Sac ta 


ark ts 


AUSTRALIA 


1921; 42 per cent of the total population was 
gathered in the six capital cities alone, as 
against 38.05 per cent in 1911. The capital 
cities, with their metropolitan populations in 
1921 (1911 population in parentheses), were 
Sydney, N. 8S. W., 899,099 (629,503); Mel- 
bourne, Vie., 766,506 (588,971); Brisbane, Qld., 
210,032 (139,480); Adelaide, S. A., 255,481 
(189,646); Perth, W. A., 154,866; Hobart, Tas., 
52,391 (39,937). As a result, Australia’s prob- 
lems of health, education, and social relations 
were largely those of an industrial society, not 
those of an agrarian one. 

Agriculture. Up to 1920, 40 per cent of the 
total acreage of the Commonwealth was still 
unoccupied; only 5.73 per cent had been actual- 
ly alienated; and 51 per cent was held under 
leases. Of the 109,074,863 acres alienated in 
the fiscal year 1921-22, 15,363,999 acres were 
under crops. This compares favorably with the 
crop acreage of 11,893,838 for 1910-11. The 
following table gives acreage and production of 
principal crops for 1912-13 and 1921-22. 


119g 


AUSTRALIA 


largely affected by the high prices of coal and 
coke, the high transport and labor costs, and the 
high smelting charges. Coal production, how- 
ever, did not fall off. In 1914, 12,445,073 tons 
were mined, and in 1922, 12,403,133 tons; about 
90 per cent of the total yield eame from New 
South Wales. From 1917 to Dee. 31, 1922, the 
industry was controlled by the government, and 
prices and wages were fixed. 

Manufacturing. Here was to be seen the 
Commonwealth’s greatest advance during the 
period surveyed. From 1911 to 1921 the num- 
ber of employees in Australian factories in- 
creased from 312,000 to 387,000, the amount of 
wages paid rose from $118,200,000 to $245,700,- 
000, and the values of,output advanced from 
$518,700,000 to $1,267,500,000. Aided by the 
heavy protective tariff of 1920, manufacturers 
were able to weather the 1920-21 trade depres- 
sion successfully. Foodstuffs, machinery, cloth- 
ing, textiles, ete., remained leading industries. 
Imports of the following declined over the period, 
because local manufacturers began to supply 


Crop Acreage Acreage Yield Yield 
1912-13 1921-22 1912-13 1921-22 

POO Ge ccty tare. 6 ahd agers + fs be 7,339,651 9,719,070 91,981,070 bu. 129,088,806 bu. 
NOE catia ple MUR ae Rate ne Se 874,284 737,830 EG}LIG, 7124 12,123,078 “ 
read PALS.) ore. ens Palate 314,686 305,200 87006, LoS 7,840,446 ‘ 
EMI GE «a RIS LCA SiwiSl ab lage, ov Se AS 3,217,041 3,005,057 3, 372,596 long tons 3, 905, 428 long tons 
BE AURIO pd. tric ki sc aes 155,567 197,293 rial Gea Pee 2,436,890 “ 

Pastoral activities remained highly impor- the domestic market: textiles and wearing ap- 


tant. The figures for live stock for 1913 and 
1921 were: sheep, 85,057,402 and 82,226,470; 
eattle, 11,483,882 and 14,530,081 ; horses, 2,521,- 
983 and 2,439,444; pigs, 800,505 and 960,385. 
The wool yield in 1912— 13 was 648,851,913 Ib.; 

in 1921-22, 628,664,435 lb.; butter, in 1912- 13, 
198,758, 238 Ib. ; and in 1920- Wels 261,722,367 
Ib. It was not until 1922 that the wool indus- 
try showed an approximation to pre-war con- 
ditions. Heavy stocks had’ accumulated because 
of war conditions, a diminished world demand, 
and the fall in prices. Only in 1922, as a re- 


parel, confectionery, cement, toilet articles. 
There were government bounties for the manu- 
facture of iron and steel and the production of 
shale oil. On the last, for example, £16,292 was 
paid on 1,737,845 gallons in 1920-21. 
Commerce. The trade record over the 
period, for certain years, showed (conversions 
at) par’ ‘for’ 1913, $3.96 for 1920-21, $4.45 for 
1921-22): imports for 1913, $387, 918,000 : for 
1920-21, $638,827,000; and for 1921-22, $449,- 
733 000; exports for the same years, $365,537,- 
000, $515,420,000, and $569,375,000. Trade by 


sult of the heroic operation of the British- principal commodities (in thousands of dol- 
Australian Wool Realization Association, es- lars) ; 
Imports Exports 

; Commodities 1913. 1921-22 Commodities 1913, 1941-22 
LERCH UM UNONE OMe as we eh ee a tivey sp hhete s BLOM GAlee sD UCber meee mae sie ee tke ceete se takeeier ens $17,350 $35,545 
EM Derren Miers me Eek Ae. $14,719 thon Wheateunpreparediixty . 22 loses. oe 38,871 127,467 
Olassict fori motor, Carat «6 iio. sa. an, 282 BO42.) Wi0all Seite a. ohare fc. MAREE NS, 0! Zee P27 81 an 2Ust4 oA, 
OT Th. viet eet OL Teena hes stayc, Ut ssbb rtry® Susans (Oe Rr AGE” <4 ae ce Ghee, sr ee ahs Se 9,082 24,564 
ERODACCON rape aerate he, enone oa ogee ypc Pal VOUS San . OlLMM geet tedevoteee ts terotets oretanates herent om Wl soe eye 15,594 
CE OOM ate oleae el cel Maem crt felin eral oe 6,465 9,128 


tablished in 1921, was the large supply disposed 
of. During the period 1914-24 an increasing 
interest was manifested in cotton culture. In 
1920 only 166 acres were under cotton; in 1923, 
the estimated acreage was 40,000. Bounties 
and a fixed price aided in the encouragement 
of the industry. There were bounties, too, on 
rice, coffee, cigar tobacco leaf, fibres, oil, dried 
fruits, sugar, and combed wool for export. See 
also RECLAMATION, LAND. 

Minerals. The gold production continued 
steadily to decline, dropping in value from $45,- 
570,244 in 1913 to $15,429,734 in 1921. The 
same was true of silver and lead (1913, $22.,- 
924,566; 1921, $6,822,164), copper (1913, $15,- 
888,482; 1921, $3,563,115), and tin (1913, $6,- 
791,737 and 1921, $1,846,840). All these were 


The origin of imports showed interesting changes 
over the period. For 1911, 1919, and 1921-22, 
the percentages from the United Kingdom were 
59, 37, and 51; from British possessions, 12.8, 
22.1, and 13.6, according to estimates; from the 
United States, 11.5, 27.3, and 19. It is evident . 
that the gains made by the United States dur- 
ing the War could not be entirely maintained. 
In the following commodities, first place was 
maintained by that nation in 1921-22: patent 
leathers, agricultural implements and machin- 
ery, motor cars, hardware, ironmongery, surgi- 
cal instruments, linoleum, arms and munitions, 
and clocks. Exports were similarly appor- 
tioned for 1913 and 1920-21: United Kingdom, 
44.3 and 51.1 per cent; British possessions, 12.6 
and 19.7 per cent; and the United States, 3.3 


AUSTRALIA mess 


and 7.5 per cent. Nothing indicated better how 
well Australian trade held its own than the 
tonnage figures for the period. In 1911, 4,993,- 
220 tons entered as compared with 4,559,964 
tons in 1921-22; and 4,991,581 tons cleared 
Australian ports in 191] as. compared with 4,- 
520,909 in 1921-22. On June 30, 1923, the 
Commonwealth possessed 49 steamships of 252,- 
524 gross tons, valued at £14,156,938; the first 
purchase was made in 1916. In August, 1923, 
a Federal Shipping Board was created to take 
over management. 

Communications. From the 17,842 miles of 
lines in the Commonwealth in 1912, of which 
16,898 miles were government-owned, railways 
increased to 25,956 miles (23,147 miles govern- 
ment-owned) in 1921-22. The leading difficulty 
confronting the Commonwealth was the variety 
of gauges in use. It was decided during the 
period to adopt a single standard gauge of 4 
feet 814 inches, but the cost was so great ($277,- 
000,000) that the work had to be deferred. 
Inasmuch as many of the railways were for de- 
velopmental purposes, operating expenses con- 
tinued to exceed revenues. The loss in opera- 
ting the Commonwealth railways for 1920-21 
was £455,200; while the loss to the state rail- 
ways for the same year was reported as £4,013,- 
146. A transcontinental railway from North to 
South, over 1000 miles in length, was under 
construction. Something of the progress made 
in railway building may be ascertained from 
the activities of a single year, 1922-23, i.e. 
miles of railway under construction and author- 
ized in the different states: Victoria, 52 and 
12; New South Wales, 783 and 100; Queens- 
land, 552 and 1423; South Australia, 139 and 
29, Western Australia, 136 and 229. By 1923, 
143 miles had been electrified in Victoria, and 
Sydney was applying itself to the same task. 
Another interesting development was the work 
on a subway in the city of Sydney, at a cost of 
£5,000,000. 

Finance. For 1911-12, revenues for the Com- 
monwealth were £20,548,520, and expenditures 
£14,724,097. For 1921-22, these had reached 
£64,897,046 (revenues) and £77,930,426 (ex- 
penditures); and for 1923-24 revenues were 
estimated at £54,688,250 and expenditures at 
£54,641,098. An analysis of the 1921-22 budg- 
et reveals the changed character of govern- 
ment financing. Whereas before the War about 
two-thirds of the revenue was derived from 
customs, in the later year the proportions 
were: customs, 26.6 per cent; income tax, 26 
per cent; excise tax, 16 per cent; land tax, 
3.5 per cent; war-time profits tax, 2 per cent. 
The debts of the Commonwealth and the states 
increased enormously because of the War. 
In 1914 the total debt of the Commonwealth 
and states was £337,000,000; by June 30, 1923, 
the Commonwealth public debt was £410,996,316, 
and those of the states, £523,489,339. In fact, 
- the total war expenditure for the seven years 
ending June 30, 1922, was £477,498,000, of 
which £135,340,000 was charged against rev- 
enue, while the remainder came from loans. 
Before the War (1906-13), the Commonwealth 
borrowed, for productive purposes, £3,401,237; 
during 1914-21, £12,656,407 was borrowed to- 
ward the same end. For the same periods, state 
borrowings totaled £88,471,724 and £146,295,100. 
The Commonwealth Bank, opened in 1913, had 
in 1921, £70,705,875 in deposits. On July 31, 
1922, the Commonwealth had in circulation 


AUSTRALIA 


£53,390,809 in notes, against which the gold 
reserve was 44.08 per cent of the total. 
History. The year of the War’s outbreak 
saw the installation of a Labor government in 
Australia. Mr. Cook’s ministry had worked 
under the handicap of a Labor majority in the 
Senate since 1913, with the result that the new 
problems of war and Labor’s increasing inde- 
pendence forced the dissolution of Parliament. 
In the elections of September, 1914, Labor’s vic- 
tory was impressive, the poll showing 41 seats 
to 33 for the Liberals in the lower house and 31 
seats to 5 in the upper. Mr. Fisher now headed 
the cabinet. Under W. M. Hughes, who suc- 
eeeded in October, 1915, Australia assumed a 
place of prominence in imperial if not in inter- 
national affairs, for Australia was _ being 
watched with growing attention. Under Mr. 
Hughes’s direction, Australia, once so complete- 
ly indifferent to the purposes of imperialism, 
became the veritable storm-centre of imperial 
politics and presented the curious spectacle of 
a country, in spite of its distance from the main 
theatre of the War, rent by international dis- 
sensions. In all this the premier was the focal 
point. From 1915 to 1922 it may be said that 
his personality dominated the affairs of the 
Commonwealth. In 1916, on his’ return from 
England, he showed himself a die-hard, in spite 
of his Labor antecedents. His policy, plainly 
announced, called for a war waged to the finish; 
compulsory military service for home defense 
and overseas operations; imperial trade protec- 
tion, and a closer imperial partnership. To Mr. 
Hughes it appeared that Australia’s war effort 
was languishing, and that only the energetic 
measure of conscription could remedy the fault. 
At the outbreak of the War, Australia had 
seemed the most loyal of all the dominions. 
In September, 1914, an expedition had been 
equipped and despatched to German New 
Guinea and there had met with an easy and in- 
stantaneous success: Before the month was 
out, German New Guinea, German Samoa, and 
the Bismarck Archipelago were all in Australas- 
ian hands. Australians, in a steady stream, 
had left the country to fight at Gallipoli, in 
France, and in Palestine. But by 1916, it was 
plain that voluntary enlistments were diminish- 
ing. In June and July these were totaling only 
6000 monthly. It was, therefore, to get out the 
300,000 troops he had promised London that 
Mr. Hughes decided to resort to a conscription 
referendum. And it was here, too, that he met 


an organized opposition and was compelled to — 


part company with his old party and evem see 
himself expelled from it. The bitter campaign 
which preceded the vote showed that Labor was 
unalterably opposed. Four colleagues resigned 
before the balloting started. When the vote 
was finally announced, it was seen that con- 
scription had been defeated: 1,146,000 against 
and 1,085,000 for. Around these two elements, 
therefore, the subsequent political struggles 
were to gather. On one side was the increasing 
intransigency of Labor; on the other was the 
fixed determination of Mr. Hughes and the con- 
scriptionists to see the War through to a suc- 
cessful conclusion. In February, 1917, Hughes- 
ites and Liberals constituted a coalition gov- 
ernment under the name Nationalist party, 
with Mr. Hughes as premier. In the general 
elections of May 5, 1917, the Nationalist party 
was returned, but with reduced majorities. 
Labor was recalcitrant. Strikes, which had be- 


; 
; 


AUSTRALIA 


come frequent in 1916, took on a virulent form 
in 1917; many of them were protracted. For 
instance, the railway men of New South Wales 
went out in 1917 for six weeks and involved 
thousands of workers in allied _ industries. 
Nothing showed this temper better than the de- 
cisiveness with which Mr. Hughes’ second con- 
scription referendum was defeated in December, 
1917. The majority this time was almost 200,- 
000; that ‘in New South Wales alone was 140,- 
000. Thenceforth Labor’s tone was almost rev- 
olutionary. Mr. Hughes steadily refused to 
resign in the face of his promise to regard the 
referendum vote as a test of confidence. Labor, 
in retaliation, issued a manifesto stigmatizing 
the War as of capitalist origin and calling for 
an immediate peace conference on the basis of 
evacuation of territories and self-determination; 
refused to codperate in the speeding up of re- 
cruiting; and in June, 1918, at its annual con- 
vention, passed resolutions demanding an im- 
mediate cessation of hostilities. In the same 
month the important Australian Labor Confer- 
ence met to congratulate Russia on the success 
of her revolution and to present a programme of 
peace terms as far-reaching as that of the Brit- 
ish Labor Party. On this hostile note the War 
came to a conclusion. 

For her size and resources, Australia’s war 
effort was extraordinary. Recruiting brought 
417,574 men under arms; of these 329,682 saw 
overseas service. Australians fought in France, 
at Gallipoli, and in the Near East. The small 
Australian fleet had been active, as witness the 
destruction of the Hmden by the Sydney. Cas- 
ualties showed 58,471 killed and died, 4264 
prisoners, and 150,241 wounded. The attitude 
toward the returned solider was generous Em- 
ployment was found for 121,339 ex-service men 
up to April, 1922, and of these, 22,444 were set- 
tled on the land, at a cost to the Commonwealth 
of £31,513,130. Besides, the Reparation De- 
partment provided pensions for 222,537 men, 
while £30,000,000 was distributed in gratuities. 
As far as the Commonwealth was concerned, 
the War cost £288,000,000. The country was 
organized for war service at home, too. Two 
measures, a National Defense Act and the War 
Precautions Act, provided for the calling of the 
full man power for local service, in the first 
case, and in the second, for the transference of 
every activity to a war basis. Under this dis- 
pensation the government proceeded to fix 
prices in every state, introduce a moratorium 
in the interest of debtors, and establish pools 
for leading products. Legislation, on every con- 
ceivable subject, could be put through by the 
mere gazetting of a regulation. As a result of 
this prerogative, two important tendencies man- 
ifested themselves. The government at times 
assumed arbitrary powers, interfering in free- 
dom of speech and assembly and going so far in 
1920 as to check a labor strike. Again, opera- 
ting under the same act, it aided in the creation 
of a wheat pool (1915) and a wool pool (1916) 
for the handling and marketing of these com- 
modities which played so important a part in 
the country’s economic well-being. Wheat, for 
the five seasons of 1915-20, was sold largely to 
Great Britain, and 500,000,000 bushels were 
handled in this way. As for wool, in the four 
seasons 1916-20, 2,280,000,000 pounds were dis- 
posed of. The wool pool, under another form, 
a company called the British-Australian Wool 
Realization Association, succeeded in disposing 


121 AUSTRALIA 


of the heavy carry-over stocks by 1922, so that 
even a profit accrued to the Australian growers. 
The result of all this was a very perceptible air 
of prosperity during 1916-20. Banks declared 
increased dividends and enlarged their capital; 
Australian companies sought investments 


abroad; and the annual agricultural shows were 


attended by record-breaking crowds. 

At the Peace Conference Mr. Hughes dis- 
played an extreme imperialistic attitude, and 
curiously enough, won the commendation of 
Englishmen rather than of Australians. His 
advocacy of a White Australia, through his ob- 
jection to the Japanese amendment to the 
League of Nations covenant for the acceptance 
of the principle of racial equality, and his firm- 
ness with Germany, gave him an imperial rep- 
utation, while his position at home steadily 
weakened. Australians were beginning once 
more to display a greater concern over their 
local affairs, and their apathy with regard to 
larger issues was marked. In the period 1919- 
24, these matters were to the fore: Australian 
unification; the position of labor; economic and 
financial reconstruction During the war pe- 
riod, but more particularly after, a large group 
of the population sought an aggrandizement of 
the Commonwealth’s powers at the expense of 
the several states. During the War, the need 
for central agencies for the regulation of trade, 
commerce, prices, etc., was plainly perceptible, 
and Mr. Hughes was the leading advocate of 
centralization through the agency of constitu- 
tional amendments. But war measures gave 
him the powers he demanded, so that as the 
War progressed his interest diminished. From 
1918 on, Labor became the leading champion of 
the movement; a powerful central government 
could more nearly control industry, effect com- 
mon treatment of wage problems, and bring na- 
tionalization of key industries closer to realiza- 
tion. The result was that in the elections of 
December, 1919, Labor took its stand wholly on 
two referenda whose purpose was the incorpora- 
tion of constitutional amendments aiming at 
such centralization. The measures were de-° 
feated, but agitation continued unchecked. 
Again, the post-war period showed a tightening 
of the lines of conflict in the body politic. Up 
to 1919, by the acceptance of the principle of a 
white Australia, the championing of a high 
protective tariff, and the favorable reception 
accorded the work of the Commonwealth Court 
of Conciliation, Labor had made a direct bid 
for middle-class support. The leading force 
was the Australian Workers’ Union, organized 
like the American Federation of Labor on craft 
lines, and this body consistently applied itself 
to the formation of political programmes that 
could give offense to neither small shopkeepers 
nor small farmers. But the growing affluence 
of one section of the community, its increasing 
conservatism, and its hostility to the workers, 
gave impetus to a new radicalism. Industrial 
action rather than political gained currency, so 
that in 1919 the Left Wing of New South Wales 
Labor split off from the Australian Labor Party 
to champion the idea of the one big union. The 
creed became so popular that at the 1921 con- 
ference of the Australian Labor party, a plain 
attempt was made to win back the insurgents 
through the adoption of a radical programme. 
Industrial unionism was endorsed, the socializa- 
tion of industry advocated, and the stamp of 
approval given a doctrine that was altogether 


AUSTRALIA I22 


Marxian in its insistence upon class loyalty. 
Nor was Labor the only group to stress class 
feeling. The farmers, in 1919, for the first time 
entered the political scene with a party of their 
own, the Country party, and began to play an 
important role in the post-war elections. Their 
special concern was to combat the Socialist pro- 
posals of the Labor party and to oppose the 
further extension of the eight-hour day. Very 
perceptible hostilities thus appeared. The 
workers continued to flout the rulings of the 
Court of Conciliation, went on strike frequently, 
and demanded the establishment of a_ basic 
wage throughout the Commonwealth. On the 
other hand industry looked askance at the 
Court, too, for its inability to level down wages 
in times of stringency, as in 1921 and 1922. 
This profound disagreement was shown in the 
failure of the Economic Conference of February, 
1922, to bring to a truce the two contending 


parties. Even Mr. Hughes, usually sanguine, 
confessed the inadequacy of the existing ma- 
chinery. 

Politics reflected these antipathies. Mr. 


Hughes was confronted by three hostile parties. 
Lahor, the Liberals, and the Country Group. He 
decided, therefore, to hasten the general elections, 
and on Dee. 10, 1922, he went to the country on 
the record of his Nationalist administration dur- 
ing its six years in power. The results showed, 
in the lower House, 27 Nationalists, 29 Labor, 
14 Country, 4 Liberal; in the upper, an increase 
of 11 seats for Labor to eight for the National- 
ists. Mr. Hughes was discredited, and five of 
his ministers were defeated, so that on Feb. 3, 
1923, he resigned. A new government was 
formed as a result of a Nationalist-Country- 
Liberal coalition, with Stanley M. Bruce as 
premier. The prevalence of new men was shown 
by the fact that seven cabinet members had had 
no previous Parliamentary experience, while Mr. 
Bruce had first been elected to Parliament in 
1918, and Mr. Page, the Country leader, in 
1919. The administration’s programme _ ac- 
cepted the necessity for unification in labor 
‘ matters, taxation, and public works develop- 
ment, and advocated a strong defense programme 
and greater application to the problems of im- 
migration and land settlement. Little of this 
was realized by 1924, for the government’s lead- 
ing concern was the keeping of Labor from 
power. In this they were temporarily success- 
ful, but early in 1924 the Country party ceased 
to support the Nationalist-Liberal coalition in 
state elections, and thus permitted Labor vic- 
tories in Queensland, Tasmania, and West Aus- 
tralia. In the broader sphere of imperial pol- 
itics, Premier Bruce showed himself no whit 
less aggressive than his: predecessor. Represent- 
ing Australia in the Imperial Conference which 
met at London in October, 1923, Mr. Bruce 
made an outspoken plea for the adoption by the 
mother country of a protective preferential 
tariff which would give Australian and other 
colonial producers of meat and grain an ad- 
vantage over American exporters, who, he de- 
elared, were driving Australian growers out of 
business. On May 9, 1921, Australia established 
its civil administration in the former German 
possessions of Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land (German 
New Guinea), Bismarck Archipelago, and the 
Solomon Islands, which had been assigned to 
Australia by the League of Nations under a 
Class C mandate, dated Dec. 17, 1920. The 
mandate permitted the Commonwealth to. ex- 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


tend its laws to the mandated territory, but 
not to establish fortifications there. The gover- 
nors-general over the period reviewed were: 
Sir R. Munro-Ferguson (1914-20) and Lord 
Forster (1920- ). See also NAVIES OF THE 
WORLD. 

Economic Conditions. In 1910, there were 
482 trade unions with 302,119 members. Dur- 
ing the War the increase was steady, so that in 
1920, the 388 unions in existence had 684,540 
members. The inability of the Conciliation 
Courts to cope with labor unrest is revealed by 
the following figures: 


Year Strikes Workers Days Lost 
Engaged 

Koh is} SS AB Geom cic 208 33,493 623,528 

OM Nimmre eds \ecsteis shel ere 444 173,970 4,599,658 

OMG Rete cis. 5 ele tete ae 460 LS T0901 6,308,226 

LO Thain Siete shel oleae 359 104,833 1,030,271 


The war period, in particular, was characterized 
by strikes of long duration, many of them aimed 
at the government. In 1917, there were strikes 
among the railroad workers, the wharf laborers, 
and the seamen. In 1920, the teachers of 
Western Australia joined forces with the civil 
servants and went on strike to force a higher 
wage. The miners of the Broken Hill Associa- 
tion were out from May, 1919, to November, 
1920. Prosperity was general during the pe- 
riod up to 1921, when the world depression 
made its mark on Australian industry, too. 
Prices rose during 1919, 1920, and 1921, to 
186.33, on the index figures of 100 for 1914, 
but by 1922, they had dropped to 154. Wages 
were readjusted accordingly, and, in fact, re- 
mained higher in 1922 than prices. See Ex- 
PLORATION. 

AUSTRALIA, Earty PEopLes or. See 
ETHNOGRAPHY. 

AUSTRIA, Lower. A province of the Repub- 
lic of Austria: In 1910 it had an area of 
7654.4 square miles and a population of 3,531,- 
814. In 1923, its area was 7451 square miles 
and its population 1,478,697. See AUSTRIAN 
REPUBLIC. 

AUSTRIA, Upper. <A province of the Re- 
public of Austria. Its area in 1910 and 1923 
was 4626.3 square miles. Its population in 
1910 was 853,006; in 1923, 873,702. See Avus- 
TRIAN REPUBLIC. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, or THE AUSTRO- 
HUNGARIAN Monarcuy. In October, 1918, the 
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy collapsed. Out of 
its former constituent elements, the Austrian 
Empire and the Hungarian Monarchy, emerged 
a group of succession states whose territories 
were made up in whole or in part of the old 
Austrian and Hungarian provinces. Of these 
succession states, the following were formed en- 
tirely of Austrian and Hungarian territories: 
The Republic of Austria, the Kingdom of Hun- 
gary, and the Republic of Czecho-Slovakia. 
The new states of Poland, Jugo-Slavia, were 
formed, in part, of Austro-Hungarian territo- 
ries. (See HunaAry, CZEcHO-SLOVAKIA, Po- 
LAND, JUGO-SLAVIA, as well as RUMANIA and 
ITaLty, which also made territorial gains as a 
result of the dissolution of the Dual Monarchy, 
and TIROL, GERMAN SOUTH; KLAGENFURT BaA- 
SIN, BURGENLAND, ‘FIUME-ADRIATIC CONTRO- 
VERSY, BANAT, TRANSYLVANIA, GALICIA, and 
TESCHEN, ZIPS, AND ORAVA, scenes of territori- 
al disputes arising out of the peace treaties.) 
In the article below will be found these discus- 


ee a 


—— see? ee a 


Fo te 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


sions: foreign policy of Austria-Hungary dur- 
ing the years 1914-18 (which is based to some 
extent on the researches and writings of the 
well-known Austrian historian, A. F. Pribram, 
notably his Austrian Foreign Policy, 1908-18 ; 
internal political history of the Austrian Em- 
pire, 1914-18; Economic history of the Austri- 
an Empire, 1914-18. There is also an account 
of the history of the Austrian Republic, 1918- 
24. Hungary, 1914-24, is treated under the ti- 
tle HUNGARY. 

Foreign Policy of Austria-Hungary, 1914- 
18. As a result of the Balkan Wars the 
Dual Monarchy suffered considerable loss of 
prestige. The weakening of its position in the 
Balkans, and the triumph of Serbia in the sec- 
ond Balkan War, were circumstances as unfa- 
vorable to the security of the Habsburg mon- 
archy as they were favorable to the develop- 
ment of a violently anti-Serbian and anti-Slavic 
policy at Vienna, where it was keenly realized 
that among the 24,000,000 Slavic subjects of 
the Emyperor-King no small number sympa- 
thized with Pan-Serbian and Pan-Slavie aims. 
In Serbia, the Viennese statesmen saw a direct 
menace to the Jugo-Slav provinces of Bosnia, 
Croatia-Slavonia, Dalmatia, and Carniola; and 
behind Serbian-Jugo-Slavy nationalism they fan- 
cied they perceived a menacing Russian Pan- 
Slavic design which, if not balked, would cul- 
minate in the dismemberment of the polyglot 
Danubian monarchy. To regain prestige and 
influence in the Balkans seemed vitally neces- 
sary. But Austro-Hungarian diplomacy tried 
in vain to compose agreements between Bulga- 
ria on the one hand and Rumania, Turkey, and 
possibly Greece, on the other. These efforts 
proved fruitless because of the divergent in- 
terests and the mutual distrust of the Balkan 
states. In fact they served to estrange Ru- 
mania and Bulgaria from Vienna, as the rap- 
prochement between Rumania and_ Russia 
showed, following the meeting of King Charles 
and Czar Nicholas at Constanza on June 14, 
1914. The treaty between Bulgaria and Turk- 


ey fell through, and so did the compromise ~ 


between Rumania and Bulgaria and the at- 
tempt to bind Greece closer to the Triple Alli- 
ance. These difficulties were aggravated still 
more by the fact that Berlin and Vienna dis- 
agreed as to the service which the respective 
Balkan states would be able to render to the 
Triple Alliance. Berlin held that Bulgaria 
should be sacrificed to Rumania, while Vienna 
feared that in case Rumania should refuse to 
consider such a proposal, it would be confronted 
at some future time by a solid Balkan bloc un- 
der the leadership of Russia. Count Berchtold 
succeeded finally in convincing Berlin of the 
soundness of the Vienna viewpoint, and from 
March, 1914, the fundamental aim of the Bal- 
kan policy of the Central Powers was to bring 
Bulgaria entirely into their camp. At _ the 
same time the relations between the Dual Mon- 
archy and Italy grew steadily colder, and al- 
though in the Conference of Abbazia, San Giuli- 
ano and Berchtold came to an agreement in 
April, 1914, it became clearer every day that 
soon the growing sympathy of the Italians for 
the Entente would seriously endanger the 
Triple Alliance. Vienna’s apprehensions in re- 
gard to Italy and the ever-increasing influence 
of the Entente in that country were allayed, 
however, by the knowledge that negotiations 
were going on between the English and the 


123 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


Germans for the establishment of more amica- 
ble relations. These efforts were heartily sec- 
onded by Count Mensdorf, the Austro-Hunga- 
rian Ambassador in London. Meanwhile Vien- 
na believed that France and Russia had suc- 
ceeded in creating a Balkan League and under 
that impression Konrad von Hétzendorf, chief 
of the general staff, drew up on June 22, 1914, 
a memorandum in which he painted the Balkan 
situation as very dark for Austria-Hungary 
and requested that Rumania be compelled to 
commit herself for or against the Central Pow- 
ers and that in the latter case an alliance be 
formed with Bulgaria. A similar memoran- 
dum was prepared by Foreign Minister Berch- 
told for Berlin; in this the imperative need 
for the formation of a Balkan League, not in- 
cluding Serbia, and under the leadership of 
the Central Powers, was stressed. Before this 
memorandum could be presented, events oc- 
curred which immediately changed the entire 
situation. On June 23, 1914, Francis Ferdi- 
nand, the Austro-Hungarian heir to the throne, 
and his consort were assassinated at Sarajevo 
in Bosnia. The resulting Austro-Hungarian 
ultimatum to Serbia, and the outbreak of the 
War are described elsewhere (See WAR IN Eu- 
ROPE). The above-described policy was of 
prime importance in bringing the War to pass. 
In taking a gambler’s chance of crushing Serbia 
without Russian intervention, the _ reckless 
Berchtold was opposed by saner statesmen, no- 
tably Count Tisza, chief spokesman of the Hun- 
garian ruling class. 

Italy (q.v.) refused active aid to Austria- 
Hungary in her struggle with Serbia on the 
ground that her treaty did not oblige her to, 
but she raised the question of future compen- 
sation, a request which was granted by Vienna 
under pressure from Berlin, with the proviso 
that Italy would fulfill her treaty obligations. 
Italy denied again that a casus foderis ex- 
isted and remained neutral. Likewise Ruma- 
nia failed to join the Central Powers, although 
she was promised Bessarabia. Rumania main- 
tained that her construction of her treaty ob- 
ligations did not warrant the abandonment of 
her neutrality. The Central Powers were more 
successful in regard to Turkey. The Austro- 
Hungarian Foreign Office supported all prom- 
ises and concessions made by Germany to 
Turkey in the early weeks of the War for the 
purpose of inducing the latter to enter the 
camp of the Central Powers. All efforts on the 
part of Austria-Hungary, to have Bulgaria take 
an active part in the War against Serbia, so 
that her own armies might be released to meet 
the ever-growing pressure from the Russians on 
the eastern front, remained fruitless, because 
Ferdinand of Bulgaria was too clever to com- 
mit himself, until the military superiority of 
the Central Powers should be definitely estab- 
lished. Moreover, the Austro-Hungarian  re- 
verses had a bad effect in Sofia and especially 
in Bucharest, where Entente influences were 
growing steadily. Advice from Berlin in favor 
of territorial concessions to Rumania and later 
counsel not to oppose a march of Rumanian 
troops into Transylvania were strongly op- 
posed by the Hungarians and hence not heeded 
by Berchtold. After the death of King Charles 
of Rumania on Oct. 10, 1914, the Rumanian sit- 
uation became even more unsatisfactory, for 
Ferdinand, the new king, was less friendly to 
the Central Powers than his uncle had _ been, 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


and although he remained neutral, he would 
not bind himself to an agreement not to march 
against the Central Powers, in spite of all ef- 
forts made in this direction by Count Czernin, 
the able Austro-Hungarian Minister in Bucha- 
rest. Meanwhile the negotiations with Sofia ad- 
vanced or lagged in accordance with the mili- 
tary victories or reverses of the Central Powers. 
Although in the beginning of 1915, Vienna, in 
conjunction with Berlin, was ready to grant the 
far-reaching territorial demands of Bulgaria, 
provided the latter country entered the War on 
the side of the Central Powers, Ferdinand of 
Bulgaria decided to remain neutral for the time 
being in view of the unfavorable military situ- 
ation. During the remainder of 1914, Italy 
maintained her neutrality as well as cordial re- 
lations with the Entente. At the same time, 
the Italian government pressed its demands for 
territorial concessions and hinted at the Tren- 
tino. To this neither Berchtold nor Tisza, the 
Hungarian Premier, would listen, even though 
Berlin and the military leaders of the Dual 
Monarchy urged the purchase of Italian neutral- 
ity through such sacrifices. A few months after 
the death of San Giuliano, on Oct. 16, 1914, the 
situation became more critical. Regardless of 
Berchtold’s previous refusals, Baron Sonnino, 
the new Italian Foreign Minister, let Vienna 
know plainly in December, 1914, all previous 
approaches in this direction having been made 


through Berlin as intermediary, that territori- . 


al concessions on the part of Austria-Hungary 
were desired by Italy as compensation. for 
her future neutrality. New negotiations began 


thereupon between Rome and Vienna in the 


middle of December, but Berchtold still refused 
to consider the Italian demands. On Jan. 13, 
1915, Count Berchtold was replaced by Baron 
Burian. In view of seemingly unfavorable mil- 
itary and diplomatic circumstances and under 
strong pressure from Germany, Burian opened 
in March, 1915, new negotiations with Italy, 
in the course of which the latter demanded ex- 
tensive territorial concessions and the imme- 
diate transfer of the ceded districts. The lat- 
ter demand was flatly rejected by Burian, but 
Italy was offered the major part of German 
South Tirol. This Sonnino refused to accept, 
and he presented on Apr. 10, 1915, a memoran- 
dum in which Italy demanded the whole of 
South Tirol, Gorizia, and Gradisca, and made a 
number of other requests, the fulfillment of 
which would have amounted in substance to 
the establishment of Italian supremacy in the 
Adriatic. Italy would promise neutrality for 
the duration of the War in return for these 
concessions. Due to the grave military situa- 
tion at the time, Burian did not directly re- 
fuse these exorbitant demands but strove to 
keep the negotiations open and gradually in- 
creased his offers. His efforts were frustrated, 
however, by the conclusion of the Treaty of 
London on Apr. 26, 1915, under which Italy 
bound herself to join the Entente within a 
month. On May 3, 1915, Italy decided to de- 


clare its alliance with Austria-Hungary dis- - 


solved. Vienna was now willing to grant the 
full demands of the Italians, but without avail, 
for Italy declared war on the Dual Monarchy 
on May 23, 1915. For the subsequent develop- 
ments of this territorial problem see TrRot, 
GERMAN SOUTH. 

Vienna’s tardy willingness to make great sac- 
rifices for the sake of an. understanding: with 


124 


Bulgaria pledged herself to enter the 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


Italy had to a large extent been determined by 
the knowledge that Italy’s declaration of war 
would ultimately be followed by that of Ru- 
mania, since on Feb. 6, 1915, the agreement of 
September, 1914, between Italy and Rumania 
had been renewed and had received an addi- 
tional stipulation whereby the two countries 
pledged themselves to mutual assistance in case 
of an unprovoked attack on the part of Austria- 
Hungary on either one. As a result of the ne- 
gotiations between Rome and Vienna, Bucha- 
rest had immediately increased its demands, 
which included now Transylvania in addition 
to the Bukovina. Vienna’s refusal of these de- 
mands strengthened the influence of the En- 
tente in Bucharest still further. The situation 
seemed critical for the Dual Monarchy, when 
suddenly the news of the great victory at 
Gorlice, May 2, 1915, arrived. This tremen- 
dous military success, and the subsequent 
events in Galicia and Poland during the sum- 
mer of 1915, were powerful factors in helping 
the Rumanians to decide on neutrality for the 
time being. The Rumanian horizon cleared up, 
the Central Powers turned their chief attention 
to Bulgaria, for Turkey’s lack of arms and am- 
munition made the establishment of direct land 
communication with that country necessary. 
During the first half of 1915 the Bulgarians 
had been continually negotiating with both the 
Central Powers and the Entente. Under the 
influence of the victories the prospects of the 
Central Powers in Sofia became much brighter, 
and on Sept. 6, 1915, treaties were signed be- 
tween Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria, whereby 
war 
against Serbia and was promised in return the 
whole of what is to-day Serbian Macedonia. 
It was further provided that, in case Rumania 
and Greece should enter the War on the Allies’ 
side, Bulgaria should receive the territories 
ceded by her to these states under the Treaty 
of Bucharest (1913). With the conquest of 
Russian Poland in the summer of 1915, the 
Central Powers were confronted with the seri- 
ous problem of the final disposition of that 
country. Various solutions advanced, such as 
the return of Poland to Russia, division of Po- 
land between Germany and Austria-Hungary, 
annexation of the whole country by either one, 
or the creation of an independent Polish state 
under the tutelage of the Central Powers, were 
acceptable to neither. No agreement could be 
reached, till the defeat of the troops of the Dual 
Monarchy in the Brussiloff offensive of August, 
1916, gave the German proposal for the crea- 
tion of an independent state the preponderance. 
Still no definite steps were taken. A proclama- 
tion on Nov. 5, 1916, promised to the Poles the 
restoration of an independent Poland under a 
hereditary monarchy. Meanwhile the divided 
administration of the country by the Germans 
in Warsaw and the Austro-Hungarians in Lub- 
lin continued. 

During 1916 the Central Powers carried on 
continuous negotiations with Rumania. Their 
offers, which were conditional on Rumania’s en- 
trance into the War on their side, were re- 
fused by the Rumanian statesmen, who were 
at. the most prepared to concede only neutral- 
ity. Germany and the Austro-Hungarian High 
Command urged far-reaching concessions in 
the Bukovina and Transylvania, but Burian 
and the Hungarians were not willing to con- 
sider such proposals. At the same time the in- 


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fluence of the Entente in Bucharest grew 
stronger all the time and the Austro-Hungarian 
defeats in Russia in August, 1916, served to 
strengthen the conviction of the Rumanians 
that the ultimate superiority in the War lay 
with the Allies. Burian continued his’ stead- 
fast refusal to grant the Rumanian demands 
and at the end of August, 1916, an agreement 
was concluded between the Allies and Rumania 
whereupon the latter, on August 27, entered the 
War against the Central Powers. In order to 
allay Turkish fears growing out of Rumania’s 
entrance into the War, Germany concluded two 
agreements with Turkey on Jan. 11 and on Nov. 
27, 1917, which provided for the abolition of 
the capitulations. The Dual Monarchy _hes- 
itated for a long time to come to similar 
agreements with Turkey, and only on Mar. 30, 
1918, was a treaty signed between Turkey and 
Austria-Hungary under which the latter bound 
herself not to sign any peace re-establishing the 
eapitulations. The weariness of the Austro- 
Hungarian people, who had suffered more from 
the War and were in a much weaker condition 
than their German allies, induced the Vienna 
government to address itself to Berlin in the 
fall of 1916 with the proposal to inquire 
through neutral channels whether the Allies 
were prepared for a discussion of peace. Ger- 
many objected, and for a time there was a live- 
ly exchange of opinion between the two govern- 
ments. Finally an agreement was reached. 
Emperor Francis Joseph had died meanwhile, 
and Charles had ascended the throne. The lat- 
ter was determined on the conclusion of a peace 
satisfactory to both sides. On Dec. 12, 1916, 
the Quadruple Alliance made its peace offer, 
proposing a conference of the Powers. Austria- 
Hungary at this time was ready to conclude a 
peace which left her territory intact and gave 
her minor frontier rectifications. The offer 
was met on Jan. 12, 1917, by the answer of 
the Allies to President Wilson’s peace pro- 
posal. Thereupon Germany started her cam- 
paign of submarine warfare. Neither Count 
Czernin, who in the meantime had become Aus- 
tro-Hungarian Foreign Minister, nor Emperor 
Charles entertained the sanguine hopes which 
the Germans placed on this policy, and they 
gave their consent to it only under pressure 
from the German statesmen and generals, and 
the Emperor. Czernin, in fact, pointed out the 
danger of war with the United States. While 
war broke out between Germany and the United 
States on Apr. 5, 1917, the United States did 
not declare war on Austria-Hungary until Dec. 
7, 1917. As the results of unlimited subma- 
rine warfare fell short of expectation, Emperor 
Charles on Mar. 24, 1917, through his brother- 
in-law, Prince Sixtus of Bourbon-Parma, pro- 
posed peace pourparlers and assured France of 
Austrian support for her “just claims” on 
Alsace-Lorraine. On Mar. 27, 1917, Count 
Czernin, who knew the substance of the offer, 
but not the text, signed an agreement with the 
German Chancellor which contained a minimum 
and maximum programme for peace neither one 
of which provided for ceding Alsace-Lorraine 
to France. On Apr. 3, 1917, and repeatedly 
afterwards, Count Czernin approached the Ger- 
man Emperor and his statesmen with a peace 
proposal which suggested possible cession of 
Alsace-Lorraine to France, and, as compensa- 
tion for this sacrifice, the annexation of Poland 
to Germany. Such a proposal the Germans re- 


125 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


fused to consider. Shortly thereafter the Prince 
Sixtus move came to naught, because the Ital- 
ians insisted on territorial concessions as prom- 
ised by the London Treaty, which Austria-Hun- 
gary was not prepared to grant at this time. 
Under these circumstances Emperor Charles 
and Czernin concluded, on May 17-18, 1917, an 
agreement with Germany which provided for 
large Austro-Hungarian annexations in the 
Balkans, and, on the fulfillment of these condi- 
tions, for the surrender of Austro-Hungarian 
interests in Poland to Germany. Czernin, how- 
ever, during the remainder of 1917, continued 
his efforts in various directions toward a peace 
by agreement, but without result. 

A ray of light appeared with the Bolshevik 
ascent to power in the East. The new Russian 
government issued a summons for a general 
peace, and on the refusal of the Entente to con- 
sider it, began peace negotiations with the 
Quadruple Alliance on Jan. 9, 1918. Various 
difficulties arose, some of which led to the con- 
clusion of Feb. 9, 1918, of a separate peace be- 
tween the Ukrainians and the Quadruple Alli- 
ance. Under this peace the Austro-Hungarian 
frontiers remained unchanged, but the Dual 
Monarchy promised to surrender the district of 
Cholm, in Russian Poland, for incorporation in- 
to the Ukrainian Republic, and to make Galicia 
an autonomous Austrian Crownland. After 
further difficulties with the Soviet delegates, 
in which Czernin was often at variance with 
the German spokesmen and which brought 
about a temporary renewal of the war with 
Russia, a peace treaty was signed on Mar. 3, 
1918, at Brest-Litovsk. From this peace the 
Dual Monarchy received no territorial enlarge- 
ment. Poland having become an independent 
state under the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, the Pol- 
ish question came up once more. The decision 
of the previous year, to leave Poland to Ger- 
many, was abandoned, and Charles and Czernin 
advocated in its stead the Austro-Polish solu- 
tion, which provided for the incorporation of 
Poland in Austria-Hungary. This scheme was 
opposed by the German government, which 
would merely consent to a personal union be- 
tween Poland and the Dual Monarchy. This 
latter proposal Vienna refused to accept. The 
Poles made skillful use of this disagreement 
between the two Powers and obtained the signa- 
ture of the latter to a protocol providing for a 
future rectification of the frontier between 
Poland and the Ukraine. Count Hertling, the 
German Chancellor, advised Vienna in July, 
1918, that Germany would not accept the Aus- 
tro-Polish solution and would leave it to the 
Poles to choose their form of government, pro- 
vided that they came beforehand to an agree- 
ment with the Central Powers. Vienna ac- 
cepted in principle, but succeeding negotiations 
failed to bring a solution. The peace with 
Russia led also to the signing of the Peace 
Treaty of Bucharest on May 7, 1918, which 
gave Austria-Hungary a strategic frontier with 
Rumania and valuable economic advantages. 

The favorable settlements gained in the East 
could not, however, hide the grave condition of 
the Dual Monarchy, which was in urgent need 
of peace. Czernin, fully aware of this, at- 
tempted unsuccessfully in various ways in the 
early months of 1918 to bring about a cessation 
of hostilities. He even approached President 
Wilson through the King of Spain. The only 
possible road which could lead to peace for 


' 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 126 


Austria-Hungary, namely, the conclusion of a 
separate peace with the Allies, which would 
have been equivalent to leaving Germany in the 
lurch, Czernin refused to take. This he had 
stated on previous occasions, and did so again 
in his address to the Vienna Town Council in 
April, 1918. This latter statement led to the 
publication by Clemenceau of Emperor Charles’s 
letter to Prince Sixtus in the previous year, 
in which reference had been made to the ‘just 
claims” of France on Alsace-Lorraine. Czern- 
in, who had not been apprised of this reference, 
resigned thereupon and was succeeded by Bur- 
ian. Charles had to make a penitent trip to 
German headquarters at Spa in order to ap- 
pease Emperor William and was induced on 
May 12 to sign an agreement binding the Dual 
Monarchy closer than ever to Germany. The 
agreement, however, did not become effective, 
due to the breakdown of the negotiations on the 
Polish question, on which it had been made to 
depend. The ultimate failure of the great Ger- 
man effort in the West made the Germans more 
amenable to the Austro-Hungarian insistence 
on peace by diplomacy, although before August 
they had rejected all of Charles’s and Burian’s 
efforts in this direction. Since Vienna and 
Berlin could not agree on a proper course of 
action, Burian made finally, without Germany’s 
participation, an appeal to the Allies which 
was turned down flatly and resulted in reveal- 
ing to the Entente in a more glaring light than 
ever the desperate straits of the Dual Mon- 
archy. The catastrophic military events of the 
early fall and the defection of Bulgaria and 
Turkey ushered in the last act of the drama. 
The Austrian collapse followed rapidly. Aus- 
tria-Hungary and Germany appealed to Presi- 
dent Wilson for an armistice. When Wilson 
failed to reply, Emperor Charles in a manifesto 
on October 16 proclaimed Austria a federal 
state. Wilson rejected the peace offer, finally 
declaring that the United States recognized 
Czecho-Slovakia as an independent state and ac- 
knowledged the national aspirations of the 
Southern Slavs. The dissolution becoming man- 
ifest now, Charles was ready to make a separate 
peace at great sacrifice, provided the territories 
remained under the dynasty, no matter in how 
loose a federation. On October 24 Count An- 
drany became Foreign Minister and three days 
later the pacifist Professor Lammasch was ap- 
pointed Austrian Premier. New efforts for an 
armistice failed. The débacle in Italy brought 
about the final disintegration. On November 3 
the Dual Monarchy was forced to sign an armis- 
tice which turned her over, defenseless, into the 
hands of the victors and compelled her to give 
passive aid against her ally. Emperor Charles 
agreed to this under protest. But the catastro- 
phe went still further. Charles gave up his 
share in the Austrian government on November 
11, without, however, renouncing his crown. 
The Lammasch government finished its task of 
liquidation and resigned. The proclamation of 
the Austrian Republic on November 12 and of 
the Hungarian Republic on November 16 com- 
pleted the disintegration of the Dual Monarchy. 
(For the Treaty of St. Germain and the Treaty 
of the Trianon, see PEACE CONFERENCE AND 
TREATIES. ) 

Internal Political History of the Austrian 
Empire, 1914-1918. All predictions to the 
contrary notwithstanding, the outbreak of the 
War evoked from the various nationalities com- 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


prising the Austrian Empire loud protestations 
of their loyalty to the dynasty and the state. 
Even the Czechs gave evidence of their enthusi- 
astic support of Austria’s cause in the War, 
and the Austrian Poles called for a union of 
Russian Poland and Galicia under the Habs- 
burg crown. Likewise most of the Italians in 
the Tirol remained faithful after Italy’s en- 
trance into the War. In spite of these favor- 
able demonstrations, the Austrian government 
did not deem it advisable to convoke Parlia- 
ment. The ministry was in a position of al- 
most complete political impotence and _ prac- 
tically all control over internal affairs was in 
the hands of the military, which used rigid 
and shortsighted police measures. This system 
led finally to the assassination of the premier, 
Count Sturgkh, on Oct. 21, 1916, by the So- 
Cialist, Friedrich Adler. Under his successor, 
Dr. Korber, little change was wrought in the 
internal affairs of Austria. The only _ out- 
standing event of his administration was the 
creation of an Office for Food Control on Nov. 
14, 1916, which was later enlarged into the 
Food Ministry. On the death of the aged 
Francis Joseph, Nov. 21, 1916, young Charles 
Francis Joseph, as the nearest heir, inherited 
his great-uncle’s crown. Emperor Charles, am- 
bitious and intelligent, was resolved not only 
to maintain the greatness of his dynasty, but 
also to effect a constitutional readjustment 
more satisfactory to the non-German peoples of 
the empire and to restore peace at the earliest 
opportunity. Himself assuming supreme com- 
mand of the army, he proceeded to replace 
many of the highest officials with his own 
trusted friends. Hétzendorf was superseded by 
Aiz von Straussenburg as chief of staff; For- 
eign Minister Burian gave place to Count Ot- 
tokar Czernin; and Premier Kérber, with whom 
the headstrong monarch disagreed on several 
issues, was dismissed on December 20, to be 
followed by a Czech nobleman, Count Clam- 
Martinitz, in whom Charles expected to find a 
more obedient agent for the execution of his 
policies. That the highhanded measures of the 
military rule and the economic hardships pro- 
duced by the War had not yet at this time se- 
riously affected the allegiance of the various 
nationalities to the Crown was evinced by the 
numerous declarations of loyalty which fol- 
lowed on President Wilson’s note of Dec. 11, 
1916, and the answer of the Entente of Jan. 12, 
1917, in which reference had been made to the 
oppressed nationalities of Austria. At the 
same time, however, actual attempts at ironing 
out the conflicts and difficulties between the 
nationalities proved futile. On the final con- 
vocation of Parliament, on May 31, 1917, the 
Southern Slavs and the Czechs demanded the 
creation of a federal state, and the German 
Austrians offered strong opposition to any such 
proposal. Under these circumstances Clam- 
Martinitz, who had hoped for a national coali- 
tion, resigned on June 19, 1917, and was suc- 
ceeded by Ritter von Seidler. On account of 
the amnesty granted the Czech political of- 
fenders on July 2, 1917, the German National 
Council at Prague passed on July 15 a vote 
of censure. With a reorganized cabinet, Seid- 
ler embarked in August, 1917, on a vast plan 
of social, economic, and political reform, which, 
however, proved a complete failure. In fact, 
his attempts at reconstructing the state on the 
basis of national autonomy served to reveal to 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


what extent dissolution had progressed. The 
nationalities advanced demands now’ which 
could hardly be reconciled with the unity of the 
Empire. The calling of a fresh Parliament on 
June 16, 1918, proved no remedy. The previ- 
ous day, the Czechs had set up at Prague a na- 
tional committee demanding a sovereign and 
independent Czecho-Slovak state. Seidler re- 
signed on July 22, 1918. Baron Hussarek, his 
successor, attempted in vain to reconcile the 
nationalities. Disintegration had gone _ too. 
The Czechs won Allied recognition in August 
and were acting as an independent nation. 
The Poles, too, had become intractable, al- 
though Hussarek advocated Polish indepen- 
dence. As a last means to avoid dissolution, 
the Emperor issued on Oct. 16, 1918, his mani- 
festo proposing a federal state for Austria. 
Its effects on the nationalities was null, be- 
cause at the same time they were beginning 
to set up national councils. Disintegration 
was an established fact. The last imperial 
cabinet, the ministry of liquidation of the pac- 
ifist Lammasch, Oct. 27-31, 1918, could do no 
more than help the peaceful settlement between 
the rising Republic of Austria and the succes- 
sion states, Czecho-Slovakia, Jugo-Slavia, and 
Poland. . 

Economic History of the Austrian Empire, 
1914-1918. The outbreak of the War produced 
a serious economic crisis in Austria. Industri- 
al production ceased almost entirely and the 
country was cut off from foreign markets. In 
agriculture great want of labor was encoun- 
tered in bringing in the harvest. The govern- 
ment tried to meet the serious situation, but 
all that it could do was to close the Bourse and 
declare a moratorium. More than any govern- 
mental measures, the development of a war in- 
dustry helped to improve the situation. The 
needs of the army stimulated production for 
military purposes, especially since only a very 
limited market could be found for non-military 
products. This transformation of Austrian in- 
dustry took place within six months after the 
outbreak of the War. Soon, however, and in 
an increasing degree as the War progressed, 
Austria was faced with a shortage of raw ma- 
terials, resulting from the blockade and the dis- 
ruption of all communication between the Cen- 
tral Powers and the outside world. This was 
further aggravated by the fact that parts of 
the Austrian Empire which had been produc- 
tive of raw materials were in the hands of the 
enemy. Moreover, economic union, s0 _ neces- 
sary in time of war, did not exist in the Dual 
Monarchy, and in the negotiations on economic 
matters Hungary, as the producer of foodstuffs, 
was often able to strike bargains which were 
. greatly to the disadvantage of Austria. Short- 
age of raw materials and lack of foodstuffs 
forced the government soon to take measures 
for the regulation of supplies and to set up a 
rigid system of central control. A further step 
of the government in war economy was an 
agreement with the’ German government re- 
garding the distribution of raw materials be- 
tween the two powers. Austria followed Ger- 
many’s example in creating central offices for 
the purchase of raw materials abroad. When 
this purchase was more and more curtailed and 
ceased in 1915, the central offices were trans- 
formed into a machinery to ensure the utmost 
economy in the use of raw materials within 
the country. The central offices, which. were 


127 AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC 


composed of experts, supervised distribution 
and performed other duties in order to conserve 
or increase the stock of materials. Strict 
measures were used to regulate the supply of 
foodstuffs. For this purpose food cards were 
finally introduced. The entire traffic in grain 
was regulated by a Central Grain Traffic Of- 
fice exercising absolute control over grain, 
flour, mills, and bakeries. It fixed the price of 
bread, determined its quality and ,rationed the 
supplies. For industries which employed grain 
as raw material, as for instance the brewing 
industry, offices similar to these central offices 
for raw materials were established. The func- 
tions of these offices were to regulate the dis- 
tribution of supplies and to stimulate new 
methods of production in the industries. In 
short, the state set up a rigid system of cen- 
tralized control over economic activities, which, 
if it did not function well, served at least the 
necessary purpose for which it was created. 
But rationing methods could not make up for 
lack of raw materials and foodstuffs. Not only 
did imports from abroad cease almost entirely, 
but production at home fell off for a number 
of reasons. Between 1914 and 1918 the crops 
decreased by more than 50 per cent through 
lack of labor, draft animals, implements, and 
manure. The substitutes which the people 
were taught to use were entirely inadequate. 
The population grew restive under the inter- 
minable hardships and deprivations, and labor 
became fruitful soil for revolutionary ideas. 
The War and the following collapse of the Em- 
pire left Austria economically destitute, but 
the subsequent settlement succeeded in making 
conditions even worse than they had _ been 
before. 

AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC. The Austrian 
Empire had an area of 115,831.9 square miles 
and a population of 28,571,934 in 1910. As a 
result of the Treaty of St. Germain (Sept. 10, 
1919), the plebiscite decision in the Klagenfurt 
(q.v.) district, and the ruling of the Council of 
Ambassadors with respect to the Burgenland 
(q.v.), the Austrian Republic had, in 1922, an 
area of 32,352 square miles and a population 
of 6,428,336 according to the census of 1920. 
The density per square mile was 199; females 
in the population were in the ratio of 1089 to 
1000 males. The Republic consists of the fol- 
lowing provinces: Vienna, Lower Austria, Up- 
per Austria, Salzburg Styria, Carinthia, Tirol, 
Vorarlberg, Burgenland. The leading towns 
gave these population figures for 1920 (1910 
figure in parentheses): Vienna, 1,841,749 (2,- 
031,498) ; Graz, 157,644 (151,886); Linz, 94,- 
072 (67,817); Imnsbruck, 55,650 (53,194) ; 
Salzburg, 36,749 (36,210). From 1916 to 1919 
deaths continued to exceed births, the excess 
being 31,815 in 1916, 66,877 in 1918, and 14,- 
555 in 1919. Births in 1920 numbered 137,324, 
and deaths, 116,284. Distribution by religions 
was thus given in the 1910 census for all this 
area except Burgenland: Catholics, 5,979,667 ; 
Protestants, 165,007; Jews, 189,758. As for 
education, there were, in 1920, 4772 elementary 
schools attended. by 888,640 pupils, 143. sec- 
ondary schools with 40,257 pupils, 4438 of 
them girls; and three universities, viz., Vienna 
(11,442 students), Graz (1937 students), Inns- 
bruck (1968 students). Besides, there were 2 
technical high schools and 18 _ theological 
schools. 

Industry. Agriculture formed the main oc- 


AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC 


cupation of the country. In 1921, 4,152,237 
acres were under crops, largely in Lower Aus- 
tria and Upper Austria. The main classes 
were: fields and gardens, 24 per cent; woods, 
38 per cent; meadows, 11 per cent; pastures, 16 
per cent; vineyards, 0.6 per cent. The leading 
crops were wheat, of which 177,715 metric tons 
were counted in 1922; rye, 334,311 tons; bar- 
ley, 119,340 tons; oats, 275,788 tons; potatoes, 
832,985 tons; turnips, 530,514 tons. In every 
case but the last, the yield surpassed that of 
the previous year. Deprived of the agricul- 
tural products of the rich provinces of Moravia, 
the Alpine forelands, Bohemia, Galicia, Istria, 
and Goritza, the Austrians were compelled, aft- 
er the War, to import their food stocks from 
Hungary, Bohemia, Russia, and Rumania. In 
1920, imports of grain and flour totaled $58,- 
200,000; in 1921, $49,100,000. That the agri- 
cultural situation was gradually improving was 
indicated by a smaller importation for 1922, 
viz., $36,900,000. Livestock numbered, in 1919: 
horses, 243,000; cows, 911,000; oxen, 214,000; 
bulls, 55,000; calves, 539,000; swine, 1,269,875; 
sheep, 300,000; goats, 300,000. Mineral sup- 
plies were scarcely adequate for local wants. 
In 1921, 2,469,701 metric tons of lignite coal 
were mined, and 137,666 tons of anthracite, 
while 5,842,978 tons had to be imported. Iron 
ore mined in 1920 totaled 435,062 tons, largely 
from Styria. Other minerals were copper, 
zine, lead, and salt. The leading industrial 
centres were in Lower Austria, Vorarlberg, and 


Upper Styria, where iron foundries and ma- 
chine, automobile, textile, and clothing fac- 
tories were gathered. Chemical and paper 


goods works were grouped chiefly around Vien- 
na, which was also the centre of the artistic 
trades. 

Trade and Communications. The first years 
of the Republic showed heavy adverse balances, 
which, however, continued to decrease. In 
1921, imports of 8,228,249 metric tons were 
valued at $349,960,000; exports of 1,546,532 


tons were valued at $186,259,000. For 1922, 
imports weighed 7,448,737 tons and were 
worth $327,721,000; exports were 2,115,760 


tons, at a value of $209,944,000. During 
1922, the greatest amount of imports, by 
weight, came from Germany, 37.3 per cent; 
from Czecho-Slovakia, 37.1 per cent; from Hun- 
gary, 6.3 per cent. Exports to Germany 
amounted to 31 per cent of the total; to Italy, 
19 per cent, and to Hungary, 11.9 per cent. 
Up to 1923 trade was hard hit by Germany’s 
disastrous competition in foreign and domestic 
commerce. The situation improved after 1923, 
particularly with respect to the Balkan trade, 
because of the disorganization of German in- 
dustry and transportation, consequent on the 
Ruhr occupation, and because of the German 
tendency to quote prices only in foreign cur- 
rencies. In 1923, however, the unfavorable 
trade balance had mounted up to $163,000,000. 
Replacements of depreciated stocks were heavy 
in this first year of Austria’s reconstruction; 
imports were many to avoid future turnover 
taxes, and many purchases were made in Ger- 
many with the stabilized Austrian crown, all 
of which helped bring this about. The factors 
of invisible exchange were also _ effective. 
Vienna was the banking centre of the Succession 
States as well as the wholesale centre; Austria 
had large interests in the industries in the Suc- 
cession States; the tourist trade was consider- 


128 


AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC 


able. Discounting these conditions, the adverse 
balance was still high, and it was an important 
reason for Austria’s economic plight. 

The country had 4274 miles of railway, of 
which 2964 were state-owned. The principal 
lines were the Western, the Northern, North- 
western, Eastern, and Franz Josef Railways, 
the last connecting Vienna with Czecho-Slovak- 
ia. Not until July, 1923, was the government 
able to see its way out of the hopeless railway 
tangle. From the end of the War, the railways 
had been regularly operated at a loss, because 
the portion of the railway system left in Aus- 
tria contained a high percentage of mountain- 
ous track, which, before the War, had been 
counterbalanced by the level stretches in the 
territories now belonging to Czecho-Slovakia, 
Hungary, and Poland; it was necessary to im- 
port fuel; a surplus of personnel prevailed; 
the government operation was unprofitable. ‘To 
meet the situation, by the law of July 19, 1923, 
a corporation was created to conduct operation 
under a centralized control. The government 
financed the venture with a capital of 200,000,- 
000,000 crowns and placed control in the hands 
of a directorate of 14, 11 of whom were to be 
business men or transportation experts, and 3, 
representatives of railway employees. To the 
government were reserved the rights to regu- 
late tariffs, approve loans, supervise social and 
safety measures, and regulate construction. 
River traffic was equally hard hit by the loss 
of ships and barges during the War. | 

Finance. Nothing revealed so completely the 
helplessness of the country as the unsatisfac- 
tory condition of government finances. Reve- 
nues for 1921-22 were 93,325,000,000 paper 
crowns, or $42,276,000; for 1922, they were 
209,763,000,000 crowns, or $169,698,000; for 
1923, they were estimated at 11,488,267,000,000 
crowns, or $160,836,000. Expenditures for 1921- 
22 were 258,229,000,000 ($116,978,000); for 
1922, 347,533,000,000 ($281,154,000) ; for 1923, 
13,862,760,000,000 ($194,079,000). Thus the def- 
icits were $74,701,000, $111,456,000, and $33,- 
243,000. From 1919 to 1921 conditions stead- 
ily grew worse, so that on Jan. 11, 1921, the 
Austrian government confessed itself at the end 
of its resources and offered to turn over the 
country’s administration to the Reparations 
Commission which the Treaty of St. Germain 
had established in the country. While the Su- 
preme Council talked, the country’s obligations 
continued to pile up. In 1921 it was estimated 
that Austria’s share of the Dual Monarchy’s 
debt was 53,200,000,000 crowns out of its total 
debt of 116,693,000,000 crowns, with an annual 
interest charge of 1,918,000,000 crowns. Fi- 
nally, on Sept. 27, 1922, the League of Nations 
accepted responsibility for’ the economic re- - 
habilitation of Austria, and in so doing, prac- 
tically established a dictatorship over the Re- 
public. The plan accepted included the placing 
of a loan of $135,000,000 for 20 years among 
Italy, Great Britain, France, and Czecho-Slo- 
vakia; the appointment of a commissioner gen- 
eral by the League of Nations to direct expendi- 
tures; a committee of control to represent each 
of the guarantor governments; the setting 
aside of gross receipts from customs and the 
tobacco revenue as security; the promise on 
the part of Austria to eliminate the deficit by 
1925. The Austrian government agreed to 
push retrenchments, cut down personnel, ete. 
On Feb. 1, 1923, the League of Nations author- 


AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC 


ized the issuance of the loan. Of this, Ameri- 
ean bankers took $25,000,000, at 7 per cent for 
20 years. On February 21, the Reparations 
Commission renounced all rights to Austrian 
property and revenues for 20 years. As an in- 
dication of good faith, the Austrian government 
between September, 1922, and October, 1923, 
dismissed 50,000 functionaries; on Nov. 22, 
1922, heavy increases were announced in the 
income tax, the tax on shares, and the turnover 
tax. Under Dr. Zimmermann, the League Com- 
missioner General, appointed in December, 
1922, the financial reforms were pushed and the 
success with which they met was indicated by 
the fact that the draft budget of 1924 carried 
a deficit of 836,900,000,000 paper crowns as 
against the 1923 deficit of 2,664,200,000,000. 
Whether it would be possible to reach a bal- 
ance by 1925 was problematical, for with the 
growing soundness of economic conditions it 
was inevitable that expenditures should in- 
crease, especially in the replacement and repair 
of depreciated equipments. It was plain in 
1924 that the Austrian people were taking 
heart at the activities of their government and 
that such a return of confidence could not but 
augur well for the future. On Jan. 1, 1923, a 
new National Bank for Austria was opened 
with a capital of 30,000,000 gold crowns. 
Economic Conditions. Its state condition 
made it inevitable that the Austrian Republic 
should turn to the printing press to meet cur- 
rent expenses. In June, 1919, 7,000,000,000 pa- 
per crowns were in circulation; at the end of 
1920, 30,600,000,000 paper erowns, with a 
metallic reserve of 8,807,000 gold crowns; 1921, 
181,000,000,000 paper crowns, with 10,022,000 
gold crowns in reserve; 1922, 4,080,400,000,000 
paper crowns, with 356,000 gold crowns in re- 
serve. That the currency should depreciate 
with this unprecedented inflation was inevita- 
ble. The gold crown at par is worth $.2026. 
On Jan. 1, 1922, the paper crown was worth 
$.000387; on Jan. 1, 1923, $.00014. The cost 
of living mounted. Compared with the fig- 
ures for 1914, it rose to 13 in December, 1918; 
69 in January, 1921; 662 in January, 1922; 
and 11,271 in December, 1922. Wages rose al- 
most equally; on the same scale, the wage in- 
dex for September, 1922, was 10,744. The 
establishment of the rehabilitation scheme at 
once changed tendencies for the better. In the 
first quarter of 1923, note circulation increased 
only 9 per cent; the metallic reserve increased ; 
savings deposits became greater, and the cost 
of living index dropped 14 per cent. It is plain 
that these conditions had been merely the re- 
flections of a general debilitation. Austria had 
been a manufacturing centre. After the War, 
the lack of raw materials, fuel, and grains 
brought on a complete breakdown. The gov- 
ernment found it necessary to centralize trade 
in food, and in many instances, food stocks 
were sold to the public below their actual costs. 
To June, 1921, it was estimated that £32,500,- 
000 was spent in foodstuffs by the government. 
Unemployment naturally mounted with the 
general breakdown. In May, 1919, 186,000 per- 
sons were out of work, 132,000 of them in the 
Vienna district alone. In April, 1920, the 
number had fallen to 46,000, with 38,000 in 
the Vienna district; by October, 1921, to 24,- 
000 in the Vienna district. Thence forward it 
mounted again. December, 1922, saw 86,000 
men out of work in Vienna, and January, 1923, 


129 


AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC 


125,000; but in October, this figure had 
dropped to 77,900. The government applied it- 
self to the problem of relief doles; in April, 
1919, 46,000 were receiving aid; and not until 
May, 1920, was it able to put the situation on 
a scientific basis by the enactment of unem- 
ployment insurance legislation. It should be 
pointed out that the mounting unemployment 
of 1922-23 was a sign for the better. The ex- 
change ‘was now stabilized and industry was 
merely going through a _ transitional period. 
During these troublesome times measures were 
taken to render the lot of labor more com- 
fortable. Many of these acts were of an ad- 
vanced character. An eight-hour day was en- 
forced, and laws were enacted for compulsory 
holidays, the legalizing of collective bargaining, 
the establishment of workers’ councils in in- 
dustry, and the building of houses by govern- 
mental agencies. For example, the city of 
Vienna, in 1923, made plans for the erection 
of 25,000 houses, workshops, and _ business 
places. These, then, were evidences of an eco- 
nomic and moral rehabilitation. At the close 
of 1923, observers saw Vienna regaining her po- 
sition as a commercial and exchange centre of 
Southeast Europe. In 1923 alone, new capital 
investments in the country totaled 200,000,- 
000. Three things were still needed, an in- 
tensification of agricultural methods, develop- 
ment of water power to eliminate heavy coal 
imports; and the breakdown of the customs 
barriers which the Succession States had 
erected. 

History. The proclamation of the Republic 
of Austria on Nov. 12, 1918, left the country 
in a precarious political and economic situa- 
tion. Its territory had been materially re- 
duced and comprised not even all of the Ger- 
man language districts of the old Austrian Em- 
pire. The government was carried on by the 
provisional National Assembly which had con- 
vened on Oct. 21, 1918. On Feb. 16, 1919, a 
National Constituent Assembly was elected, in 
which the Socialists and the Christian Social- 
ists held a majority. The Assembly elected the 
Socialist, Seitz, President of the new republic 
and appointed on Mar. 15, 1919, a ministry 
with Dr. Karl Renner as Chancellor. The new 
government launched a programme of exten- 
sive social and economic reform, including 
abolition of the feudal nobility and nationaliza- 
tion of the means of production; but confronted 
with serious internal difficulties, it was not 
able to proceed very far along these lines. As 
a result of the spread of revolutionary ideas 
and of the very bad economic conditions, nota- 
bly the lack of foodstuffs, Communist agita- 
tion developed which had to be put down by 
force. The terms of the Treaty of St. Germain 
to which Chancellor Renner affixed his signa- 
ture on Sept. 10, 1919, served to aggravate the 
internal situation still further. The only way 
out of what seemed an impossible state of af- 
fairs, by union with Germany, which, for polit- 
ical and economic reasons appealed strongly to 
the Austrian people, was blocked by the opposi- 
tion of the victors. By Article II of the Fun- 
damental Law of Nov. 12, 1918, German Austria 
had proclaimed itself a constituent portion of 
the German Republic, but despite the vigorous 
popular agitation, the actual union had not 
been consummated. This project was vetoed by 
Article 88 of the Treaty of St. Germain, in- 
serted on French initiative and declaring the 


AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC 


independence of Austria inalienable without the 
consent of the Council of the League of Nations. 
The establishment of a Soviet Republic in Hun- 
gary strained relations with that country, for 
the Austrian government was in constant fear 
of a rising among its own ultra-radical elements 
with active support from the Hungarians, 
which, indeed, might have proved serious, since 
the feeble Austrian army was in part strongly 
Bolshevik in sympathy. Meanwhile the inter- 
nal situation grew steadily worse. Except for 
the German language and nationality there was 
no bond of cohesion in this country, which, 
against its will, was forced by the dictum of 
the victors to exist as an independent state. 
The old antagonism between the city of Vienna, 
comprising one-fourth of the population of Aus- 
tria, and the agricultural sections, which were 
unwilling to supply the food without which 
Vienna was doomed to starvation, assumed at 
times serious proportions and threatened the 
very existence of the metropolitan population. 
Under the grave circumstances a steadily grow- 
ing and almost desperate desire for union with 
Germany manifested itself, both on the part of 
the country as a whole and of individual dis- 
tricts, especially Salzburg and the Tirol. On 
June 22, 1921, the Austrian Assembly voted to 
submit the project to a plebiseite. The Allies, 
however, particularly France, let it be known 
in various unofficial ways that, while they 
would not interfere with the plebiscite, they 
would regard any attempt at union with Ger- 
many as an infraction of the peace treaties and 
would take the proper steps to prevent it. 

The withdrawal of socialist support from the 
coalition forced the ministry to resign on June 
11, 1920. Pending a new general election, 
which was held on Oct. 17, 1920, the Christian 
Socialist Dr. Michael Mayr presided over a 
Proportional Cabinet representing all parties. 
The elections proved a victory for the moderate 
policy of the Christian Socialists, who obtained 
82 seats as compared with 66 for the Social 
Democrats and 19 for the Pan-Germans. Dr. 
Mayr now formed a Christian Socialist cabinet, 
braving the open opposition of the Socialists. 
Dr. Michael Hainisch, well-known as a sociolog- 
ical writer and formerly a Socialist, but now 
rather non-partisan, was elected President of 
the Republic by the new Assembly on Dec. 9, 
1920. A ray of light illumined the abysmal 
scene when the decision of the Klagenfurt pleb- 
iscite (q.v.), on Oct. 10, 1920, saved the terri- 
tory for Austria. This was a valuable territo- 
rial acquisition in view of the agricultural pro- 
ductivity of the region. Another favorable 
turn was the admission of Austria into the 
League of Nations in December, 1920. But the 
economic plight of the country had grown 
worse meanwhile. With the approaching win- 
ter of 1920 Austria was in dire need of food 
and fuel. Her production of these necessaries 
of life was small in comparison with her needs. 
Purchase of these commodities in foreign coun- 
tries was precluded by lack of funds, a deficit 
in the budget, and an ever-mounting inflation 
ofthe currency. If anything, this situation be- 
came worse during the course of 1921, and it 
was evident that the unfortunate country was 
headed for disaster. By October of that year 
the crown had become practically worthless. 
While the people were facing famine, the gov- 
ernment made desperate attempts to obtain 
financial aid abroad. In the spring of 1921 it 


130 AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC 


requested the Finance Committee of the League 
of Nations to procure the necessary funds for 
the purchase of foodstuffs. The League sent 
representatives to study the Austrian problem. 
Meanwhile the economic distress and the ap- 
parent uninterest of the outside world had 
made the Austrians even more weary of an in- 
dependence which was forced on them and 
had stimulated the agitation for union with 
Germany. Alarmed by the extent of the move- 
ment, the Allies declared on Apr. 14, 1921, that 
all agitation toward this end must cease forth- 
with, lest the Allies withdraw their proposals 
for financial relief. The government was forced 
to curb the movement, whereupon a section of 
the Chancellor’s party refused him support, 
compelling the Mayr Ministry to resign. Scho- 
ber, the Police President of Vienna, formed a 
new cabinet in June, 1921. The threat of the 
Allies did not, however, prevent the people of 
Tirol on Apr. 24, 1921, nor those of Salzburg 
on May 29, from voting by overwhelming ma- 
jorities in favor of union with Germany. Self- 
sufficient for food, these provinces could well 
afford to disregard the Allies’ declaration. It 
is also true that the movement was only par- 
tially dictated by economic necessity and that 
political desires and nationalist aspirations 
were important in it. These plebiscites were, 
of course, ineffective except as indications of 
popular sentiment. The three-cornered contro- 
versy between Austria, Hungary, and the Al- 
lies regarding Burgenland (q.v.), a strip of 
western Hungary inhabited chiefly by Germans 
and ceded to Austria by the Treaties of St. Ger- 
main and the Trianon, was settled after long 
altercations and some violence by the assign- 
ment of most of the area to Austria and the 
return of a small portion, the Oedenburg or 
Sopron district, to Hungary, after a plebiscite 
held in that locality on Dee. 17, 1921, had 
shown its predominantly Hungarian sentiment. 

The Schober cabinet was forced out of office 
in May, 1922, over a budget question. It was 
succeeded by a coalition cabinet under Dr. 
Ignaz Seipl, the leader of the Christian Social- 
ists. The desperate situation of the country at 
this time made some sort of action imperative. 
Austria had either to procure international 
financial assistance or unite with one of three 
neighboring countries, Italy, Germany, or 
Czecho-Slovakia. Italy addressed a note to the 
countries concerned announcing that she would 
consider union with Germany or the Little En- 
tente a casus belli. Thus the only course open 
was to seek financial aid abroad. Toward this 
end Chancellor Seipl appealed on Sept. 6, 1922, 
to the League of Nations. The latter adopted 
a plan for the restoration of Austrian finances, 
providing for an international loan of 650,000,- 
000 gold crowns redeemable in 20 years, se- 
cured by Austrian productive assets and guar- 
anteed by England, France, Italy, Belgium, 
Czecho-Slovakia, Spain, and Holland, and the 
creation of a commissioner general, appointed 
by the League to supervise Austrian expendi- 
tures. Moreover, a committee of control, con- 
sisting of one representative of each of the gov- 
ernments guaranteeing the loan, was to be set 
up. ‘he guarantor states pledged themselves 
to respect Austrian sovereignty and independ- 
ence, in return for which Austria agreed not to 
alienate her independence. This last clause was 
inserted in the agreement to prevent union with 
Germany. The plan also provided for certain 


AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC 


governmental reforms to insure economy. On 
Noy. 26, 1922, the plan of the League was ap- 
proved by the Austrian Parliament, the Chris- 
tian Socialists and the Pan-Germans voting for 
it and the Socialists against it. The plan was 
put into operation immediately with Dr. Alfred 
Zimmermann of Rotterdam as commissioner 
general. The methods of drastic financial sur- 
gery which were applied brought about as early 
as the spring of 1923 the stabilization of the 
paper crown and a reduction of the deficit in 
the budget, although unemployment increased. 
This increase was counteracted by an accom- 
panying decrease in the cost of living and a 
revival of industry and trade which during the 
course of the year absorbed a great number of 
the government employees dismissed for reasons 
of economy. Slowly Austria progressed toward 
financial stability and economic reconstruction. 
This process of recovery lasted all through the 
year. By the end of 1923 Vienna was regain- 
ing her position as the commercial and ex- 
change centre for the Danube Basin and South- 
ern Europe. The activities of the League not 
only had a wholesome effect on the economic 
life of the country, but served also to dampen 
agitation for union with Germany, which in its 
extreme form had been largely an outgrowth 
of economic difficulties. That fact was demon- 
strated sufficiently by the elections for the As- 
sembly on Oct. 20, 1923, in which the Pan- 
Germans and the Socialists suffered defeat at 
the hands of the Christian Socialists, who for 
the past year had looked with disfavor on‘the 
movement. The report of the Commissioner 
General at the end of the year showed clearly 
the great forward stride, which had been made 
during 1923 toward the complete economic re- 
covery of Austria. The budget deficit had been 
cut in half, savings had multiplied, the curren- 
ey had been stabilized, industry had been re- 
vised, and foreign capital was beginning to 
come into the country. The balancing of the 
budget was in sight. This recovery was ac- 
companied by the establishment of more amica- 
ble relations with the succession states early 
in 1924. In the spring and summer of the lat- 
ter year there began to appear evidences of a 
desire on the part of the Austrians to escape 
from the supervision of the League of Nations, 
although the budget had not yet been balanced. 
At this time there were also disagreements be- 
tween the Austrian government and the commis- 
sioner over the methods of achieving a balanced 
budget. The Austrians preferred to do this by 
means of increased revenue, while the commis- 
sioner advocated reduction in expenditures. 
During the first half of 1924 came a marked 
increase in the cost of living. See BURGEN- 
LAND; TIROL, GERMAN SOUTH; NAVIES OF THE 
Wor Lb. 

The Austrian Constitution. On Oct. 1, 
1920, a new constitution was promulgated 
which was a formidable document indeed and 
which went into much more detail than custom- 
ary. It declared Austria a democratic republic, 
composed of seven states and the city of Vi- 
enna. Austria became thereby a federal state 
in place of the old Austrian centralized state. 
All privileges were abolished and equal rights 
were given to all citizens. Universal suffrage 
for women as well as for men was established, 
and the voting age was set at 21. Executive 
power was vested in a president chosen for 
four years and a cabinet appointed by the As- 


131 AZERBAIJAN 


sembly. Legislative power belonged to a Par- 
liament of two chambers, an Assembly elected 
for four years by popular vote and in accord- 
ance with the principle of proportional repre- 
sentation, and an upper chamber elected by the 
provincial diets in proportion to the population 
of the states. Since the upper chamber was 
given only advisory powers, the Parliament 
consisted in fact of only one chamber. The 
President was to be elected in a joint session 
of both chambers. 

AUTHORS’ LEAGUE OF AMERICA, Inc. 
An organization founded in 1912 to provide 
mutual assistance in the technicalities and dif- 
ficulties of publishing and copyrighting. Mem- 
bership was limited to persons of recognized 
standing in the literary or artistic professions. 
It was divided in 1922 into five departments: 
The American Dramatists; the Authors’ Guild; 
The Authors’ League Fellowship; The Art- 
ists’ Guild; and the Screen Writers’ Guild. 
Throughout the decade the League supplied 
confidential information to its members regard- 
ing managers, producers, etc. In 1919 _ it 
launched a world wide propaganda on behalf of 
American literature to raise the standard of 
literary criticism and to secure for American 
books the attention due them. The constitution 
of the league was revised in 1920 in regard 
to membership, dues, and the formation of 
guilds. Presidents during the 10 years were: 
Winston Churchill, Rex Beach, Owen Davis, 
Jesse Lynch Williams, and Ellis Parker Butler. 

AUTOINTOXICATION. See DIET. 

AUTOMATIC RIFLES. See Smatt ARMS. 

AUTOMOBILES. See Motor VEHICLES. 

AUTOMOBILE TIRES. See Motor VEHI- 
CLES; RUBBER. 

AYLMER, Sm Fenton Joun (1862- es 
A British general. He joined the army in 1880. 
He gained distinction as an officer in Burma, 
India, and China, and in 1912 was made 
adjutant-general at Simla. In 1915 he was 
promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general and 
led the forces in Mesopotamia for the relief of 
Kut-el-Amara. The attack on the Turks failed; 
he was taken prisoner in April, 1916, and was 
exchanged in September. See WAR IN EUROPE, 
Turkish Front. 

AYRES, Louis (1874- ). An American 
architect, born at Bergen Point, N. J. He 
graduated from Rutgers College in 1896, en- 
tered the offices of McKim, Mead and White, 
and in 1910 went to the firm of York and Saw- 
yer, prominent 9s the firm architects of the 
Guarantee Trust Company Building, Postal Life 
Building, Broadway Savings Bank, and Rocke- 
feller Hospital (New York), as well as the 
Riggs Bank and the American Security and 
Trust Company (Washington, D. C.). He was 
appointed architect. for the Federal Reserve 
Bank, Bowery Savings Bank Building, Green- 
wich Savings Bank (New York), First Nation- 
al Bank (Boston), ete. He was a member of 
the Federal Fine Arts Commission for 1921-25. 

AZERBAIJAN, SOVIET REPUBLIC OF. 
One of the three Transcaucasian republics, af- 
filiated with the union of Socialist Soviet Re- 
publics that emerged in October, 1917; made 
up of the former Russian governments of Baku 
and Elisavetpol, and situated on the _ land- 
bridge which links Asia with Europe. The re- 
public derives its name from the Persian Azer- 
baijan to which it belonged up to 1813, when 
Russia acquired it. Geographically it lies in 


AZERBAIJAN 132 


the basin of two great Caucasian rivers, the 
I\uru and the Aras, and is enclosed by the 
Caspian Sea, the Caucasus, and the highlands 
of Armenia and Persian Azerbaijan. Around 
its chief city, Baku, is to be found oil, and in 
this single fact lies the prominence of an other- 
wise unimportant state. Within its boundaries 
is an area of 33,616 square miles, and a popu- 
lation, according to Russian statistics, of 2,096,- 
973. Seventy-five per cent of the people are 
Moslems of Tartar and Turk stock, and almost 
the whole of the remainder are Armenians. The 
few Russians and Europeans in the state are 
to be found in the Baku district. 

Industry. The natives are a pastoral people. 
Cattle- and sheep-herding is their leading actiy- 
ity. Lack of communications and absence of a 
real community life made for ignorance and 
superstition, and backwardness was further fos- 
tered by unfamiliarity with the western world. 
The city of Baku, with an estimated population 
of 250,000, was the centre of great oil wells and 
before the War was the most prolifie single dis- 
trict in the world and almost the only source 
of Russia’s petroleum output. Lines of com- 
munication and trade centred here, making 
Baku the focal point of the whole Transcauca- 
sian isthmus. ‘The city was in direct communi- 
cation by rail and water with Europe and Asia, 
particularly because it was the eastern termi- 
nus of that Transcaucasian railway which end- 
ed in the West at Batum, Georgia. Another tie 
that knitted the two cities together into a sin- 
gle economic unit was the pipe line that tapped 
the Baku oil fields. 
two cities from 1917 to 1923 as a result of po- 
litical upheavals was really the nucleus of the 
Transcaucasian problem, Besides the petrole- 
um some developments were made in Azerbaijan 
in cotton culture, stock-raising, silk, cereals, 
and fisheries. 

History. The story of Azerbaijan is inti- 
mately connected with that of the Russian Re- 
public. In March, 1917, the Russian Republic 
was established; in September, in concert with 
Georgia and Armenia, Azerbaijan set up an 
autonomous government for Transcaucasia. 
The seat of this federal republic was estab- 
lished at Tiflis and a parliament or seim of 132 
members organized. The republic had a brief 
and stormy career, for profound divergences of 
faith and sympathy impeded attempts at a mu- 
tual understanding. The Georgians and Ar- 
menians were Christians and looked to Europe 
for aid; the Tatars of Azerbaijan were Mus- 
sulmans and regarded Turkey as their natural 
ally. The invasion of Transcaucasia by Turkey 
in the spring of 1918 to secure the territories 
allotted it under the Brest-Litovsk treaty of 
Mar. 3, 1918, caused serious dissension in the 
Republic, for the Azerbaijani refused to take 
arms against their kinsmen. Other forces of 
disintegration were also at work. A Bolshevik 
government had established itself at Baku, and 
aided by the Armenian traders in the city, suc- 
ceeded in seriously hampering the activities of 
the Azerbaijan government set up provisionally 
at Elisavetpol. In March, 1918, the Tatar 
Moslems were compelled to flee from Baku as a 
result of serious disorders in which thousands 
were slain. On Mar. 17, 1918, an Azerbaijan 
attack on Baku was repulsed, compelling the 
Tatars to turn to their co-religionists, the 
Turks, for aid. This definite alliance with the 
Turks on the part of Azerbaijan brought about 


The separation of these - 


AZERBAIJAN 


the fall of the federal republic, which was dis- 
solved on May 26, 1918. Great Britain had 
watched all these movements with alarm. The 
victories of the Turks, together with the threat 
to the East that their advances implied, com- 
pelled the despatch of a British force to the 
aid of the Russians and Armenians beleaguered 
in Baku. But the counter-attack of the Turks 
could not be withstood; the British were com- 
pelled to take to their ships; and Baku fell on 
Sept. 14, 1918. The armistice of October 30 be- 
tween Turkey and the Allies cleared Transcau- 
easia of Turkish troops, and a British division 
soon took possession. It seems to have been the 
intention of the British to maintain a perma- 
nent sphere of control in Transcaucasia. But 
this policy depended on French successes in the 
Ukraine, and when the French met with hostil- 
ity in Odessa and were compelled to withdraw, 
the British position in Transcaucasia was cor- 
respondingly weakened. During July and Au- 
gust, 1919, the British withdrew. 

When the Peace Conference assembled early 
in 1919, Azerbaijan attempted to have its 
boundary question considered. This matter was 
compelled to wait on the completion of the 
Turkish treaty, and nothing was settled. In 
January, 1920, recognition was accorded by 
Great Britain to Azerbaijan and its sister- 
republics, Armenia and Georgia. A little later 
the three states exchanged treaties in which 
they promised to safeguard one another’s inde- 
pendence and to permit unimpeded intercourse 
between Batum and Baku. This show of exter- 
nal independence was brief. The defeat of Den- 
ikin and the understanding that was reached 
between the Russians and the Turkish Nation- 
alists on Mar. 16, 1920, once more left unhin- 
dered the Russian advance into Transcaucasia. 
On Apr. 28, 1920, a Russian army entered Baku 
without opposition. A rising of local Bolshe- 
viks turned out the Equality Party then in 
power and a Soviet government was _ estab- 
lished, patterned after and in complete sympa- 
thy with the Moscow government. Local disor- 
ders as a result of the concentration of Russian 
activities exclusively in Poland during the fall 
of 1920 caused much bloodshed. Bolshevist 
sympathizers were attacked by Tatars at Elis- 
avetpol, and Bolsheviks and Armenians retal- 
iated with the massacre of some 15,000 Tatars 
of all ages. In September, 1920, Azerbaijan 
signed a series of treaties with Soviet Russia 
consenting to unification of the military organ- 
ization, financial and economic control, and for- 
eign relations of the two countries; Azer- 
baijan became a dependent state with a very 
restricted local autonomy. In the fall of 1920 
the Russian Bolsheviks brought about the down- 
fall of the national governments of Armenia 
and Georgia, and in the spring of 1921 soviet 
governments were set up in these countries. 
Once more Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgia 
were bound together in a federal republic of 
Transcaucasia, but the federation was now in 
vassalage to Soviet Russia. Thus, in effect, 
Russia was once more in control of her old 
Transcaucasian provinces and dominated their 
economic and political life as before the events 
of 1917. This influence was given the stamp of 
legality by the completion of the important 
treaty of Dec. 30, 1922 (see Russia) at Mos- 
cow; all the Russian soviet republics were sig- 
natories to this. By it the governments of Rus- 
sia, the Ukraine, White Russia, Georgia, Ar- 


AZERBAIJAN 


menia, Azerbaijan, Bokhara, and Khiva, sub- 
stituted for their bi-lateral treaties a federal 
state, called the Union of Socialist and Soviet 
Republics. Under the treaty a centralized con- 
trol for the army, navy, foreign affairs, trade, 
finances, economic resources and relations, etc., 
was established, and a Central Executive Com- 
mittee for the Allies was at once created. This 
body comprised 270 representatives from Rus: 
sia, 68 from the Ukraine, 7 from White Rus 


133 AZORIN 


sia, and 26 from the Transcaucasian states. As 
far as Azerbaijan was concerned the Union 
meant, economically, the establishment of rela- 
tions once more with the port of Batum, and 
politically, the definite passing of Azerbaijan, 
as an independent state after a turbulent his- 


tory of less than six years’ duration. See 
RUSSIA. 

AZORIN (1876- ). See MARTINEZ RUIz, 
Joss. 


B 


ABBITT, Irvina (1865- Aa 
American scholar and critic (see 
VoL. Il). His Rousseau and Roman- 
ticism (1919), one of the outstand- 
ing critical productions of the time, 
synthesized the attitude toward life 
and letters which he had expressed in previous 
works. His brilliant attack on the fetish of 
naturalism in science, philosophy, and _ litera- 
ture, and his insistence on the classical formula 
of moderation and form, came with particular 
timeliness, when the romantic cult seemed to 
reach its apogee. His work had something pro- 
phetic in it; for the swing toward classicism in 
France and England became more and more 
marked. In the United States he was more per- 
sistently romanticist because of the absence of 
a humanistic tradition and because of the firm 
entrenchment of pragmatism. Mr. Babbitt also 
published occasional papers in reviews and peri- 
odicals. 

BABCOCK, BeERnirE (SMADE) (1868- Ms 
An American author, born at Unionville, Ohio. 
She was a member of the staff of the Arkansas 
Democrat and later owned and edited The Ar- 
kansas Sketch Book, the first venture of its 
kind in her native State. She wrote Mammy, 
a drama read at Chautauqua and on lyceum 
circuits. She is also the author of Yesterday 
and To-day in Arkansas (1917), The Coming of 
the King (1921), The Soul of Ann Rutledge, 
Abraham Lincoln’s Romance (1919), and The 
Soul of Abraham Lincoln (1923). 

BABCOCK, SAmMvuEL GaviTT (1851- )e 
American bishop in the Protestant Episcopal 
Church. He graduated from the Episcopal The- 
ological School at Cambridge, Mass., in 1891. 
After holding pastorates in Rhode Island and 
Massachusetts he was archdeacon of Massachu- 
setts from 1903 to 1913, when he was elected 
bishop. 

BABINSKI, JuLEs (1855- ). A distin- 
guished French neurologist, pupil and successor 
of Chareot. Born in Paris, he graduated in 
medicine from the University in 1885. He dis- 
covered several valuable diagnostic signs in con- 
nection with neurological practice; two of these 
are in daily use among neurologists. The so- 
called “great toe” or “first Babinski” reflex was 
described in 1896-97 and the “‘second toe sign” 
in 1903. He was Charcot’s chief of clinic in 
the Salpétriere and Pitié Hospitals, and during 
the War, he had charge of many traumatic neu- 
rological cases at the latter institution. He 
was professor of neurology in the University of 
Paris. Babinski has written over 200 papers on 
nervous affections. With Froment he published 
Hysteropithiatisme en Neurologie de (Guerre, 
1917. This work was translated into English 
by Sir H. Rolleston in 1918. 


BACHELIN, HEnrr (1879- ). A French 


novelist, born at Lormes (Niévre), France. He 
is especially noted for his novels describing 
Morvan, the section of France with which he 
was best acquainted. In 1918 he was awarded 
the Vie Hewreuse prize. His works include Pas 
comme les Autres (1906), Les Manigants 
(1907), Horizons et Coins du Morvan (1909), 
Jules Renard et Son Oeuvre (1909), Robes 
Noires (1910), Juliette la Jolie (1912), Sous 
@Humbles Toits, short stories (1913), L’Heri- 
tage (1914), La Renaissance du Livre (1917), 
L’Eclaircie (1918), Le Serviteur (1918), Les 
Rustres (1922), and Le Chant du Coq (1922- 
23). 

BACHELLER, Irvine _ (1859- ). An 
American author (see Vou. Il). He published 
Marryers (1914); The Light in the Clearing 
(1917); Keeping Up with Williams (1918); A 
Man for the Ages (1919); and The Prodigal 
Village (1920). 

BACON, FRANK (1864-1922). An American 
actor, born at Marysville, Cal. He was educat- 
ed in the public schools of San José, and after 
experimenting in journalism and photography 
he made his first appearance on the stage at the 
Garden Theatre, San José, Cal., in 1890 in the 
melodrama Ten Nights in a Bar-Room. His 
first appearance on the New York stage was at 
the Gaiety Theatre, New York, beginning in 
Alabama, Pudd’n’ Head Wilson, Me and Grant, 
The Cinderella Man, The Fortune Hunter, etc. 
His most popular character play was Lightnin’, 
written by himself and produced with extraor- 
dinary success for three consecutive years at 
the Gaiety Theatre, New York, beginning in 
1918. 

BACON, RAymonp Foss (1880- ) Ag 
American chemist, born at Muncie, Ind. He 
was graduated in 1899 at DePauw University. 
He then received a fellowship at Chicago. He 
taught chemistry at Vincennes University, but 
subsequent to obtaining his doctor’s degree he 
took up the commercial practice of chemistry 
in Chicago. In 1905 he went to the Philippines 
as chemist to the Bureau of Science and five 
years later accepted a similar appointment in 
the Bureau of Chemistry in Washington. He 
was director of the Mellon Institute in Pitts- 
burgh, 1914-21; in 1921 he entered commercial 
practice in New York City. During the War 
he served in the Chemical Warfare Service with 
the rank of colonel and was also connected with 
the Naval Construction Board. 

BADEN, FREE Stave oF. Formerly a grand 
duchy, now a republic, in Southwestern Ger- 
many. Its area is 5819 square miles; its pop- 
ulation in 1919, 2,208,503 (the 1910 census gave 
Baden 2,142,833). The capital, Karlsruhe, had, 
according to the census of .1919, 135,952. The 
largest cities include: Mannheim (229,576), 
Freiburg (87,946), Heidelberg (60,831), and 


134 


BAEKELAND 


Baden (25,444). No important changes have 
appeared in the activities of the population. 
Wheat, barley, rye, tobacco, hemp, and various 
root crops are cultivated. The vine culture 
yielded about 6,000,000 gallons of wine in 1921. 
The manufactures have included tiles, cigars, 
jewelry, machinery, musical instruments, chem- 
icals, hats, paper, leather, and brushes. . 

Up to the revolution of 1918, Baden was 
ruled by a hereditary monarch, the Grand 
Duke, with the aid of an election diet. The 
country, because of an alliance of the Liberal 
parties and the Social Democrats, and also be- 
cause of its long liberal tradition, was regarded 
as one of the most happily administered in all 
Europe. But the downfall of the Hohenzollern 
family dragged with it the reigning house of 
Baden and the Grand Duke abdicated on Nov. 
22, 1918. On Jan. 15, 1919, a national assem- 
bly, which had been elected on a basis of uni- 
versal suffrage, met for the preparation of a 
new constitution. On May 21, 1919, the new 
constitution was promulgated, the first such 
document to emerge in revolutionary Germany. 
It abolished all privilege of birth, religion, and 
caste; bestowed full legal rights on women; 
recognized the right of workers, including civil 
servants, to combine; and granted the suffrage 
to all men and women over 20. The sovereign 
power has been vested in a single-chamber diet 
(Landtag), which chooses the ministry of eight, 
and, from their number, one to act as minister- 
president and president of the state. Through 
the exercise of the initiative, the diet may be 
dissolved at any time. Baden is a member of 
the German Federated Republic or Reich and 
has three members in the Reichsrat or Imperial 
Council. 

BAEKELAND, Leo HENprix (1863- yi 
A Belgian-American chemist (see ‘Vout. II). In 
1914 he was awarded the Chandler Medal by 
Columbia University, in 1915 the Grand Prize 
at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, and in 1916 
the Perkin Medal. 

BAEUMER, Gertrup (1873- ). A phi- 
lologist, teacher, lecturer and active worker in 
the woman’s movement of Germany. She was 
born in Berlin, where she studied at the univer- 
sity. She is the author of some philological 
works, Die Soziale Idee und die Weltanschauun- 
gen des Neunzehnten Jahrhunderts and Hand- 
buch der Frauenfrage (in collaboration with 
Helene Lange). She edited Die Hilfe and Die 
Frau, was elected member of the Diet (1918) 
and became councilor in the Cabinet of the In- 
terior. 

BAFFIN LAND. For three centuries this 
was a land .of mystery. Its boundary and ex- 
tent were unknown, and authorities differed as 
to whether it was an island or a _ peninsula. 
Macmillan added to our knowledge, but it re- 
mained for the governmental expedition of Can- 
ada in 1923 to solve the geographic problem. 
It is by far the largest island in the Parry 
archipelago, extending northward 1200 miles 
from latitude 62°N. to 74°N. Its estimated 
area is 211,000 square miles, five times the size 
of Cuba. Canada perfected its claim to the is- 
land by the establishment of a station of 
mounted police in Ponds Inlet, where the Hud- 
son Bay Company had a factor trading with 
the inhabitants of a permanent village of about 
a ‘hundred natives at that point. There were 
several different tribes of Eskimos living by 
hunting and fishing in the interior. In the 


135 BAGDAD RAILWAY 


southern district are two large lakes, compar- 
able in size to Lake Ontario. Outcroppings of 
iron and coal were noted, and the latter was 
mined to some extent. Explorations were being 
made for gold and other valuable minerals. 

BAGDAD. See Mesororamia; WaAR_ IN 
Europe, Turkish Front. 

BAGDAD RAILWAY. The Asiatic link, a 
line 2500 miles long, of the Great “Berlin to 
Bagdad” Railway, which was intended to fur- 
ther German penetration into the Near East. 
It was one of the most important “stakes of di- 
plomacy” and as such may be regarded as one 
of the factors that contributed to bring about 
the War of 1914; indeed, the frustration of the 
German ‘“Berlin-Byzantium-Bagdad” plan was 
publicly declared by Allied and American lead- 
ers during the War to be a vital issue of the 
world conflict. Before the inception of the Bag- 
dad Railway scheme, Central Europe had been 
connected with Constantinople by the Oriental 
Railway: and in the very year (1888) in which 
the first through train ran across the Balkans 
to the Ottoman Capital, a German syndicate 
headed by the Deutsche Bank obtained a conces- 
sion to extend the Haidar Pasha-Ismid Railway 
as far as Angora, in the interior of Anatolia. As 
soon as this line was opened (in 1893), the 
same syndicate, operating through the Anatol- 
ian Railway Company, obtained permission to 
build a branch to Konia (completed 1896). 
Now a wider vista of economic-political pene- 
tration was unfolded to the ambitious German 
engineers and financiers; they now proposed to 
push the railway from Konia across the frown- 
ing Taurus mountains, through Cilicia and 
northern Syria, across the desert to Mosul on 
the Tigris, thence to Bagdad, and on to the 
Persian Gulf. Negotiations for this project, 
begun in the nineties, culminated in 1903 in the 
formal grant of the Bagdad Railway Concession 
by the Ottoman government to an Ottoman cor- 
poration, the Bagdad Railway Company con- 
trolled by German banks. Russia immediately 
objected; England and France, declining an of- 
fer of shares in the enterprise, raised obstacles 
in the way of the German advance. Neverthe- 
less, the work of construction was begun, and 
section after section was completed; yet, be- 
cause of diplomatic as well as engineering diffi- 
culties, the line was unfinished when the War 
began. Great gaps were still unbridged in 
northern Mesopotamia and in the Amanus 
mountains. Turkey’s entry into the War was 
largely due to the politico-economic grip which 
the railway project had given Germany on the 
Ottoman Empire. During the conflict, Turks 
and Germans labored in frantic haste to com- 
plete the line, for military purposes. The cele- 
brated Bagtché tunnel was pierced in 1915, a 
narrow-gauge track was laid to Aleppo, and by 
the Armistice all but about 325 miles between 
Nisibin and Bagdad, and the sector below Bag- 
dad, remained unfinished. But not for Ger- 
many were the fruits of the enterprise reserved. 
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) cancelled all 
former German rights in the Bagdad Railway; 
the Treaty of Sévres and the accompanying se- 
eret Anglo-French-Italian agreement (1920) 
provided that Turkey should appropriate the 
Anatolian and Bagdad Railways, and transfer 
them to a Franco-British-Italian corporation. 
France, stealing a march on Britain by the 
Franeco-Turkish Treaty of Angora (1921), ob- 
tained for a French syndicate (the Cilician- 


BAGLEY 


Syrian Railway Company) the concession for 
the middle section between Bozanti and Nisibin 
(i.e. between Cilicia and the Tigris) in 1922. 
The southeastern sections, from Samarra to 
Bagdad and thence to Basra, having been com- 
pleted by the British army of occupation, were, 
of course, under British control. The north- 
western or Anatolian section, from Haidar 
Pasha to the Cilician Gates, remained provi- 
sionally in Turkish hands, pending fulfillment 
of the Sévres treaty or some other arrangement. 
It was a delicate problem, because the stock- 
holders of the Bagdad Railway Company, which 
was to be expropriated, were by no means all 
Germans; about 30 per cent of the stock was 
owned by French investors, and a large block 
was held by the Swiss Bank fiir orientalischen 
Eisenbahmen, to which the Deutsche Bank had 
transferred its holdings. By purchasing a con- 
trolling interest in this Swiss bank, in May, 
1923, British financiers hoped to obtain in- 
directly a dominating interest in the railway. 
A little later, a British financial group repre- 
sented by Mr. Huguenin was reported to be ne- 
gotiating with the Turkish government for a 
lease of the Anatolian Railway. Such negotia- 
tions, of course, were pursued largely behind 
the scenes of public diplomacy, and could not 
be traced with certainty, nor had the ownership 
of the Anatolian-Bagdad system been definite- 
ly determined by 1924; but of one point there 
could be no doubt, that the magnificently am- 
bitious German scheme, which had so profound- 
ly stimulated the hopes of German imperialists 
and no less deeply stirred the enmity of Entente 
statesmen before the War, was no longer to be 
a German enterprise. 

BAGLEY, WILLIAM CHANDLER (1874- \3 
American university professor born at Detroit, 
Mich. He was educated at the Michigan Agri- 
cultural College, the University of Wisconsin, 
and Cornell Univers:ty. He taught in the pub- 
lic schools and was professor of education in 
the University of Illinois und Teachers’ College, 
Columbia University. He was president of the 
National Society for Study of Education and 
the Society of College Teachers of Education. 
During the War he edited The National School 
Service. Among his published works are Edu- 
cational Values (New York, 1911); The His- 
tory of the American People, with Charles A. 
Beard (New York, 1919); A First Book im 
American History, with Charles A. Beard (New 
York, 1920); The Nation and the Schools, with 
John A. Keith (New York, 1920); and Our Old 
World Background, with Charles A. Beard 
(New York, 1922). 

BAHAMAS. A British colony north of the 
West Indies consisting of 29 islands, 661 islets, 
and over 3000 reefs. Only 20 islands of this 
whole group are inhabited. The principal is- 
lands are: New Providence, which contains 
the capital, Nassau (13,554); Abaco (4463) ; 
Grand Bahama (1824); San Salvador (5072); 
Long Island (4150); Eleuthra (6533); Exuma 
(3465); and Andros Island (7545). The plant- 
ing of sisal, the growing of vegetables, and the 
sponge fisheries continued to be the leading in- 
dustries, while fruit culture increased rapidly 
because of the establishment of canning facto- 
ries. The imports for 1922 were valued at 
£1,963,152 (a gain of 386 per cent over 1913), 
and the exports at £1,827,735 (a gain of 599 
per cent over 1913). In 1922, 721,846 tons of 
shipping entered and 718,110 tons cleared the 


136 BAILEY 


ports of the islands. In 1922, the share of the 
United States in Bahamas imports was 60 per 
cent, and of their exports, 8 per cent, carried 
for the most part in American bottoms. A 
large proportion of the illicit alcoholic traffic 
carried on with the United States originated in 
the Bahamas, the city of Nassau devoting itself 
tc a large extent to this activity. 

BAHREIN. See ARABIA. 

BAIKO, ONoYE ( ?- ). A Japanese actor 
of the Imperial Theatre in Tokyo whose deli- 
cacy and charm as an interpreter of female 
roles have won him great favor. He is a mem- 
ber of the company which presents classical 
Kabuki drama. Baiko and his associates per- 
form on a stage whose basic fictions are differ- 
ent from those of the American theatre. The 
orthodox Japanese stage makes little effort to 
conceal its operation. 

BAILEY, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1875—- }e 
American electrical engineer, born at Sheridan, 
Mich. He studied electrical engineering at the 
University of Michigan and later held the posi- 
tions of chief engineer of the Fairbanks-Morse 
Electrical Manufacturing Company and Howell 
Electrical Motor Company, director of Bailey 
Electrical Company, and vice-president and di- 
rector of the Fremont Motor Corporation. He 
is the author of several books on electrical en- 
gineering, including Principles of Dynamo-elec- 
tric Machinery (1915). He became professor 
of electrical engineering at the University of 
Michigan in 1913. 

BAILEY, CARroLyN SHERWIN (1877- 1g 
An American author of children’s stories, born 
at Hoosick Falls, N. Y. She graduated from 
Teachers’ College, Columbia University, in 
1896. She has contributed to the Ladies’ Home 
Journal and other magazines, and published 
volumes of stories for children, methods of 
story telling, methods of teaching children, etc., 
which include Boys and Girls of Colonial Days 
(1917); Broad Stripes and Bright Stars 
(1919); Flint; The Story of a Trail (1922); 
and Friendly Tales (1923). She wrote For the 
Children’s Hour (:906) in collaboration. 

BAILEY, CHARLES JUSTIN (1859- ). An 
American soldier, born in Tamaqua, Pa. He 
graduated from the United States Military 
Academy in 1880 and in the same year was ap- 
pointed second lieutenant. He was promoted 
through the various grades and became colonel 
in 1911 and brigadier-general in 1913. On Aug. 
5, 1917, he was appointed major general of the 
National Army. He commanded the Philippine 
Department in 1918 and in the same year was 
made commander of the 81st Division of the 
National Army, which he commanded in France 
in 1918-19. In the latter year he was appoint- 
ed commander of the Middle Atlantic Coast 
Artillery District, and in 1921, commander of 
the Third Corps Area. He was awarded the 
D. S. M., the Order of Leopold (Belgium), the 
Croix de Guerre with palm, and was an officer 
of the Legion of Honor. 

BAILEY, PrEArcE (1865-1922). An Ameri- 
can neurologist and psychiatrist, educated at 
Princeton and Columbia Universities. He _ be- 
came a consultant in several New York hos- 
pitals and with Collins and Fraenkel founded 
the Neurological Institute. He was also ap- 
pointed an associate professor of neurology in 
Columbia. On the entry of the United States 
into the War, he was appointed chief of the 
division of neurology and psychiatry in the 


BAILEY 


United States army with the rank of colonel. 
He perfected a system for weeding out defec- 

tives which is said to have been used as a 
model by the Allies. His major literary efforts 
comprise a translation of Golobievski’s Atlas 
and Epitome of Diseases Caused by Accident 
(1900) and a monograph Accident and Injury; 
Relation to the Nervous System (1906), which 
he later expanded into Diseases of the Nervous 
System Resulting from Accident and Injury, a 
valuable work for the medical world. At the 
time of his death, Dr. Bailey was chairman of 
the New York State Committee for Mental De- 
fectives. 

BAILEY, VERNON Howe (1874— ye" An 
American artist, born at Camden, N. J., who 
studied at the Pennsylvania Museum School of 
Art and the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine 
Arts. Mr. Bailey’s special subject is city 
streets in Europe and America. The _ best 
known of his drawings are his sketches in pen- 
ceil of London. Bailey was the first artist priv- 
ileged by the United States government on the 
declaration of war to make drawings of navy 
yards, munition factories, and other centres of 
war work. These drawings appeared in exhibi- 
tions and were published in the leading maga- 
zines throughout the country. The Hispanic 
Society has a collection of 150 drawings which 
Mr. Bailey made of Spain, and the Musée de 
la Guerre of France contains a collection of 
lithographs of American war subjects. Be- 
sides his work as a newspaper artist in London 
and America Mr. Bailey illustrated many 
books. 

BAIN, Harry Foster (1871- }etAn 
American geologist, born at Seymour, Ind. He 
was éducated at Moores Hill College, Johns 
Hopkins, and the University of Chicago. 
Meanwhile he became connected with the Iowa 
Geological Survey in 1893 and remained in this 
position until 1901, when he entered the United 
States Geological Survey, with which he served 
for two years. From 1905 to 1911 he was 
State geologist of Illinois. In 1918 he re- 
turned to the government service as assistant 
director of The Bureau of Mines and in 1920 
succeeded to the directorship. He was editor 
of the Mining and Scientific Press, 1909-15, 
and in 1915-16 he edited the London Mining 
Magazine. Dr. Bain gave courses of lectures 
on economic geology at the University of Iowa 
in 1897 and at the University of Chicago in 
1899 and 1902-3. 

BAINBRIDGE, WILLIAM SEAMAN (1870-__—+?). 
An American surgeon and gynecologist born 
at Providence, R. I. He studied at the College 
of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia Uni- 
versity and at various hospitals in New York 
City and abroad. He has been a prolific writer 
on surgical subjects in many fields, notably in- 
testinal stasis and cancer. He became a pro- 
fessor at the New York Polyclinic Medical 
School and Hospital in 1906. Before the entry 
of the United States into the War he was 
United States medical observer with the Allied 
armies and later was attached to the Surgeon 
General’s office to report his findings. After 
the entry of the United States into the War he 
functioned as naval surgeon on vessels and at 
naval base hospitals and was subsequently com- 
missioned commander of the United States 
Medical Corps. He is the author of The Can- 
cer Problem (1914), re-issued in French in 
1922; Life’s Day (1909), a work on personal 


137 BAKER 


hygiene; and Report of Medical and Surgical 
Developments of the War (Government Print- 
ing Office, 1919). 


BAINSIZZA PLATEAU. See War IN 
Europet, /talian Front. 
BAIRNSFATHER, Bruce (1887- Pa 


English humorist born at Murree, India, and 
educated at the United Services College, West- 
ward Ho. He studied to be an engineer but in 
1914 rejoined the Royal Warwickshire Regi- 
ment and served in France until 1916, when he 
received a War Office appointment. His hu- 
morous black and white sketches of life in the 
trenches which appeared in Bystander made 
Bairnsfather’s reputation, and his play The 
Better ’Ole, which scored a great success in 
1917, was based on the adventures of the “Old 
Bill” of these sketches. Fragments of France 
contains many of his drawings. He also pro- 
duced Bullets and Billets (1916) and From 
Mud to Mufti (1919). In 1919 he started 
Fragments, a weekly comic paper. 

BAKER, GEoRGE BaArR_ (1870- ). An 
American editor, born at Wyandotte, Mich. He 
began as reporter on the Detroit Tribune (1895- 
96) and was subsequently art critic, foreign cor- 
respondent, etc., for leading newspapers and 
magazines. He was American correspondent of 
the London Daily Express, 1904-05. Later he 
was associate editor of Hverybody’s Magazine 
(1907-10) and literary editor of the Delineator 
(1911-14). Through the Spanish-American 
War he was ship’s writer for the U.S.S. Yosem- 
ite, and during the European War he held 
the important positions of secretary of the 
Commission for Relief in Belgium, director of 
the American Relief Administration, Comman- 
der of the United States Naval Reserve Force, 
etc. He wrote of Mother’s Geese: a New 
Brood, in collaboration (New York, 1906). 

BAKER, Horace ( ? — ). An American 
railway official, born in Missouri, where he was 
educated in the public schools. He worked up 
from subordinate positions in various railway 
companies and became in 1917 general man- 
ager of the Cincinnati, New Orleans and Texas 
Pacific Railway and the Alabama Great South- 
ern Railroad System (lines west). In 1920 he 
was a member of the Railroad Board of Ad- 
justment and of the United States Railroad 
Labor Board. 

BAKER, HucH Potrer (1878- ). An 
American forester, born at St. Croix Falls, Wis. 
He graduated from the Michigan Agricultural 
College in 1901 and took post-graduate courses 
in forestry at Yale. He also studied at the 
University of Munich. For 10 years he was 
in the United States Forest Service in Idaho, 
Wyoming, New Mexico, and other western 
States. He became professor of forestry in 
the Iowa State College in 1904 and filled the 
same chair at Pennsylvania State College, 
1907-12. He was dean and professor of sil- 
viculture at the New York State College of 
Forestry, 1912-20, and in 1920 he became ex- 
ecutive secretary of the American Paper and 
Pulp Association. During the War he served 
with the 46th Infantry and was a member of 
the General Staff. 

BAKER, (Mrs.) KArLE WILSON (1878- his 
An American poet and author, born at Little 
Rock, Ark., and educated at the University of 
Chicago. In spite of the frequent mordant 
bits, her poems have visions of real beauty. 
Under the pseudonym of “Charlotte Wilson,” 


BAKER 138 


she was co-author of Women and Prisons 
(1912), published in London by the Fabian 
Society. She has contributed fiction and poet- 
ry to Harper’s, Atlantic Monthly, Yale Review, 
The Century, etc., and is the author of Blue 


Smoke, poems (1919), The Garden of the 
Plynck (1920), The Burning Bush (1922), 
ete. 

BAKER, Newton Dienu (1871- ) heed 
American lawyer and public official, born in 
Martinsburg, W. Va. He graduated from 


Johns Hopkins University in 1892 and from 
the law department of Washington and Lee 
University in 1894. He served as private sec- 
retary to Postmaster General Wilson, 1896-97, 
and in the latter year began the practice of 
law at Martinsburg, W. Va. He removed to 
Cleveland, Ohio, and from 1902 to 1912 was 
solicitor for that city. He was elected mayor 
in 1912 and was reélected in 1914. His work 
as an efficient administrative oflicer attracted 
wide attention, and in 1916 he was appointed 
Secretary of War by President Wilson. He 
was in charge of this most important branch 
of the government during the War, and al- 
though his administration was severely criti- 
cized, it was generally conceded that on the 
whole his conduct of the office was marked by 
zeal and by absolute devotion to its duties. 
He served until Mar. 4, 1921. In that year he 
was commissioned colonel of the O. R. C. On 
the conclusion of his official service, he resumed 
the practice of law in Cleveland, He was a 
zealous advocate of the League of Nations, and 
at the Democratic national convention of 1924, 
he made an impassioned appeal for the inclu- 


sion of the plank favoring the League in the - 


Democratic platform. This move was. defeated. 

BAKER, P. Bryant (1881— ). An English 
sculptor, born at London. He studied at the 
London Royal Academy of Arts. Baker came 
to the United States in 1915 and served in the 
army, 1918-19. His work includes a statue of 
King Edward VII at Huddersfield, Yorkshire; 
a memorial to Archdeacon Henry Robeson in 
Tewkesbury Abbey, the Rt. Hon. Percy Illing- 
worth Memorial in London, a marble bust of 
King Edward VII, executed for Queen Alexan- 
dra, and a portrait of Prince Olay, for the 
Queen of Norway. An idealistic imagination 
is evident in his “Eros” (Manchester) and 
“Mnemosyne” (Hull City Art Galleries). As 
a student he attracted much attention with the 
four figure group, “The Entombment,”’ which 
won a first prize at the Academy. He has 
made portrait busts of President Wilson, Gen. 
J. J. Pershing, Chief Justice William H. Taft, 
and Theodore Roosevelt. His work has been 
exhibited at the Royal Academy London, the 
Paris Salon, the Corcoran Art Gallery in 
Washington and at various important galleries 
in the United States. 

BAKER, Ray STANNARD (1870- ). Amer- 
ican author and publicist (see Vor. II). After 
the War, Mr. Baker was prominent as director 
of the press bureau of the American Peace Del- 
egation in Paris. In this capacity he passed 
on all the news concerning the peace proceed- 
ings which emanated from official sources for 
home consumption. Continuing his prolific 
writing, he published books in many genres. 
Under the pen-name of “David Grayson” he 
wrote a series of rural studies which in their 
idyllic charm struck a rather unusual note 
in American literature. Their tranquillity and 


BALDWIN 


kindliness had the flavor of Vergil’s Georgics. 
These sketches included Adventures in Content- 
ment (1907), Adventures in Friendship (1910), 
The Friendly Road (1913), Great Possessions 
(1917), and the novel Hempfield (1915). As 
a result of his peace activities, he wrote What 
Wilson Did at Paris (1919), and Woodrow Wil- 
son and World Settlement (1922). The latter 
was a full account accompanied by official doc- 
uments and had as its purpose the vindication 
of President Wilson’s attitude. 

BAKU. See AZERBAIJAN. 

BALCH, EpwIn Swirr ( ? —- ). An 
American writer on the Antarctic, glaciers, ete. 
He was born at Philadelphia and graduated 


from Harvard University. After studying in 


the law office of William Henry Rawle, he was 
admitted to the Philadelphia bar in 1882. Be- 
sides contributing to periodicals, he has writ- 
ten Antarctica (1902), Comparatiwe Art 
(1906) The North Pole and Bradley Land 
(1913), Mt. McKinley and Mountain Climbers’ 
Proofs (1914),.and Arts of the World (1920), 
ete. 

BALDWIN, JAmes Mark (1861- ). An 
American philosopher and psychologist (see 
Vou. IT). During the War he.was active in be- 
half of the Allies’ cause and published ad- 
dresses pleading for American participation. 
American Neutrality, Its Cause and Cure 
(1916) and France and the War (1916) are 
two such collections. The Swperstate and the 
Eternal Values was the Spencer memorial lec- 
ture for 1916. A Genetic Theory of Reality, 
presented as the culmination of his previous 
studies in genetic logic, is the only comprehen- 
sive philosophic work he published after 1914. 
Professor Baldwin’s works have been ‘trans- 
lated into French and have been well received 
by the philosophic public of France. 

BALDWIN, Lewis WARRINGTON (1875— 3 
An American railway official, born at Water- 
bury, Md., and educated at St. John’s College 
(Annapolis, Md.) and at Lehigh University. 
He began his career in the engineering depart- 
ment of the Illinois Central Railroad in 1896. 
From 1906 to 1915 he held various positions 
with the Illinois Central and Yazoo and Mis- 
souri Valley Railways, finally becoming their 
general superintendent. He was successively 
general manager and vice-president of the Cen- 
tral of Georgia Railway, 1915-18, and in 1918 
he became assistant regional director of the 
United States Railroad Administration for the 
southern region. He held a similar position in 
the Allegheny region, 1918-19, and became di- 
rector in 1919-20. In the latter year he 
was also made vice-president in charge of the 
operating department of the Illinois Central 
Railroad. 

BALDWIN, STantey (1867- ). A prime 
minister of Great Britain, born Aug. 3, 1867, 
and educated at Harrow and Cambridge. He 
entered Parliament in 1908. Business  ab- 
sorbed most of his attention for some years, 
and it was not until the break-up of the Lloyd 
George coalition in October, 1922, when he was 
made financial secretary to the treasury, and 
later president of the Board of Trade, that he 
caused any particular stir in politics. His 
training in trade and finance stood him in good 
stead, and his great ability in these fields be- 
came widely recognized. In the Bonar Law 
government he was made Chancellor of the Ex- 
chequer, and did much to increase Great Bri- 


BALDWIN 


tain’s prestige abroad. In January, 1923, he 
came to the United States to arrange for the 
payment of the British war debt. After a 
month of successful accomplishment he re- 
turned home to England. On April 16 he in- 
troduced his first budget, which showed a sur- 
plus of $500,000,000, most of it due to drastic 
economy. Soon after Easter, Bonar Law lost 
the use of his voice, and Baldwin acted as his 
deputy and spoke for him on many occasions. 
When Bonar Law resigned in May, 1923, Bald- 
win became prime minister. Baldwin and his 
supporters believed that the protection of home 
industries was the sovereign cure for unem- 
ployment, but he was bound by his late chief’s 
pledge to let tariff reform alone. He appealed 
to the country, and an election was held on 
December 6. The vote was against protection, 
and by the time Parliament met on Jan. 8, 
1924, it was expected that the Baldwin govern- 
ment would be given a vote of censure. The 
anticipated vote occurred on January 21, and 
on Mr. Baldwin’s resignation the next day, 
Ramsay MacDonald was summoned to Buck- 
ingham Palace and asked to form a new 
cabinet. 

‘BALDWIN, Tuomas Scott (1854- Jeo An 
aéronaut born in Merrien County, Mo. His 
flying experience extended over a 46-year peri- 
od, from 1875 to 1921. He is best known as 
the originator of parachutes and as the first 
to descend from a balloon in a parachute in 
the United States (at San Francisco in 1885). 
He delivered the first airship to the signal 
eorps of the United States army. During the 
War he was chief of the army balloon inspec- 
tion and production. 

BALFOUR, ARTHUR JAMES, First EARL OF 
(1848- ). A British statesman and former 
prime minister (see VoL. II). With other Un- 
ionist leaders he discarded all party differ- 
ences on the outbreak of the War and joined 
Mr. Asquith’s first Coalition cabinet of 1915 
with the portfolio of First Lord of the Admi- 
ralty. In this office his work met the uncom- 
promising criticism of Winston Churchill, whom 
he had displaced, but his dignified deportment 
and excellent reports earned public confidence. 
In his administration the battle of Jutland was 
fought; he was responsible for the appointment 
of Sir John Jellicoe as First Sea Lord and Sir 
David Beatty as commander of the sea forces. 
With the accession of Lloyd George in Decem- 
ber, 1916, Mr. Balfour was transferred to the 
Foreign Office, where it was felt that his pleas- 
ing address could be of greatest aid in gaining 
the sympathies of the United States. In 1917 
he came to the United States as the head of 
the British Mission and served as an important 
element in fusing the purposes of the two na- 
tions. In the same year his statement to the 
effect that Great Britain would support the 
creation of Palestine as a homeland for the 
Jews attracted the support of Jewry the world 
over and was regarded as proof of English sin- 
cerity in championing the cause of small na- 
tions. In the years that followed, Mr. Bal- 
four accepted comparatively unimportant posts 
cheerfully. He attended the Peace Conference 
as a British representative and watched the 
Big Four write the peace. In 1919 he resigned 
his Foreign Secretaryship to accept the less 
significant post of First President of the Coun- 
cil. In 1920 he represented his country at the 
first Assembly of the League of Nations, and 


Law in San 


139 BALLANTINE 


in 1921 he once more came to America as 
his government’s spokesman at the Washing- 
ton Disarmament Conference. His disinterested 
services were fittingly recognized; the Order of 
Merit was conferred on him in 1916, and in 
1919 the chancellorship of Cambridge Uni- 
versity. Finally in 1922 he was created first 
Earl of Balfour and Viscount Traprain of 
Wittingehame, and thus took his seat in the 
House of Lords after serving in the Commons 
for almost 50 years. He published, after 1914, 
Theism and Humanism (1915) and Essays, 
Speculative and Political (1920). 

~“BALFOUR, Sir Isaac BAYLEY (1853-1922). 
A Scottish botanist, born at Edinburgh (see 
Vou. II). From 1888 to the year of his death 
he was King’s Botanist in Scotland, Regius 
Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden at Edin- 
burgh, and professor of botany at the Uni- 
versity of Edinburgh. 

BALFOUR DECLARATION. See PALEs- 
TINE. 

BALIEV, NIKITA FyopoROVITCH ( ?- yy, 
A-Russian actor and theatrical producer whose 
reputation in America was due to the success 
of his Théatre de la Chauve-Souris. This “bat 
theatre’ was in origin nothing else than a 
“cabaret carried out with finesse, fantasy and 
fancy.” In Baliev’s establishment the authors 
and artists of the Moscow Art Theatre gathered 
for amusement and relaxation. The Revolu- 
tion came and with it poverty: Baliev went to 
Paris with his troupe. First Paris, in 1920, 
then London, and later New York saw in his 
productions the “enigmatic smiling Russia that 
is of no time and no age.” Baliev is a master 
showman who knows how to make the most of 
his limitations. Even his broken English is 
capitalized in his stage presence. 

BALL, ELMER DARWIN (1870- ) FAD 
American entomologist (see Vou. II). He was 
State entomologist of Wisconsin (1916-18) and 
professor of zodlogy and entomology at the 
Towa State College and State entomologist of 
Iowa (1918-21). In 1921, Professor Ball be- 
came director of scientific work in the United 
States Department of Agriculture. 

BALLANCH, Sir CHARLES ALFRED ( ?- i 
A distinguished British surgeon who has spe- 
cialized in cranial and vascular surgery. He re- 
ceived his medical degree from the University 
of London in 1881. Among his appointments 
are those of surgeon to the West End Hospital 
for Nervous Diseases, chief surgeon to the 
Metropolitan Police, and, during the War con- 
sulting surgeon to the British army. He was 
knighted in 1918. Among his published works 
are Surgery of the Brain and Its Membranes 
(1907) ; Cerebral Decompression (1912); Sur- 
gery of the Temporal Bone, 2 vols. (1919) ; 
Surgery of the Heart (1920) and History of 
Surgery of the Braiw (1922). Earlier in his 
career he wrote two other works in collabora- 
tion, The Healing of Nerves with Stewart 
(1901), anc Treatise on Ligature of the Great 
Artertes in Continuity, with Edmunds (1891). 

BALLANTINE, Henry WINTHROP (1880-— 

). An American professor of law, born at 
Oberlin, Ohio, and educated at Oberlin, Am- 
herst, and Harvard Colleges and the Harvard 
Law School. He was admitted to the Califor- 
nia bar in 1904 and was lecturer on law at 
the University of California, 1905-09, and as- 
sistant professor of law at Hastings College of 
Francisco. He was dean of the 


BALLET 


Law School of the University of Montana, 
1911-13, professor at the Law School of the 
University of Wisconsin, 1913-16, and dean of 
the College of Law of the University of Il- 
linois, 1916-20. In 1920 he became professor 
of law in the University of Minnesota. Be- 
sides contributions to periodicals, he has writ- 
ten Problems in the Law of Contracts and 
Preparation of Contracts and Conveyances 
(1921). 

BALLET. The year 1910 marks the begin- 
ning of a new era in the history of the ballet. 
In May of that year Sergei Diaghilev appeared 
in Paris with his new and individual creation, 
the Ballet Russe, which immediately created a 
sensation. He had been working for several 
years toward the realization of his new ideas 
and had found sympathetic allies in Leon 
Bakst, the painter, and Michael Fokin, the di- 
rector of the Imperial Ballet in Moscow. 
Fokin, before meeting Diaghilev, had seen Isa- 
dora Duncan interpreting choreographically 
masterpieces of absolute music (Beethoven’s 
Seventh Symphony, Chopin, Schumann, etc.). 
Her art suggested to him the idea of using the 
mere technical skill of the dancer as a means 
for the expression of definite emotions through 
pantomime. Thus the collaboration of Diagh- 
ilev, Fokin and Bakst resulted in the develop- 
ment of the ballet by coérdinating dancing, 
stage-decorations, costumes, lighting-effects and 
music, and fusing these concomitant elements 
into a homogeneous whole. Moscow thus _be- 
came the cradle of the new art. The beginning 
was made with the ballets in the regular reper- 
tory, which were interpreted in the new style. 
Then, following the example of Isadora Duncan, 
Fokin adapted choreographic actions to famous 
instrumental works, such as Rimsky-Korsa- 
kov’s Scheherazade, Debussy’s lV’ Aprés-midi dun 
Faune, Strauss’ Till Eulenspiegel. About that 
time Diaghilev mt Stravinsky, then entirely 
unknown, whose style of music seemed to fit 
admirably into the general scheme of things. 
The young musician was commissioned to write 
the music to l’Oiseau de Feu. In 1909, Diagh- 
iley visited Paris with an operatic company, 
ostensibly for the purpose of introducing Rus- 
sian operas, in which ballets figure extensively. 
Incidentally, separate performances of standard 
ballets were also given, and these aroused 
the greatest enthusiasm. The following year 
Diaghilev returned, but only with the Ballet 
Russe. It was then that Stravinsky’s ballet, 
Oiseau de Feu, was produced with sensational 
success. The next year (1911) furnished an- 
other sensation, the same composer’s Petrushka. 
Two years later these phenomenal successes 
were even eclipsed by Le Sacre du Printemps. 
The opinion of musicians regarding the value 
of Stravinsky’s scores as absolute music does 
not enter into consideration here; what counts 
is the fact that this music fits into the general 
ensemble as no other music does. This was 
proved before long, when Diaghilev commis- 
sioned ballets from other composers of con- 
siderable reputation: Debussy (Jeuw), Ravel 
(Daphnis et Chloé), Hahn (Le Dieu bleu), 
Dukas (La Péri), Tcherepnin (Narcisse, Le 
Pavilion @Armide), R. Strauss (Légende de 
Joseph). Taris had gone wild over the new 
art, London fully indorsed the verdict of Paris, 
and even conservative New York gasped when 
the new organization made its first appearance 
there (1916). Such was the success of the 


140 


BALMONT 


original season of two weeks that the regular 
season at the Metropolitan Opera House was 
shortened by three weeks in order to present 
the new sensation to the subscribers. Although 
Diaghilev has not revisited the United States, 
interest in the new art has been kept alive by 
the tours of Anna Pavlowa, who, though never 
connected with Diaghilev, has developed her 
own company along similar lines. 

BALLET, GivsertT (1853-1916). <A distin- 
guished French neurologist and alienist, born 
at Ambazae (Haute-Vienne), who received his 
medical education at Limoges and Paris. In 
1882 he became chief of the clinic at the Sal- 
pétriére. In 1914 he drew up a scheme for re- 
forming the French lunacy law and was one of 
the most active opponents of alcohol abuse in 
France. He held two chairs in the University 
of Paris, he was appointed professor of the 
history of ‘medicine (1907) and clinical profes- 
sor of mental diseases two years later. In 
1897 he published his Psychoses et Affections 
Nerveuses and in 1902 collaborated with Proust 
in the publication of the Traité de la Neuras- 
thénie. His greatest work was the Traité de. 
Pathologie Mentale (1903). His Life of Swed- 
enborg appeared in 1899. Two translations of 
his Newrasthenia wer? published in English, in 
1902 and 1911, and did much to make him 
known outside of France. 

BALLIN, Awtsert (1857-1918). A German 
merchant, director-general of the Hamburg- 
American line. He was born in Hamburg and 
had a commercial education, both at home and 
in England. After organizing the emigrant 
traffic of the Carr Line, he took charge of 
the passenger traffic of the Hamburg-American 
Line; in 1886 he became a director and subse- 
quently director-general. The expansion of the 
company was due to his efforts. He increased 
the share capital tenfold and by acquiring other 
lines extended the business of the company to 
all parts of the world. He was the author of 
the German-American shipping agreement of 
1902. As a special confidant of William II, he 
advised him on all commercial questions. Dur- 
ing the War he published some newspaper ar- 
ticles justifying Germany. 

BALLIN, Hugo (1879- ). An American 
figure and decorative painter (see Vou. II), pres- 
ident of Hugo Ballin Inc. who produced and 
mounted more than eighty feature motion pic- 
tures including: Hast Lynne, Pagan Love, Baby 
Mine, The Journey’s End, Jane Eyre, Vanity 
Fair and Married People. 

BALLOON. See AERONAUTICS. 

BALLOONS, in Warrare. See STRATEGY 
AND TACTICS. 

BALMONT, Konstantin D. (1867- 8A 
Russian poet, the founder of the Modernist 
school of Russian poetry with Bryusov, one of 
the leading symbolists. He at first made a 
great sensation but later lost some of his popu- 
larity on account of frequent repetitions. He 
translated extensively from other languages, 
especially English and wrote many critical es- 
says. Some of the best known of his several 
volumes of poems are Under Northern Skies 
(1894), Silence (1898), Burning Buildings 
(1900), Let Us Be Like the Sun (1903), Love 
Only (1904), and The Flame-Bird (1907). He 
also wrote Phlox Clusters after a journey to 
Mexico, besides many short stories and a book 
of poems for children. His translations include 
Shelley’s complete works, Whitman (most of 


BALTIC PROVINCES 


the Leaves of Grass), Poe, Ibsen’s dramas, 
Calderon’s poems, and works from the German, 
Polish and Sanskrit. 

BALTIC PROVINCES. A term applied to 
three former provinces of the Russian Empire, 
Courland, Livonia, and Esthonia, in the region 
of the Baltic Sea. At the conclusion of the 
War a German army occupied the provinces, 
and article 12 of the Armistice Convention 
called for its withdrawal “as soon as the Allies 
shall consider this desirable.” ‘To embarrass 
the Powers, however, the Germans decided to 
withdraw at once, and beginning with Novem- 
ber, 1918, detachments quit the country as Bol- 
shevik forces spread westward. The situation 
was further complicated when German troops 
under General von der Goltz were induced to 
stay in Latvia to play the réle of liberators. 
February, 1919, saw 20,000 Germans concen- 
trated in the Libau-Windau area and actively 
meddling in Latvian affairs. The tone of the 
Allied notes became caustic with this turn of 
events. On Apr. 23, 1919, the Allies called for 
the end of German interference in local matters 
and the recall of von der Goltz; on June 18 a 
demand was made for German evacuation in 
accordance with the terms of the Armistice. 
But an ultimatum from General Foch in the 
summer succeeded neither in hastening with- 
drawal nor in preventing the German march 
north into Esthonia. It was not until the Su- 
preme Council threatened economic pressure 
that Germany showed a willingness to heed 
Allied protests. A mixed commission was ap- 
pointed to superintend the withdrawal; evacua- 
tion was begun in November, not without ma- 
terial damage to the population; and by the 
middle of December it was complete. The sub- 
sequent history of the Baltic Provinces is given 
under the names of the two Republics, Esthonia 
and Latvia (q.v.) which were created out of 
this territory. 

BALTIMORE. Metropolis of Maryland. The 
area of the city increased from 31.8 square 
miles in 1914 to 91.93 square miles in 1924 of 
which 78.72 square miles was land; the popu- 
lation rose from 558,485 in 1910 to 733,826 in 
1920 and to 773,580 by estimate of the Bureau 
of the Census for 1923. An extensive muni- 
cipal improvement programme was developed 
in 1920. Loans for $51,750,000 were author- 
ized by popular vote in that year, and in 1922 
another loan of $15,000,000, in addition to the 
$7,000,000 allotted for the purpose from the 
earlier loan, was voted for school improvement. 
With these sums 16 new schools and a city 
college were built or under construction by 
1924, and other school houses already built 
were being repaired and improved. The water 
supply for the city for many years to come 
also was assured by the raising of the Loch 
Raven dam from 188 to 240 feet elevation, the 
purchase of 4000 acres of land and the razing 
of two villages. A large water main was ex- 
tended into each section of the new annex to 
the city, and the private water companies oper- 
ating there were purchased. A filtration plant 
was built, and plans were made for increasing 
its capacity. The sewage plant was enlarged 
and 162 miles of sewers laid in the old city 
and the annex. The municipal hospital for 
communicable diseases was under construction 
in 1923; the police department was reorganized 
with a commissioner at its head, and a $1,000,- 
000 loan for the erection of police buildings was 


141 BANAT OF TEMESVAR 


approved in 1923 and plans were prepared for 
the erection of a building adjoining the Cure 
Centre; and twelve new engine houses for 
the fire department were under construction. 
Progress was made in smooth street paving and 
several bridges were built. 

For the development of the harbor, the most 


extensive of these projected improvements, $10,- 


000,000 was available in 1924 of the $50,000,000 
the State legislature authorized the city to vote 
as a loan for the purpose as well as an addi- 
tional loan of $2,500,000. In 1923 work had 
already Legun on the McComas Street bulkhead, 
the first in the plan of the port development 
commission for this group of projected piers, 
and negotiations were being carried on for the 
contract for a $4,000,000 pier. The complete 
development ultimately was to have the most 
efficient handling devices, warehouses, etc., and 
complete railroad communications with the ter- 
minus. The following additional loans were to 
be submitted to the voters in November, 1924: 
$10,000,000 for sewers; $7,000,000 for paving, 
bridges and grade crossings; $1,500,000 for un- 
derground conduits for wires; and $2,000,000 
for a municipal building to provide space for 
city departments occupying buildings in dif- 
ferent sections of the city. 

The following comparative summary shows 
the increase in manufacturing in Baltimore 
from 1914 to 1919, as prepared by the Bureau 
of the Census. 


Per cent 
1914 1919 of in- 
crease 
Number of establish- 
MeNnts +), BSR is.d 2,502 2,797 11.8 
Persons engaged in 
manufacture .. 87,453 117,140 33.9 
Capitalieemer ae: $177,301,000 $434,244,000 144.9 
Services): S17 «2744 48,978,000 137,144,000 180.0 
Materials soto. sca 120,533,000 427,756,000 254.9 
Value of products 215,172,000 677,878,000 215.0 


Between 1919 and 1923, according to statistics 
furnished by the Baltimore board of trade, 284 
additional industries were established and 402 
expansions of existing industries were made, 
representing a plant investment of $130,252,- 
200. 

In 1922 Baltimore’s bank clearings totaled 
$4,141,820,192, a gain of 16.5 per cent over 
1918 and the large gain of 125.8 over 1916. 
The total bank resources increased from $334,- 
369,000 in 1916 to $532,679,691 in 1923. 

In May 1923, after much investigation, a zon- 
ing ordinance was adopted regulating the 
height and bulk of new buildings, the size of 
courts and yards, the number of families per- 
mitted to b> housed per acre, and the location 
of industries and trades. It divided the city 
into four use districts, five height, and six area 
districts. A model elevator code was enacted. 

BANAT OF TEMESVAR. Formerly a ter- 
ritory of the Hungarian Kingdom but since 
1919 a Rumanian province of the same name. 
Jts area is approximately 10,000 square miles, 
and its estimated population, 1,580,000. In 
1916, in order to gain Rumanian support, the 
Allies, by a secret treaty of whose terms the 
Serbs were not apprised, promised Rumania the 
entire Banat. This was done in spite of the 
fact that the district is ethnographically by no 
means a homogeneous unit, there being Slavs 


in the west, Rumanians in the east, and 
strong Hungarian and German minorities 
throughout. In 1919, an act of union of the 


BANCROFT 


Banat with Rumania was promulgated by the 
Rumanian Crown and the Peace Conference was 
confronted by a fait accompli. The Supreme 
Council, however, refused to recognize the an- 
nexation and by the statement of June 12, 1919, 
divided the Banat between Jugo-Slavia and Ru- 
mania. Meanwhile the Serbs occupied the dis- 
trict, and, partly in protest against an action 
that seemed to have the tacit consent of the 
Supreme Council, the Rumanians marched into 
Hungary and invested Budapest. It was not 
until the signing of the Treaty of the Trianon 
(June, 1920) that Rumania finally signified her 
consent to the partition of the district. By 
this arrangement, the counties of Krass6-Szér- 
ény and Temes in the east were granted to Ru- 
mania, and the county of Torontal, bordering 
on the Danube, to Jugo-Slavia. The economic 
considerations underlying the diplomatic con- 
troversy were perhaps of greater importance 
than the purely racial. To the Serbs, whose 
lands are deficient in cereals, the rich farming 
country of the Banat made an especial appeal. 
The peasants of Temesvar wished to join the 
Serbs; the landowners, because of Rumania’s 
traditional friendliness toward their class, 
sought annexation to her. Again, any north 
and south boundary line through the country 
must disorganize its economic life because the 
westward-flowing streams, the railways, and 
canals, all would be cut. That both countries 
desired the whole Banat was natural; and the 
partition of the territory in 1920 left a group 
of problems difficult of solution and containing 
elements of inevitable discord. 

BANCROFT, WILDER Dwicut (1867—- +. 
An American chemist (see Vou. II). During 
1917 and 1918 he was chairman of the sub- 
committee on electro-chemistry of the National 
Research Council and chairman of the division 
of chemistry (1919-20). He was also a mem- 
ber of the advisory committee of the Chemical 
Warfare Service and lieutenant-colonel in 1918 
and 1919. In 1921 he wrote Applied Colloid 
Chemistry. 

BANDHOLTZ, Harry Hitt (1864—- De 
An American soldier (see Vou. II). He served 
on the Mexican border in 1916 and went to 
France as provost marshal-general (1918-19). 
He was American representative on the Inter- 
allied Military Mission to Hungary in 1919. 
On Sept. 1, 1921, he was appointed to command 
of the District of Washington. In September, 
1921, he was sent to West Virginia and success- 
fully suppressed a miners’ insurrection there. 
He received many foreign decorations. 

BANDLER, SAMUEL WyLiis_ (1870- . 
An American obstetrician and gynecologist, 
educated at Columbia University. He hecame 
professor of obstetrics and gynecology in the 
New York Post-graduate Medical School. In 
addition to his unusual activity in the publica- 
tion of medical papers on obstetrics, gyne- 
cology, and endocrinology, he wrote many books, 
including Dermoid and Other Cysts of the 
Ovary (1901), also issued separately in Ger- 
man; Uterine and Tubal Gestation (1903), 
Medical Gynecology (1908), Vaginal Celiotomy 
(1911), The Expectant Mother (1916) and The 
Endocrines, 1920. In 1901 he published a 
translation into English of Abel’s Gynecologi- 
cal Pathology. 

BANERJEA, Sir SuRENDRANATH (1848-__—), 
An Indian political reformer and journalist ed- 


ucated at Doveton College, Calcutta, and Uni- 


142 BANTING 


versity College, London. Early in his career 
he opened a school in Caleutta which later be- 
came Ripon College. In 1876 he became editor 
of the Bengalee newspaper, a political instru- 
ment in his hands. In 1905 he supported the 
boycott of foreign goods and the “national edu- 
cation” movement. He went to London in 
1919 as representative of an “Indian Liberal” 
organization which he had formed and gave 
evidence before the Joint Parliamentary Com- 
mittee of both Houses on Indian Reforms. 
Subsequently he accepted office as Minister for 
Local Government and Sanitation in Bengal 
and was knighted in 1921. 

BANG, Ivar (1869-1918). An _ eminent 
Swedish chemist. He began his career as a 
practicing physician but took up chemistry un- 
der Professor Hammarsten of Upsala, 1897-99. 
His research attracted wide attention and led 
to his appointment in 1904 as professor of med- 
ical chemistry in the University of Lund. Of 
several branches of biochemistry to which he 
devoted especial attention the most significant 
was the so-called micromethod of quantitative 
analysis of the blood. As a result of this it is 
possible to determine the percentage of con- 
stituents by testing very small amounts of 
blood. His writings include Chemie und Bio- 
chemie der Lipoide (1911), Der Blutzucker 
(1913), Methoden zur Mikrobestimmung ein- 
iger Blutbestandtheile (1916), and Lehrbuch 
der Harnanalyse (1918). 

BANKING. See FINANCE AND BANKING. 

BANKS, CoOpeRATIVE. See LABOR BANKS. 

BANNING, Kenpati (1879- ). Ameri- 
can editor and author, born in New York and 
educated at Dartmouth. During the War he 
served as major in the Signal Corps (1917), 
major on the General Staff of the United States 
army (1918-19), and officer in charge of com- 
piling a history of the War. He was a mem- 
ber of the Committee on Public Information. 
Formerly he was manager and associate editor 
of System (1903-17) and managing editor of 
Hearst’s Magazine and Cosmopolitan (1919- 
21). He has contributed to the magazines and 
is the author of several plays. 

BANTA, ARTHUR MANGUN (1877- ). gcAn 
American zodélogist, born at Greenwood, Ind. 
He was educated at Indiana and Harvard Uni- 


versities. He was a teacher in public schools 
(1895-1901); assistant in zodlogy, Indiana 
University (1903-05); professor of biology, 


Marietta College (1907-09); and resident  in- 
vestigator at the Station for Experimental Evo- 
lution, Cold Spring Harbor (1909- ). His 
researches have been ou the development of pig- 
ment in animals, on the effects of changed en- 
vironment on cave-dwelling and non-cave-dwel- 
ling animals, and on sex determination. 
BANTING, FREDERICK GRANT (1892- i. 
A Canadian physician who in 1922 received the 
larger share of credit for the discovery of in- 
sulin (see INSULIN and DIABETES), apparently 
one of the greatest practical triumphs of labo- 
ratory medicine. He took his medical degree at 
the University of Toronto in 1916. Two years 
later he became a Member of the Royal College 
of Surgeons and Licentiate of the Royal College 
of Physicians. During the War he was a cap- 
tain in the Army Medical Corps. The first an- 
nouncement of his great discovery was made in 
the Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medi- 
cine; vol. vii (1921-22). Banting and Best also 
published jointly an article on the treatment 


ee ee ee ee ee en ee ed 


BANTU 


of diabetes mellitus in the Canadian Medical 
Association Journal, vol. xii (1922). In 1923 
the Canadian Government awarded Banting an 
annuity of $7500, to enable him with freedom 
from pecuniary worry to devote his time to the 
further study of this and similarly important 
matters. At the time when his discovery was 
announced he held the office of resident, surgeon 
of the Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto. 

BANTU. See Erunocrapuy. 

BAPTISTS. The second largest Protestant 
denomination in the United States, first estab- 
lished in America about 1638-39. Three prin- 
cipal bodies represent the Baptist churches in 
America, the Northern, Southern and National 
(Negro) Conventions. Fourteen separate Bap- 
tist organizations were listed in the American 
Baptist Year Book, but the minor divisions, 
known as Primitive, United, Free, General, etc., 
are separated from the main body of the denom- 
ination by no serious differences and the trend 
for many years has been in the direction of 
Baptist unity. The Free Baptists, for example, 
have merged with the Northern Convention. 
During the decade 1914-1924 Baptist member- 
ship in America increased from 5,799,233 to ap- 
proximately 8,500,000. In the same period the 
Southern Convention advanced in membership 
from 2,522,623 to 3,352,938; the Northern Con- 
vention from 1,291,688 to 1,344,346 and the Na- 
tional Convention from 1,934,952 to upwards of 
8,250,000. The denomination made enormous 
gains in membership among the Negroes, both 
North and South, and a Negro Church, Olivet 
of Chicago, had the largest Baptist congrega- 
tion in the world. The aggregate Baptist mem- 
bership of all countries from whose churches 
reports were obtained, approached 10,000,000 in 
1924, ‘There was a very rapid increase in Rus- 
sia and Eastern Europe generally, after 1917, 
as the Slav population found the Baptist doc- 
trine and polity congenial and turned to them 
as a substitute for the disrupted churches of 
the prerevolutionary period. No accurate sta- 
tistics were obtainable, but there were in 1924 
far more than 1,000,000 Russians who called 
themselves Baptists. 

While the attitude of opposition to infant 
baptism, with its corollary acceptance of “be- 
liever’s baptism,” is one of the distinguishing 
marks of all Baptist bodies, there is no Baptist 
creed. It is characteristic of the denomina- 
tional spirit that no authority exists with power 
to bind the individual churches in respect to 
matters of faith. The Northern Baptist Con- 


-vention in 1924 accepted as an expression of 


the Baptist position the Stockholm declaration 
of the Baptist World’s Alliance, a statement 
covering those points upon which practically 
all Baptists are agreed. This action was taken 
with the definite provision that the statement 
was in no sense to be regarded as a creed. 
Baptist churches always held to the congrega- 
tional or independent system. Indeed the Bap- 
tist temper and tradition would hardly tolerate 
any other, though there was a growing disposi- 
tion to moderate an individualism which left 
each church absolutely sovereign in matters 
touching its own worship and discipline, but 
lacked certain advantages in achieving purposes 
held by all the churches in common. This tend- 
ency to codrdinate Baptist activities found ex- 
pression in the New World Movement of the 


_ Northern Convention, a five-year programme 


that terminated in April, 1924, and in the 
6 


143 


BAR ASSOCIATION 


$75,000,000 campaign of southern Baptists. In 
the case of the northern Baptists the movement 
resulted in the establishment of a permanent 
organization to unify and codrdinate the work 
of the various participating organizations, 
known as the Board of Missionary Coéperation. 
This board became the agent of seven national 
societies and boards, 36 State conventions, 14 
standard city mission societies, and 52 schools 
and colleges, for the purpose of disseminating 
information regarding the various organizations 
and raising funds for them. The nearly 10,000 
Baptist churches which united through the 
Northern Convention in support of all these 
agencies remained as independent as ever, but 
they were applying such a measure of co- 
operation as their experience after 1919 showed 
to be possible and desirable. 

The period which saw the rise of the codpera- 
tive spirit in the denomination also saw the 
Baptist organizations take advanced ground for 
a ministry of service. A strong Baptist inter- 
est always supported schools maintained under 
Christian influences. Such institutions as Chi- 
cago, Brown, Colgate and Rochester universi- 
ties and Vassar College testify to a zeal for ed- 
ucation that has not been limited to America. 
In Burma, Judson College, bearing the name of 
the most famous of Baptist missionaries, was 
constituted an integral part of the University 
of Rangoon, taking equal rank with the Govern- 
ment college. Great progress was made in the 
development of opportunities for the education 
of women in the Orient, especially in India and 
China. Baptists maintained missions in 11 dif- 
ferent national fields and had churches in every 
part of the globe. 

BAPTISTS, Free. The organizations of the 
Free Baptists were undergoing union with. the 
Northern Baptist Convention throughout the 
whole decade 1914-24. The movement began in 
1911, and complete financial arrangements were 
made in 1919, but the denomination retained its 
separate legal existence for the administration 
of funds and interests which awaited final set- 
tlement and transfer. Sc: BApTISTS. 

BARANY, Roserr (1876- ). An <Aus- 
trian otologist, born in Vienna. Originally he 
was an assistant of Pollitzer and as a student 
in the University of Vienna, he began in 1902 
a series of investigations on the internal ear 
which culminated in his monograph, Physiologie 
und Pathologie des Bogengangapparates bein 
Menschen, for which he was awarded the Nobel 
Prize in medicine in 1915. During the War he 
officiated as military surgeon and was taken 
prisoner. In 1919 he published Primdre Ezaci- 
sion und Primire Naht Accidentellen Wunden. 
In 1916 he received the appointment of profes- 
sor of otology in the University of Upsala. His 
most recent work is Die Radikaloperation des 
Ohres, 1923. 

BAR ASSOCIATION, American. An or- 
ganization founded in 1878 to advance the 
science of jurisprudence, promote the adminis- 
tration of justice and uniformity of legislation 
and of judicial decision throughout the nation, 
uphold the honor of the profession of the law, 
and encourage cordial intercourse among the 
members of the American Bar. Membership 
increased from 10,500 in 1916 to 21,000 in 1923. 
Many important resolutions were adopted at the 
annual meetings held during the decade 1914— 
1924. In 1918 resolutions were passed protest- 
ing against House ‘Bill Number 9354 as an 


BARBADOS 


attempt to deprive the judges of the United 
States courts of the right to express their 
opinion on questions of fact in jury cases, and 
supporting every grant of power desired by the 
President to help in winning the War, but ex- 
pressing the opinion that constitutional changes 
were unnecessary; in 1919 approving an act to 
make uniform in all States the law of condi- 
tional sales and the law of fraudulent convey- 
ances and to continue organized opposition to 
judicial recall; in 1921 censuring Kenesaw M. 
Landis in accepting private employ while a mem- 
ber of the Federal Bench; in 1923 favoring ad- 
herence to the Permanent Court of Interna- 
tional Justice, calling a new conference of 
nations at The Hague to restate the established 
rules of international law, to agree on certain 
amendments, and to consider certain subjects 
which were not adequately regulated by inter- 
national law. 

BARBADOS. The most easterly of the West 
Indian Islands, belonging to Great Britain, with 
an area of 166 square miles, and a population 
(census of 1921) of 156,312. The cultivation 
of sugar and cotton continued the leading activ- 
ities. The immediate years after the War were 
marked by great prosperity in the island, the 
culmination being reached in 1920 when exports 
showed a value of £4,865,700, and imports £5,- 
145,537. (Compare with the 1913-14 figures of 
exports of £760,699; imports £1,353,059.) In 
1921, there was a visible drop, though even then 
the trade was nearly twice that of 1913. The 
year 1922 marked a further decrease, the ex- 
ports being £1,259,794 and imports £2,480,320. 
Favorable weather conditions, however, in the 
first quarter much improved the crops, which 
gave far better results than had been antici- 
pated, and by the end of the year the colony 
had largely recovered from its depression. 

BARBER, Donn (1871- ). An American 
architect, born in Washington and educated at 
Yale and Columbia Universities and in Paris. 
In 1900 he began the practice of his profession 
in New York, where he designed many business 
and other buildings, including the Lotus Club 
and the Institute of Musical Art. Other build- 
ings planned by him are the Connecticut State 
Library and the Department of Justice Building 
in Washington. He was one of the originators 
of the atelier idea in the United States. For 
many years he was editor of the New York 
Architect. He belongs to many architectural 
societies. 

BARBOUR, RatpH Henry (1870- ). An 
American author, born at Cambridge, Mass. 
He contributed verse and short stories to mag- 
azines under the pen name of “Richard Still- 
man Powell” but became best known under his 
own name as one of the most popular writers 
of stories for young people. He is also the au- 
thor of numerous entertaining romances and of 
the excellent Indian story, Metipom’s Hostage. 
His more recent writings include Under the 
Yankee Ensign (New York, 1919), Mystery of 
the Sea Lark (New York, 1920), Quarter Back 
Bates (New York, 1920), Metipom’s Hostage 
(Boston, 1921), Over Two Seas (New York, 
1922), and Right End Emerson (Football 
Eleven Books. New York, 1922). 

BARBUSSE, Henri (1874- ). A French 
writer and novelist. He acquired internation- 
al fame almost over night as the result of the 
publication in 1916 of his war novel, Le Feu. 
It is the story of a squad in the trenches, told 


144 


_ pliantes (1903); L’Enfer (1908) ; 


BARGONE 


in the poilus’ own unvarnished language. The 
gruesome, crude details of butchery and animal- 
ity of life at the front are realistically nar- 
rated. Against this background the author 
makes his heroes philosophize on the future of 
humanity. The book is in the best sense of the 
word propaganda against war. Despite its pa- 
cifistic tendencies, Le Feu was awarded the Prix 
Goncourt. It was followed by Clarté and La 
Lueur dans VAbime, both of which continue the 
author’s purpose of using art as a vehicle for 
social regeneration. At the close of the War, 
M. Barbusse organized the Clarté movement, 
which sought to group together the writers of 
the world and interest them in the social and 
political progress of humanity. He also organ- 
ized a union of war veterans of France to fight 
for the ideal of internationalism. Both these 
organizations drifted into politics and became 
more or less affiliated with the regular syndical- 
ist and socialist groups. Besides the works 
mentioned above, M. Barbusse wrote Les Sup- 
Nous Autres 
(1914); Quelques Coins du Coeur (1921), and 
Le Couteau entre les Dents (1921). 

BARCELONA. See Rapip TRANSIT. 

BARD, Harry ERwin (1867- Mya 
American educator in Peru. He was born at 
Crawfordsville, Ind., and educated at Wabash 
College and Columbia University. After hold- 
ing positions as instructor, 1894-98, he was ap- 
pointed division superintendent of schools in 
the Philippine Islands (1907-09) and_ subse- 
quently became official advisor of the Ministry 
of Instruction at Lima, Peru (1909-12; reap- 
pointed, 1919); organizing director of the Pan- 
American Division of the American Association 
for International Conciliation in New York 
(1913-15) and secretary of the Pan-American 
Society of the United States (1915-19). He 
assisted in preparing the organic school law of 
Peru (1910-12) and in putting it into execu- 
tion (1920). Besides contributing to the Cy- 
clopedia of Education, he is author of The City 
School District (1909), Intellectual and Cultur- 
al Relations between the United States and the 
Other Republics of America (1914), and South 
America (1916). 

BARDET, Grorroy (1852-1923). A French 
physician and pharmaceutical chemist, distin- 
guished especially as a therapeutist. Born at 
Dreux, the son of a physician whom he expected 
to succeed in practice, he became interested in 
chemistry and spent some years in the labora- 
tory of Wurtz. He received his degree in medi- 
cine from the University of Paris in 1877; his 
thesis on the soporific alkaloids of opium was 
crowned by the faculty. After graduation he 
became laboratory chief for Dujardin-Beaumetz, 
With Trillat he performed an early feat in syn- 
thetic chemistry by obtaining the drug later 
known as urotropin. His major literary activ- 
ity was the publication at irregular intervals 
of Nouveaux Remédes, of which 20 volumes 
were issued between 1886 and 1911. He edited 
the Bulletin Genéral de Therapeutique from 
1895 to 1917. In his alma mater he filled the 


-chair of hydrology; besides his knowledge of 


medicinal waters, he was known as an expert 
mineralogist. At the International Medical 
Congress at Paris in 1889 he functioned as gen- 
eral secretarv and chief organizer. 
BARGONE, CHARLES (“CLAUDE FARRERE’’) 
(1876- ). A French novelist, born at Lyons, . 
and educated at Marseilles and Toulon. Like 


BARING-GOULD 


Pierre Loti, with whom he has many points in 
common, Farrére entered the French navy, and 
it was as a naval officer that he produced his 
exotic novel, Mumées @Opium, which won the 
Prix Goncourt for 1905. His succeeding works 
also dealt with Oriental scenes,—Indo-China, 
Japan, and Turkey, countries where civilization 
had not yet abolished mystery. He made two 
attempts to get away from his exoticism, in 
Mademoiselle Dax, Jeune Fille, and its sequel 
Les Petites Alliées, but in the rest of his work 
he returned to the theme of adventure. In 
these he sought the manner of Edgar Allan Poe. 
Besides those mentioned above, he wrote: Les 
Civilisés ; L’Homme Qui Assassina; La Bataille ; 
La Maison des Hommes Vivants; Thomas VAg- 
nelet; La Derniére Déese, and Les Hommes 
Nouveau. 

BARING-GOULD, SasineE (1835-1923). An 
English author (see Vor. II). His last works 
include The Vicar of Morwenstow, (1919), The 
Evangelical Revival (1920), In the Roar of the 
Sea (1920), and Mehalah (1920). 

BARKER, Esa ( ? ). An American 
author, born at Leicester, Vt., and educated 
privately. She was associate editor of the Con- 
solidated Encyclopedic Library (1901), lectur- 
er for the New York Board of Education (1904- 
05), and a member of the editorial staff of 
Hlampton’s Magazine (1909-10). Besides con- 
tributing poems and articles to magazines, she 
is the author of some novels and several vol- 
umes of poetry. Her poems, especially The 
Book of Love, have received high praise from 
critics both for their lyric feeling and style. 
Her prose works, dealing for the most part 
with spiritualism (War Letters from a Living 
Dead Man, 1915) and psycho-analysis (Field- 
ing Sargeant), received less universal approba- 
tion. Her recent works include Songs of a 
Vagrom Angel (New York, 1919) and Fielding 
Sargeant (New York, 1922). She also wrote 
a play, The Scab (produced in New York and 
Boston, 1904-05). 

BARKER, Ernest (1874—- ). English 
philosopher and educationist. He was educated 
at Balliol College, Oxford, and this University 
remained the scene of his activities until 1920. 
At one time or another he was fellow of the 
University, Merton, St. John’s, and Lew. In 
1920 he went to London University, where he 
became principal of King’s College. In 1906 he 
published his Political Thought of Plato and 
Aristotle, revised in 1918 as Greek Political 
Theory, a work of the first importance, which 
exerted much influence on the political thought 
of England. His intimate knowledge of the 
whole range of political philosophy was dis- 
played in his masterly summary, Political 
Thought in England from Herbert Spencer to 
To-day (1915). Other works from his pen were 
The Dominican Order and Convocation (1913) 
articles in the Cambridge Medieval History and 
Greek Politics (1923). 

BARKER, (HARLEY) GRANVILLE (1877- hs 
An English playwright, born in London (see 
Vou. Il). His American season as a producer 
at Wallack’s Theatre in New York in 1916 
stimulated the American stage. He produced A 
Midsummer Night’s Dream, Shaw’s Androcles 
and the Lion, The Doctor’s Dilemma, France’s 
The Man Who Married a Dumb Wife and 
other plays. The Neighborhood Playhouse 
achieved success with his Madras House (New 
York, 1921), and Winthrop Ames with Anatol 


145 


BARNARD COLLEGE 


(a paraphrase, from the German of Schnitzler). 
He has also written Souls on Fifth (1916), 
Three Short Plays (1917). The Secret Life 
(1923), and English versions of G. Martinez 
Sierra’s The Romantic Young Lady, Wife to a 
Famous Man, The hingdom of God, The Two 
Shepherds, and A Lily Among Thorns, all in 
collaboration with Helen Granville Barker. 
BARKER, Sir HERBERT ATKINSON (1869- __). 
A British manipulative or “bloodless” surgeon, 
born’ in Southport. He was a pupil of Atkin- 
son, a manipulative surgeon. In 1904 Barker 
succeeded to Atkinson’s practice on the latter’s 
death. His career after 1904 was most suc- 
cessful. Medical opposition was not directed 
against him personally, and members of the 
medical profession often referred cases of a cer- 
tain type to him. His work was largely with 
orthopedic patients, especially those having af- 
fections of the knee, flat foot, ete. During the 
War the medical profession opposed the demand 
to turn wounded soldiers over to Barker’s super- 
vision. He was knighted by the King in 1922. 
BARKER, J. ELLis (1870- ). An Eng- 
lish journalist (see VoL. II). His effort to 
arouse England to the German peril in the peri- 
od antecedent to the War gave his writings of 
the years 1914-18 a wide audience both in Eng- 
land and the United States. Articles published 
in the periodical press were collected under the 
titles British Statesmanship (1917) and Eco- 
nomic Statesmanship (1918). Other works in- 
cluded Modern Germany (enlarged _ edition, 
1915) and The Foundations of Germany (1916). 
BARKER, LEWELLYS FRANKLIN (1867- _). 
An anatomist born at Norwich, Ont. (see VOL. 
II). As the successor to the late Dr. Osler in 
the Johns Hopkins Hospital Medical Clinic, Dr. 
Barker has shown an extensive literary activ- 
ity like that of his predecessor. In addition to 
many minor contributions to periodical litera- 
ture in various departments of internal medi- 
cine and neurology, he has published Clinical 
Medicine, from the Tuesday Clinics of Johns 
Hopkins (1916) and Clinical Diagnosis of In- 
ternal Diseases (1916), comprising three large 
volumes of more than 3000 pages of the medical 
library known as Monographic Medicine. He 
was also senior editor, with Hopkins and Nos- 
enthal, of the five-volume system of medicine 
entitled Hndocrinology and Metabolism (1922). 
BARNARD, Epwarp Emerson (1857-1923): 
An American astronomer (see Vou. II). He re- 
ceived the Bruce gold medal from the Astro- 
nomical Society of the Pacific in 1917. 
BARNARD, GeEorGE GRAY (1863- ). An 
American sculptor (see Vou. li). His famous 
bronze statue of Abraham Lincoln in Cincin- 
nati (1917), with a replica in Manchester, 
England, has caused more discussion than any 
other American sculpture. Its rugged strength 
and powerful characterization of the great trib- 
une of the common people place it in the fore- 
most rank of American sculpture. Other impor- 
tant recent works are: ‘Maidenhood,” “Adam 
and Eve” (Tarrytown, N. Y.; Boston Museum) ; 
“Rising Woman” (Metropolitan Museum, New 
York City); and a heroic head of Lincoln 
(Bourne Collection, Portland, Ore.). 
BARNARD COLLEGE. The undergraduate 
college for women in the educational system of 
Columbia University, New York City, organized 
in 1889. The student body grew from 733 mem- 
bers in 1914 to 923 in 1924 and the faculty 
from 99 to 112. The Ella Weed Library in- 


BARNES 


creased from 8600 to 18,000 volumes, the equip- 
ment increased in value from $2,027,246 to $2,- 
500,000, and the annual net income from $61,- 
125 to $178,000. A new dormitory was in proc- 
ess of construction in 1924. President, Nicholas 
Murray Butler, LL.D. (Cantab), D.Litt. (Ox- 
on), Hon. D. (Paris). Dean, Virginia Cro- 
eheron Gildersleeve, Ph.D., LL.D. See CoLuM- 
BIA UNIVERSITY. 

BARNES, GrorGE NIcoLtt (1859- at A 
British labor representative plenipotentiary at 
the Paris Peace Conference (1919). He was 
born at Lochie, Scotland, and for many years 
worked as an engineer. In 1906 he defeated 
Bonar Law in the election of a representative 
from Blackfriars (now Gorbals). During Lloyd 
George’s ministry he was Pensions Minister 
(1916-18) and minister without portfolio in 
the Coalition Government, from which he re- 
signed in 1920. He was sworn of the Privy 
Council, from which he resigned, to succeed Ar- 
thur Henderson as labor representative in the 
War Cabinet. After the Peace Conference he 
attended the International Labor Conference at 
Washington. He has interested himself in old 
age pensions, the welfare of discharged soldiers, 
the Irish problem, and the League of Nations. 

BARNES, JAmeEs (1866- ). An Ameri- 
ean author (see Vou. II).. He did important 
war work as head of the. Princeton Aviation 
School for several months, and major of the 
Aviation Section of the Signal Corps of the 
United States Reserve. He was head of the 
photographic division of the army and was sent 
to France, as commander of the United States 
School of Aérial Photography, to organize that 
work at the front. 

BARNOUW, AprIAAN JACOB (1877- he 
An educator born in Holland, and educated at 
the Municipal Gymnasium, Amsterdam, and the 
Universities of Leyden and Berlin. During 
1902-19, he was professor of Dutch language 
and literature at the Municipal Gymnasium at 
The Hague, lecturer in English at the Universi- 
ty of Leyden, and correspondent at The Hague 
of the Nation (New York). After 1921 he was 
professor of the Dutch language and literature 
at Columbia University. He was associate edi- 
tor of The Weekly Review (1919-21). Among 
his works are Anglo-Saxon Christian Poetry, 
translated by Louise Dudley (1914); Beatzvjs, 
-a Middle Dutch Legend (1914); and Holland 
under Queen Wilhelmina (1923). 

BAROJA, Pio (1872- ). A Spanish nov- 
elist born at San Sebastian and educated in the 
Institute of Pamplona and at San Carlos. Ajit- 
er practicing medicine and running a_ bakery 
for six years in partnership with his brother, 
he drifted into journalism and the writing of 
novels, which, though sometimes treating of for- 
bidden subjects, are pithy and contain many 
quaint and accurate descriptions of Spanish 
life. Baroja is a cynically candid but cultured 
and liberal writer. Among his recent works 
are The City of the Discreet (1917); C@sar or 
Nothing (1919); Youth and Egolatry (1920) ; 
The Quest (1922); and Needs (1923). 

BARR, Ametia E. (1831-1919). An Anglo- 
American novelist (see Vor. II). Some of her 
latest works were Three Score and Ten (1915), 
The Winning of Lucia (1915), Profit and Loss 
(1916), Joan (1916), Christine (1916), and An 
Orkney Maid (1917)... 

BARRERE, Camis (1851- ). 
diplomat. 


A French 
As a youth he prepared for a jour- 


146 


BARRIE 


nalistic career and attended the Congress of 
Berlin as correspondent for a Parisian paper. 
His articles attracted the attention of Wadding- 
ton, then French minister of foreign affairs, 
who offered him a post in the diplomatic corps. 
He rose rapidly through the ranks, and after 
serving as minister to Bavaria, he became 
French ambassador to Italy in 1897. He nego- 
tiated the commercial treaty of 1898 and 
throughout his long residence in Italy worked 
to bring about a good Italian-French under- 
standing. In 1915 he won the diplomatic duel 
with Prince von Biilow and helped to bring in 
Italy to the side of the Allies., At the close of 
the War he retired from diplomatic service. 

BARRES, Maurice (1862-1923). A French 
novelist and politician (see Vor. Il). During 
the War he devoted his talent to patriotic jour- 
nalism and published many addresses, lectures, 
and volumes of propaganda. Hostilities ended, 
he went back to literature. His novel, Un Jar- 
din sur VOronte (1922), was hailed as a mas- 
terpiece of romantic fiction. Written only for 
the most cultivated readers, it transports the 
imagination to the Holy Land, and develops its 
theme by describing the love of a Christian 
knight for a Mohammedan princess. The story 
of this passion is handled both sympathet- 
ically and ironically. Of his other published 
works since 1914, the more important are La 
Grande Pitié des Eglises Francaises (1914) ; 
L’Ame Francaise et la Guerre (1915); Les 
Traits Eternels de la France (1916); La Col- 
line Inspirée (1916); Colette Bardoche (1918) ; 
La Lorraine Devastée (1919); Le Génie du Rhin 
(1921); Un Homme Libre (1922); and a six- 
volume Chronique de la Grande Guerre (1920- 
22). In politics M. Barrés made himself known 
as the advocate of the annexation of the Rhine- 
land to France. 

BARRETT, CHARLES SrmMon (1866- ). 
An American farm expert, born in Pike county, 
Ga., and educated in the public and normal 
schools of Ohio and Indiana. For many years 
he engaged in general farming and teaching and 
then began the organization of farmers’ soci- 
eties; in 1905 he was elected president of the 
Georgia Farmers’ Union. In the following 
year he became president of the National Farm- 
ers’ Union and was reélected. He served on 
the Country Life Commission founded by Theo- 
dore Roosevelt and was a delegate to many 
meetings on agricultural subjects in foreign 
countries. President Wilson appointed him a 
member of the National Agricultural Advisory 
Commission; he was also a member of the Price 
Fixing Commission for the wheat crop in 1917. 
He was a member of the advisory council of 
the American delegates to the Disarmament 
Conference (1921-22), 

BARRETT, Joun (1866- ). An Ameri- 
can journalist and diplomat (see Vou. II). In 
1916 he was delegate of the United States and 
secretary general of the Pan-American Scien- 
tific Congress. He was presiding officer of the 
second Pan-American Commercial Conference 
(1919), president of the Pan-American Adver- 
tising Association (1919-20), and a member of 
the governing board of the General Committee 
on the Limitation of Armament. He published 
Pan-American Commerce: Past, Present, Future 
(1919) and Pan-America and Pan-Americanism 


(1922). 
BARRIE, Sir JAMES MATTHEW, Bart. 
(1860- ). 


(See VoL. II). His recent work 


BARRIENTOS 


includes A Kiss for Cinderella (1916); The Old 
Lady Shows Her Medals (1917): Dear Brutus 
(1917); Echoes of the War (1918); The Truth 
about the Russian Dancers (1920); and Mary 
Rose (1920). Whereas Dear Brutus was _ re- 
ceived by critics and the public as a typical 
contribution, whimsical, kind, and fanciful, 
Mary Rose failed to duplicate its London suc- 
cess in America and provoked a storm of pro- 
test as bearing an alien taint of pessimism and 
sentimentalized spiritualism. Some of Barrie’s 
novels and plays have been produced in moving- 
pictures very successfully. 

BARRIENTOS, Marra _  (1885- paws 
Spanish coloratura soprano, born at Barcelona, 
Mar. 10,1885. A remarkably precocious child, she 
graduated from the Barcelona Conservatory at 
the age of twelve, having completed the courses 
in violin, piano and composition. Two years 
later, after only six months’ study under Ben- 
net, she made her operatic début in Barcelona 
as Selika with such success that she was en- 
gaged the following year for La Scala in Milan. 
Until 1913 she sang in various theatres in Ita- 
ly and made tours of South America, France, 
England, Russia, Germany, and Austria. Aft- 
er three years’ retirement she made her New 
York début at the Metropolitan Opera House 
as Lucia (Jan. 31, 1916) and sang there till 
1920. After that time she appeared chiefly in 
Italy and South America. In spite of a rather 
weak voice she won success through perfect 
vocal technic, musical intelligence, and fasci- 
nating personality. 

BARROWS, Davi Prescott (1873- ). 
An American ethnologist (see Vou. II). He be- 
came president of the University of California 
in 1919. During the War he did important re- 
lief work as a member of the Committee for 
the Relief of Belgium in charge of the food sup- 
ply of Brussels in 1916, and as major and lieu- 
tenant-colonel of cavalry in the army (1917- 
18). He was on active duty in the Philippine 
Islands and Siberia, 1917-19, and in 1921 be- 
came colonel of the 159th Infantry of the Cali- 
fornia National Guard. Besides engaging in 
war work, he was actively interested in educa- 
tional and philanthropic institutions in Cali- 
fornia and was a member of the California 
State commission on rural credit and coloniza- 
tion, 1915-17. He is the author of A Decade 
of American Government in the Philippines 
(1915). 

BARRYMORE, Eruet (1879- ). A lead- 
ing American actress (see Vou. II). Some of 
her recent performances have been in The Lady 
of the Camelias (1917), The Off-chance (1918), 
Belinda (1918); Declassée (1919), in which 
she scored a great success; Clair de Lune 
(1921), Rose Bernd (1922), Romeo and Juliet 
(1922), The Laughing Lady (1923), and A 
Royal Fandango (1923). She also toured in 
several of Barrie’s comedies. 

BARRYMORE, Joun (BLYTHE) (1882- is 
American actor and member of a noted theat- 
rical family. He made his début in Magda in 
Chicago in 1903, and in the following December 
he appeared on the New York stage in Glad 
of It. He next played in London (1905), and 
later in Australia, in the company of William 
Collier. Since his début, Barrymore has _ not 
missed appearing on either the American or 
the English stage each year. He first attracted 
serious attention in Justice and scored a great 
success as co-star with his brother Lionel in 


147 


BARTLETT 


The Jest (1919), but it was in Richard JT] 
(1920) and Hamlet (1922) that his art ripened 
and his reputation became assured. Among 
other productions in which he has appeared are 
A Stubborn Cinderella, The Fortune Hunter, 
and Peter Ibbetson (1917). He has also ap- 
peared as leading man in moving-pictures. 

BARRYMORE, Lionex (1878-— ). An 
American actor who made his début in The 
Rivals with his grandmother, Mrs. John Drew, 
in 1893. He appeared in Squire Kate (1896), 
Cumberland *61 (1897), and several plays with 
Nance O’Neil’s company. He was two seasons 
with John Drew. Among other plays in which 
he has acted are J. M. Barrie’s Pantaloon 
(1905), Peter Ibbetson (1917), The Copperhead 
(1918), The Jest (1919), which were note- 
worthy successes, in the title role of Jacheth 
(1921) The Claw (1922), and Laugh, Clown, 
Laugh (1923). He has appeared as leading 
man in many screen successes. 

BARTHOLOME, Pavur Apert (?- 
A French painter and sculptor (see Vor. II). 
He became a member of the Royal Academy in 
1921. ‘His recent sculptures have been those 
in commemoration of the authors and drama- 
tists who died in the War: in honor of Rey- 
mond the aviator at Montbrison; “Le Monu- 
ment Aa Paris 1914-18,” place du Carrousel; 
and ‘Le monument aux avocats,” palais de 
Justice. 

BARTHOU, Louis (1862- ). A French 
statesman and man of letters (see Vou. II). 
During the War he was minister of foreign af- 
fairs in the Painlevé Cabinet (1917). After 
the Armistice he was instrumental in practical- 
ly all the governmental overturns of France. 
He was minister of war in the Briand cabinet 
(1921-22), and when this was succeeded by the 
Poincaré government he became minister of 
justice. In 1918, M. Barthou was elected to 
the French Academy, doubtless on the strength 
of his Life of Mirabeau, originally published 
in 1913. Other works include Lamartine Ora- 
teur, which M. Barthou considers his master- 
piece, and La Battaille dw Marne (1919). 

BARTLETT, FREDERIC CLAY (1873- ). 
An American painter, born in Chicago, who 
studied at Munich with Gysis, at Paris with 
Collin, and with Aman-Jean and Whistler. 
His work includes murals and paintings at the 
Chicago University Club, murals at the Univer- 
sity of Chicago; a landscape, “Roman After- 
noon,” at Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh; “Blue 
Blinds,” “Evening White,” “Canton Street,” mu- 
rals at the Burnham Library of the Art Insti- 
tute in Chicago. Mr. Bartlett is a member of the 
National Institute of Arts and Letters and of 
the Mural Painters’ Royal Academy of Munich. 
He received a silver medal from the St. Louis 
Exposition in 1904 and a silver medal from 
the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, 
1915. 

BARTLETT, FREDERICK ORIN (1876- He 
An American writer of popular fiction, born 
at Haverhill, Mass., and educated in _ the 
public schools, at Proctor Academy (Andover, 
N. H.), and at Harvard University. He was a 
reporter on the Boston Record (1900-02) and 
on the Boston Herald (1902-06). He is the 
author of many realistic novels and short sto- 
ries of varied character; tales of adventure. 
and stories for young people, in which he shows 
unusual skill in handling a plot and in char- 
acter drawing. His most successful novel is 


BARTLETT 148 


The Wall Street Girl. Other works include 
The Forest Castaways (1911); The Lady of 
the Lane (1912); The Wall Street Girl (Bos- 
ton, 1916; New York, 1918); Joan and Com- 
pany (Boston, 1919; New York, 1921), and 
many short stories. 

BARTLETT, Paunt WAYLAND (1865- da 
An American sculptor (see Vou. Il). His most 
ambitious work, the pediment group for the 
House of Representatives (Washington), was 
completed in 1916. It is composed of 12 colos- 
sal figures representing Democracy protecting 
Genius, conceived as typical examples of Ameri- 
can laborers. Other important recent works 
are: six large marble statues for the facade of 
the New York Public Library; a bronze statue 
of Benjamin Franklin (Waterbury, Conn.), and 
“Patriotism,” a colossal stone statue at Duluth, 
Minn. Bartlett was elected to the National 
Academy in 1917. 

BARTLETT, Ropert ABRAM (1875- \F 
An American explorer (see VoL. II). He com- 
manded the third Crocker Land Relief Expedi- 
tion to New Greenland, returning in 1917. In 
the same year he was made marine superin- 
tendent of the Army Transport Service in New 
York and in 1920 was raised to the rank of 
lieutenant commander of the United States 
Naval Reserve Force. He was awarded the 
Gold Medal of the Harvard Travelers’ Club in 
1915, and in 1918 the Back Grant of the Royal 
Geographic Society for his work in the Canadi- 
an government Arctic expedition of 1913-15. 
He is the author of The Last Voyage of the 
Karluk (1916). 

BARTLEY, NAtpsro (1888— ). An Ameri- 
can writer, born at Buffalo, N. Y., and educated 
at the public high school of that city. She first 
wrote as a reporter on the Buffalo Morning Ea- 
press (1907-09) and later appeared in New 
York City as a free lance writer. She has a 
large following of admiring readers in the popu- 
lar publications to which she is a frequent con- 
tributor. Included among her works are Para- 
dise Auction (1917), Bargain True (1918), A 
Woman's Woman (1918), Gorgeous Girl 
(1919), Careless Daughters (1919). Gray An- 
gels (1920), and Fair to Middling (1921). 

BARTOK, Béta_ (1881- ). An Hun- 
garian composer, born at Nagy Szént Miklos. 
After studying with Kersch and Erkel, he fin- 
ished his musical education at the Landesmu- 
sikakademie in Pesth, where he has been pro- 
fessor of piano since 1906. As a composer he 
exhibits strong futuristic tendencies. He wrote 
an opera, fitter Blaubarts Burg (Pesth, 
1918); a ballet, Der Wunderbare Prinz (1919) ; 
a dance-pantomime, Der Holzgeschnitete Prinz 
(1922) ; a symphonic poem, Kossuth; a rhap- 
sody for piano and orchestra; JT’wo Portraits 
for orchestra; several suites for orchestra; a 
piano quintet and a string quartet, and pieces 
for piano. He has edited piano works of 
Haydn and Mozart and published a collection 
of several hundred Hungarian, Slovakian, and 
Rumanian folksongs. 

BARTON, Bruce (1886— ). An American 
editor, and writer on everyday ethics. He was 
born at Robbins, Tenn., and educated at Am- 
herst College. He was managing editor of the 
Chicago Home Herald (1907-09) and of The 
Housekeeper (1910-11); later he became assis- 
tant sales manager for P. F. Collier and Son 
(1912-14), editor of Every Week (1914-18), 
and president of Barton, Durstine and Osborn, 


BASEBALL 


an advertising firm of New York. Besides con- 
tributing to magazines, he is the author of 
More Power to You (1917): The Making of 
George Groton (1918); What Shall It Profit a 
Man? (1919); It’s a Good Old World (New 
York, 1920); Unknown (1921); and A _ Per- 
sonal Letter to the Kaiser (1916). 

BARTON, GEorGE (1866— ). An Ameri- 
can author and newspaperman born in Phila- 
delphia where he began newspaper work with 
the Philadelphia Inquirer (1837) and the Hve- 
ning Bulletin. He returned to the former as 
an editorial writer. He has contributed over 
200 short detective stories to popular maga- 
zines and is the author of many stories for 
boys. Some of his recent books are Bell Haven 
Eleven (1915), A Young Knight of Columbus 
(1916), The Worlds Greatest Military Npies 
and Secret Service Agents (1917), The Mystery 
of the Red Flame (1918), The Pembroke Mason 
Puzzle (1920), ete. 

BARTSCH, PavuLt (?- ). A zodlogist 
born at Tuntschendorf, Germany, and educated 
at the University of lowa. He was associated 
with the division of mollusks of the United 
States National Museum (1896-1905): assis- 
tant curator (1905-14); curator of the divi- 
sion of Marine Invertebrates (1905-21); cura- 
tor of the division of mollusks (1921-  ); pro- 
fessor of zodlogy at George Washington Univer- 
sity (1899- _); director of the histological and 
physiological laboratories of Howard Universi- 
ty (1901- ), and associate editor of The Os- 
prey (1900- ). His researches have been 
mainly with the mollusks, particularly in ex- 
perimental breeding of terrestrial forms. He 
was a member of several expeditions sent out 
by the National Museum and by the Carnegie 
Institution of Washington. 

BARUCH, BrErRNARD MANNES (1870-— re 
An American financier, educated at the College 
of the City of New York (1889). For many 
years he was a member of the New York Stock 
Exchange and has been nationally prominent 
since 1916, when President Wilson appointed 
him to the advisory committee of the Council 
of National Defense. Since that time he has 
been chairman of the commission on raw mate- 
rials, minerals, and metals; commissioner in 
charge of raw materials for the War Industries 
Board; member of the commission in charge of 
all purchases for the Allies; chairman of the 
War Industries Board (appointed in 1918) ; 
member of the drafting commission of the eco- 
nomic section of the American Commission to 
Negotiate Peace; member of the Supreme EKco- 
nomic Council and chairman of the raw mate- 
rials division; American delegate on economics 
and reparation clauses; economic adviser for 
the American peace commission; member of the 
President’s conference for capital and labor 
(1919); member of the President’s agricultural 
conference (1922); and trustee of the College 
of the City of New York. He was regarded as 
one of the ablest organizers of the war time. 
He is the author of many pamphlets, addresses, 
and The Making of Economic and Reparation 
Sections of The Peace Treaty (1920). 

BASEBALL. America’s national game 
greatly strengthened its claim to popular favor 
during the 10 years ending with 1924. The at- 
tendance at the contests played by the many 
professional league clubs of the United States 
showed steady and at times sensational in- 
creases. The climax to a period of unprece- 


; 
P 
{ 
j 
4 
‘ 


BASKERVILLE 


dented growth in popularity came with the 
1923 world series between the New York Ameri- 
eans, or “Yankees,” of the American League 
and the New York Nationals, or “Giants,” of 
the National League. These games were played 
in New York City before more than 300,000 
persons, the total gate receipts amounting to 
over $1,000,000. 

The prestige that baseball enjoys at present 
is undoubtedly in large measure due to the rise 
in recent years of such star players as George 
Herman Ruth (q.v.), familiarly known to fan- 
dom as “Babe”; Tyrus Raymond Cobb (q.v.), 
George H. Sisler, Edward T. Collins, Rogers 
Hornsby and others. 

“Babe” Ruth stands out as the most power- 
ful batter in the history of the game and at the 
same time as the greatest ‘“‘gate” attraction the 
sport has ever known. The record of 59 home 
runs in a season which he established in 1921 
seems destined never to be surpassed. The 
fame of Cobb, Sisler, Collins and Hornsby rests 
on their all-around playing, both at bat and in 
the field. Their names, too, provide the strong- 
est of magnets at the major league turnstiles. 

The onward march of professional, or “or- 
ganized” baseball during the span from 1914 
to 1924 encountered one serious check which 
threatened for a ‘time to bring disaster. Fol- 
lowing the world series of 1919 in which the 
Cincinnati National League team, the “Reds,” 
emerged victorious over the Chicago American 
League team, the “White Sox,” it developed 
that six of the Chicago players had been bribed 
by a coterie of big gamblers to “throw” the 
games. The effect of this disclosure was so 
wide-spread that the officials of organized base- 
ball were finally compelled to make radical 
changes in the conduct of the game. The six 
offending Chicago players were blacklisted and 
Kenesaw Mountain Landis (q.v.), a Federal 
judge of Chicago, was chosen Commissioner of 
Baseball for a term of seven years, beginning 
with 1921. At the same time powers were con- 
ferred upon the Commissioner which consti- 
tuted him practically a “czar.” These drastic 
measures brought about the desired result. 
Public confidence was soon restored and base- 
ball resumed its prosperous way. 

A list of the pennant winning clubs in the 
National League during the period 1915-24 
follows: 1915, Philadelphia; 1916, Brooklyn; 
1917, New York; 1918, Chicago; 1919, Cincin- 
nati; 1920, Brooklyn; 1921, New York; 1922, 
New York; 1923, New York. 

The pennant winners in the American League 
were: 1915, Boston; 1916, Boston; 1917, Chi- 
eago; 1918, Boston; 1919, Chicago; 1920, Cleve- 
land; 1921, New York; 1922, New York; 1923, 
New York. 

The victors in the world series were: 
Boston Nationals; 
1917, Chicago Americans; 1918, Boston Amer- 
icans; 1919, Cincinnati Nationals; 1920, Cleve- 
land Americans; 1921, New York Nationals; 
1922, New York Nationals; 1923, New York 
Americans. 

Aside from the United States, the country 
evincing the greatest interest in baseball dur- 
ing 1914-24 was Cuba, where several league 
circuits have been established. Japan, too, has 
taken up the game on an extended scale but in 
the nations of Europe the sport has made slow 
progress. 

BASKERVILLE, CuaArtes (1870-1922). An 


1915, 


149 


1916, Boston Americans; ° 


BASSLER 


American chemist, born at Deer Brook, Miss., 
and educated at the Universities of Mississippi 
and Virginia, Vanderbilt, and North Carolina. 
Beginning his teaching career in the University 
of North Carolina, he soon reached the pro- 
fessorial chair in chemistry. In 1904 he be- 
came professor of chemistry, and director of 
the chemical laboratory of the College of the 
City of New York; this position he held until 
his death. His studies on the rare earths led 
to the announcement of his discovery of the 
chemical elements carolinium and_ berzelium. 
He devoted much attention to the chemistry of 
anesthetics. In the industrial field he was ac- 
tive in the refining and hydrogenation of vege- 
table oils and established plastic compositions, 
besides succeeding in reinforcing metals. He 
also made studies on pulp and the paper indus- 
try, particularly with the branch relating to 
the recovery of used stock. The danger of va- 
rious manufacturing processes and the _ best 
ways to meet and overcome these dangers re- 
ceived his careful consideration. In 1912 he 
received the Longstreth prize from the Franklin 
Institute. Baskerville was a fellow of the 
American Association for the Advancement of 
Science; he presided over the Chemical Section 
in 1903 and was chairman of the section of 
analytical chemistry at the International Con- 
gress of Applied Chemistry meeting in Lon- 
don in 1909. Nearly 200 papers, 8 books, and 
16 patents testify to his scientific energy in the 
field of applied chemistry and to his effort to 
improve humanity. 

BASKETBALL. Basketball added consider- 
ably to its popularity as a sport during 1914- 
1924, particularly among the colleges, high 
schools and Y. M. C. A. organizations. The 
games of the Intercollegiate League attracted 
as many as 2000 spectators on several occasions 
and some of the larger colleges were forced 
to enlarge greatly the seating capacity of 
their gymnasiums. Professional basketball al- 
so came into vogue and flourishing leagues were 
established in various sections of the United 
States. 

One important change in the playing rules 
was adopted in 1917 which provides that the 
entire background of the court shall be re- 
garded as within bounds, thereby giving the 
player an additional leeway of two feet under 
the basket. Another important change regard- 
ing personal fouls was made in 1923. The 
player fouled must “throw.” <A 17-foot zone 
was also established within which two free 
throws for fouls committed within the zone are 
allowed. 

BASS, CHARLES CASSEDY (1875- ye VA 
American physician, born at Carley, Miss. He 
studied medicine at Tulane University (1899) 
and afterward devoted himself to the study of 
bacteriology. He has done much original in- 
vestigation in the intestinal parasites of man, 
notably hookworm, malaria, pellagra, Riggs’ 
disease, ete. In recognition of his work in mala- 
ria he received gold medals from the State of 
Mississippi, the Southern Medical Association, 
and the American Medical Association. He is 
the author of Hookworm Disease, with G. Dock 
(1909); Alveolodental Pyorrhea, with Johns 
(1915), and Practical Clinical Laboratory Di- 
agnosis, also with Johns (1917). 

BASRA. See MESOPOTAMIA. 

BASSLER, Ray SmitH (1878- ). An 
American paleontologist, born at Philadelphia 


BASTIN 


and educated at the University of Cincinnati. 
He served as private assistant to Edward O. UI- 
rich, from whom he obtained his early training 
in geology and paleontology. In 1901 he be- 
came connected with the United States National 
Museum, in which since 1911 he has been senior 
curator of paleontology. His advance studies 
were made in the George Washington University, 
where after 1904 he held the chair in geology. 
He served as special geologist on the State Geo- 
logical Surveys of Virginia, Tennessee, and 
Maryland and has contributed to their reports 
volumes on local economic geology, stratigraphy, 
and paleontology. His original investigations 
have been largely devoted to the stratigraphy 
and paleontology of the Lower Paleozoic and 
on fossil bryozoa, ostracoda, and other micro- 
organisms. With Ferdinand Canu he has pub- 
lished three quarto volumes on the Cenozoic 
Bryozoa of North America and made these early 
forms of life available for stratigraphic and eco- 
nomic purposes. He is a fellow of the Geo- 
logical Society of America and in 1910 he be- 
came secretary of the Paleontological Society of 
America. 

BASTIN, Epson SUNDERLAND (1878— . 
An American geologist, born at Chicago, IIl., 
and educated at Michigan and Chicago. In 
1905 he became connected with the United States 
Geological Survey, serving in the division of 
mineral resources, and part of the time as its 
chief. In 1919 he returned to Chicago, where 
he later held the chair of economic geology. His 
original investigations have tended toward the 
study of economic resources of various parts of 
the United States and include discussions of 
questions concerning their origin. 

BASUTOLAND. A British native protec- 
torate in Southern Africa under the control of 
the British Colonial Office, administered by a 
resident commissioner under the direction of the 
high commissioner for South Africa. It has an 
area of 11,716 square miles. The census of 
1921 showed a native population of 495,937; 
1603 Europeans, 172 Asiatics, 1069 colored. 
Maseru, the capital, had 1890 natives and 399 
Europeans. The increase in the European popu- 
lation over 1911-21 was inconsiderable because 
of prohibitions on white settlements. Educa- 
tion advanced steadily under missionary ad- 
ministration, in 1922 there being 495 native 
schools with 34,733 pupils. Exports, sent to 
South Africa, increased from £193,122 in 1908 
to £1,380,119 in 1919. In 1922 exports were 
£69,330. Imports increased from £259,830 in 
1908 to £1,137,037 in 1919. In 1922 imports 
were £702,125. Leading exports were grain, 
cattle, wool, mohair. Leading imports were 
blankets, ploughs, clothing, iron and tinware. 
The district supported its own administration, 
deriving its funds mainly from a native poll 
tax and customs. An income tax in 1922-23 
brought in £3,755. Revenues in 1913-14 were 
£161,417, and expenditures £203,461; in 1922- 
23 these were £212,538 and £224,547. The na- 
tive Basutos continued orderly during the pe- 
riod and many saw service in France and Africa 
in labor contingents. To the question of an- 
nexation by the Union of South Africa, how- 
ever, they were consistently opposed. 

BATAILLE, Fertitx Henri (1872-1922). A 
French playwright, one of the foremost figures 
of the French stage during the decade 1914-24, 
born at Nimes, and educated at the Lycée Henri 
IV at Paris and the Lycée Janson de Sailly. 


150 


- lege. 


BATESON 


His first play, La Belle aw Bois Dormant, was 
brought out in 1894, and his first great success 
came with his publication of Maman Colibri in 
1904. Though the plot was rather repelling, 
Maman Colibri triumphed by the sheer charm 
of Bataille’s art and the manner in which he 
idealized his heroine. La Marche Nuptiale 
(1905) was regarded by many as the best of 
his earlier works. A new side of his talent was 
displayed in L’Amazone (1917), inspired by the 
War. Its thesis was the struggle between the 
material and spiritual. There is in Bataille’s 
plays the reflection of a distinct individual 
temperament. He was extremely sensitive to 
the sufferings of humanity, he scrutinized the 
human heart, he took the banalities of life and 
wrote of them as of his own intimate emotions; 
all this he did with dramatic results which, 
though morbid and over-sentimentalized, possess 
a certain charm and originality of treatment. 
In addition to the works mentioned, Bataille’s 
publications include La Lépreuse (1896), a 
tragedy; Ton Sang and L’Enchantement (1900) ; 
Paliche (1906); Les Flambeaux (1912); Le 
Phalene (1913); Notre Image, and Les Scurs 
VAmour (1919); L’Homme @ la Rose (1920) ; 
La Tendresse (1921), and La Possession (1922). 
He also wrote La Chambre Blanche (1895) ; 
La Divine Tragedie (1916), and La Quadrature 
de l’Amour (1920), all verse. 

BATES, Henry Moore (1869- \otogko 
American lawyer, born at Chicago and educated 
at the University of Michigan and Northwestern 
University. After practicing law in Chicago, 
1892-1903, he became Tappan professor -of law 
at the University of Michigan and was made 
dean of the Law School there in 1910. In 1917- 
18 he was professor of law at the Harvard Law 
School and in 1921 he was appointed Commis- 
sioner on Uniform State Laws. He was presi- 
dent of the Association of American Law Schools 
(1912-13), a member of the Executive Com- 
mittee of the American Institute of Criminal 
Law (1911-14), and president of the Order of 
the Coif (1913-16). 

BATES, LINDON WALLACE (1858-1924). An 
American civil engineer (see Vou. II). Mr. Bates 
was chairman of the Engineering Committee of 
the Submarine Defense Association in 1917. He 
died at Paris on April 22, 1924. 

BATES COLLEGE. A _ nonsectarian, co- 
educational institution at Lewiston, Me., founded 
in 1864. During the decade 1914-24 the stu- 
dent body increased from 450 to 626, the faculty 
from 33 to 40, and the endowment from $800,- 
000 to $1,500,000. Bates claimed a unique rec- 
ord in the two fields of education and debating. 
Forty-six per cent of its more than 2600 living 
alumni were engaged in 1923-24 in teaching, and 
it provided more than twice as many high-school 
principals in New England as any other col- 
Bates was the first American college to 
send a debating team to England, and the 
first to debate an English university on this 
side of the Atlantic. From these beginnings 
grew a new institution of international collegi- 
ate debating. For 55 years there were but 
two presidents. The third president, Clifton 
Daggett Gray, Ph.D., LL.D., assumed office in 
May, 1920, following the death of George Colby 
Bates, D.D. 

BATESON, WILLIAM (1861- ). An Eng- 
lish zodlogist, born at Whitby and educated at 
St. John’s College, Cambridge. He was Silli- 
man Lecturer at Yale University (1907); pro- 


BATTALION 


fessor of biology at Cambridge University (1908— 
09); Fullerton professor of physiology in the 
Royal Institution (1912-14; president of the 
British Association for the Advancement of Sci- 
ence (1914); director of the John Innes Horti- 
cultural Institution (1910—- ), and trustee of 
the British Museum (1922- ). As the guest 
of the American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, he delivered the principal ad- 
dress at the meeting held in Toronto in Decem- 
ber, 1921. His most important earlier re- 
searches dealt with various phases of the theory 
of evolution; the most important of the results 
appeared as Materials for the Study of Varia- 
tion (1894). Since 1900, he was prominently 
identified with the Mendelian study of genetics 
and was regarded as the leading English author- 
ity on this subject, maintaining in opposition 
to the biometricians that only through the Men- 
delian technique could accurate results in 
heredity be obtained. Besides numerous shorter 
papers he published Mendel’s Theory of Heredity 


(1902) and Problems in Genetics (1915). See 
Botany. 

BATTALION. See ARMIES AND ARMY 
ORGANIZATION. 

BATTISTI, Cesare (1875-1916). An Italian 


author and patriot, born at Trent, and educated 
at Vienna, Gratz, and Florence. He devoted 
himself to geographical science and particularly 
the history of the Trentino. When socialism 
made its. appearance in Italy, he became an en- 
thusiastic supporter. While editor of the So- 
cialist daily, Jl Popolo, he worked continuously 
for the autonomy of the Trentino, the cessation 
of Austrian interference, and subsequently the 
intervention of Italy against Austria. For his 
views he was many times imprisoned by Austri- 
an authorities. In 1915 he entered the Italian 
army and a year later, while commanding a 
company of the Vicenza Battalion, was severely 
wounded. Reports followed that Battisti was 
taken prisoner by Austria and put to death for 
treason; that finding himself imprisoned within 
Austrian lines, he committed suicide; and finally, 
that wounded and half dead, he was hanged by 
the Austrians. Public indignation in Trent and 
Italy generally ran very high. Just what did 
happen has not been ascertained in spite of a 
photograph published by the New York Times 
showing Battisti walking unaided to his execu- 
tion. He wrote Jl Trentino, Saggio di Geografia, 
Fisica e @Antropogeografia; Termini Geografici 
Racolti nel Trentino, and other volumes. 

BATTLE CRUISER. See VESSEL, NAVAL. 

BATTLESHIP. See VESSEL, NAVAL; ELEc- 
TRIc Suip PROPULSION. 

BATTLES OF THE FRONTIER. See War 
IN Evropr, Western Front. 

BAUCH, Bruno (1877- ). A German 
philosopher and Kantian scholar, born in Scliles- 
wig and educated at the universities of Frei- 
burg, Strassburg, and Heidelberg. He studied 
mathematics, natural science, and ‘philosophy 
and became associated with the neo-Kantian 
group of Hermann Cohen. His first work, Gliick- 
seligkeit und Persénlichkeit in der Kritischen 
Ethik earned him a reputation in philosophical 
circles. On the occasion of the Kantian an- 
niversary he published Luther und Kant in 1904, 
and shortly afterward wrote a volume on Schil- 
ler. Among his other works are a philosophical 
biography of Kant and Fichte und Unsere Zeit 
(1920). Contrary to the tendency before the 
War, Professor Bauch presents Fichte as a cham- 


151 


BAUXITE 


pion of republican ideals and opposed to military 
Pan-Germanism. 

BAUER, Louis Aaricota (1865- ). An 
American magnetician (see Vou. II.) In 1917 
he was a member of the National Research Coun- 
cil, and in 1917 and 1918 chairman of the com- 
mittee on navigation and nautical instruments 
of the Council of National Defense. From 1920 
to 1922 he was vice-chairman of the American 
Geophysical Union. 

BAUER, Otto (1881l- ). An Austrian 
Socialist politician. He was a member of the 
faculty of jurisprudence at the University of 
Vienna, where he devoted himself to the study 
of economics. Even during his student days he 
was an ardent advocate of the Social Democratic 
party. After being held a prisoner of war in 
Russia (1915-17), he returned to Vienna. In 
November, 1918, after the revolution, he became 
an influential leader of his party, bent on the 
union of German Austria with Germany. He 
retired from office in 1919 but subsequently was 
recognized, partly because of his thorough 
Knowledge of economics, as a power in the Con- 
stituent National Assembly and in the National 
Parliament (Nationalrat). His works include 
Die Nationalitatenfrage und die Sozialdemokra- 
tie (Vienna, 1907); Die Russische Revolution 
und das Huropiische Proletariat (1917); and 
Bolschewismus oder Sozialdemokratie? (1920). 

BAUMANN, Emite (1885— ). A French 
novelist and critic. His work shows the influ- 
ence of Bourget and Claudel. His novel, Job 
le Prédestiné, which shared the Prix Balzac in 
1922, is mystical in spirit, like his much dis- 
cussed L’Immolé (1921). His other works in- 
clude Le Baptéme de Pauline Ardel (1918) ; 
Trois Viewlles Saintes (1912); Les Grandes 
Formes de la Musique (1905); Fosse aux Lions, 
and Le Fer sur L’Encline (1920). 

BAUXITE. The production of bauxite, which 
is used largely for the manufacture of aluminium 
(q.v.), was 522,690 long tons, valued at $3,156,- 
610, in the United States in 1923, as compared 
with 219,318 long tons valued at $1,069,194 in 
1914. The 1923 production was an increase of 
over 72 per cent in quantity and 56 per cent in 
value as compared with the domestic production 
of 1922; in amount it equaled the largest an- 
nual domestic production before the War, the 
record output was 605,721 long tons valued at 
$3,447,992 in 1918. The largest producer was 
the American Bauxite Company, whose plant was 
at Bauxite, Ark., where about 1000 tons a day 
were handled. Bauxite was also mined at other 
points in Saline and Pulaski Counties, Arkansas. 
In this Arkansas field the production increased 
from 266,790 long tons in 1922 to 493,880 in 
1923. The operations in the eastern fields of 
Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee became less 
extensive as the older deposits were worked out. 
The production which in 1917 had been 62,134 
long tons fell from 42,800 long tons in 1922 to 
28,810 long tons in 1923. The greatest decrease 
was in the Alabama districts, for the produc- 
tion of both Georgia and Tennessee was greater 
in 1923 than in 1922. The deposits in Ala- 
bama, Georgia and Tennessee produce 42,810 
long tons in 1922. New deposits similar to 
those worked in Macon, Sumter, and Wilkinson 
Counties in central Georgia were opened in 1923 
in east-central Alabama. 

Most of the bauxite imported into the United 
States comes from South America, but France 
and Dalmatia also contribute and brought the 


BAVARIA 


total importation for the year 1923 to 119,020 
tons, as compared with 23,656 tons in 1922. 
The Bauxite received in the United States from 
South America came from British Guiana, where 
the Demerara Bauxite Company reopened its 
mines and completed its drying and loading 
equipment at Mackenzie on the Demerara River, 
60 miles above Georgetown. This bauxite was 
used by manufacturers of aluminium and alu- 
minium salts. In 1923 it was landed and sold 
at eastern markets more cheaply than domestic 
bauxite, even after the import duty of $1 a 
ton had been paid, and its importation was se- 
riously affecting the business of some domestic 
bauxite miners. A large drying and loading 
plant was erected on the Cottica River, 100 miles 
above Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana, from which 
bauxite was exported during 1924. 

The record world production of bauxite in 
1918 amounted to 962,876 metric tons. France 
headed the roll with some 145,000 tons. Dal- 
matia and Istria were other notable producers 
in that year. See ALUMINIUM. 


BAUXITE PRODUCED AND CONSUMED IN THE 
UNITED STATES, IN 1923, IN LONG TONS 


Apparent 

Year Domestic Imports Exports * consump- 
production tion 

1923 522.690 119,020 78,560 563,150 


* Largely bauxite concentrates. 


DOMESTIC BAUXITE CONSUMED BY UNITED 
STATES INDUSTRIES, 1923, IN LONG TONS 


Abrasives 

Year Aluminium Chemicals and Total 
refractories 

1923 380,518 68,872 73,300 522,690 


BAVARIA. During the War the well-known 
Bavarian particularistic tendencies were kept in 
check by a steadfast loyalty to the Empire, in 
spite of the fact that the enemies of Germany at- 
tempted to use these aspirations toward break- 
ing the unity of the Empire. Upon assuming 
the office of German chancellor in November, 
1917, Count Hertling was succeeded as Bavarian 
prime minister by von Dandl. The latter’s of- 
fer of electoral reform, advanced in the Diet in 
October, 1918, came too late in the face of the 
German. crisis. The November revolution of 
1918 resulted in-the deposition of the dynasty 
and the proclamation of the Republic. On No- 
vember 8 the Soldiers’ and Workers’ Council in 
Munich elected the radical Socialist, Kurt Eis- 
ner, prime minister. Eisner wished to swing 
Bavaria far to the left and acceded to the ur- 
gent request for elections to the Bavarian Con- 
stituent Assembly only after he had provided in 
advance through ordinance for the establishment 
of a powerful Socialist government. The elec- 
tions of Jan. 9, 1919, resulted in the following 
party divisions in the Assembly: Bavarian Peo- 
ple’s party (successor of the Bavarian Catholic 
Centre) 66, Socialists 62, Democrats 25, German 
People’s party and German National party 9, 
Farmers’ League 15. On February 21, the date 
of the convocation of the Assembly, Kurt Eis- 
ner was assassinated by a former army officer 
and in consequence a period of disorder and law- 
lessness ensued in which the official Socialist 
party and the provinces were at odds with the 


152 


capital. 


BAVARIA 


Munich Soviets who attempted to usurp all 
power. After much conflict a new ministry was 
formed by the Socialist Hoffmann, and, in view 
of the threatening situation in the capital, the 
government and the Assembly were transferred 
to Bamberg in Northern Bavaria. Meanwhile 
the Munich revolutionary councils set up a So- 
viet republic which was ruthlessly suppressed, 
however, by the Hoffmann government and the 
provinces with the aid of the Prussian and 
Wiirttemberg military during the first days of 
May, 1919, after one month of power in the 
During the hard fighting between the 
two factions both sides committed barbarous ex- 
cesses. 

With the overthrow of the Soviets and the re- 
turn of the Hoffmann government to Munich, the 
slow but steady process of reaction in Bavaria 
began. The rural sections of the country were 
opposed to the republican, Socialist, and anti- 
Catholic government in Munich, and to prevent 
future radical uprisings volunteer military or- 
ganizations sprang up which were powerful in- 
struments of reaction. At the time of the Kapp 
Putsch (March, 1920) the reactionary move- 
ment had progressed to a point where the So- 
cialist government could be replaced by a bour- 
geois coalition under von Kahr, consisting of 
the Bavarian People’s party, the Democrats, and 
the Farmers’ League. The elections for the 
Diet on June 6, 1920, showed a further swing 
to the right, inasmuch as they resulted in the 
return of only 27 Majority Socialists, 22 Inde- 
pendent Socialists, and 2 Communists against 
108 representatives for the bourgeois parties, 
most of whom re-entertained monarchist senti- 
ments. Thereupon von Kahr reorganized his 
cabinet so as to include men more fully in sym- 
pathy with his own reactionary views. During 
921 the existence in Bavaria of secret military or- 
ganizations in violation of the Versailles Treaty 
led to a serious dispute between the Berlin and 
Munich governments as a result of which von 
Kahr resigned on Sept. 12, 1921, and was suc- 
ceeded by Count von Lerchenfeld. The new pre- 
mier represented a more liberal viewpoint and 
reached subsequently a satisfactory agreement 
with the Government of the Reich. This turn 
toward moderation, however, was the _ result 
merely of pressure from without and had little 
effect on Bavarian reaction, which continued to 
grow daily in strength. The Lerchenfeld goy- 
ernment found too little support in the country 
to cope with the secret military societies and 
the solid nationalist organization against treaty- 
enforcement and democracy. Moreover, Bavaria 
became a haven for all the extreme monarchist 
elements in Germany and henceforth all na- 
tionalist opposition to the Republic had_ its 
headquarters in Munich. In consequence of the 
activities of the Bavarian reactionaries, in 1922 
the Reich came into conflict with the Allies. 
Count von Lerchenfeld, whose liberal tendencies 
lacked the support of the majority of the Bava- 
rian people, was forced to resign early in No- 
vember of the same year and a strongly mon- 
archist government was formed by von Knilling 
with a programme of opposition to the fulfill- 
ment of the Peace Treaty. Under the influence 
of the reparation policy of the Allies and par- 
ticularly of the developments in the Ruhr, 
Bavarian reaction and nationalism blazed forth 
in 1923 into a violent flame. The National So- 
cialists with a programme of extreme nation- 
alism and anti-Semitism sought refuge in Ba- 


BAVARIA 


varia and under the leadership of Adolf Hitler 
formed activist organizations without interfer- 
ence from the Bavarian government. On Sept. 
26, 1923, the Knilling ministry suspended civil 
law and appointed von Kahr General State Com- 
missioner with the powers of a dictator. Kahr 
and his lieutenant, General von Lossow, the com- 
mander of the Bavarian Reichswehr, took a stand 
against the laws and decrees of the Reich, es- 
pecially against the “Law for the Defense of the 
Republic.” A tense situation between Bavaria 
and the Reich resulted therefrom, which on the 
part of Bavaria took the form of direct refusal 
to recognize the authority of the Berlin govern- 
ment. Only the utmost caution and considerable 
sacrifice of principle on the part of the central 
government prevented open hostilities between 
the Reich and the recalcitrant state. To make 
matters even more complicated, the National 
Socialists under Ludendorff and Hitler executed 
on Nov. 8, 1918, their ludicrous “Beer Hall’ 
Putseh. Kahr and Lossow, who at first had 
taken part in the affair but later claimed that 
they had been forced into such action by threats, 
suppressed the movement on the following day 
by military force and arrested the ringleaders. 
This procedure, however, by no means met with 
the approval of nationalist Bavaria and in con- 
sequence of his stand in the affair Kahr’s posi- 
tion in the Diet was considerably weakened. 
Hence Kahr and Lossow resigned in February, 
1924, and the full conduct of the government 
was again taken over by the Knilling ministry. 
During the following month the farcical trial 
of the perpetrators of the “Beer Hall” Putsch 
gave the world a fair view of the strength of 
nationalism in Bavaria. The elections to the 
Diet in April, 1924, resulted in a victory for 
the partisans of Hitler and in an increased rep- 
resentation of the Communists at the expense 
of the moderate parties and the Socialists. 

On Aug. 14, 1919, Bavaria adopted a new con- 
stitution, which conformed with the provisions 
of the constitution of the Reich. According to 
this document the supreme power lay with the 
people. The executive power was vested in a 
ministry taken as a whole and the legislative 
power in a single-chamber diet, elected for four 
years by all Bavarian citizens, male or female, 
of 20 years of age, on the basis of one member 
for every 40,000 inhabitants. Provision was 
made for the application of the system of pro- 
portional representation and for equal, direct, 
and secret suffrage. Under the constitution of 
the Reich, Bavaria was shorn of its special mil- 
itary, financial, railroad, and postal privileges. 
Parallel with the growth of monarchism in Ba- 
varia, demands were advanced early in 1924 for 
a.revision of the German constitution so as to 
restore Bavaria’s special privileges as well as 
for a reform of the country’s own Fundamental 
Law with a view to erecting a bi-cameral legisla- 
ture and limiting the franchise. These demands 
failed, however, to receive the indorsement of 
the Bavarian people in the April elections of 
1924. 

Resentment over the loss of the special priv- 
ileges, and the wide differences between mon- 
archist and Catholic Bavaria on the one hand, 
and republican and Socialist Germany on the 
other, stimulated Bavarian particularism anew 
in the years after the Armistice. Frequent men- 
tion was made of the possible secession of Ba- 
varia from the Reich and the establishment of 
a Catholic monarchy, consisting of Bavaria and 


153 


BAYLISS 


the conservative sections of Austria, in opposi- 
tion to radical and Protestant northern Ger- 
many. Accusations were made that French in- 
trigues had been actively at work in this direc- 
tion. Be that as it may, there can be little 
doubt that the separatist movement in the 
Rhenish Palatinate, which, parallel with the 
similar movement in the Rhenish Province of 
Prussia, came to a head late in 1923, was en- 
gineered by the French, as was conclusively 
proved by the quick disappearance of the “Re- 
public of the Palatinate” early in 1924 as goon 
as France had withdrawn its active support. In 
conjunction with the demands for far-reaching 
constitutional changes in the spring of 1924, a 


proposal was made for the formation of a Cath- 


olic monarchy, to consist of Bavaria and the 
Tirol, but this, like the former demands, was 
rejected by the people in the April elections. 
Bavaria received an addition to her territory 
when on Nov. 30, 1919, the Thiiringian city of 
Coburg voted by a large majority to join Ba- 
varia. See RHINELAND. 

BAWDEN, Wiwiam Tuomas (1875-— bic 
An American educator, born at Oberlin, Ohio, 
and educated at Denison University, the Me- 
chanics Institute of Rochester, N. Y., and Teach- 
ers’ College of Columbia University. After 
teaching in various schools, he was director of 
the Manual Training Department of the Illinois 
State Normal University (1903-10), assistant 
dean of the College of Engineering of the Uni- 
versity of Illinois (1910-12), specialist in in- 
dustrial education of the United States Bureau 
of Education (1914-19), and commissioner in 
1919. He was chairman of the subsection on 
Industrial Education at the second Pan-American 
Scientific Congress (Washington, D. C., 1915-— 
16). In 1909 he became editor of Manual Train- 
ang Magazine. 

BAX, ARNoLp (E. TREvor) (1883- ane 
British composer, born in London. From 1900 
to 1905 he studied at the Royal Academy of 
Music with Tobias Matthay (piano) and Fred- 
erick Corder (composition). He has written a 
Festival Overture; the symphonic poems Jnto 
the Twilight, In the Fairy Hills, Christmas Eve 
on the Mountains, The Garden of Fand, No- 
vember Woods, In Memoriam, and Tintagel; 
choral works with orchestra, Fatherland and 
Enchanted -Summer; a Symphony in E flat 
minor; chamber music, piano pieces, and songs. 

BAYLISS, SIR WILLIAM MAppbocr’ 
(1860-— ). A British physiologist, born at 
Wednesbury, Staffordshire, and educated at Ox- 
ford and the University of London. He was ap- 
pointed professor of general physiology in the 
University of London and with Harden edits 
the Biochemical Journal. He delivered the 
Herter lectures at the New York Academy of 
Medicine in 1922. He was very active during 
the War, in committee and research work on the 
treatment of shock, chemical warfare, and the 
food supply. His principal writings are The 
Principles of General Physiology (1915); Nature 
of Enzyme Action (1908); Physiology of Food 
and Economy of Diet (1917); Intravenous In- 
jection and Wound Shock (1918); Introduction 
to General Physiology (1919); The Vaso-motor 
System (1923), and Interfacial Forces and Phe- 
nomena in Physiology (1923). 

BAYREUTH FESTIVAL. See 
Festivals. 

BAYS, ALtrrep WILLIAM (1876— ). An 
American lawyer, born at Vermont, Ill., and 


Music, 


BAZIN 


educated at Knox College and the School of Law 
of Northwestern University. He was appointed 
lecturer at the university in 1905 and was ad- 
vanced progressively until he became professor 
of law in 1912; at the same time he continued 
his general practice in Chicago. He is author 
and compiler of the American Commercial Law 
Series, 9 vols. (1911-12), Cases on Commercial 
Law (1914), Commercial Law (1919), and a sec- 
ond edition of the Commercial Law Series, 4 vols. 
(1920-22). 

BAZIN, RENE (1853- ). A French novel- 
ist and man of letters (see Vox. III). After 
1914, he produced a half dozen novels besides 
miscellaneous writings. Les Nouveaux Oberlé 
(1919) is regarded as a masterpiece, It treats 
of a subject dear to the French heart, the pa- 
triotism of the Alsatians, a theme which the 
author handles in a simple manner. Charles de 
Foucauld, Explorateur (1921) is a magnificent 
biography of a notable French explorer. His 
other works include Mémoires d’une Vieille Fille; 
[?Abandonné (1914); La Closerie de Champ- 
dolent (1917); Récits du Temps de Guerre 
(1919); Le Mariage de Mlle. Gimel; La Bar- 
riéere; La Douce France; Histoire de Vingt- 
quatre Sonnettes; and Ferdinand Jacques Hervé 
Bazin (1921). 

BEAL, ALVIN CASEY (1872- )at tiga 
American floriculturist, born at Mt. Vernon, IIL, 
and educated at [llinois and Cornell University. 
From 1900 to 1908 he was instructor of flori- 
culture at the University of Illinois, and in 1909 
he became professor of floriculture at Cornell. 
He was a member of many floricultural societies 
and wrote numerous research bulletins and ar- 
ticles. 

BEAL, GiIrrorD REYNOLDS (1879- ). An 
American painter, born in New York, who 
studied with Chase, DuMond and Ranger. He 
was elected an Academician in 1914, and he 
took prizes at the Academy in 1910, 1913 and 
1919. In 1913 he took a medal at the Art In- 
stitute of Chicago and at the Corcoran Gallery, 
and in 1915 he was awarded a gold medal at the 
Panama-Pacifie International Exposition at San 
Francisco. Among his many awards is included 
the gold medal of the National Arts Club (1918). 
Beal is a versatile colorist. His subjects are 
taken from many fields and moods. His circus 
pictures had a peculiar réclame. Of another 
genre are his garden scenes, peopled with ladies 
in crinolines and dandies of long ago. Later 
pictures show gain in organization. His best 
known work includes “Mayfair” and “The Al- 
bany Boat,” in the Metropolitan Museum (New 
York), and “A Puff of Smoke,” in the Art In- 
stitute (Chicago). He is represented also in 
the Syracuse, San Francisco, and Detroit Mu- 
seums. 

BEARD, CHARLES AUSTIN (1874— apes 
prominent American historian and_ publicist 
(see Vou. III). After 1914, Mr. Beard’s work 
assumed increasing importance. His insistence 
on the part played by economics in the develop- 
ment of America’s institutions was recognized by 
American scholars as a major contribution to 
historical thought. He projected an ambitious 
study of the interrelations between politics and 
economics in American life, with The Economic 
Interpretation of the Constitution (1913) and 
a continuance of its story in The Economic 
Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy (1915). 
These works not only received the commendation 
of scholars but also were read widely, for Mr. 


154 BEATTY 


Beard’s_ stylistic talents are considerable. 
These factors enhanced the popularity of his 
other works; his Contemporary American His- 
tory (1914) and The History of the United 
States (1921), are used as general texts by 
schools throughout the country. In 1917, he 
gained great prominence for his fight for aca- 
demic free speech; his resignation from Colum- 
bia University was a protest against the dis- 
missal of two of his colleagues. His interest 
in contemporary social and educational prob- 
lems then led him to affiliate himself with the 
Bureau of Municipal Research (New York) and 
later with the New School for Social Research. 
He wrote prolifically on many histofical and 
allied themes, his works including the excellent 
Economic Basis of Politics (1922) and Cross 
Currents in Europe To-day (1922), besides many 
textbooks for schools. Of these the more im- 
portant are National Governments and_ the 
World War with F. A. Oge (1919), and His- 
tory of the American People, with W. C. Bag- 
ley (1918). 

BEARD, Mary RitTrer (Mrs. CHArtes A.) 
(1876- ). An American writer and_ suf- 
frage leader, born at Indianapolis and educated 
at DePauw and Columbia Universities. She 
was editor of The Woman Voter until 1912, a 
member of the executive committee of the Con- 
gressional union for Woman Suffrage, and former 
vice-chairman for Manhattan of the Woman 
Suffrage party of New York. She is the author 
of several excellent historical surveys, American 
Citizenship, with her husband (1913), Women’s 
Work in Municipalities (1915), A Short History 
of the American Labor Movement (1920), a use- 
ful and readable summary; and History of the 
United States (1921). 

BEAR ISLAND. A desolate Arctic land 
about 200 miles north of Norway, which claims 
it. Extensive deposits of coal led to the belief 
that it would be economically valuable, and a 
temporary colony was established for mineral 
exploitation, but its further development was 
unpromising owing to the superior mining 
facilities in Spitzbergen (q.v.) 

BEATTY, Davyip Beatty, first EArt oF 
(1871- ). 1A )4iBritish )7Gdmiral . -porn..,40 
County Wexford, Ireland. He began a meteoric 
career in the navy in 1884. He served with 
the Nile flotilla in 1896; participated in the ad- 
vance on Peking in 1900; acted as aide-de-camp 
to Edward VII in 1908 and as naval secretary 
to the First lord of the Admiralty in 1912, when 
he was made commander of the First Battle 
Cruiser Squadron. The outbreak of the War 
gave him the opportunity which all naval men 
traditionally crave. He distinguished himself 
in the naval battles of Heligoland Bight (Aug. 
28, 1914), Dogger Bank (Jan. 24, 1915), and 
Jutland (May 31, 1916), where his direction 
of the battle cruisers was characterized by a 
spirit and enterprise which gained universal 
commendation. In December, 1916, he was 
raised to the post of Commander-in-Chief of the 
Grand Fleet, in succession to Sir John Jellicoe. 
In 1919 he received a peerage, the Order of 
Merit, and the position of First Sea Lord. He 
married, in 1901, Ethel Field, the daughter of 
the American, Marshall Field. 

BEATTY, Epwarp WENTWorRTH (1877— We 
A president of the Canadian Pacific Railway 
Company, born at Thorold, Ont., and educated 
at Upper Canada College, the Model School of 
Toronto, Harboard Collegiate Institution (To- 


i 
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BEAUX 


ronto), Toronto University, and Osgoode Hall 
Law School. After reading law in a Toronto 
office, he was called to the Ontario Bar in 1901, 
and in the same year was appointed assistant in 
the law department of the Canadian Pacific 
Railway. He became assistant solicitor in 1905, 
general solicitor in 1910, general counsel in 
1913, vice-president in 1914, King’s counsel for 
Ontario in 1915, King’s counsel for the Do- 
minion in the same year, and director of the 
company in 1916. He was constituted a mem- 
ber of the executive committee in 1916 and was 
elected president in 1918. Other offices which 
he holds are those of director of the Bank of 
Montreal, director of the Royal Trust Company, 
chancellor of Queen’s University and of McGill 
University, and trustee of Royal Victoria 
Hospital. 

BEAUX, CECELIA (?- ). An American 
painter (see Vor. III). She won the Saltus 
medal from the National Academy of Design in 
1914; medal of honor from the Panama Pacific 
International Exposition (1915); the Proctor 
portrait prize from the National Academy of 
Design (1915); the National Arts Club prize of 
the N. A. Women Painters Society (1917); and 
the Logan medal from the Art Institute of 
Chicago in 1921. 

BEAUX-ARTS INSTITUTE OF DESIGN. 
This institute was organized in 1916 by mem- 
bers of the Society of Beaux-Arts Architects 
who had formerly attended the Ecole des Beaux- 
Arts of Paris. It was formed in order to carry 
on the educational work which had developed 
from the original social club of the Society of 
Beaux-Arts Architects. The main courses were 
in architecture, but this was supplemented by 
important courses in sculpture, mural painting 
and interior decoration. The institute now 
serves as a clearing house for advanced archi- 
tectural design in the majority of big architec- 
tural schools in the United States, from 
California to New York, and its number of 
pupils has increased from about 1100 in 1914 
to 1500 in 1924. Building, 326 East 75th 
Street; Director, Whitney Warren, 16 East 47th 
Street, New York, N. Y. 

BECHUANALAND. A British native pro- 
tectorate in South Africa under control of the 
British Colonial Office, administered by a resi- 
dent commissioner under the direction of the 
high commissioner for South Africa. It has an 
area of 275,000 square miles, and a population 
(census of 1921) of 152,983 of whom 1743 were 
Europeans. The most important city is Serowe; 
population, 20,000. The native peoples were a 
pastoral folk for the most part, and exported 
cattle and skins to South African markets, 
notably Kimberley, Johannesburg, and Mafe- 
king. The mines of the Tati District produced 
6005 ounces of gold and 1317 ounces of silver 
Administrative costs consistently in- 
creased, expenditures in 1913-14 being £66,749, 
and in 1922-23, £82,436. In the three years 
1919-22, expenditures exceeded revenues and im- 
perial grants were necessary to meet the deficit. 
In 1922-23, revenue exceeded the expenditure by 
£9559. The protectorate belonged to the South 
African Customs Union and no figures for local 
trade were kept. There were 12 schools for Eu- 
ropeans, attended by 178 children; one for 
colored; and 66 native schools with an at- 
tendance of 4183 children. 

BECK, JAMES MoNTGOMERY (1861- yi 
An American lawyer and author, born at Phila- 


155 


BECKETT 


delphia, and educated at Moravian College. He 
was admitted to the bar in 1884. He was 
United States Attorney for the Eastern District 
of Pennsylvania (1896-1900), assistant attor- 
ney-general of the United States (1900-03), and 
member of the law firms of Shearman & Ster- 
ling, New York (1903-17), and of Beck, Craw- 
ford and Harris, New York (1917-21). In ad- 
dition he has held the positions of trustee and 
bank director, and in 1921 was solicitor-general 
of the United States. He is the author of sev- 
eral works on international relations, with 
searehing analyses of the problems of war and 
peace. The Evidence in the Case (1914) dis- 
cusses the question of responsibility for the War, 
with a condemnation of Germany. The War 
and Humanity, with a foreword by Theodore 
Roosevelt (1916), is a brief for world codpera- 
tion. The Reckoning (1918) is a discussion of 
the moral aspects of the peace problem, and The 
Passing of the New Freedom (1920) is a satire 
on President Wilson. He is also author of The 
League of Nations (1919) and The Constitu- 
tion of the United States, with a preface by the 
Earl of Balfour (1923). 

BECKER, Atrrep LE Roy (1878- }oeAn 
American lawyer, born in Buffalo, N. Y., and 
educated at Harvard and Buffalo Universities. 
He practiced law in Buffalo, 1902-14, and later 
became deputy attorney of the State of New 
York (1915-19). He attained a _ nation-wide 
reputation during the years 1917 to 1919 for 
his investigation and exposure of German plots 
and propaganda. He is known as a lecturer on 
Dutch history in New York, at the Brooklyn In- 
stitute of Arts and Sciences. 

BECKER, Cart Lotus’ (1873- ) An 
American historian, born in Blackhawk County, 
Iowa, and educated at Wisconsin and Columbia 
Universities. He taught history successively at 
Pennsylvania State and Dartmouth Colleges and 
Kansas, Minnesota, and Cornell Universities. 
He became professor of history at Cornell in 
1917. In 1915 he was made a member of the 
board of editors of the American Historical Re- 
view. A student of Frederick J. Turner, he 
has inherited much of his master’s historical 
philosophy and literary style, writing works 
characterized by technical skill and, what is 
rare in historical activity, good style. His most 
successful works in this respect have been 
Kansas in the Turner Essays (1910), Beginnings 
of the American People (1915), and The Eve 
of the Revolution (1918). The latter is easily 
one of the best of the Chronicles of America 
series. It not only possesses a proper sense: of 
the underlying values, but also catches, with a 
sophistication comparable only to the French 
method, the flavor of the American scene in 
1776. His study, The Declaration of Independ- 
ence (1922), displays the same technique in in- 
tellectual history. His other works include The 
United States, an Experiment in Democracy 
(1920), America’s War Aims and Peace Terms 
(1918), and many monographs on the French 
Revolution, which is the theme of his principal 
seminar. 

BECKETT, Percy Gorpon (1882-— jaro An 
American mining engineer, born in Quebec, 
Canada, and educated at Fettes College, Edin- 
burgh, and at the School of Mines at Camborne, 
Cornwall. He served as superintendent and en- 
gineer of several important mining corporations. 
From 1908 to 1912 he was engineer for Phelps, 
Dodge and Company in Arizona, and was gen- 


BECKHAM 


eral manager of the Old Dominion Company at 
Globe, Ariz., from 1912-17. He became general 
manager of the Phelps, Dodge Corporation in 
Arizona in 1920. 

BECKHAM, J. CREPPS WICKLIFFE 
1869-— ). An American senator, born at 
Bardstown, .Ky., and educated at the Central 
University of Kentucky. He was admitted to 
the Kentucky bar in 1893. In 1894 and 1896-— 
98, he was a member of the Kentucky House of 
Representatives, and was Speaker in the latter 
year. From 1900 to 1907, he was the governor 
of Kentucky. He was a member of the United 
States Senate, 1915-21, and a delegate-at-large 
and member of the Committee on Resolutions 
of the Democratic National Convention in 1904, 
1908, and 1912; he was delegate-at-large in 1916 
and 1920. 

BEDFORD-JONES, Henry JAMES O’BRIEN. 
(1887— ). An author, born at Napanee, 
Ont., and educated at Trinity College (Tor- 
onto). He collaborated in The Boys’ Big-Game 
series, The Boy Scouts of the Air series, and 
The Captain Becky series (1912). Besides con- 
tributions to magazines he has written Gathered 
Verse (1916), L’Arbre Croche Mission (1917), 
The Mesa Trail (1920), The Shadow (1922), 
and Canada, 1695 (1922). 

BEDIER, CuarLes-Marte-Joseru (1864-— +). 
An eminent French scholar. He was born in 
Paris, and after teaching in the faculties of 
Fribourg and Caen succeeded Gaston Paris at 
the Collége de France (1903) as professor of 
medizval French language and literature. He 
was twice sent on missions to the United States 
(1909 and 1913) to organize a system of 
exchange of professors in Freneh and American 
universities, but the War interrupted this 
work. As a scholar he unites minute scien- 
tific accuracy with sure literary insight as 
is shown in the introduction to his edition 
of the Lai de VOmbre (1892), Les Fabliaux 
(1893), and Les Légendes Epiques, 4 vols. 
(1908-13). In the Lai de V’Ombre he opposes 
the mechanical German method of text con- 
stitution. The Légendes Epiques is a monu- 
mental work in which he refutes the old theory 
of the origin of epic poems and proves that they 
are products of the age in which they were 
first written down, not the oral heritage of an 
earlier period. His Tristan et Iseut (1900) is 
an adaptation of the ancient story, based on 
all the extant medieval versions in every lan- 
guage. The collating of these numerous texts 
was done with painstaking care. During the 
War, Bédier abandoned his scholarly work and 
published several arraignments of Germany. 
L’Effort Francais is the best known of these. 
Finally, as a fitting successor to his list of 
learned works, comes a definitive edition of the 
oldest French masterpiece, the Chanson de 
Roland, in preparation (1924). He has also 
written Colin Muset, a Latin thesis (1893) ; 
Etudes Critiques (1903) ; Roman de Tristan par 
Thomas, 2 vols. (1903-05); Deua Poémes de la 
Folie Tristan (1907); Chansons des Oroisades 
(1909), and two pamphlets Comment LlAlle- 
magne Hssaie de Justifier Ses Crimes (1915) 
and Les Crimes Allemands @aprés des Témoi- 
gnages Allemands (1915). In 1917 he was ‘at- 
tached to the information service at general 
headquarters. He was elected to the French 
Academy in 1920 and is one of the directors of 
the Revue de France. In the summer of 1923 


he was one of the French delegation of university _ 


156 


BEER 


professors at the Summer School of Columbia 
University and in that year and in 1924 was 
engaged in editing an elaborate history of 
French literature. 

BEEBE, (CHARLES) WILLIAM (1877- ). 
An American ornithologist, explorer and essayist. 
(see Vou. III). He is the author of A Mono- 
graph of the Pheasants, an elaborate work in 
four volumes, the first of which appeared in 
1918 and the second in 1921, and Galapagos: 
World’s End (1924). He also wrote essays 
founded on his observations in the tropics. 
Most of these appeared in the Atlantic Monthly. 

BEECHAM, Sir THomas (1879- Dado 
British orchestral conductor, born at Liverpool. 
While pursuing regular academic studies, he was 
instructed in music by private teachers. In 
1899 he formed at Huyton an amateur orchestra 
which he conducted for three years and which 
gave him sufficient practical experience to ac- 
cept, in 1902, a post as conductor with Truman’s 
Opera Company. At the conclusion of the tour 


_ he devoted an entire year to further serious 


study and then appeared, in 1905, as a full- 
fledged symphonic conductor with the Queen’s 
Hall Orchestra. The following year he founded 
the New Symphony Orchestra, which he con- 
ducted till 1908, when he formed the Beecham 
Symphony Orchestra. In 1910 he gave at Covent 
Garden a season of grand opera, conducting per- 
sonally an extensive repertoire and arousing 
great enthusiasm by the excellence of the per- 
formances, to which his own splendidly drilled 
orchestra largely contributed. This success in- 
duced him to continue his career as impresario 
until 1920, when he suddenly retired from all 
musical activity. He emerged from this volun- 
tary retirement just as suddenly in 1923, when 
he appeared as conductor of the Hallé Orchestra 
in Manchester. During the season 1915-16 he 
was also conductor of the London Philharmonic 
Society. He was knighted in 1916. Among the 
important novelties which he introduced to 
England are R. Strauss’s Feuersnot, Salome, 
Elektra, Rosenkavalier, and Ariadne auf Naxos; 
d’Albert’s Tiefland; Rimsky-Korsakov’s Le Coq 
@Or; Delius’s Romeo and Juliette in the Vil- 
lage ; Leroux’s Le Chemineau ; Holbrook’s Dylan ; 
Lehmann’s Everyman; and Stanford’s The Critic. 

BEE DISEASES. See EnromoLocy, Econom- 
IC. 
BEEF. See Live Srock. 

BEEHIVE COKE. See COKE. 

BEER, Epwin (1876- ). An American 
surgeon, born in New York, and educated at 
Columbia University. Among his hospital ap- 
pointments have been Bellevue and Mt. Sinai. 
He has been a prolific writer on surgery of the 
male urinary organs and in 1910 first described 
what was originally known as Beer’s method of 
treating tumors of the bladder by the high fre- 
quency current applied through the natural pas- 
sages. His great success with this method led 
to its general adoption by genito-urinary sur- 
geons. He has also published many papers on 
abdominal surgery. 

BEER, Grorce Louris (1872-1920). An 
American historian (see Vou. III). He served 
with distinction on the American Commission to 
negotiate Peace (1919), in control of Colonial 
affairs. On the formation of the League of 
Nations he was made director of the mandatory 
section of the League’s secretariat. His un- 
timely death robbed the League of one of its 
most enlightened champions. Friends collected 


BEER 


his important papers in 1923 under the title of 
African Questions at the Peace Conference. 

BEER, Tuomas (1889- ). An American 
writer, born at Council Bluffs, Iowa, and edu- 
eated at Yale and Columbia Universities. He 
served in the War (1917-18) and has contrib- 
uted short stories to The Century, Saturday 
Evening Post, Smart Set, etc. In 1922 he pub- 
lished The Fair Rewards; in 1923, Stephen 
Crane: A Study in American Letters, and in 
1924, Sandoval, a novel. 

BEETLE, JAPANESE. See ENTOMOLOGY, 
EcoNomMIc. 

BEHAN, RicHArRD JOSEPH (1879- yeitAn 
American surgeon, born at Pittsburgh, Pa., and 
educated in medicine at the university there. 
He is known for his extensive monograph Pain 
(1914), the most complete work ever written 
on the subject. Profusely illustrated, it deals 
with pain as a symptom of disease, injury, and 
derangement. In the second Balkan war he 
served as a surgeon at the Fourth Reserve Hos- 
pital in Serbia. He was surgeon of St. Joseph’s 
Hospital, Pittsburgh (1914-19). 

BEHAVIORISM. A school of psychological 
doctrine developed in recent years under the 
leadership of the American psychologist, Prof. 
John B. Watson. Its central idea is to regard 
psychology as a scientific study of behavior 
and to explain behavior as a system of responses 
to stimuli. The topic of behaviorism in 1924 
occupied the forefront of psychological polemic 
and had divided Anglo-American psychologists 
into two camps, the behaviorists and the anti- 
behaviorists. In the United States, the psychol- 
ogists styling themselves behaviorists were said 
to constitute a numerical majority, but as there 
exist among them infinite variations of doctrine, 
ranging from Watson’s own statement in his 
Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behavior- 
ist (1919) to the mere use of certain behavior 
concepts, this is not as significant as it may 
seem. 

Behaviorism may be best understood as a 
somewhat impatient attempt to make psychol: 
ogy a science like other sciences regardless of 
the peculiar complexity of mental phenomena. 
It is a reaction against the slow methods of ex- 
perimental introspection developed by Wundt 
and Titchener, and against the so-called sub- 
jectivistic ideology imported from idealistic 
philosophy. It is therefore a revolt in the di- 
rection of empiricism and_ objectivity. The 
method of behaviorism was evolved from animal 
psychology. In 1906 there was published in 
Paris a book by Kostylef’on the present crisis 
in psychology. In it the author portrayed what 
he regarded as the theoretical breakdown of 
experimental psychology, and showed that indi- 
vidual experimentation had outrun the capacity 
of the science for synthesis. The number of 
experimental papers accumulated in the United 
States alone defied any effort at integration. 

As a remedy to this disorganization, Kos- 
tylef held up the conditioned reflex theory de- 
veloped by the Russian physiologists Pavlov and 
Bechterev—a theory which would transform psy- 
chology into an objective science. What was 
this conditioned reflex? When food is exposed 
to a dog, his mouth begins to salivate. This 
is called a reflex action. Now the same dog 
can be made to salivate when food is exposed 
and a gong rings at the same time. After the 
sound of the gong and the exposure of the food 


‘has been imposed upon the dog’s attention at 


157 


BEHAVIORISM 


repeated intervals, the food can be withdrawn 
altogether, and the salivation reflex will be in- 
duced by the sound of the gong alone. This 
conditioned reflex will function only a short 
length of time—about a month, unless its as- 
sociation with the simple reflex is renewed. 

In this conditioned reflex and in the formation 
of new habit responses, Kostylef saw the hope 
of developing a completely objective psychology 
which would explain even the most complex 
human activities. In retrospect we may say 
that we had here the essentials of the behavior- 
ist programme without the label of behaviorism. 
The behaviorist movement, however, did not 
crystallize until the work of Pavlov and Bech- 
terev was translated and made available in Eng- 
lish and German, and was combined with the 
already thriving animal psychology studied by 
Thorndike, Washburn, Jennings and Watson. 
The behavior articles of Watson began to be 
published about 1913 and soon attracted a fol- 
lowing to the new point of view, as well as bit- 
ter criticism from the camp of the introspec- 
tionists. 

First and foremost the behaviorist viewpoint 
is a challenge to the traditional preoccupation 
of psychology with consciousness. Historically 
modern psychology developed out of the empir- 
ical movement in philosophy—Locke’s quest for 
the origin of ideas. The first fundamental 
theory of psychology was the association of ideas 
or sensations. As the technique of physiology 
was perfected, the associationist psychology was 
modified into a physiological psychology, with the 
hypothesis of psycho-physical parallelism as the 
theoretical bridge. Mental phenomena as intro- 
spectively reported were correlated with the 
physical or physiological stimuli, and thus the 
progress of the science was made to depend on 
two factors: the perfection and precision of 
laboratory apparatus and introspective training 
on the part of the observer. The latter factor 
was the weak spot of this school of psychology 

generally known as_ structural psychology). 
Introspection could never be made precise enough 
to compare with the mathematical delicacy of 
physical and physiological technique, and more- 
over, there was the additional difficulty of pass- 
ing from conscious states to conscious action. 

On the other hand biology approached the 
study of animals and man precisely through 
the notion of individual action for the protec- 
tion of the organism, and it is from biology that 
the idea of instincts, or inherited modes of ac- 
tion, and reflexes or acts automatically induced 
by stimuli, were developed and passed on _ to 
psychology. The difficulty here was just the re- 
verse, how to pass from acts to consciousness. 
The concept of the struggle for existence, with 
its ambiguous connotation of mechanism and 
conscious reflection, has often been made to serve 
as a connecting link between activity and 
thought. Around this concept has grown the 
school of psychology known as functionalism— 
implying that psychic activity is a unified func- 
tion of the individual in his biological strug- 
gle. The best representative of this psychology 
in America was William James, who incidentally 
derived his pragmatic philosophy largely out of 
the same motif. Where the structuralists sought 
microscopic precision through introspective 
analysis, the functionalists slurred over details 
for the benefit of a sweeping gesture. 

In animal psychology (q.v.) none of the 
problems of introspective analysis are present 


BEHAVIORISM 


for the simple and sufficient reason that we 
cannot ask animals to introspect. The method 
of procedure is necessarily objective, being con- 
fined to a study of external behavior in corre- 
lation with the stimulus or situation set by the 
experimenter for the animal. However, if the 
observation is objective, the interpretation of 
results, or for that matter the setting of the 
experiment, betrays a reference to the introspec- 
tive consciousness of the human individual. 

No experimenter can regard the animal as a 
dumb mechanism in spite of the fact that the 
response to stimulus is in many cases almost 
automatic. And the very existence of the con- 
ditioned reflex leads to problems almost as puz- 
zling as the association of ideas in man. But 
just as the early associationists took the as- 
sociation of ideas to be a mechanical affair, 
regulated by such conditions as contiguity, 
frequency, etc, so many of the animal psychol- 
ogists look upon the conditioned reflex as if it 
were an automatic mechanism. 

Under ordinary conditions the adoption of the 
technique of animal psychology to explore the 
complexities of the human mind would be re- 
garded as an attempt to explain the obscure 
by the more obscure. But the ground had al- 
ready been prepared for throwing out con- 
sciousness from human psychology. As one wit 
put it, after losing its soul, psychology was 
to lose its mind. In 1904 James led a polemic 
against the belief in the existence of conscious- 
ness as an entity. He was ready to grant a 
functional existence to it, but would have noth- 
ing to do with “the hypothesis of a_ trans- 
empirical reality.” Those who still cling to 
consciousness, he said, “are clinging to a mere 
echo, the faint rumor left behind by the dis- 
appearing ‘soul’ upon the air of philosophy... . 
The healthy thing for philosophy is to leave off 
grubbing underground for what effects effectua- 
tion or makes action act.” 

Another influence which favored the rise of 
behaviorism was the pressure of American life 
in the direction of an empirical applied psychol- 
ogy, or a psychology of individual capacities. 
Here, too, biological functionalism was the im- 
plicit theoretical assumption, but the use of 
statistical methods prevented any grievous er- 
rors. In the case of behaviorism, the appeal 
presented is not that of the actuary, who pre- 
dicts future cases by comparison with the tabu- 
lated instances of the past: it is rather the 
appeal of system. Human activity is explained 
in a quasi-mechanical manner as the play of in- 
stincts, reflexes, habits. Sensation and percep- 
tion are abolished, and thought is reduced to 
the status of an implicit language habit. Red, 
yellow, blue are no longer regarded as visual 
sensations or after images, but are responses to 
the respective physical stimuli. 

This oversimplification has been criticized by 
many psychologists who wish to remain behav- 
iorists. Thus Prof. John Dewey wants to find 
room for value and purpose concepts, and the 
neo-realists who first welcomed the new psychol- 
ogy because it eliminated that “alien influx into 
nature,” consciousness, have found much diffi- 
culty in explaining purpose behavioristically. 
It must be admitted, however, that other sys- 
tems of psychology, including structuralism, 
ke shared this difficulty of explaining moral 
ideas. 

The legitimacy of the behavioristic scheme has 
been attacked on strictly scientific grounds by 


158 BELASCO 


Boring in a paper on the “Stimulus Error.” In 
introspective psychology, he writes, it has been 
customary to distinguish between attention to 
the stimulus and attention to the sensation of 
subjective reaction produced by the stimulus. 
The .behaviorists, in common with the capacity 
psychologists, refuse to recognize the stimulus 
error (judgment about the stimulus instead of 
the sensation) and correlate all responses in 
the same column. Now it is possible, he holds, 
to demonstrate experimentally the existence of 
an equivocal correlation if the subjective dis- 
positions are neglected. A more popular illus- 
tration of the same argument can be cited in 
the difficulty of explaining hallucination in be- 
havioristic terms. 

Outside of psychology, behaviorism has _ re- 
ceived support from pragmatism because of the 
similarity of emphasis on action, and from neo- 
realism for its realistic empiricism. The ra- 
tionists and idealists, however, regard behavior- 
ism as a simple variety of materialism. Their 
opinion is best represented by Lovejoy who raises 
the “Paradox of the Thinking Behaviorist.” 
See INSTINCT; ACTION; CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE 
UNconscious; PsycioLocy, GENERAL. 

Consult: J. B. Watson, “Psychology as the 
Behaviorist Sees It,” Psych. Rev. vol. xx (1913) ; 
Behavior (1914); Psychology from the Stand- 
point of a Behaviorist (1919). Roback’s Be- 
haviorism and Psychology (1922) is a polemic 
against Behaviorism, and may be used as a guide 
to the discussions in the psychological period- 
icals. 

BEITH, Ian Hay (1876- ). An English 
writer, under the pen-name of Ian Hay. He 
was educated at St. John’s College, Cambridge. 
His books, written in a humorous vein, became 
widely popular. They include The Right Stuff 
(1908); A Man’s Man (1909); A Safety Match 
(1911); Happy-Go-Lucky (1913). He served 
during the War in the Argyll and Sutherland 
Highlanders, rising to the rank of major. His 
book The First Hundred Thousand (1915), was 
éne of the most widely read volumes relating 
to the War. His later books include The Will- 
ing Horse (1921), A Baker’s Dozen (1922). 
He lectured much in the United States and in 
1923 became an American citizen. 

BEKHTEREFF, V. G. von. 
TEREV, V. G. Von. 

BEKKER, LEANDER J. DE (1872- ). An 
American editor, born in Kentucky. From 
1897 to 1919 he was identified with such vari- 
ous publications as Oarter’s Magazine, the New 
York Evening Post, and the New York Tribune. 
As the editorial correspondent of the Tribune 
(1919), he led the opposition to Mexican inter- 
vention. He was confidential assistant of the 
United States War Trade Board and in 1914 
was one of the founders and the first president 
of La Ligue des Pays Neutres. He became sec- 
retary of the Writers’ Publishing Company in 
1915 and president in 1921. His works include 
The Stokes Encyclopedia of Music and Musi- 
cians (1908, 1910, 1912), and The Plot against 
Mexico (1919). He edited Hoyt’s New Practical 
Cyclopedia (22d ed.) 

BELASCO, Davin (1859- ). An Ameri- 
ean playwright and manager (see Von. III). As 
firm a believer in old conventions now as ever, 
Belasco has lengthened his career with such 
popular successes as Polly with a Past (1917), 
Tiger Rose (1917), Daddies (1918), Tiger! 
Tiger! (1918), The Gold Diggers (1919), De- 


See BECH- 


BELGIAN CONGO 


159 BELGIUM 
buraw (1920) and Kiki (1922). An extrav- a pages 

agantly costly revival of The Merchant of Venice AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS IN. BELGIUM 

(1923) roused a stormy critical discussion. Crop 1913 1923 1913 1923 

Mrs. Fiske came under his direction in Mary, (Acres) (Metric Tons) 
Mary, Quite Contrary (1923). Whieatt yt. 4 394,134 345,486 401,950 364,028 
BELGIAN CONGO. See Copper. Keegy abt otal cre {1 < 641,173 573,346 570,694 528,017 
am Bavleyorun. 2's 84,105 84,760 91,808 91,047 
BELGIUM. A kingdom of western Europe, Oats ......... 671,371 653,831 696,094 683,028 
bordering on the North Sea, between France and il Pie : Sipe 178,976 1,394,917 2,036,518 
. ’ j ‘drage beets .. 176,464 188,298 4,554,467 4,300,230 
the Netherlands. Belgium has an area of ll, potatoes ...... 383,082 376,589 3,200,932 2,822,212 


752 square miles, with a population of 7,539,- 
568 on Dec. 31, 1922, giving an average density 
of 642 persons to the square mile; the greatest 
of any whole nation, though portions of other 
countries may be more thickly populated. In 
spite of war losses, the population of Belgium 
(exclusive of the small territories annexed by 
the Treaty of Versailles) decreased by only 22,- 
431 between 1910 and 1920, and was after that 
increasing at the rate of about 60,000 per year. 
The country was highly industrialized with 1,- 
600,000 engaged in industrial pursuits and an 
agricultural population of 1,200,000 of whom 
800,000 were actually engaged in agricultural 
work. The principal city and capital, Brussels, 
on Dec. 31, 1921, had a population of 775,000. 
The chief port, Antwerp, had 304,000 people, 
while Liége and Ghent possessed each a popula- 
tion of 165,000. Between 1910 and 1920, the last 
two years for which complete census figures are 
available, the number of persons speaking French 
only increased from 2,833,334 to 2,855,835, the 
number speaking Flemish only fell from 3,220,- 
662 to 3,187,073, and those speaking* German 
only from 31,415 to 16,877. Before the War, 
immigrants entering Belgium each year slightly 
exceeded emigrants from the country, but after- 
ward the situation was reversed, and in 1921 
immigrants numbered 24,389, compared with 
27,443 emigrants. With the economic recovery 
of Belgium, the excess of emigrants was grad- 
ually diminishing, and the former situation 
seemed likely to return in a few years. The 
movement of population was greatest betweeh 
Belgium and France, followed by the Nether- 
lands and the United States. . 

Education. The educational system was be- 
coming constantly more highly organized; the 
number of primary schools increased from 22,- 
915 in 1913 to 29,210 in 1921, and the number 
of pupils rose from 939,285 in 1913 to 955,365 
in 1920. Besides these, there were 3217 primary 
schools for adults, with 117,833 pupils, and 
3422 infant schools with 154,032 pupils in 1920. 
In schools of intermediate grade there were 56,- 
056 pupils in 1921, compared with 39,081 in 
1913. Above these schools are the four univer- 
sities (Ghent, Liége, Brussels, and Louvain), 
several technical and commercial institutions, 
three military schools, a school of veterinary 
education, a colonial school and an agricultural 
institute. The number of pupils in the univer- 
sities rose from 8532 in 1913-14 to 9329 in 1920-— 
21. No illiteracy statistics have been compiled 
since 1910, when the proportion was 14.1 per 
cent. 

Industry. Despite the predominantly in- 
dustrial character of the country, Belgian agri- 
cultural production was of considerable impor- 
tance. The acreage of various crops returned 
practically to normal in the post-war years, but 
the emphasis was now more on sugar and forage 
beets, and other forage crops, than before the 
War. The accompanying table gives a compar- 
ison of the principal kinds of agricultural prod- 
ucts in 1913 and 1923. 


Forage crops, not 
including past- 
ure land . 926,598 957,873 1,894,070 1,854,733 


Mineral production was always an important 
item in Belgium. The country has as natural 
resources supplies of coal and zinc, and after 
the economic union with Luxemburg in 1922 
gained ready access to supplies of iron ore. Im- 
mediately after the War resumption of metal- 
lurgical activity was initiated and by 1923 pro- 
duction had practically reached the pre-war 
level, except zine production, which advanced 
more slowly. The accompanying table shows 
the progress made in 19238, compared with the 
previous year, and also reveals the approxima- 
tion of pre-war conditions. 


BELGIAN COAL, IRON AND METALLURGICAL 
PRODUCTION 
(Metric Tons) 
1913 1922 1923 
COR Ge vena y eoea 22,841,590 21,234,170 22,916,070 
COkOcraens ot laecunata « 3,523,000 2,707,490 4,156,700 
Agglomerates ..... 2,608,640 2,477,160 1,931,050 
Pigiron’ Ya Peke 2,484,690 1,603,620 2,188,130 
Raw steel and rough 
casting EAD 54... 2,465,904 1,463,640 2,285,910 
Finished steel .... 1,859,064 1,409,990 1,948,390 
Finished iron 304,344 180,252 207,740 
LU CAOT. ES aes Oe sin. 204,156 113,136 148,080 


Belgian glass production, an extremely impor- 
tant industry in the country, made rapid strides 
in the post-war years, approaching pre-war vol- 
ume in window glass and surpassing it in other 
lines. Production of window glass was 41,708,- 
667 square meters in 1913, 33,708,000 square 
meters in 1922, and 37,000,000 square meters 
in 1923. Plate-glass production increased from 
2,444,575 square meters in 1913 to 3,200,000 
square meters in 1922, and 4,500,000 square 
meters in 1923. Bottle and glassware making 
increased greatly in importance since the war, 
new factories for the former being opened at 
Lommel, Moll, Selzaete and Jumet. The textile 
industry of Belgium was of paramount impor- 
tance and was operating on practically the same 
seale as before the War. The number of cotton 
spindles in the country was 1,682,965 on July 
31, 1928, compared with 1,518,134 on Mar. 1, 
1914. Production, which totaled 48,000 metric 
tons in 1913, was as low as 43,125 metric tons 
in 1922, but rose to 51,000 metric tons in 1923. 
The woolen industry with approximately 625,- 
000 spindles in operation, both before the War 
and in 1923, was also active; 27,578 metric tons 
were conditioned in 1913, 35,560 metrie tons in 
1922, and 30,000 metric tons in 1923, notwith- 
standing an important strike in the early part 
of last year. The flax, hemp and jute industries 
were operating 300,000 spindles in 1923, com- 
pared with 280,000 spindles before the War. 

The unemployment situation in Belgium prac- 
tically ceased to be a problem. On Dec. 31, 
1921, there were 86,093 unemployed; by Dec. 31, 


BELGIUM 


1922, this number was reduced to 26,055 and 
later changes were slight and largely seasonal. 
On Dee. 31, 1923, there were 23 450 unemployed 
in the country. 

Commerce. The figures showing Belgium’s 
trade in 1923 are not exactly comparable with 
those for previous years. Beginning with May, 
1922, the economic union with Luxemburg was 
in effect and trade statistics make no distinction 
between the foreign trade of the two countries. 
The total trade may thus be increased to some 
extent, but the fact that trade between Belgium 
and Luxemburg has now become domestic com- 
merce, offsets, in large measure at least, the 
increase due the inclusion of trade between Lux- 
emburg and other countries. No attempt is 

made in the following statistics to distinguish 
between Belgian and Luxemburgian trade in 
1922 and 1923. The table for foreign trade ap- 
pended here shows values in the different classi- 
fications. (The depreciation of the Belgian frane 
should be borne in mind: 1913, par, 19.3 cents; 
1922, 7.68 cents; in 1923, 5.22 cents). 


BELGIAN FOREIGN TRADE 


IMPORTS 
Values in Thousands of Francs 
1913 1922 1923 
live fanimels! Ate: 653278 & 126,069 112,856 
Foodstuffs and _ bey- 

BYALES. ey ciscete iene 1,084,822 2,627,810 3,416,871 
Raw smaterialsen . 4 256697,0355 3,589,012 95,509) 83aL 
Manufactured articles 869,478 2,783,861 3,510,829 

Totals.) >} ceosmeae ci: 4,636,598 9,077,112 12,550,387 
EXPORTS 
Values in Thousands of Francs 
1913 1922 1923 
Lived/animals) 2 #0... 44,413 90,064 83,997 
Foodstufls and bev 

erazes 50S, : 327,663 506,821 806,712 
Raw ‘materials %).>.. 1, 826, 078 2,095,738 2,595,238 
Manufactured articles 1,436,430 3,366,959 5,370,543 

TOURS). a.c custodians tees 3,634,584 6,059,582 8,856,490 


All of the figures in the foreign trade table 
are exclusive of the trade in gold and silver. 
Converted into dollars at the rates of exchange 
mentioned above, the total values of the com: 
merce of Belgium were: imports in 1913, $894,- 
863,000; in 1922, $697,385,000; and in 1923, 
$665,004,000; exports in 1913, $701,475,000; 
in. 1922, $465,552,000; and in 1923, $462,220,- 
000. From a dollar standpoint, the trade seemed 
to be still diminishing in 1923, but it must be 
remembered in this connection that the rise in 
prices, when a currency is depreciating rapidly 
as was the Belgian franc in 1923, is not so rapid 
as the fall in the value of the currency unit. 
It is probable that Belgian exports were ac- 
tually somewhat ereater. rather than slightly 
less in 1923 than in 1922. 

The distribution of Belgian foreign commerce 
in the same three years is shown in the next 
table. 


Seer OF BELGIAN FOREIGN 


COMMERCE 
IMPORTS 
Values in Thousands of Francs 
COUNTRIES 1913 1922 1923 
ET CORE 6c bus. Siete pe ie 1,000,297 1,840,850 2,784,554 
Great seritain v.43, 518,475 1,368,858 1,928,046 
United States ..... 420,496 1,030,781 1,481,384 
Netherlandsi% ..wktoik 356,998 1,001,838 1,285,379 
AT CONUS Duel hal! oso) 316,797 616,037 960,501 
CGLOTINA DYE eee. asc. 7 (OL 65 een eta, eLO 912,040 
Daly tad sak atsvetshete 44,007 129,162 200,885 
Switzerland ....... 19,379 123,865 167,945 


*‘recoverable expenses” 


160 BELGIUM 


EXPORTS 
Values in Thousands of Francs 
COUNTRIES 1913 1922 1923 
Mramyec Bere .cfkis 5 eects 762,1871:1,613,290 121,979,561 
GYreabp britain...» 611,71 957,405... 15,762,232 
United’ States) ov22% 106,881 218,401 340,365 
Netherlands 00: 8224 320,930 644,715 '1;5182,755 
Apgrentina W139. som.k 91,154 180, 391 343,742 
Gerinany sch ootcsteies 940,378 849,986 453,286 
TUMLV Ya soit te re estes 75,931 120, 056 172,632 
Switzerland ......% 53,416 198,781 352,284 


Leading imports in 1922 were cheese, wool 
and woolen goods, coal, cotton, machines and 
mechanical articles, lumber, coke, corn. Changes 
over 1913 were: an increased importance of coal 
and metallurgical products and the disappearance 
of flax, diamonds, hides, and erude rubber from 
the leading items. Leading exports in 1922 were 
iron and steel bars, woolens, coal, glass, flax 
yarn, machines and mechanical articles, refined 
sugar, flax. Changes over 1913 were: the in- 
creased importance of coal and iron and steel 
products, and the rising importance of Belgium 
as a manufacturer and exporter of glass, with 
the falling off of textiles except flax. 

Finances. Even prior to 1914, deficits were 
not uncommon in the financial administration 
of the Belgian government. For _ instance, 
for the year 1913 budget estimates gave 
receipts as 758,452,349 frances and expenditures 
as 884,829,630 francs, leaving a deficit of 126,- 
377,281 franes. In general, however, there was 
in pre-war days a relative equilibrium between 
expenditures and receipts. But for the period 
surveyed, this approximate balance was entirely 
destroyed; expenditures advanced to such an ex- 
tent as to leave a considerable deficit, even had 
reparation receipts equaled budget forecasts (as 
they have consistently failed to do). For 1923, 
the deficit was officially estimated at 2,244,000,- 
000 franes, but the failure to receive anticipated 
payments from Germany to cover the so-called 
caused the actual deficit 
to be probably in excess of 4,000,000,000 frances. 
The same sort of situation existed with refer- 
ence to the 1924 budget estimates, in which a 
deficit of 1,645,439,651 franes was shown; this 
budget included ‘“‘recoverable expenses” of 1,636,- 
000,000 franes, of which 1,500,000,000 represent- 
ed the balance of Belgian priority under the Spa 
agreement, the receipt of which was at least 
problematic. Total receipts in the 1923 budget 
were set at 5,942,000,000 francs and expenses 
at 8,186,000,000 frances, while in the 1924 budget 
estimated receipts were increased to 6,687,000,- 
000 francs and expenses to 8,332,000, 000 franes. 
The extraordinary budget, included in the gen- 
eral budget for 1924, was reduced from the pre- 
vious year by about 24 per cent by transfer to 
ordinary account of high cost of living allow- 
ances. The operating deficit of the state monop- 
olies (railways, posts, telegraphs, and _tele- 
phones) was reduced by 40 per cent, and it 
was hoped that a contemplated increase in rates 
would eventually wipe it out. Extensions of 
line and the purchase of new equipment, how- 
ever, would add about 100,000,000 franes to the 
extraordinary expenditures beyond the amount 
required for 1923. The revenue budget showed 
important increases due to extensive tax re- 
forms. 

The Belgian public debt as expressed in paper 
frances varied considerably according to fluctua- 
tions in exchange. As the foreign debt was in 
gold, a drop in the france caused an immediate 
increase in its amount as given in paper francs, 


a ee ee ee ee ee eee 


| 
g 
cf 
eb 
> 
* 
+ 
/ 
v 


Pub ia 
Ma me 


— 


BELGIUM 


though its actual gold or dollar value did not 
change. The Belgian Ministry of Finance, eal- 
culating the external debt for each year uni- 
formly at the exchange rate of Oct. 1, 1923 
(United States dollar = 19.20 francs), issued 
the accompanying table showing the increases in 
the public debt from year to year. 


161 


BELGIUM 


port of Antwerp in Belgian shipping and its 
continued importance in European trade. 
History. Belgium’s history was overshadow- 
ed by the War. On July 31, 1914, amid the alar- 
ums of a threatened world conflict, the Belgian 
government ordered a general mobilization. Two 
days later it was in receipt of an ultimatum 


ener 


BELGIAN PUBLIO DEBT 


DATE CONSOLIDATED 
(Francs) 

ee ATES ES ee ga on oe te 5,205,000,000 
PL ea eer Leama Lliwe Wit evs, 3 bree oy eeet ah tees 7,046,000,000 
POS OPMOGEL ATE TOA IP IO OTE 10,356,000,000 
LOS PaO Cin Oh nc : task Ma. tread 11,858,000,000 
ee meOCte LP ek. a le ee 14,763,000,000 
Maer CCUM BN hee a voce a telat ca ko aunrs 16,512,000,000 


FLOATING 
(Francs) 


661,000,000 
18,031,000,000 
20,091,000,000 
24,582,000,000 
24,173,000,000 


TOTAL 
(Francs) 
5,866,000,000 
27,077,000,000 
30,447,000,000 
36,440,000,000 
38,936,000,000 


23,395,000,000 39,907,000,000 


According to another statement, the total 
Belgian debt on Jan. 1, 1923 (using the ex- 
change rate of that date, 14.70 francs to the 
dollar), was 37,446,367,125 frances, of which 
15,246,899,970 frances was funded and 22,199,- 
467,153 franes floating debt, of which latter 16,- 
980,381,355 franes was external floating debt. 
Although some progress was made in the way 
of increasing revenues, and reforms of taxation 
were expected to yield considerable returns, the 
annual deficits of the Belgian government were 
still large in amount in 1924, and were increased 
by the failure to receive reparation payments 
anticipated in the budgets for each year. The 
extensive increases in the tax rates evinced a 
growing tendency to place little dependence on 
reparation and to rely more and more on in- 
ternal resources. Prospects seemed hopeful for 
a gradual reduction of deficits, but the time of 
their elimination was, it was evident in 1924, 
as yet far distant. 

Communications. Belgium is a small, well 
unified country, and communication facilities 
are excellent; the country has access to the sea, 
with a port of paramount importance in Ant- 
werp; and it has also internal water connection 
by river and canal, as well as water and rail 
connection with the rest of western Europe. 
Practically all of the railways in Belgium are 
operated by the state; in 1913, the length of 
the state railways was 2712 miles, while in 1922, 
with the lines constructed during the War and 
those in the new districts of Eupen and Mal- 
medy, it had increased to 2981 miles. The pri- 
vately operated lines had in 1913 a length of 
191 miles, but in 1922 this had declined to 171 
miles. in 1913, the state railways yielded a 
profit of 119,619,000 franes from a total op- 
erating expense of 222,416,000 francs, while in 
1919 they gave a deficit of 117,150,000 francs 
with a total operating cost of 530,352,000 frances. 
On Dec. 31, 1923, the Belgian merchant marine 
consisted of 179 steam and three sailing vessels, 
with a net tonnage of 378,923 and 2573 tons, 
respectively, compared with 124 vessels with a 
tonnage of 236,136 tons in 1913. The number 
of vessels entered at Belgian ports in 1923 was 
13,406, with a tonnage of 19,963,596 tons, com- 
pared with 11,964 vessels and 17,097,515 tons 
in 1913. About two-thirds of the tonnage en- 
tered at Antwerp before the War, and the 
proportion increased somewhat after the War. 
The two other leading ports were Ghent and 
Ostend, which together receive about 20 per cent 
of the total tonnage. These statistics bring out 
particularly the increasing importance of ship- 
ping in Belgium, also the preéminence of the 


from Germany demanding the right of passage 
across Belgian territories. The refusal to com- 
ply brought down on the Belgian people all the 
horrors of a war-ridden country. During Au- 
gust 3 and 4, German troops entered, and de- 
spite the heroic defense of the army, swept on 
unchecked. The lines yielded in rapid succes- 
sion. Louvain was taken, August 10; Brussels, 
August 20; the French frontier was crossed on 
the 24th. The career of brutality embarked 
upon by the German invaders in an endeavor 
to break the spirit of the Belgian people will 
long remain a symbol of the meaning and pur- 
poses of modern warfare. The pillaging and 
burning of homes and the deportations and in- 
discriminate killing of civilians were coolly 
ordered and carried out by a staff and soldiery 
to whom war meant ruthlessness,. Belgian of- 
ficial records reveal more than 1000 deaths in 
the province of Liége alone during August. 
The toll was almost as heavy in the Namur, 
Limburg, and Luxemburg provinces. The de- 
struction of Louvain was indeed an act of cold- 
blooded ferocity. The city was entered on Au- 
gust 19 and was fired three days later after all 
effective opposition had ceased. The cathedral, 
the university and library, and more than 1000 
homes were destroyed. In the city and its en- 
virons, 300 men were shot, and from it 1000 
inhabitants were deported to forced labor in 
Germany. 

In Flanders, the career of the Germans 
was the same. With the fall of Brussels, 
the Belgian government fled to Antwerp; from 
thence, after the fall of that city, it moved to 
Ostend, and later to Havre. Central adminis- 
tration, therefore, ceased, with the result that 
only the local authorities were left to attend 
to the business of government. That such was 
not to remain the condition of affairs at once 
became apparent. Under the German military 
governors, von der Goltz, von Bissing, and von 
Falkenhausen, Belgium was organized as a con- 
quered province for the purpose of utilizing her 
economic resources to the full. Authority was 
vested more and more in the hands of German 
officials as gradually the provincial councils 
were deprived of power. With the suppression 
of the latter in July, 1918, for their consistent 
refusal to collaborate with the occupation gov- 
ernment, the Germans were in entire control of 
the country. Yet, while ostensibly German dom- 
ination was complete, the spirit of the people 
could not be erushed. Opposition was never 
completely stilled. The world now and then 
caught echoes of the heroic deeds of a M. Max 
or a Cardinal Mercier. La Libre Belgique, 


BELGIUM 


printed secretly, appeared regularly from 1915 
to the end of the War. 

In every channel of Belgian life, no matter 
how insignificant, the German influence was to 
be encountered. Law and justice received a 
studied attention. Military and civil tribunals 
were erected to try offenders under the edicts 
emanating from the German authorities; pun- 
ishments might be meted out to substitutes, and 
confiscation of property was countenanced. Fi- 
nally, in 1918, the Belgian courts were abol- 
ished altogether. Something of the repressive 
character of the edicts may be gained from the 
fact that not merely was tale-bearing encour- 
aged, but punishment was imposed on those who 
were believed cognizant of an illegal act and 
who did not denounce it. The presence of spies, 
etc., had to be reported on pain of long-term 
imprisonment. Even in civil practice profound 
modifications were introduced. For refusing to 
accept German interference in the regular court 
procedure, Belgian magistrates were often for- 
cibly seized and deported to Germany. In 1918, 
the most flagrant example of this conduct oc- 
curred when the justices of the Brussels Court 
of Appeals were interned in a German civilian 
camp. Belgium was struck at. in other ways, 
notably in the attempt to separate Flanders from 
Wallonia. From 1914 to 1917, the occupation 
government employed all means to encourage 
the use of Flemish in the northern provinces. 
In 1917, von Bissing finally effected a complete 
separation by erecting two different administra- 
tions, one for Flanders to be governed from 
Brussels, where Flemish was to be used exclu- 
sively; the other, to be governed from Namur. 
Attempts were made seriously to further the 
partition. A Flemish party known as the “Ac- 
tivists’” received the encouragement of the Ger- 
mans in its propaganda. In 1918, an attempt 
was made to hold elections for members of a 
Flemish consultative council, but so great was 
the antagonism aroused that the order was 
given to desist. A council was nevertheless 
erected, bolstered up by German arms; attempts 
on the part of the Belgians to arrest members 
of the council were met with reprisals, which 
led to more bitterness. In these schemes the 
University of Ghent was chosen as the pivotal 
point. To hasten the process of Fleminization, 
all professors except those Activist in sym- 
pathies were dismissed; lectures were ordered 
to be given in Flemish; to attract students all 
other universities were closed and liberal schol- 
arships were offered. Nevertheless, the Univer- 
sity did not thrive. In fact, all these plans met 
with failure, and the move to divide the country 
culturally never met with any real Belgian sup- 
port. 

It is not to be supposed that German domina- 
tion stopped here. Possibly affecting the life 
of the people more closely was the Germaniza- 
tion of all branches of the economic order. 
Belgium, in short, was utilized to further the 
German military effort. By requisitions, by ad- 
ministrative orders, by forcible seizure, Ger- 
many soon gained control over all branches of 
Belgian industry and trade. Central bureaus, 
making in effect German monopolies, were put 
in charge, beginning with 1914, of coal, water, 
gas, electricity, oils and fats. Raw materials 
were requisitioned and paid for at prices fixed 
by German officials, not, however, in coin, but 
in vouchers. Requisitions even penetrated into 
the homes where all household articles contain- 


162 BELGIUM 


ing materials needed in the war, e.g. copper, 
zinc, lead, iron, leather, wood, wool, cotton, etc., 
were seized. The work of the “coal central” 
was typical. Coal produced was utilized first 
on the railways and them for the army; the 
needs of Belgian industry came next; finally 
the surplus was exported to neutral countries 
and the profits appropriated under the guise of 
a war loan. As industry languished because 
of the cessation of trade and the sequestration of 
raw materials and machinery by the Ger- 
mans, the status of the civil population became 
alarming. Unemployment daily increased until 
by 1917 the body of idle workers numbered 700,- 
000. This state of affairs gave color to the 
German excuse for expediency for the large-scale 
policy of deportations which the occupation gov- 
ernment inaugurated in 1916. The lack of 
raw materials and the inadvisability of spend- 
ing large sums for public works in a country 
subject to the chances of war prompted the 
German government, ostensibly, to offer em- 
ployment to Belgians in German industries or 
in war areas behind the lines. In spite of Bel- 
gian protests that factories were willfully be- 
ing destroyed and local units hindered in their 
work of relief and that action of such a char- 
acter was merely an excuse for a studied plan 
to crush the Belgian industrial and national 
life, the Germans proceeded in the years 1916-18 
to deport more than 50,000 Belgians to Ger- 
many and another 50,000 to the war areas. 
Undoubtedly some Belgians went willingly, for 
even the small wages offered were more accept- 
able than starvation, but that coercion was the 
rule cannot be denied. The treatment accorded 
these unfortunate individuals was of a piece. 
Used brutally, often starved at the first sign of 
recalcitrancy, Belgians were set to work digging 
trenches and constructing railroads in the war 
zones or making munitions in the German facto- 
ries. The protests of Belgians, Cardinal Mercier 
chief among them, were unavailing. Not until 
the American, Dutch, and Spanish diplomats 
took up the cry did the German Emperor consent 
to rescind the order and promise to send back all 
these deportees against whom coercion had been 
applied. This pledge was never carried out. 
Some sent back to Belgium were reshipped to 
France; others were put to work in the seized 
Belgian factories; many more were returned to 
Germany. Deportations, in fact, never ceased 
until the end of the war. 

The story of Belgium during the War cannot 
be complete without the tale of the Commission 
for Relief in Belgium. This _ organization, 
brought into existence late in 1914 by the Amer- 
ican and Spanish ambassadors and ministers at 
London and Brussels, and the American am- 
bassador and minister at Berlin and at the 
Hague, and managed until America’s entry by 
Mr. Herbert C. Hoover, became the international 
clearing house and liaison division for the Bel- 
gian Comité National de Secours et d’Alimen- 
tation in the work of feeding Belgium. Impor- 
tations and payments were handled by the Com- 
mission; distributions by the Comité National. 
To facilitate the work, the United States opened 
a monthly credit of $15,000,000 for the Com- 
mission. An idea of the scope of the project 
may be gained from the fact that the provision- 
ing department of the Commission undertook to 
feed from 7,000,000 to 10,000,000 people in the 
devastated areas of Belgium and_ northern 
France. During the year ending Oct. 31, 1916, 


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BELGIUM 


there were imported 1,706,774 metric tons of 
food into Belgium and 483,346 tons into France. 
Nearly one-half of these supplies came from 
the United States and the remainder came about 
equally from Argentina and the British Em- 
pire, though small quantities came from Hol- 
land. Food was distributed through 3000 com- 
munal communities in Belgium and 2000 in 
France, staffed by about 35,000 volunteer work- 
ers. The benevolent department of the Com- 
mission cared for those who were wholly or 
partially destitute, including more than 1,500,- 
000 children. It maintained special committees 
for children, farmers, refugees, the tubercular, 
destitute, and others. Up to the close of 1917 
the Commission had expended nearly $400,000,- 
000, and during the fiscal year ending Oct. 31, 
1918, it spent for relief in Belgium over $83,- 
000,000 received from loans to Belgium by the 
United States, and $7,275,000 from loans by 
Great Britain and France. To complete the 
account, it should be stated that the Commis- 
sion also expended in 1918, in northern France, 
$56,000,000 received from the United States 
loan to France, and an additional $2,376,500 
received from French sources. When the Com- 
mission wound up its affairs on Apr. 30, 1919, 
it was stated that something like $1,000,000,000 
had been spent in the relief of war victims dur- 
ing 1914-19. Until the entrance of the United 
States into the War the entire personnel of the 
Commission was American; after 1917, direction 
was taken over by Spanish and Dutch citizens, 
although Mr. Hoover remained throughout as 
chairman. The director in America was Mr. 
W. L. Honnold, its treasurer, Mr. A. J. Hemp- 
hill, while Mr. Poland was the European direc- 
tor. 

Nothing presented so disheartening an aspect 
as the condition of Belgium on the resumption 
of peace; and nothing showed so clearly the en- 
during qualities of the human spirit as the 
rapidity with which Belgium was resurrected. 
Not only had industry been destroyed but the 
usual channels of communication had been com- 
pletely dislocated. In fact, the damage to prop- 
erty was put at $7,600,000,000. Yet by the end 
of 1922 it could be seen that the manufactur- 
ing industries were practically on a normal foot- 
ing. Iron and steel plants were operating on a 
75 per cent basis; linen, cotton, and artificial 
silk works exceeded their pre-war capacity, as did 
also the plate-glass and cement factories. The 
acreage under crops in 1922 was 97 per cent 
of the 1913 figure. In 1918 shipping was dead, 
the ports of Zeebrugge and Ostend badly dam- 
aged and their terminal facilities wrecked. ‘The 
approach to Ghent by the sea canal from Hol- 
land was choked up because of the severe fight- 
ing which had taken place in that area. The 
losses from destruction of railway bridges, etc., 
in the four years of war were estimated at 
$275,000,000. Rolling stock had been diverted 
for military purposes and had greatly depreci- 
ated; rails had been torn up by the enemy in 
retreat. Yet so rapidly had reconstruction been 
pushed that 58,221,686 metric tons of freight 
were carried on the railroads in 1922 as against 
66,541,975 metric tons in 1913, and 238,096,000 
passengers in 1922, as against 204,541,098 in 
1913. At the time of the Armistice there were 
800,000 industrial workers unemployed and _ be- 
ing supported by government doles; in September, 
1919, the number thus supported had fallen to 
200,000; by 1923 it was reported that marked 


163 


BELGIUM 


shortages of labor were apparent in all special- 
ized industries and so acute in the unskilled 
trades that laborers had to be imported from 
Poland and Italy. 

The political parties met the awesome prob- 
lems with courage. A coalition government rep- 
resenting the Catholics, Liberals, and Socialists 
administered affairs. The election of 1919, for 
the first time, was conducted on the principle 
of “one man, one vote” (women being given the 
vote only in municipal elections), and resulted 
in a great increase of the Socialist delegation. 
Legislative measures were progressive and 
showed a desire to conciliate all elements of the 
populace. In 1919, the repressive laws against 
freedom of association were, to a great extent, 
lifted and labor unions accordingly increased 
mightily; the eight-hour day in industry was 
installed in the same year; so were the income 
tax, a progressive inheritance tax, and a law 
limiting the sale of alcohol. Councils and com- 
missions were erected for the amicable settle- 
ment of problems arising between capital and 
labor and their functions soon penetrated into 
almost every important industry. Echoes of 
the controversy over the Flemish question con- 
tinued to be heard increasingly In 1919, three 
Activists were elected to Parliament besides 
many others of Flemish sympathies in the Cath- 
olic party, so that, for a time, the government 
considered offering a Fleming a cabinet port- 
folio. In 1921, the line of division became 
sharper. As a result of continued agitation, the 
lower house passed a bill for the installation 
of both languages in the administration, to go 
into effect Jan. 1, 1922. The measure occa- 
sioned a storm of disapproval. Debate in the 
house was heated, and for the first time in 
parliamentary annals, Walloons and Flemings 
voted against each other in solid blocs. It he- 
came increasingly perceptible that the Flemings 
could not be denied. Their attacks on the in- 
fluence of the French became more bitter, their 
focal point in particular being the University 
of Ghent. Despite the pleas that the French 
language was necessary to bridge the gap of the 
patois used by both branches of the popula- 
tion and that the University was therefore neces- 
sary as the seat of a common culture, the lower 
house in 1922 voted for the use of the Flemish 
language at Ghent. In June, 1923, the Flemish 
question almost occasioned the fall of the The- 
unis government. This question, and the new 
economic and social problems which the War 
had brought in, had a curious effect on politi- 
cal groupings. The traditional three parties 
were in a process of disintegration which showed 
itself in alliances cutting athwart party lines. 
Thus, the Catholic Right, under the control of 
the Flemings, was split up into Christian Demo- 
crats, Agrarians, Moderates, and Conservatives ; 
the Socialists belonged to national and interna- 
tional groups, the latter Fleming in sympa- 
thy; the Liberals were either Conservative or 
Socialist in their leanings. Government, there- 
fore, was falling more and more into the bloc 
system. On the Flemish question, the Catholics, 
international Socialists, and some Liberals stood 
together, and as this policy was antipathic to 
France, the group also opposed a French alli- 
ance and favored one with Holland. However, 
on the question of military service the group 
did not hold together, so that another alliance 
was necessary to effect legislation. The same 
situation held in the question of the extension 


BELGIUM 


of the provincial and parliamentary franchise 
to women. The Catholics, for reasons of politi- 
cal expediency and because of the innate con- 
servatism of the women, favored the project. 
The Liberals and Socialists, though they were 
committed to the principle of political equality 
for women, strenuously opposed. ‘The result, be- 
cause of these mixed loyalties, was an impasse 
after the election of 1921 which had ended 
in the return of a majority for no party. Only 
with the greatest difficulty was Colonel Theunis 
able to form a cabinet composed of Catholics 
and Liberals. 

In the domain of foreign policy an attempt 
was made to strike a new and more independent 
note, with little success, however. Belgium’s 
plea for revision of the treaty of 1839 by which 
she had lost to Holland the Province of Limburg 
and had been compelled to share with the Dutch 
the control of the Scheldt, was not entertained 
by the Peace Conference, and subsequent nego- 
tiations with Holland were equally fruitless. 
(See Ho_Lanp and Limspura). Her territorial 
gains as a result of the War were very small. 
To her fell the districts of Eupen and Malmédy 
and the tract of Moresnet on the German fron- 
tier, in all containing 382 square miles and a 
population of 64,000, and important for tanning 
and textile works. Only a small number of the 
population having indicated their desire to re- 
main under German sovereignty, these regions 
were formally annexed in September, 1920. 
(See EurpEN, MALMEDy, AND MOoRESNET.) In 
Africa, Belgium obtained Ruanda and Urundi, 
districts in western ex-German East Africa, 
which have an area of 18,000 square miles and 
a population of 3,500,000, and are important 
agriculturally because of their uplands. (See 
Congo, BretGian). In 1918, Belgium effected 
with France a defensive alliance, and a military 
convention was concluded in 1920. An economic 
convention designed to cement still further the 
interests of the two countries was rejected in 
the Belgian Chamber, in February, 1924, by a 
coalition of Socialist and Flemish Catholic depu- 
ties, whose opposition led Premier Georges The- 
unis to reorganize his cabinet, dropping out M. 
Jaspar and replacing him with M. Paul Hymans 
as Foreign Minister. In 1922, Belgium con- 
cluded a treaty with Luxemburg by which all 


customs barriers were abolished. As for Rus- 


sia, though the government in 1920 seemed fa- 
vorably disposed toward a resumption of com- 
mercial relations, in 1922 it definitely sided with 
France at the Genoa Conference against any 
recégnition, unless Russia conceded the rights 
of private property. The reasons for the Bel- 
gian hostility were plain: it was indicated that 
Belgians had controlled about 150 Russian in- 
dustrial and mining enterprises, capitalized ‘at 
$700,000,000. 

By the Peace Treaty, in addition to 8 per 
cent of the German indemnity. Belgium was 
assured reimbursement from Germany for the 
5,000,000,000 franes borrowed from the Allies and 
expended in the War. In the controversies with 
Germany regarding reparation payments, Bel- 
gium, like France, was disposed to insist rigor- 
ously on execution of the Versailles Treaty, and 
with France Belgium joined in occupying the 
Ruhr, January, 1923. Subsequently, however, 
French and Belgian policies tended to diverge, 
until the report of the Dawes Commission in 
1924 offered a new basis of agreement. See 
REPARATIONS. 


164 


BELLINGER 
BELGIUM, ComMMISSION FOR RELIEF IN. See 
BELGIUM. 
BELL, CLivE (1881- ). An English art 


and literary critic, educated at Trinity College, 
Cambridge. In his critical essays he has harsh- 
ly rebuked all artists who follow the doctrine 
of exact representation and lauded those wield- 
ing their talent for the expression of personal 
emotion. He is the author of Art (1914), 
Peace at Once (1915), Pot Boilers (1918), Poems 
(1921), Since Cézanne (1922), and On British 
Freedom (1923). 

BELL, GeErTRUuDE M. L. (1868- ). An 
English traveller and geographer, born at Wash- 
ington, Durham, and educated at Queen’s Col- 
lege, London, and Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. 
During the War she was in a position, because 
of her adventurous journeys through northern 
Arabia (1913-14),'to give valuable information 
concerning unknown routes and so to aid the 
British army in its advance into Palestine. She 
was connected with the Red Cross Bureau of the 
Missing (1914-15) and the Admiralty Intelli- 
gence Office in Cairo (1916-17). In 1917, she 
went with the British army to Bagdad and 
later acted as assistant political officer. She 
has received the founder’s medal of the Royal 
Geographical Society. Her publications include 
Poems from the Divan of Hafiz (1897); The 
Desert and the Sown (1907); The Thousand and 
One Churches, with Sir W. M. Ramsay (1909) ; 
Palace and Mosque at Ukhaider (1914), and 
Review of the Cwil Administration of Mesopo- 
tamia, issued by the Indian Office (1920). 

BELL, JAMES FRANKLIN (1856-1919). An 
American soldier (see, Vou. III). He com- 
manded the second division of the United 
States army in Texas, 1914-15; the western 
department at San Francisco to May, 1917, and 
the Eastern department to September, 1917, when 
he became commander of the 77th Division of 
the army, at Camp Upton. 

BELL, Louis (1864-— ). An American 
electrical engineer, born at Chester, N. H. He 
was graduated at Dartmouth i 1884 and won a 
fellowship at Johns Hopkins. During 1888-89 
he was professor of applied electricity in Purdue 
University and during 1890-92 he was editor of 
The Electrical World, but after 1893 was in 
practice in Boston as a consulting engineer. He 
was active for many years in the General 
Electric Company and organized its _ elec- 
tric power transmission department; he de- 
signed the first polyphase plant used in the 
United States, both for power and lighting, as 
well as for railway service. His original in- 
vestigations have included studies on spectro- 
scopy, alternating current phenomena, wireless 
telephony, physiological optics, and the inter- 
pretation of albedo. During 1905 he lectured on 
electrical power of transmission at the Massa- 
chusetts Institute of Technology, and he has al- 
so lectured at Harvard on public lighting and 
since 1914 at Harvard Medical School on il- 
lumination. In addition to many scientific 
papers and monographs he is co-author, with 
Oscar T. Crosby, of The Hlectric Railway (1892), 
Power Distribution for Electric Railroads 
(1896), Hlectric Power Transmission (1897), 
The Art of Illumination (1902), and The Tele- 
scope (1922). 

BELLINGER, LYNCH 
(1885-— ). A naval airman born at Cheraw, 
S. C., and edueated at the United States Naval 
Academy. During the seizure and occupation of 


PATRICK NEISON 


BELLOC 


Vera Cruz in 1914 he was in charge of the 
airplane section and made daring flights over 
enemy territory. In 1919 he assisted in select- 
ing a starting-point for the Transatlantic flight 
and commanded the NC/ during the flight (May 
3-June 16). Later he had charge of the ma- 
terial division of naval aviation. During the 
War he received the order of the Commande- 
Torre Espada from the Portuguese Government 
and the Navy Cross. 

BELLOC, Hivarre (1870— ). An English 
author, born in France (see Vou. III). Since 
1913 Mr. Belloc has lengthened the list of his 
works with A Continuation of Linguard’s His- 
tory to the Death of Edward VII (1914), The 
Last Days of the French Monarchy (1916), 
General Sketch of the Huropean War, second 
Phase (The Battle of the Marne) (1916), 
Europe and the Faith (1920), The House of 
Commons and the Monarchy (1920), The Jews 
(1922), The Mercy of Allah (1922), and A Con- 
trast (1923). 

BELLOWS, GrEorcE WESLY (?- ray An 
American artist (see Vou. III). In the last few 
years he won a very long list of awards for his 
very unusual paintings. The chief awards in- 
cluded the Carnegie Institute bronze medal 
(1914), gold medal Panama Pacific Exposition 
(1915), bronze medal from the Art Institute of 
Chicago (1916), Isidor medal National Academy 
of Design (1916), Temple medal of the Penn- 
sylvania Academy (1917), landscape prize from 
the Newport A. A. (1918), gold medal from the 
Pennsylvania Academy (1921), bronze medal 
from the Art Institute of Chicago (1921) and 
first prize at Carnegie Institute (1922). 

BELMONT, Atva E. Smiru (Mrs. O. H. P.) 
An American feminist, born at Mobile, Ala., 
and educated in France. While actively and 
generously interested in all movements for social 
betterment, such as hospitals, children’s homes, 
the abolition of child labor, and the improve- 
ment of working conditions for women engaged 
in industry, she is known preéminently for her 
efforts in the cause of woman’s rights. <A well- 
known speaker and writer on woman suffrage, 
she was founder and _ later president of 
the Political Equality Association. She was an 
organizer of the Woman Voters’ Convention in 
1915, and a liberal donor to the Woman’s 
Party. 

BELOIT COLLEGE. An institution at 
Beloit, Wis., founded in 1846. The number of 
students increased from 395 in 1913-14 to 519 
in 1923-24, the number of members in the facul- 
ty from 35 to 47, and the library from 50,000 
to 70,000 volumes. The endowment rose in the 
same period from $1,268,966 to $1,802,531. Ed- 
ward Dwight Eaton, D.D., LL.D., who had been 
president since 1886, was succeeded in 1917 by 
Melvin Amos Brannon, Ph.D., LL.D., but was 
acting president again in 1923. President, 1924, 
Irving Mauer, M.A., B.D. 

BELOW, Orto von (1857— ). A German 
soldier born at Danzig. In the War he took 
part as an army commander in the battles of the 
Masurian Lakes (February, 1915), the Mace- 
donian campaigns of 1916, the Italian campaigns 
of 1917, and the battles on the western front in 
1918. In the last, he commanded the 17th 
army. He retired in 1919. 

BEMONT, Cnartes (1848— ). A French 
historian and paleographer. He was_ born 
at Paris and pursued his education at the 
Lycée of Versailles and at the University of 


165 


BENCKENDORFF 


Paris, whence he was graduated as an archivist 
and palwographer. He became subsequently the 
director of the Ecole Pratique des Hautes 
Etudes, an institution maintained by the 
French government for the encouragement of 
disinterested scholarship outside of the academic 
degrees. He was also editor of the Revue His- 
torique. ‘The list of his works includes Simon 
de Montfort, Comte de Leicester (1884); De la 
Condamnation de Jean-sans-Terre (1884); Réles 
Gascons; Chronique Latin sur le Premier Di- 
vorce de Henry VIII (1917); Le Conte de I’Ile 
@Oleron (1917), and Histoire de VEurope de 
fies 1270, in collaboration with Gabriel Monod 

921). 

BEN-AMI, JAcos ( ?- ). A Jewish actor 
born abroad who came to the United States 
and played roles in Yiddish for the Yiddish Art 
Theatre. He was discovered by Arnold Daly 
and played in a special production of the Theatre 
Guild with Daly’s company The Race with the 
Shadow. Later he made a success as Samson in 
Samson and Delilah for Arthur Hopkins. In 
1923 he starred in The Failures with Winifred 
Lenihan and in 1924 in Man and the Masses, 
both Theatre Guild productions. He also played 


. with Doris Keane in Welded and on the vaude- 


ville stage. 

BENAVENTE Y MARTINEZ, Jactnto 
(1866-— ). A Spanish playwright and author 
born in Madrid, where he attended the Uni- 
versity. He later traveled with a circus and 
appeared on the stage. His first literary work 
was a volume of poems (1893), but his forte 
was drama. Benavente has been closely con- 
nected with a twentieth century renaissance in 
Spain. Nearly all his plays are woven about 
the awakening of Spain. As editor of La Vida 
Literaria, he assumed intellectual leadership of 
a group of writers connected with the modern 
movement. Gente Conocida (In Society) (1896) 
established his reputation. In his works the 
Spanish tradition of melodramatic artificiality 
has been discarded, and its place has been taken 
by a forceful impressionism and finished work- 
manship. Among his works are Autumnal Roses 
(1905); The Evil Doers of Good (1905), one of 
his best; The Bonds of Interest (1907) ; Princess 
Bebe (1909); La Malquerida (1913); Nuevo 
Coloquio de los Perros (1916); Cartas de 
Miyeres (1917); and Tigulinas (1921). Bene- 
vante received the Nobel Prize in 1922. 

BENCHLEY, Roserr CHARLES (1889- Ja 
An American editor and humorist, born at 
Worcester, Mass., and educated at Harvard 
University. In the period 1912-14, he was with 
the Curtis Publishing Company and subsequent- 
ly joined the editorial staff of the New York 
Tribune (1916-17). He was managing editor 
of Vanity Fair (1919-20), dramatie editor of 
Life (1920), and literary critic on the New 
York World (1920-21). Mr. Benchley’s writ- 
ings have the supreme virtue of genuine humor. 
Of All Things (1921) and Love Conquers All 
(1921), collections of essays, introduce com- 
monplaces so quietly and ludicrously as to tickle 
the stiffest humor. 

BENCKENDORFF, CouNT ALEXANDER 
(1849-1917). A Russian diplomat, educated in 
France and Germany. He entered the diplo- 
matic service in 1869, acting as attaché to the 
Russian embassies in Rome and Vienna. From 
1897 to 1903 he was minister to Denmark, 
and from the latter year until his death he was 
ambassador to Great Britain. Largely responsi- 


BENDA 


ble for the reconciliation between Russia and 
England, he negotiated the Anglo-Russian agree- 
ment of 1907 which resulted in the Triple En- 
tente. 

BENDA, JULIEN (1867- ). A French 
critic and novelist. In a period dominated by 
literary Bergsonism, he became the vigorous de- 
fender of intellectualism and classical ssthetics. 
His Belgephor (1918) is an attack on the artistic 
standards of the twentieth century and its culti- 
vation of feminine sentimentalities. His novels, 
Les Amorandes (1922) and La Croix des Roses 
(1923), are as intellectual as his critical theory. 
Before the War, he published two polemical 
works against the new philosophy of Bergson, 
Le Bergsonisme, une Philosophie de Mobilité 
(1912), and Sur le Sens du Bergsonisme (1914). 
The Dialogue d’Eleuthére is a charming philo- 
sophical discussion of the follies of the modern 
age, particularly its subjection to women. 

BENDA, WLApDySLAW THEODOR (1873- }2 
A Polish-American illustrator educated in Cra- 
cow, Vienna, San Francisco and New York. 
He is best known for his illustrations for The 
Century, Scribner’s, The Cosmopolitan, McClure’s, 
Collier’s, Hearst’s International, and other maga- 
zines and for his creation of a new type of masks 
known on the stage as “Benda masks.” He was 
awarded a silver medal for his work at the 
Panama Pacific International Exposition, in 
1915. 

BENEDICT XV, Giacomo DELLA CHIESA 
(1854-1922). The two hundred and _ sixtieth 
successor of St. Peter, first bishop of Rome. He 
was born at Pigli, Italy, educated at the gym- 
nasia of his native city, and graduated with a 
doctor’s degree in jurisprudence at the Uni- 
versity of Pigli. He was ordained as a priest 
in 1878 and later served as undersecretary to 
Cardinal Meriano Rampolia. He was created 
archbishop of Bologna in 1907 and elevated to 
the Cardinalate in May, 1915; in September of 
that year, just two months after the outbreak 
of the War, he was elected pope. Benedict XV 
was a modest and unassuming head of the 
Roman Catholic Church, a sincere patron of 
the arts, and, as his handling of the diplomatic 
situation at the Vatican during the chaos of the 
War proved, a subtle statesman. Among those 
who owed allegiance to Rome was Austria, the 
strongest supporter of the Vatican in Europe, 
and Belgium, equally faithful and receiving the 
sympathy of a world wholly out of accord with 
Austria and her allies. In the tension of the 
War Benedict XV was called pro-German be- 
cause of his failure to protest to Germany 
and to act strictly as a representative of the 
Prince of Peace. Nevertheless it was only a 
week after his coronation that he exhorted 
rulers to “enter into a council of peace with 
all speed.” He suggested a Christmas truce in 
December, 1914, but Russia and Turkey would 
not acquiesce. In March, 1916, having appoint- 
ed special days of prayer for peace in the in- 
terim, he asked all belligerents for a statement 
of their demands and wishes and for “necessary 
sacrifices of pride and particular interests.” He 
suggested to President Wilson in May, 1916, that 
the United States offer to conciliate the bel- 
ligerents and expressed his approval of Mr. 
Wilson’s peace note in 1917. Im 1918, he made 
a final appeal for peace on the basis of “com- 
plete and reciprocal condonation,” the evacua- 
tion of Belgium, and the freedom of small 
nations. Benedict XV modeled his policy on 


166 BENET 


that of Leo XIII and Pius X.’ During his pon- 
tificate friendly relations were restored between 
the Vatican and the French government, so that 
France was again represented at the Vatican 
by an ambassador, and the Vatican at Paris by 
a nuncio. Great Britain also had a representa- 
tive in Rome for political reasons. On Jan. 
16, 1922, the pope was suffering from a slight 
cold which speedily developed into pneumonia, 
and he succumbed on Jan. 21, 1922. 

BENELLI, Sem (1877- ). An Italian 
playwright whose work is characterized by a cer- 
tain freshness of poetic fancy, well illustrated 
in his most recent productions, Ali, The Love 
Thief, and La Santa Primavera. One of his 
best known early plays, La Bejfa, put on at 
the Théatre Sarah Bernhardt (Paris) in a 
French adaptation in 1910, was repeated several 
years later in New York as The Jest, with John 
and Lionel Barrymore. During the War he 
wrote some verses published as L’Altare (1916). 
His other recent work includes L’Arzigagolo, 
Poema Buffonesco; La Gorgona; The Love of 
the Three Kings, translated into English by 
Howard Mumford Jones; La Maschera di Bruto; 
Le Nozze dei Centauri, and Parole di Battaglia. 
On The Love of the Three Kings (L’Amore det 
Tre Re), Italo Montemezzi has composed one 
of the most moving and beautiful of modern 
operas. 

BENES, Dr. Epwarp_ (1884— )eh, 7A: 
premier of the Czecho-Slovak Republic, born at 
Kozlany, Bohemia, and educated at the Uni- 
versity of Prague and the Sorbonne. During 
the War he went to Paris as a journalist and 
diplomat, working with T. G. Masaryk, later 
president of the Czecho-Slovak Republic, for the 
setting up of the independent Czecho-Slovak Re- 
public. He was general secretary of the Czecho- 
Slovak National Council in Paris at 1917 and a 
member of the Czecho-Slovak delegation to the 
Peace Conference at Paris at the end of the War. 
He published La Probleme Autrichien et la Ques- 
tion Tehéque (1908); The History of the Labor 
Movement in Austria (1913); Quelques Vérités 
Simples sur la Féderalisation de VAutriche- 
Hongrie, dans la Nation Tchéque (1914-18) ; 
Bohemian Case for Independence (1917); La 
Boemia contra VAustria-Ungheria (1917); De- 
trwisez VAutriche-Hongrie (1916); Le Social- 
isme Autrichien et la Guerre; Political Partisan- 
ship (1914); The War and Culture (1915), and 


The Spirit of the Czecho-Slovak Revolution 
(1923). 
BENET, SrepHen VINCENT (1898- ). 


An American author, born at Bethlehem, Pa., 
and educated at Yale University. As a student 
at Yale he published Young Adventure (1918) 
and won a poetry prize. These early poems 
showed a precocious facility which has since 
developed into whimsical and bizarre expressions, 
in which he is at his best. Other publications 
of his include Heavens and Earth (1920); The 
Beginning of Wisdom (1921); Young People’s 
Pride (1922), and Jean Huguenot (1923). 
BENET, Wirtram Rose (1886- eae: 8 
American author and editor. He was born at 
Ft. Hamilton, New York Harbor, and was edu- 
cated at the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale. 
From 1907 on he engaged in journalism and 
editorial work, first in California and later as a 
member of the editorial staff of The Century 
(1911-18) and the WNation’s Business (1919- 
20). In 1920 he became associate editor of the 
important Literary Review of the New York 


APR +. 


BENJAMIN 


Evening Post. He wrote poetry of merit char- 
acterized by an excellent sense of form and a real 
imaginative talent, besides a finely drawn ro- 
mance and many critical papers. Among his 
published works were the volumes of verse, Mer- 
chants from Cathay (1913); The Falconer of 
God (1914); The Burglar of the Zodiae (1918) ; 
Moons of Grandeur (1920); the novel, First 
Person Singular (1922); essays in Saturday 
Papers, with H. 8S. Canby and A. Loveman 
(1921); and a translation with his wife of 
Claudel’s The East I Know (1914). In 1923 he 
married Elinor Wylie, the poet. 

BENJAMIN, Marcus’ (1857- ). An 
American editor, born at San Francisco, Cal., 
and educated at the Columbia University School 
of Mines. After following his profession of 
chemist for several years he turned to editorial 
work and has served on the staffs of the Cy- 
clopedia of American Biography, the Standard 
Dictionary, the Universal Cyclopedia, the NEw 
INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA and its year 
books and was editor-in-chief of Appleton’s New 
Practical Cyclopedia, 6 vols. (1910). Since 
1896 he has been the editor of the publications 
of the United States National Museum and has 
been a member of the annual United States As- 
say Commission. During the World War Dr. 
Benjamin was an aid in the office of Naval In- 
telligence and received the decoration of the 
golden palms with the rank of Officier de l’In- 
struction Publique from France in 1920. 

BENJAMIN, RENE (1883-— ). A French 
writer and novelist. He leaped into prominence 
through the publication of his war novels, Gas- 
pard (1915) and Les Repatriés (1918). The 
former was unanimously awarded the Prix 
Goncourt for 1915. M. Benjamin excels in por- 
traiture of Parisian working types and repro- 
duces argot in the naturalistic manner of Zola. 
Unlike Zola, he has no sociological ax to grind, 
and his types are singularly rich and good hu- 
mored. Of his other works several are satires, 
like the Farce de la Sorbonne, Le Palais et ses 
Gens de Justice, Amadou Bolchéviste, and Sous 
le Ciel de France. Les Plaisirs du Hasard is a 
light-hearted, sparkling play, produced in Paris 
in 1922. 


BENNETT, (Enocn) Arnotp (1867-— 1} 
An English writer (see Vou. III). Some of his 
latest works are A Great Man (1915) Over 


There: War Scenes on the Western Front 
(1915); These Twain (1916); The Lion’s Share 
(1916) ; Books and Persons (1917); The Pretty 
Lady (1918); The Roll Call (1919); From the 
Log of the Velsa (1920) ; Our Women: Chapters 
on the Sex Discord (1920); Things That Have 
Interested Me (1921); Mr. Prohack (1922); 
and the plays, The Title (1918), Judith (1919), 
Sacred and Profane Love, 2d ed. (1919), The 
Love Match (1922), etc. 

BENNETT, RICHARD (1873-— ). An 
American actor born at Deacon’s Mills, Ind., who 
made his first stage appearance in Chicago in 
1891 as Tombstone Jake in The Limited Mail 
and appeared continuously after that time. In 
1906 he made his first London appearance but 
after 1907 acted chiefly in New York. He is 
best known for his characterizations of George 
DuPont in Brieux’s Damaged Goods (1914) ; 
Julien Brignae in Maternity; Chick Hewes in 
Kick In; Peter Marchmont in The Unknown 
Purple; Christopher Armstrong in For the De- 
fense; Robert Mayo in Eugene O’Neill’s Beyond 
the Horizon; “He” in Andréev’s He Who Gets 


167 


» Slapped 


BENSON 


(1922), and the leading role in Sir 
Gerald du Maurier’s The Dancers (1923). 

BENOIT, PIERRE ( ?- ). A French novel- 
ist. After the War he was one of the most 
widely read of French authors. Critics found 
in his work a mixture of the romantic and the 
entertaining to induce forgetfulness of the sor- 
rows of war. Just after the Armistice, Kénigs- 
mark appeared, with a fatalistic setting of a 
small German principality. Benoit successfully 
exploits this air of fatality, eventually dispelled 
by a happy ending, in almost all his novels. 
L’Atlantide (1919), which earned the author the 
Grand Prix du Roman of the Académie Fran- 
caise, is an Oriental fairy tale of Northern 
Africa. Its art was likened to that of Steven- 
son’s South Sea romances. In Don Carlos 
(1920), Le Lae Salé (1921), and La Chaussée 
des Géants (1922), his subject was again a 
woman marked by the finger of doom and saved 
in the last chapter. Benoit conveyed in his 
works the impression of discussing some great 
problem of the day, feminism in Don Carlos, 
Mormonism in Le Lae Salé, and the Irish ques- 
tion in La Chaussée des Géants. And in his 
most recent book, L’Oublié, he manages to bring 
in the problem of Armenia, without, however, 
spoiling the interest of the story. The majority 
of M. Benoit’s novels have been translated into 
English. 

BENRIMO, J. Harry McALPiIn (1874— ks 
An American dramatic author and director, 
born at San Francisco, where he made his first 
stage appearance in 1892. In 1897 Benrimo 
acted for the first time in New York (Manhattan 
Theatre) and in London. Subsequently he ap- 
peared in popular successes in New York and 
London, but is probably best known as the co- 
author of The Yellow Jacket, with George C. 
Hazelton (1912). He is also co-author of Tak- 
ing Chances (1916) and The Willow Tree 
(1917). He has lived in London ‘in recent 
years, devoting his time to stage direction and 
consultation. 

BENSON, Atrten UL. (1871- ). An 
American editor and writer on pacifism. He 
was born at Plainwell, Mich., and educated in 
the public schools. He was a member of the 
reportorial or editorial staffs of newspapers in 
Chicago, Salt Lake City, and San Francisco 
(1890-97); assistant managing editor of the 
Detroit Journal (1897-1901); managing editor 
of the Detroit Times (1901-06), and of the 
Washington (D. C.) Times (1906-07); and a 
writer on political and economic subjects for 
Pearson’s Magazine (1908-16), and of signed 
editorials for The Appeal to Reason (Girard, 
Kan., 1914-16). He early identified himself 
with the Socialist party and with the pacifists. 
Soon after the beginning of the War, he pro- 
posed an ingenious plan for preventing war, 
his theory being that an aggressive war should 
be declared only by vote of the people, and 
those voting for it should be compelled to fight 
immediately. In 1916, he was nominee of the 
Socialist party for president of the United 
States, but in 1918, he resigned from the party. 
and in the latter year founded, with W. F. 
Cochran, the Reconstruction Magazine. He is 
well known as a writer on socialism, government. 
war, ete. and is author of The Usurped Power 
of the Courts (1911); Common Sense about the 
Navy (reprinted after 1911 by the Anti- 
preparedness Committee; The Truth About So- 
cialism (New York, 1914); Owr Dishonest Con- 


BENSON 


stitution (New York, 1914); A Way to Pre- 
vent War (1915); Inviting War to America 
(New York, 1916); What Ford Wages Have 
Done (1917), and others. 

BENSON, Sir FRANK (1858- ). An Eng- 
lish actor born at Alresford, Hants, and edu- 
eated at Winchester and New College, Oxford. 
He was knighted in 1916. During the War he 
served as an orderly in a canteen and as an 
ambulance driver, receiving the Croix de Guerre 
on the battlefield near Oudenarde. Benson came 
of a very talented family; one of his brothers 
was W. A. S. Benson and the other Godfrey 
Benson, an active Liberal politician. At Oxford, 
Sir Frank appeared in Greek plays; immedi- 
ately after leaving college, he went on the stage 
and made his first appearance under Henry Irv- 
ing at the Lyceum Theatre in Romeo and Juliet 
(1882). He very shortly became manager of his 
own company, which had the reputation of put- 
ting the future stars of the English theatre 
through their first stage exercises. In 1901 
Benson founded a dramatic school. From 1888 
he managed the Stratford—on-Avon Shakespea- 
rean Festival and was presented with the free- 
dom of the city (1910) in recognition of his 
services. On the occasion of the Shakespeare ter- 
centary he played the title role in Julius Cesar 
and was knighted by the King of England after 
the performance. 

BENSON, FRANK WESTON (1862- ). An 
American artist (see Vor. Ill). He won the 
Corcoran gold medal and first W. A. Clark 
prize at the Corcoran Gallery Washington 
(1919); the Logan medal and prize from the 
Art Institute of Chicago (1922); the Logan 
prize from the Chicago Society of Etchers 
(1918). 

BENSON, WiLtIAM SHEPHERD (1855- ie 
An American naval officer, born in Macon, Ga., 
and educated at the United States Naval Acad- 
emy. In “1881 he was made ensign and rose 
through the various grades, becoming lieutenant- 
commander in 1900, captain in 1909, and rear- 
admiral in 1915. He served on various assign- 
ments at the United States Naval Academy and 
afloat, including division and squadron com- 
mander. He was commandant of the Philadel- 
phia Navy Yard (1913-15) and in 1915 was ap- 
pointed Chief of Naval Operations. In 1917 he 
was a member of the commission appointed by 
President Wilson to confer with the Allies in 
Europe and was also a member of the special 
commission abroad. He served as naval rep- 
resentative in drawing up the naval terms of 
the Armistice with Germany and the Central 
Powers, and was naval adviser to the American 
Commission at the Peace Conference at Paris. 
He continued to serve as Chief of Naval Opera- 
tions until Sept. 25, 1919, when he was retired 
by operation of law. In 1920 he was appointed 
chairman of the United States Shipping Board 
and in the following year became a commissioner 
of that board. 

BENTLEY, MaApison (1870- Yeacwnt 
American psychologist, born at Clinton, Iowa, 
and educated at the University of Nebraska and 
Cornell University. He was instructor and as- 
sistant professor of psychology at Cornell Uni- 
versity from 1898 to 1912 and has been profes- 
sor and director of the psychological laborato- 
ries at the University of Illinois since 1912. 
He has continued the tradition of the Cornell 
school and has edited and supervised studies in 


social and general psychology (1916), and crit- 


168 BERENT 


ical and experimental studies in psychology 
(1921), both reporting the researches carried 
out in the Illinois laboratory. He is editor of 
the Psychological Index and took a prominent 
part in the war activities of the American Psy- 
chological Association. 

BERAUD, Henri 1885- ). A French 
novelist born at Lyons. Although he began pub- 
lishing in 1905, he attained prominence only re- 
cently when the Académie Goncourt crowned his 
two novels La Martyre d’un Obese and Peau de 
Fesse (1922). The first’ named is a Gallic 
farce of the martyrdom of a fat man in love 
with a svelte charmer. Le Vitriol de Lune 
(1921), L’Héritage des Symbolistes (1905), Les 
Morts Lyriques (1912), Texrtes pour VAlbum, 
Eux de Bib (1921), are among his other works. 
M. Béraud is regarded as holding a position of 
promise among the jeunes. 

BERCHTOLD, LEopotp, Count (1863- Vy: 
A former Austro-Hungarian foreign minister 
(see Vou. III). After the outbreak of the War 
he tried to persuade Italy and Rumania to ful- 
fill their obligations to Austria and bent all his 
energy to securing new allies for the Central 
Powers. He was, however, unsuccessful for the 
most part, as he would not consent to the con- 
cession of Austrian territory, even though Ger- 
many urged it. He came into conflict with Ger- 
man statesmen and military leaders on other 
grounds also. He accused them of not support- 
ing Austria sufficiently against Russia. In 
1915 he fell from power, and the following year 
was appointed Lord High Steward to Charles 
Francis Joseph, the heir to the throne. Later 
he became Lord High Chamberlain but retired 
from politics on the fall of the dynasty. 

BEREA COLLEGE. A _ nonsectarian, co- 
educational institution at Berea, Ky., founded 
in 1858, in the special interest of the mountain 
people of the Southern Appalachians. There are 
five departments; the college, the normal school, 
the academy, the vocational school, and the 
foundation school, the latter for belated students 
still in the grades. The college department reg- 
istered a growth from 104 students in 1913 to 
344 in 1923-24, and the total enrollment of all 
the schools increased in the same period from 
1736 to 2729. Six brick dormitory and educa- 
tional buildings were constructed during the dec- 
ade besides a hospital and detention ward accom- 
modating 150 patients. An important weaving 
industry was established; also a broom industry, 
which in 1922-23 manufactured 7200 dozen 
brooms. A dairy of 100 cattle, a farm of 350 
acres, a garden of 65 acres, a forest of 5600 
acres, and a cannery were all operated to reduce 
the cost of an education, so that no student 
should be debarred on account of poverty. The 
staff of commissioned workers was _ increased 
from 101 to 146; and the number of books in 
the library from 26,000 to 42,600 volumes. Wil- 
liam Goodell Frost, LL.D., who guided the col- 
lege during the period of its great expansion, 
retired from the presidency in 1920, and was 
succeeded by William James Hutchins, D.D. 


BERENSON, Bernard (1865- ). A 
American art critic (see Vout. III). His recent 
publications include: Venetian Painting in 


America, the Fourteenth Century (New York, 
1916), and Hssays in the Study of NSiennese 
Painting (ib., 1918). 
BERENT, Wactayv (1869- ). A promi- 
nent Polish writer, born at Warsaw. Berent at- 
tracted the attention of serious literary critics 


y 


BERESFORD 


by his remarkable characterization of modern 
types in the novels /’achowiec (1903) and Proch- 
no (1904), the latter a profound analysis of the 
metropolitan decadent artist. Other stories are 
Oszimine (1911) and Zwe Kamienie (1922). He 
made a successful début as a dramatist and has 
been looked on as the coming writer of Polish 
drama. Berent also collaborated on a Polish 
edition of Nietzsche. 

BERESFORD, Joun Davis (1873- } 5 An: 
English author, born at Castor, near Peters- 
borough, and educated at Oundle and Peters- 
borough. He studied architecture in London 
but gave it up to turn to writing. He has since 
published several plays and many novels, in 
which he has portrayed characters exceptionally 
real. His style is dry but is vitalized by 
unusual psychological insight. His publications 
include the Jacob Stahl trilogy; Goslings 
(1913); The Mountains of the Moon (1915) ; 
These Lynnekers (1916); The Wonder (1918) ; 
The Jervaise Comedy (1919); The Prisoners of 
Hortling (1922); and Love’s Pilgrim (1923). 

BERG, DAviy EMMANUEL (1890—- day ADE 
American sociologist, born at Minneapolis, Minn., 
and educated at the University of Minnesota. 
From 1912 to 1914 he was superintendent of 
schools in various towns in Minnesota. In 1914 
he was with the University of Wisconsin sur- 
vey and in the following year was a member of 
the Madison (Wis.) Chamber of Commerce. In 
1915-16 he was assistant director of the Bureau. 
of Municipal Research in Akron, Ohio, in 1917 
assistant secretary of the Committee on Criminal 
Courts of the Charity Organization Society of 
New York City, and from 1917 to 1921 secretary 
of the Charities and Welfare Committee of the 
Philadelphia Chamber of Commerce. He was 
also secretary of the Americanization Bureau 
and of the Philadelphia Welfare Federation. In 
1918 he was lecturer on social statistics at Ford- 
ham University. During the War he fought 
with the American forees in France. He is 
author of Pick Your Prof. (1920) and Person- 
ality Culture by College Faculties (1920). 

BERGENGREN, RAtepH WILHELM ALEXIS 
(1871- ). An American essayist, born at 
Gloucester, Mass., and educated at- Harvard Uni- 
versity. He was cartoonist for the Boston Sun- 
day Globe (1897-99), dramatic critic and edi- 
torial writer for the Boston Budget, a member 
of the editorial staff of the Boston Publicity 
Bureau (1902-05), and art critic for the Boston 
Advertiser (1904-07). He is the author of sev- 
eral volumes of humorous, informal essays and of 
a book of poems for children which has been com- 
pared to Stevenson’s Child’s Garden of Verse. 
In addition he has written a book of fanciful 
short stories and articles, in magazines and news- 
papers. His works include The Comforts of 
Home (Boston, 1918). The Perfect Gentleman 
(Boston, 1919), The Seven Ages of Man (Boston, 
1921), David the Dreamer (Boston, 1922), and 
Gentlemen All and Merry Companions (Boston, 
1922). 

‘BERGER, Vicror lL. (1860- ). An 
American Socialist politician (see Vou. III). He 
never became acquiescent toward the War and 
often wrote against it with the result that he, 
in company with four other Socialists, was 
brought to trial for violation of the Espionage 
Act in December, 1918. After a bitter legal 
battle which attracted national attention he was 
found guilty (Jan. 8, 1919) and sentenced to 
prison for 20 years, 


169 > 


His position took on par- 


BERGSON 


ticular interest when the House of Representa- 
tives, in November, voted his exclusion from the 
seat to which he had been elected the year pre- 
vious. In December, 1919, he was once again 
elected by his Milwaukee constituency and was 
again denied his seat. In January, 1921, the 
United States Supreme Court reversed his con- 
viction; in November, 1922, the indictments 
against him were dismissed; and in the same 
month he was returned for the fourth time to 
Congress, this time as the only Socialist party 
representative. His socialist doctrine was mod- ° 
eled after that of the German revisionist school 
of Kautsky and Bernstein, and therefore he re- 
jected Sovietism. In 1924, with Morris Hill- 
quit and others, he supported the candidacy of 
Robert M. La Follette for President. 

BERGER, VILHELM (1867-— ). An editor 
and author, born at Viirmland, Sweden; he was 
educated in the high school there and later in 
Upsala College, N. J. He was traveling agent 
for Swedish-American publications (1897- 
1903), editor of New York Nordstjernan (1903- 
15), and office manager and director of the 
Swedish Lutheran Immigrant Home (1913-15) 
and the Swedish Augustana Home for the Aged, 
Brooklyn. He is the author of numerous books 
in Swedish, dealing especially with the prob- 
lems and conditions of the Swedes in America, 
published from 1902 to 1918. 

BERGONIE, JEAN-ALBAN (1867— leith 
graduated in medicine at the University of Bor- 
deaux in 1883 and was later appointed professor 
of biological physics and electrotherapy there. 
Since 1893 he has edited the Archives d’Hlec- 
tricité Medicale, a periodical of great merit. 
Bergonie, in addition to publishing many articles 
on high frequency and other modalities of elec- 
tricity, devised (1909) a method of treating 
obesity by passive exercise, in which the patient 
sits in a specially devised chair while his mus- 
cular system is thrown into successive contrac- 
tions by faradism. This method, which the 
author terms passive ergography, appeared to 
be very successful in reducing weight without 
putting stout subjects to the necessity of volun- 
tary exercise. 

BERGSON, Henri Louis (1859- yw Lhe 
most notable of contemporary French _ philoso- 
phers (see Vou. III). He was elected a member 
of the French Academy in the spring of 1914; 
he had already become a member of the Acad- 
emy of Moral and Political Science in 1903. The 
War caused an interruption of his philosophic 
activity and he devoted his talent to the French 
cause. Besides publishing a pamphlet on the 
Significance de la Guerre (1915), he went twice 
on diplomatic missions to Washington and was 
instrumental in preventing the recognition of 
the Soviet Government by the United States. 
On the occasion of the San Francisco Exposition 
he prepared a short survey of French philosophy, 
published in the collection La Science Frangaise 
2 vols., (1915); this constituted his only scien- 
tific production during the four years of hos- 
tilities. If Bergson refrained from philosophiz- 
ing in this time of stress, his fellow philosophers 
in Germany published numerous articles and 
books to prove that the Bergsonian philosophy 
was plagiarized from German sources, particu- 
larly from Schelling; this literature of Schreck- 
lichkeit stands as mute testimony to the frailty 
of human reason in time of war. In 1918, the 
Academy having resumed its meetings, Berg- 
son delivered an address before it on the life 


BERKEY 


and works of his predecessor, in its membership, 
Emile Ollivier. This was published with the 
Discours de Reception by René Doumic (1918). 
At the close of the War, Bergson gathered up 
a number of his shorter writings and published 
them under the title of L’Energie Spirituelle 
(1919), translated into English as Jlind Energy 
(1920). He took a leave of absence from the 
Collége de France in 1919 in order to devote 
himself to philosophic writing, and at the be- 
ginning of 1922 he. resigned his chair definitely. 
Edouard LeRoy, one of his disciples, was elect- 
ed to succeed him. Bergson was at work for 
some time on the revision of the Gifford lec- 
tures delivered in 1912. In 1922 a short vol- 
ume came out, Durée et Simultanéité, dapres 
la Théorie dEinstein. As the title suggests, 
the book attempted to reconcile the theory of 
relativity with the Bergsonian conception of 
duration. M. Bergson insists that the relativ- 
ity of mathematical times, which must depend 
necessarily on the orientation of the observer, 
does not preclude the existence of an absolute 
qualitative time, revealed by psychological in- 
trospection. He attacks therefore not the 
mathematical theory of Einstein but the meta- 
physical interpretations which have been grafted 
on it. 

The literature on Bergson’s philosophy con- 
tinued to increase at a rate which makes him 
the subject of more commentaries than any other 
modern thinker except Kant. Among the re- 
cent books in English which may be consulted 
are H. Wildon Carr’s The Philosophy of Change 
(1914); and G. W. Cunningham’s Study in the 


Philosophy of Bergson (1916); J. Alexander 

Gunn’s Bergson (1921); and Mrs. Karin 

Stephen’s The Misuse of Mind (1922). 
BERKEY, CHARLES PETER (1867-— yee NTT 


American geologist, born at Goshen, Ind., and 
educated at the University of Minnesota. In 
1892-1903 he was an instructor in geology at 
Minnesota, and in the latter year went to Colum- 
bia, where he became a full professor in 1916. 
As assistant geologist to the State surveys of 
Minnesota and Wisconsin, he devoted special 
attention to the geology and mineralogy of 
certain Keweenawan and Cambrian areas of 
these States and later held a similar relation 
to the New York survey, for which he studied 
the structural and stratigraphical features of 
the Highlands, and the structural, areal, and 
engineering geology of New York City. More 
recently, as consulting geologist to the New 
York City Board of Water Supply he made an 
elaborate investigation of the geology of the 
Catskill Aqueduct region. His original re- 
searches have also included studies on the geol- 
ogy of Porto Rico and China. 


BERKSHIRE FESTIVAL. See Music, 
Chamber Music. 
BERLIN, Irvine (1888- ). An Ameri- 


can composer, born in Russia and educated in 
the public schools of New York City. At 16, 
Berlin commenced his career as a performer in 
the restaurants and eafés of New York. Alex- 
ander’s Rag-Time Band (1905) established his 
position as the king of syncopation. He is the 
writer and composer of the musical plays and 
revues, Watch Your Step (1914); Stop! Look! 
Listen! (1915); The Century Girl, with Victor 
Herbert (1916); The Ziegfeld Follies of 1918; 
The Canary, with Ivan Caryll (1918), and many 
other popular song and dance successes. He is 
the proprietor, with Sam H. Harris, of the 


170 BERNHARDI 


Music Box (New York) and composed the score 
Se the Music Bow Revues for 1921, 1922, and 

923. 

BERLINER, EMILE (1851-— ek 9. 
German-American inventor (see Vou. III). He 
was elected president of the District of Colum- 
bia Tuberculosis Association in 1915. In No- 
vember, 1919, under his direction, his son, 
Henry A. Berliner, designed and used the first 
successful helicopter. 

BERLINER, HEnry A. (1895- )e0 CAn 
engineer, born Washington, D. C., son of the in- 
ventor Emile Berliner, and educated in Wash- 
ington and at Cornell and the Massachusetts 
Institute of Technology. He designed, con- 
structed, and flew the helicopter (1919) on which 
his father had experimented since 1903, and in 
1924 was engaged in helicopter development. 

BERMUDA ISLANDS. The British colony 
composed of approximately 350 small islands ly- 
ing 518 miles east of Cape Hatteras. The area 
of the group is 19.3 square miles; the popula- 
tion, in 1922, 20,410, of whom all but 700 were 
Negroes. The chief town, Hamilton, on the Is- 
land of Bermuda, has a population of 7000. 
Barely one-third of the area was fit for cultiva- 
tion and on this were planted early spring 
leguminous crops for the United States market. 
Similarly, most of the commodities imported 
come from the United States. The import trade 
totaled, in 1922, £1,266,696 (a gain of 122 per 
cent over 1913); and exports, 233,296 (a gain 
of 157 per cent over 1913). In 1922, the total 
tonnage cleared was 2,178,562 tons (a gain of 
73 per cent over 1913). Until 1920, alcoholic 
liquors were exported to the United States in 
large quantities, but, with the coming of Pro- 
hibition and the falling off of this traffic, ex- 
periments were conducted for the conversion of 
the alcohol into motor spirits. The Bermudas 
continued to attract American tourists and win- 
ter colonists, as many as 20,000 making their 
residence here annually. 

BERNARD, TRISTAN (1866- ) i 
French novelist. He is the author of two out- 
standing novels, L’Enfant Prodigue du Vesinet 
(1920) and Le Jeu de Massacre (1921). 

BERNARDES, ARTHUR DE SILVA 
(1875- ). A president of Brazil, born at 
Vicosa, Minas Geraes. After two years at 
Caraca College, he became a clerk in a store at 
the age of 13 to earn enough to begin a college 
course at Ouro Preto. He maintained himself 
there by doing newspaper work. Later he took 
up law and began practice at Vicosa. He was 
elected to the Congress of his native state, was 
its first secretary, and later secretary of the 
treasury of Minas Geraes. In September, 1918, 
he was elected governor of Minas Geraes, and 
was occupying this position when he was made 
president of Brazil in 1922. 

BERNAUER, RvuDOoLF (?- ). A libret- 
tist known chiefly for his adaptation, with Carl 
Meinhard, of the play Johannes Kreisler, from 
Die Wunderlichen Geschichten des Kapellmeister 
Kreisler, produced in New York (1922-23). 
Bernauer also wrote with L. Jacobson and O. 
Straus the comic opera The Chocolate Soldier, 
founded on Arms and the Man by George Ber- 
nard Shaw and revived at the Century Theatre 
in 19213 

BERNHARDI, FRIEDRICH von (1849- ie 
A German military leader and writer, born at 
Petrograd. He served in the Franco-Prussian 
War, and from 1891 to 1894 was at Berne as 


ee ee Ve ee ee ee ee 


German politician (see Von, III). 


BERNHARDT 


military attaché; later he went to Berlin as 
head of the history department of the Grand 
General Staff. He was general of cavalry and 
commander of the 7th Army Corps from 1907 
to 1909, retiring in the latter year to write 
on military subjects. He attracted interna- 
tional attention by his book, Germany and the 
Next War (1912). At the outbreak of the War 
he was again given command of an army corps 
and served with distinction on the Stochod and 
on the western front. He published in English 
Cavalry in War and Peace (1910); On War of 
To-day (1914), and Britain as Germany’s Vas- 
sal (1914). 

BERNHARDT, Sarauw_ (1844-1923). A 
French actress (see Vou. III). In 1914, at the 
age of 70, the great tragedian was forced to 
undergo a leg amputation. Despite this disa- 
bility she refused to abandon the stage. She 
earried out a successful tour of America in 
1915, and on returning to France she played in 
her own productions almost continuously until 
her death, March 26, 1923. Her later successes 
included Daniel (1920), La Gloire (1921), and 
Regine Armand (1922). Her physical condi- 
tion confined her practically to immobility on 
the stage, but the charm of her voice, which 
had altered little with age, insured her triumphs. 

BERNHEIM, Bertram Moses (1880- i, 
An American surgeon, born at Paducah, Ky., 
and educated at Johns Hopkins and abroad. 
He is known for his original work in blood 
transfusion and surgery of blood vessels. Dur- 
ing the World War he served with the Johns 
Hopkins Hospital Base Unit. He is the author 
of Blood Transfusion (1917), Surgery of the 
Vascular System (1913), and a volume of his 
experiences at the war front, Passed as Cen- 
sored (1918). 

BERNHEIM, Hrppotyte (1840-1919). A 
French physician, renowned for his development 
of our knowledge of suggestion as a cause and 
remedy for disease. With his chief, Liébeault, 
he founded the so-called Nancy school of psy- 
chotherapeutics, although he remained through- 
out a general practitioner of medicine and pro- 
fessor of medicine in the local university. His 
books have been widely translated and his clinic 
at Nancy visited by physicians from many 
countries. His first book, devoted to general 
medicine, Legons de Clinique Médicale, appeared 
in 1877 and was translated into Spanish. His 
first work on suggestion, De la Suggestion et de 
Ses Applications @ la Thérapeutique (1888), 
was translated into German by Freud and also 
into English. Hypnotisme, Suggestion et Psy- 
chothérapie appeared in 1891; L’Hystérie 
(1913); L’aphasie (1914), and Automatisme et 


Suggestion (1917). 
BERNSTEIN, (1850— eA 
In 1920 he 


was again elected to the Reichstag and became 
Town Councillor of Berlin. He also published a 
new edition of his book Voraussetzung des 
Sozialismus und Anfang der Sozialdemokratie 
(1915), besides Vélkerrecht und Volker-Politik 
(1919) and Wirtschaftswesen und Wirtschafts- 
werden (1920). 
BERNSTEIN, ELsa 
(1866- ). A German dramatist born at Vi- 
enna. Frau Bernstein is the daughter of Hein- 
rich Porges, a writer on music and one of the 
earliest champions of Wagner, and the wife of 
Dr. Max Bernstein, a prominent lawyer and 
successful playwright of Munich. She was an 


EDUARD 


(“ERNST ROSMER’’) 


171 


BERRY 


actress but left the stage on account of failing 
eyesight and wrote the dramas Wir Drei (1893) 
and Ddmmerung (1894), and a volume of 
stories, Madonna. Her greatest success was 
achieved with the poetical drama Kénigskinder 
(1899), which was played by Sir Arthur Harvey 
and his company in New York under the title 
Children of the King. The play was made the 
libretto of Humperdinck’s opera Kénigskinder, 
in which Geraldine Farrar excelled as the Goose- 
girl. Other works of Frau Bernstein are Te- 
deum, a comedy of musical life, the tragedies 
Themistocles and Achilles (1910), and _ the 
dramas Dagny, Merele, Johannes Herkner, Mut- 


ter Maria (1900), Nausitkaa (1906), Maria 

Arndt (1908), and Schicksal (1914). 
BERNSTEIN, Henry LEON GUSTAVE 

CHARLES (1875- ). A French dramatist 


(see Vou. III). He continued to occupy a lead- 
ing position among writers of high-class the- 
atrical thrillers. His war play, L’Elévation, 
was acclaimed in France as a work of genuine 
sincerity, and in the United States, where it 
was produced with Grace George in the season 
1917-18, it was hailed as a drama of spiritual 
rebirth. The play dealt with the customary 
French triangle and attempted to show a purifi- 
cation of emotions in the white heat of the War. 
No doubt the plot had the appearance of sincer- 
ity, but the piece was an example of self- 
deception induced by the war fever. Another 
play by Bernstein, The Claw, was produced in 
1921 with Lionel Barrymore and Irene Fenwick 
in the leading réles. It was a vigorous char- 
acter study of a French statesman fallen into 
moral decay and was built up with effective 
situations. 

BERNSTEIN, Herman (1876~ ). An 
American journalist and translator of Russian 
literature. He was born at Neustadt-Scher- 
windt, Poland, of Russian parents, and emi- 
erated to the United States in 1893. He visited 
Europe at various times during a long period 
of years as special correspondent of American 
newspapers including the New York Times, 
which he represented during 1908-12 and again 
in 1915, when he made a study of the conditions 
of the Jews in the war-stricken countries; the 
New York Herald, 1917-19, in Russia, Siberia, 
Czecho-Slovakia, Poland, and at the Paris Peace 
Conference; and the New York American (1920-— 
21). He was founder and editor of The Day 
(1914-16) and editor-in-chief of The American 
Hebrew (1916-19), to which he returned in 1923 
as editor. He began by writing poems and a 
novel of orthodox Jewish family life (Contrite 
Hearts) but is better known for his translations 
of Russian authors, especially Andréev, and for 
his discovery and publication of the secret tele- 
grams exchanged between the Czar and the 
Kaiser (1904-07), known as the Willy-Nicky 
Correspondence. 

BERNSTORFF, JoHAnN-HEINRICH A., COUNT 
von (1862- ). A German diplomat, am- 
bassador plenipotentiary to the United States 
from 1908 until the entrance of the latter into 
the World War (see Vou. III). 

BERRY, Epwarp Wiser (1875- ). An 
American paleobotanist, born at Newark, N. J., 
and educated privately. In 1897 he became as- 
sociated in the management of the Passaic 
Daily News; he was later president of the com- 
pany publishing it. In 1905 he entered Johns 
Hopkins University, where he soon became a 
member of the teaching staff and in 1917 pro- 


BERTHELOT 


fessor of paleobotany, a subject on which he is 
accepted as one of the foremost authorities in 
the United States, specializing on the plants 
and geological history of southeastern North 
America, in connection with which he has trav- 
eled extensively in those regions. In 1919 he 
visited South America as a member of the Wil- 
liams Memorial Expedition. Since 1910 he has 
been associated with the United States Geologi- 
cal Survey and has contributed to its publica- 
tions important memoirs on The Upper Cre- 


taceous and Eocene Floras of South Carolina , 


and Georgia (1914) and The Lower Eocene 
Floras of Southeastern North America (1919). 
He has published reports to the Maryland State 
Geological Survey on Lower Cretaceous of Mary- 
land (1911) and Upper Cretaceous of Mary- 
land (1916). After 1917 he held the office of 
assistant State Geologist on that Survey. In 
1901 he received the Walker Prize of the Boston 
Society of Natural History. He belongs to many 
scientific societies in the United States and 
abroad, including the Paleontological Society of 
America, of which he was president in 1924; the 
Geological Society of America, of which he was 
vice-president in 1924; and the National Acade- 
my of Sciences, to which he was elected in 
1922. He is the author of more than two hun- 
dred scientific papers and a book, Tree Ances- 
tors (1923). 

BERTHELOT, PHILIPPE JOSEPH LOUIS 
(1866- ). A French diplomat and son of 
Marcellin Berthelot, the famous savant and 
statesman. He passed through the regular ap- 
prenticeship of the diplomatic career and was 
sent on a mission to the Far East in 1902. He 
returned to the Foreign Office and advanced 
rapidly to the position of Chef de Cabinet and 
finally to director-general of the Quai d’Orsay. 
From this post he ruled French foreign policy 
and was trusted alike by Clémenceau, Millerand, 
and Leygues. During Leygues’ premiership he 
exceeded his power and sent a telegram in the 
premier’s name instructing the French ambas- 
sador in London to ask the Bank of England to 
assist the Banque Industriel de Chine. This 
telegram was made the subject of a subsequent 
interpellation in the Chamber of Deputies, and 
Premier Briand was compelled in March, 1922, 
to put Berthelot on the retired list for 10 
years. Despite this political scandal, Berthelot 
was recognized by friends and foes alike as one 
of the ablest diplomats in France. 

BERTOLINI, Pierro (1853-1920). An 
Italian statesman, born at Montebelluna. He 
devoted himself to economic and administrative 
questions and represented his native town in the 
Italian Parliament (1891). After an active 
career in which he held various public offices 
and was at one time Minister of Public Works 
(1907) and at another Minister of the Colonies 
(1912), he became a supporter of the extension 
of the suffrage bill and devised a worthy sys- 
tem for allowing illiterates to vote and at the 
same time reducing electoral corruption. He 
remained in retirement during the War and was 
afterward appointed Senator and headed the 
Italian delegation at the Reparations Commis- 
sion. He is the author of several important 
works on politics and economy and on local 
government in England. 

BERTRAND, Louris (1866- ). A French 
novelist, disciple of Flaubert. He sought to con- 
tinue the naturalistic and psychological novel. 
Sanguis Martyrum (1918) shares the Carthagin- 


3) oil BESSARABIA 


ian setting and even the general perspective of 
Flaubert’s Salammbé. Bertrand, however, has 
not attempted to be completely historical and is 
satisfied with portraying emotions which were 
the same in the days of the War as in those of 
the Christian martyrs. His works include a 
biography, Flaubert a@ Paris, ow le Mort Vivant 
(1921), and the novels Les Villes @Or, L’In- 
fante (1920), Le Rival de Don Juan, Bains de 
Phalére (1921), and Cardenio (1922). 

BERWALD, WILLIAM’ (1864- spas 
American conductor, born at Schwerin, Ger- 
many. A pupil of Rheinberger and Faiszt, he 
began his career as conductor of the Philhar- 
monic Society at Libau in Russia. In 1892 he 
settled in Syracuse, N. Y., where he has since 
been head of the department of musical theory 
at the University. In 1922 he was appointed 
conductor of the newly organized Syracuse Sym- 
phony ‘Orchestra. As a composer he is known 
by his cantatas, The Seven Last Words of Christ 
and Crucifixion and Resurrection; two overtures 
for orchestra; chamber music; and many songs 
and pieces for piano. 

BESELER, Hans von (1850—- aa: 
German soldier, born at Greifswald in Prussia. 
In the War he led the assault on Antwerp, 
which he took on Oct. 9, 1914. With the occu- 
pation of Poland in 1915 he became German 
governor at Warsaw where his attempts to set 
up a Polish national government buttressed by 
German arms met with only slight success. In 
1918 the Armistice ended his activities. 

BESNARD, PAut ALBERT (1849- ). SoA 
French painter (see Vou. III). He was head 
of the French School at Rome in 1913-21 and 
director of the Ecole des Beaux Arts since 1922. 
He was represented in the official exhibition of 
French art held in the United States in 1919-20) 
by a symbolic portrait of Cardinal Mercier. 
An important exhibition of his works was shown: 
in different cities of the United States in 1924. 

BESSARABIA. A former government of the 
Russian Empire but since 1920 a Rumanian 
province. It has an area of 17,146 square miles, 
an estimated population (1919) of 2,344,800, and 
is a country of rich cereal lands. The popula- 
tion is of a mixed character containing large 
communities, in the southern districts, of 
Ukrainians and Germans, as well as considerable 
numbers of Jews, Poles, Bulgars, Armenians, 
and Tatars. The collapse of the Russian Em- 
pire in 1917 gave impetus to the separatist move- 
ment, which had long attracted the enthusiasm 
of the Rumanians in the province, with the re- 
sult that a request was made to the new repub- 
lican government for the establishment of an 
autonomous Bessarabia. But the success of the 
Bolshevist revolution encouraged the Rumanians 
to hope for loftier things. On Dec. 15, 1917, 
a “Council of the Land” proclaimed Bessarabia 
free, under the name “Moldavian Republic.” 
Its independence, however, was short-lived. The 
hostility of the Ukrainians prompted the Ru- 
manian government to send an army into the 
country and commence a carefully fostered agi- 
tation for annexation. From January, 1918, on, 
in spite of an Allied attempt in March to bring 


Rumania and Soviet Russia to terms, the Ru- | A 


manians remained in occupation of the country. 
The Bessarabian National Council, which was 
erected by the Rumanians, twice, in 1918, asked 
for annexation to Rumania. While sweeping 
promises of political and religious liberties 
were held out to the people and the estates of 


ee ee 


ae oe ge ee ee eg ee | 


BEST 


the large landowners were proceeded against, 
dissent was treated with a high hand: deporta- 
tions and imprisonments were frequent; local 
governments were dissolved; Bessarabian judges 
were dismissed and the courts closed. Conversa- 
tions were carried on between Russia and Ru- 
mania in 1919 and 1920, but unknown to Rus- 
sia, Rumania at the very moment was secretly 
treating with the Allies. On Oct. 28, 1920, a 
treaty was signed by which Great Britain, 
France, Italy, and Japan recognized Rumania’s 
sovereignty over Bessarabia. To 1924, however, 
only the British government had given formal 
assent to the treaty. In spite of the protests 
of the Soviet government that it could not recog- 
nize the validity of a treaty concerning Bes- 
sarabia which had been signed without its par- 
ticipation and to which only foreign powers were 
signatories, no warlike measures were taken. 
However, that the matter was not closed was 
seen in the frequency with which Russia com- 
plained, throughout 1920-23, of irregularities on 
the frontier and in the control of the Dniester 
River, and of raiding parties originating in 
Bessarabia, ete. In October, 1921, commission- 
ers of both countries met at Warsaw in an at- 
tempt to resume friendly relations but the con- 
ference soon collapsed. The same was true of 
the Vienna conference held early in 1924. Rus- 
sia regarded French interests in Rumanian af- 
fairs with suspicion; Rumania demanded, be- 
fore any agreement was to be reached, the re- 
turn of some $80,000,000 in Rumanian treasure 
which had been sent to Russia for safekeeping 
during the War. In short, animosities still ex- 
isted on both sides; no solution seemed in sight 
in 1924, and at any moment it appeared that 
the hatreds might be fanned into war. The at- 
tempts, in April, 1924, of the Rumanian king to 
negotiate a defensive treaty with France, whose 
purpose could be only the maintenance of 
Rumanian sovereignty in Bessarabia, were re- 
garded with breathless interest by the western 
world. For France to take such a course meant 
only one thing: the possibility of war with 
Russia. 

BEST, Harry (1880- ). An American 
sociologist, especially interested in the problem 
of the deaf, dumb and the blind. He was born 
at Millersburg, Ky., and educated at Centre Col- 
lege, Danville, Ky., George Washington Uni- 
versity, Gallaudet College (Washington), Co- 
lumbia University, and the New York Law 
School. Before 1912 he held various instructor- 
ships in schools and colleges for the deaf and 
dumb. He was a resident worker in the Uni- 
versity Settlement in New York from 1912 to 
1919, and in the latter year became professor 
of sociology in the University of Kentucky. He 
is the author of two standard texts, The Deaf 
(1914) and The Blind (1919), and of contri- 
butions to periodicals. 

BESTOR, ARTHUR EUGENE (1879— ).bpA 
president of Chautauqua Institution, born at 
Dixon, Ill., and educated at the University of 
Chicago. He was professor of history and po- 
litical science at Franklin College, Ind., 1901-03, 
and lecturer on political science in the Extension 
Division of the University of Chicago, 1904-12. 
He was assistant general director of Chautauqua 
Institution, 1905-07; director, 1907-15, and since 
1915, president. During the period 1917-18 he 
was chairman of the Committee on Lectures and 
Entertainments in the Training Camps of the 
National War Work Council of the Y. M. C. A. 


173 


BEWER 


and director of the speaking division of the 
Committee on Public Information. 

BETHLEHEM BACH FESTIVAL. 
Music, Festivtuls. 

BETHMANN-HOLLWEG, THEOBALD VON 
(1856-1921). A German statesman and Chancel- 
lor of the German Empire, 1909-17 (see Vou. 
III). As chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg’s place 
in domestic and foreign affairs was decidedly 
subordinate; his movements were continually 
being circumscribed by the caprices of his royal 
master and the intrigues of the military party 
led by von Tirpitz. He entertained the same 
ambitions for Germany’s expansion as all Ger- 
mans of the ruling class and regarded the vio- 
lation of the Belgian treaty and the declara- 
tions of war which followed it with complacency. 
To his eredit, he refused to accede to the wn- 
limited submarine warfare inaugurated in 1917. 
His compromising and equivocal attitude satis- 
fied neither his masters nor his critics. When 
the military command attempted in July, 1917, 
to interfere in affairs which he regarded as pe- 
culiarly his own, he handed in his resignation. 
He retired from public life to Hohenfinow, where, 
after preparing Reflections on the World War 
(1919), he died on Jan. 1, 1921. See GERMANY, 
History. 

BETTELHEIM, Anton (1851- )27iAn 
Austrian author (see Vor. III). In 1917 he 
published Leben und Wirken des Freiherrn Roch, 
von Inliencron, mit Beitréigen zur Geschichte 
der Allgemeinen Deutschen-Biographie (New 
Series, 1919, with Ludwig Augengruber). 

BETTS, Louis (1873- ). An American 
portrait painter, born at Little Rock, Ark., who 
was the pupil of his father, E. D. Betts, Sr., of 
William Chase, and of the Art Institute (Chi- 
cago). He was elected an Associate Member of 
the National Academy in 1912 and a full mem- 
ber in 1915. He is also a member of the Na- 
tional Institute of Arts and Letters. Louis 
Betts, who began painting as a child, received 
the Cresson Travelling Fellowship from the 
Pennsylvania Academy of Design after study- 
ing with Chase and went to Europe to familiar- 
ize himself with the work of Franz Hals and 
Velasquez. He attracted attention as a copyist. 
His portraits are painted with regard to empha- 
sizing character above everything else, and he 
gains his effects without the use of accessories 
or non-essentials. He has painted portraits in 
Chicago, New York, London, Paris, Amsterdam. 
and Madrid, and his work is represented in the 
permanent collections of the National Arts Club 
and the Art Institute of Chicago. 

BEVERIDGE, ALBERT JEREMIAH (1862- 2 
An American politician and lawyer (see VOL. 
III). Since 1915 he has published What Is 
Back of the War? and A Life of John Marshall, 
4 vols. (1916-19). 

BEWER, JvuLtius Aveust (1877- yeh gé 
professor of theology, born at Ratingen, Ger- 
many, and educated at the Royal Gymnasium 
(Diisseldorf), Union Theological Seminary (New 
York), and the universities of Basel, Halle, and 
Berlin. He was professor of Old Testament lan- 
guage and literature at the Oberlin (Ohio) 
Theological Seminary (1902-04). becoming or- 
dained two years later in the Congregational 
ministry. He was called to Union Theological 
Seminary in 1904 as assistant professor of Bib- 
lical philology. In 1914 he was made professor. 
He became a member of the faculty of philology 
of Columbia University in 1913 and lecturer at 


“See 


BEWLEY 


Teachers’ College in 1912. He is author of sey- 
eral critical essays on the Old and New Testa- 
ments. 

BEWLEY, LUTHER Boone (1876- ).: An 
American educator in the Philippine Islands. 
He was born at Mosheim, Tenn., and educated 
at Maryville College. In 1902 he went to the 
Philippines as a teacher and held various posi- 
tions until he was appointed superintendent 
of schools in Manila in 1914. He became di- 
rector of education in the Philippine Islands 
ing D1 9: 

BEYERLEIN, Franz ApAm (1871- i. fee 
German novelist and playwright (see Vor. III). 
He is author of O Deutschland, Heiliges Vater- 
land, a novel (1915); Der Philister, essays 
(1919); and Besuch, four one-act plays (1919). 

BIANCHI, Leonarpo B. (1848-1916). A 
distinguished Italian alienist who became Min- 
ister of Public Instruction for Italy. Born in 
San Bartolomeo he received his M.D. from the 
University of Naples in 1871. After holding 
several minor chairs in his alma mater he be- 
came clinical professor of psychiatry and neuro- 
pathology and was for years director of -the 
Provincial Asylum at Naples. He is the author 
of treatises on neurological subjects which in- 
clude L’Emiplegia (1886) ; Semeiotica delle Ma- 
lattie del Systeme Nervosa (1891); Malattie del 
Cervello (undated). In 1905 appeared the Trat- 
tato de Psichiatria which was at once translated 
into English, the translator stating that in 
knowledge of the physiology of the brain, nor- 
mal and morbid, it was superior to any text- 
book in English. Not until 1920, four years 
after his death, did another distinctive work by 
Bianchi appear, La Meccanica del Cervello e la 
Funzione dei Lobi Frontali. This was also 
translated into English by MacDonald of Glas- 
gow in 1921. 

BIBESCO, PrRiINcE ANTOINE (?- ). ned 
Rumanian minister to the United States and 
the husband of Elizabeth Asquith, the daughter 
of the former British Premier. He was edu- 
cated in France, and later served as counselor 
to the Rumanian Legations in London, Petro- 
grad, and Paris. In 1921 he was made Envoy 
Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary from 
Rumania to the United States. 

BIBLE SOCIETY, American. A_ society 
founded in 1816 which strives for a world cir- 
culation of the Bible to all people without de- 
nominational or racial discrimination. The 
Bibles were furnished at cost price and dis- 
tributed at cost price through the society’s home, 
foreign, and other agencies. The Scriptures is- 
sued by the society in 1923 totaled 7,101,289 
volumes; 3,856,199 from the Bible House, New 
York, and 3,245,090 in foreign lands. These 
Seriptures were in 175 different languages. 
During the War, from August, 1914, to the end 
of 1919 the society distributed 6,808,301 copies of 
the Bible free of cost among the armed forces of 
the belligerent nations; of these 4,920,543 were 
given to men in the service of the United States, 
and 1,887,758 to those of other nations. The 
translation and revision of the Bible in other 
languages was an important part of its work. 
A translation of the whole Bible into Mandarin 
was finished in 1919; the Portuguese version was 
completely revised in 1917; a revision of the 
Spanish New Testament was issued in 1923, as 
was the New Testament in Bolivian Quechua; 
and portions of the Bible were translated into 
several other tongues. The official publication 


174 BIGGS 


of the organization was the monthly Bible So- 
ciety Record. 

BIDDLE, ANTHONY J. DREXEL (1874- 15 
An American author, born at Philadelphia and 
educated at Heidelberg. He lived in the Ma- 
deira Islands for a number of years, studying 
conditions there, and returning to the United 
States in 1891, when he took up editorial work. 
He was first on the staff of the Philadelphia 
Public Ledger and in 1895 became editor of 
the Philadelphia Sunday Graphic, which he re- 
vived. From 1895 to 1904 he was head of the 
publishing house of Drexel Biddle (New York, 
San Francisco, and Philadelphia), and founded 
the Drexel Biddle Bible Classes in the United 
States, the West Indies, Great Britain, and Can- 
ada. In 1918 he was in France as Marine Corps 
Captain of the Reserve Forces. He is the au- 
thor of several novels, but his most important 
work is The Madeira Islands (1900), an aecount 
of the history, customs, inhabitants, ete., which 
has, however, been criticized as biased and ex- 
aggerated. 

BIDDLE, CHARLES J. (1890- ). An 
‘American Ace, officially credited with the de- 
struction of eight enemy airplanes during the 
War. He recently wrote The Way of the Eagle. 
He was trained in French aviation schools and 
was in active service, 1917-19. He won high 
honors including the Distinguished Service Cross, 
the French Legion of Honor, Croix de Guerre 
with four palms, and the Belgian Order of 
Leopold. 

BIER, Aucust C. G. (1861- ). A promi- 
nent German surgeon (see Vou. III) and pro- 
fessor of surgery in the University of Berlin, 
who recently published many articles founded 
largely on his military experiences. His favor- 
ite subject is regeneration in the human body. 
In 1917 an edition appeared of Chirurgische Op- 
erationslehre by Bier, Braun and Kiimmel. 

BIERSTADT, Epwarp HAte (1891- yi 
An American author and editor, born in New 
York City and educated at the Taft school at 
Watertown, Conn. He has held various ed- 
itorial positions with publishing firms, includ- 
ing the Century Company, and was editor of 
the Opera Magadine (1914-1915). In addition 
to frequent contributions to The Bookman, New 
Republic, ete., he is the author of Dunsany, the 
Dramatist (1917), Aspects of Americanization 
(1922), Sounding Brass (1922), and Lost 
Trails of the Spanish Main (1922). He edited 
Three Plays of the Argentine (1920), Portman- 
teaw Plays by Stuart Walker (1919), and More 
Portmanteau Plays (1919). 

BIG BERTHAS. See ARTILLERY. 

“BIG FOUR.” See Pracke CONFERENCE AND 
TREATIES. 

BIGGERS, EArt Derr (1884- ) An 
American author born at Warren, Ohio, and 
educated at Harvard. From 1908 to 1911 he 
was identified with the Boston Traveler as con- 
ductor of a humorous column and dramatic 
critic. He has written If Yow’re only Human 
(1913); Thieves, with Grover Harrison (1913) ; 
Inside the Lines (1915); A Cure For Curables, 
with William Hodge (1917), See-saw (1919), 
and the popular novel, Seven Keys To Baldpate. 
dramatized by George M. Cohan (1913). 

BIGGS, HERMANN MiIcHAEL (1859-1923). 
An American physician (see VoL. III) who was 
distinguished as a clinician, pathologist, bac- 
teriologist, and sanitary officer. In 1914 he be- 
came State Commissioner of Health for New 


ee ae ee 


a ee ee ee ee 


BILLIARDS 


York. He was appointed medical director of 
the General League of Red Cross Societies at 
Geneva in 1920 and was knighted by the King 
of Spain for services in preventive medicine. 

BILLIARDS. See Sports. 

BILLINGS, Frank (1854— ). (See Vor. 
III). Dr. Billings summed up his doctrines in 
a monograph Focal Infection (the Lane Medical 
Lectures) in 1916 and with Salisbury has com- 
pleted the reference work General Medicine, 
15 vol. (1918). During the War he served in 
the American Expeditionary Force as_ chief 
provost marshal, attached to the office of Sur- 
geon General. 

BINET SCALE. See MENTAL MEASURE- 
MENT. 

BINET-VALMER, GUSTAVE 
‘A French novelist. 


(1875-— }. 
He is the very popular au- 


thor of more than a dozen novels. These in- 
clude La Passion (1914); Le Mendiant Mag- 
nifique (1919); Antonine Jassart, Veuve 


(1921); L’HEnfant qui Mewrt (1921); Les Seig- 
neurs, les Dames, et les Petits Messieurs 
(1922); and Les Jours sans Gloire (1922). 

BINGHAM, Hiram (?- ). A professor 
of Latin-American history at Yale. Well 
known for his recent books on aviation and 
other subjects. These include Five Straws; 
Journal of an Expedition across Venezuela and 
Colombia; Across South America; The Monroe 
Doctrine an Obsolete Shibboleth; Vitcos, the 
Last Inca Capital; The Wonderland of Peru, 
and An Explorer in the Air Service. He also 
organized the United States Schools of Military 
Aéronautics and was on active service 1917-19. 

BINGHAM, JosepH WALTER (1878-— ie 
An American professor of law, born at Indian- 
apolis and educated at the University of Chi- 
cago. He was admitted to the Illinois bar in 
1904 and practiced in Chicago during the fol- 
lowing year. He was acting assistant professor 
of law at Cornell University, 1905-07, and at 
Stanford University, 1907-08, becoming profes- 
sor in the latter institution, in 1912. In 1918 
he was assistant director of the Bureau of War 
Trade Intelligence of the War Trade Board. 
He is author of Cases on the Law of Water 
Rights (1916) and articles in law journals. 

BINGHAM, WALTER VAN DYKE (1880— yp: 
An American psychologist born at Swan Lake, 
Iowa. He was educated at the University of 
Chicago and the University of Berlin and de- 
voted himself to educational and applied psy- 
chology. He taught at the University of Chi- 
cago; Teachers’ College, Columbia University ; 
and Dartmouth College. Since 1915 he has 
been the head of the division of applied psy- 
chology of the Carnegie Institute of Technology 
and has carried out a number of researches re- 
garding the application of psychological theory 
to education and in business advertising. Dur- 
ing the War, Professor Bingham served as ex- 
ecutive secretary of the committee on the class- 
ification of personnel and was made Lieutenant- 
Colonel on the General Staff of the United 
States Army. 

BINSWANGER, Otto Lupwia (1852- ). 
A distinguished German neurologist born at 
Miisterlingen, Switzerland, who received his 
medical degree from the University of Kénigs- 
berg in 1878, took up the study of neurology 
and psychiatry, and in 1882 was appointed pro- 
fessor in these branches in the University of 
Jena and director of the Grand Ducal Insane 
Asylum. In 1911 he became rector of the Uni- 


7 


175 


BIOCHEMISTRY 


versity. Binswanger is known chiefly for his 
exhaustive treatises on various nervous affec- 
tions, Die Pathologie und Therapie der Neuras- 
thenie (1896); Die Hpilepsie (1899); and Die 
Hysterte (1904). Finally, in collaboration with 
Siemerling, he published his Lehrbuch der Psy- 
chiatrie (1907) and also edited the periodical 
Epilepsia, 1909-14. His three treatises named 
above were translated into English as volumes 
of Nothnagel’s Special Pathology and Therapy. 

BIOCHEMISTRY. This subject has been 
defined as the chemistry of physiology and 
hence is naturally subdivided into the chemical 
phenomena of the separate functions of living 
organisms, as digestion, respiration, metabolism, 
etc. Biochemistry, however, is a much more 
comprehensive subject, for it comprises the 
chemical composition of animal tissues, agri- 
cultural and plant chemistry, physico-chemistry 
of the body including electrochemical reactions, 
the chemistry of foods, the chemistry of disease 
processes and products, the chemical aspect of 
therapeutics, etc., etc. Since most of these 
subdivisions are separately considered, the sub- 
ject of biochemistry is regarded by some au- 
thorities as an artificial one. These authors 
retain the old name of physiological chemistry 
and narrow the scope to the dynamic chemistry 
of the animal functions, although these should 
be found intact in any good work on physiology. 
The chief use of the term Biochemistry may be 
to call attention to certain subjects which do 
not receive proper attention in works on phys- 
iology and of these there are not a few. ‘There 
is, for example, the subject of the animal syn- 
theses, which originated almost a century ago 
when Wohler first formed urea from. extra- 
animal sources. Akin to this laboratory ac- 
tivity is the isolation of definite chemical bodies 
from animal tissues. Both animal synthesis 
and isolation of active principles have been go- 
ing ahead steadily up to the present time and 
as a result we have long series of products 
which comprise adrenalin, synthetic suprarenin, 
thyroxin, etc. Thus far it well appears that in 
the narrower and technical sense, biochemistry 
really means laboratory analysis and synthesis 
which does not differ essentially from any other 
organic analysis and synthesis. 

At one period in the history of physiology, 
advance in this science was at a standstill, until 
Liebig and other chemists helped materially in 
its development. Despite the fact that much 
of Liebig’s teaching has been found erroneous, 
physiology has from that period largely as- 
similated animal chemistry. Another impor- 
tant phase of organic analysis and synthesis has 
to do with the protein substances and their dis- 
sociation into various aminoacids and polypep- 
tids, some of which have specific nutritive and 
growth-promoting functions. In this connec- 
tion it has been possible to nourish certain an- 
imals over considerable periods with inorganic 
nitrogen in place of protein matter. Fischer, 
who was one of the most active discoverers in 
this field, was similarly successful in the study 
of carbohydrates and in showing the practica- 
bility of using inorganic carbon in the diet. 
In the study of ferments, internal secretions 
and vitamins, inability to isolate the actual 
active principles—with a few exceptions—may 
keep this department out of biochemistry and 
leave it in the hands of physiology. 

In like manner the subject of immunology and 
of preventive and curative sera remains within 


BIOLOGY 


the confines of experimental and practical medi- 
cine. The comparatively new study of physi- 
cal chemistry which has numerous practical ap- 
plications in physiology and medicine, is now 
covered in works on biochemistry with special 
reference to the optimum concentration of 
mineral matter in the fluids, the acid-alkaline 
balance and the subjects of hydrogen-ion con- 
centration and acidosis. The art of diagnosis 
has been greatly enriched by numerous tests 
which are decidedly of biochemical character. 
Under therapeutics we see that withholding salt 
from the diet will rapidly clear up the severest 
dropsies, while the addition of a little iodine to 
the diet will prevent simple endemic goitre 
and the injection of alkalies will at times com- 
bat severe conditions due to acidosis. 

From what has already been mentioned it 
is easy to form the impression that the word 
biochemistry should be limited to our knowl- 
edge of exact substances which can be isolated 
and employed in pure state. Thus construed 
it should be a simple matter to distinguish 
between chemistry on the one hand and _ physi- 
ology and other subjects on the other. 

BIOLOGY. A term first applied by Lamarck 
in 1801 and Treviranus in 1802 to that study 
of living beings which differs in its point of 
view from either botany or zodlogy in that 
more attention is given to the fundamental 
laws of life and less to detail¢ of anatomy and 
classification. Obviously this branch of science 
assumed especial importance after 1859 when 
the evolution hypothesis furnished an interpre- 
tation for the resemblances which appear be- 
tween the structures and activities of all living 
beings. In more recent years the term Biology 
has been used with two distinct meanings. On 
the one hand, General Biology deals with both 
plants and animals and uses’ representatives of 
either group according as one or the other 
better illustrates the principles under consid- 
eration; while on the other hand the distinc- 
tion between plants and animals is retained 
and Animal Biology and Plant Biology are 
treated as distinct subjects, the word “biology” 
being here understood to mean a study of plants 
or animals respectively, deriving from a com- 
prehensive examination of the anatomy, embry- 
ology, ecology, paleontology and classification 
of either group of conclusions as to the funda- 
mental principles underlying their structures, 
their activities, their relations to one another 
and their ancestral history. 

As a result of intensive investigation along 
these anatomical, physiological and other lines, 
each of these subdivisions of the subject has 
acquired the importance of a distinct science 
with its own technique and its own vocabulary. 
Moreover, it soon became evident that chemical 
reactions certainly accompany and probably play 
an important part in all life processes, so that 
the chemist has been called on to develop Bio- 
chemistry as an aid to further analysis of vital 
processes. Hence it follows that we have at 
the present time no such thing as a science of 
biology but rather a group of biological sciences 
all dealing with living matter and codperating 
in the attempt to answer some fundamental 
biological problems: e.g—What is the nature 
of living matter ?—How may it have originated 
on the earth and to what extent is “life” a 
physical and chemical process?—How does liv- 
ing matter adjust itself to its environmental 
conditions?—If the present life of the earth 


176 BIRTH CONTROL 


has evolved from earlier life, what are the 
forces which have produced these modifications? 
—What are the laws according to which the 
peculiar characteristics of living beings are 
transmitted to their descendants? While for 
purposes of instruction it is common practice to 
group the most important of these conclusions 
into a summary called biology, these biological 
sciences really differ so much from one another 
that they are best treated under distinct heads 
as given below. See ANATOMY, ANTHROPOLOGY, 
BIocHEMISTRY, Botany, Ecotocy; HeErepity; 
ZooLoGy, HEvoLuTIOoN. For an excellent brief 
summary of the subject consult General Biology 
by Burlingame, Heath, Martin and Pierce. 

BIOMETRY. See HeEReEpIry. 

BIRGE, Epwarp ASAHEL (1851— ). An 
American educator (see Vou. III). He was 
chosen president of the University of Wisconsin 
in December, 1918. From 1897 to 1919 he was 
director of the Geological and Natural History 
Survey of Wisconsin, and from the latter date, 
president of the commission. He was one of 
the Conservation Commissioners, 1908-18 and 
in 1918 became president of the United Chapters 
of Phi Beta Kappa. He was the author of many 
books on zodlogy and limnology. Professor 
Birge’s researches were mainly on the fauna 
of fresh-water lakes and the biology of the 
floating forms. 

BIRMINGHAM. The largest city of Ala- 
bama. The population rose from 132,685 in 
1910 to 178,806 in 1920, and to 223,507 by 
local estimate for 1924. A $750,000 municipal 
auditorium and $1,000,000 post office were built. 
In 1924, a $3,500,000 bond issue was voted by 
the city for public school improvements, and 
$650,000 for the public library. In 1922, a new 
fire-alarm system was put in service; and in 
1924 a light and bell signal system for regulat- 
ing downtown traffic. The number of manufac- 
turing plants increased from 274 in 1914 to 
565 in 1924, and the mining companies in the 
district from 48 to 141. Building permits in- 
creased also from 3524, valued at $3,043,374 to 
5390 valued at $12,166,946; bank clearings from 
$155,674,395.84 to $1,305,871,257, and the week- 
ly payroll from $1,500,000 to $3,125,000. As- 
sessed valuation of real and personal property, 
based on a valuation of 60 per cent, increased 
He $95,458,826 in 1914 to $145,737,466 in 
1924. 

BIRNEY, Lavuress J. (1871- ). An 
American bishop, born at Dennison, Ohio, and 
educated at Scio College and at the Boston Uni- 
versity School of Theology. From 1895 until 
1911 he was pastor of various Methodist 
churches in Ohio and Massachusetts. He was 
dean of the Boston University School of 
Theology from 1911 to 1920, and was elected 
bishop, in the latter year. 

BIRRELL, Rt. Hon. AUGUSTINE (1850- sy 
An English author and publie official (see Vou. 
III). He was secretary for Ireland from 1907 
to 1916, and under his rule the Irish Univer- 
sities Act, the Irish Land Act, and the Home 
Rule Act were passed by Parliament. At the 
outbreak of the government rebellion, Easter 
1916, he resigned. Although active in politics 
for many years, Birrell is better known as a 
writer of essays and of biographies. He pub- 
lished Frederick Locker-Lampson, a biography, 
in 1920. 

BIRTH CONTROL. The World War syn- 
chronized with an almost world-wide awakening 


; 
i 
| 
. 
| 


eS —aS eee eee ee — 


_—— — 


a 


fice of the 


BIRTH CONTROL 


of avowed public interest in the political, ethi- 
eal, medical and practical aspects of family 
limitation. This was probably due fundamental- 
ly to a realization that international competi- 
tion tended to be intensified by population pres- 
sure. It was realized that the open spaces of 
the earth are now small and relatively unat- 
tractive as compared with those into which the 
European stock had expanded during the nine- 
teenth century. Moreover, the advancement in 
the complexity of social life with the resultant 
expansion of wants and especially the increasing 
freedom of women had brought into vigorous 
operation powerful social-psychological forces 
favoring the public discussion of birth control. 
A complete survey would show that there was 
no advanced country in Orient or Occident in 
which the subject was not agitated during the 
decade under review and especially since 1919. 

American Movement. Active propaganda 
for birth-control began in the United States 
with the publication in 1924 by Mrs. Margaret 
Sanger of a magazine, The Woman Rebel, in 
which the use of preventive methods was ad- 
vocated. Her indictment under the Federal 
law forbidding the sending of “improper mat- 
ter” through the mail, the repeated postpone- 
ment of her trial and the final quashing of the 
proceedings in February, 1916, gave wide pub- 
licity to the propaganda. The same may be 
said of the arrest and the sentence to thirty 
days in the workhouse of Mrs. Sanger and her 
sister for activities connected with a “birth 
control clinic’ established in Brooklyn. The 
ease was appealed and reached the Federal 
Supreme Court in October, 1919; it was dis- 
missed on the ground of no jurisdiction. In- 
terested persons by 1916 had formed the Na- 
tional Birth Control League; also a supporting 
Woman’s Committee of One Hundred, headed by 
Mrs. Amos Pinchot, and the Committee of One 
Thousand, headed by Dr. Ira S. Wile. Birth 
Control Leagues were rapidly formed in more 
than a score of the larger cities during 1916 
and 1917. Various other arrests in 1916 
brought forward the issue of freedom of speech 
and press and led to the formation of the Free 
Speech League, headed by Leonard P. Abbott, 
interested in preserving the constitutional guar- 
antees of liberty of expression. By the close of 
that year the propaganda was well organized, 
country-wide, and well supported. Every ac- 
tivity of the promoters was considered by the 
press to have considerable news value and the 
more decided the opposition the greater the 
publicity. While the drama and the motion 
picture were used to aid the propaganda, the 
most effective means were public addresses, pub- 
lie debates, the publication of the Birth Con- 
trol Review (first issue, February 1917), and 
the distribution of leaflets. Considerable sup- 
port was given the movement by its endorsement 
in October 1920 by the New York State Feder- 
ation of Women’s Clubs by a vote of 149 to 
97. Many efforts to secure repeal of existing 
legislation, both State and Federal, proved in- 
effective. 

In November, 1921, was formed the American 
Birth Control League, 104 Fifth Avenue, New 
York City, Margaret Sanger, president. The 
League organized the First American Birth Con- 
trol Conference at New York, Nov. 11-18, 1921. 
One of the sessions was broken up by the police, 
as inquiry revealed, at the request of the of- 
Catholic Archbishop. The city 


177 


BIRTH CONTROL 


council of Syracuse, New York, passed a reso- 
lution prohibiting the holding of the State 
Birth Control Conference there in February, 
1924; the resolution was vetoed by the mayor 
after many elements in the community had been 
aroused over the free speech issue. ‘The League 
held notable conferences at New York, Noyem- 
ber 1921, Philadelphia, January 1922, Cincin- 
nati, November 1922, Albany, January 1928, and 
Chicago, October 1923 and is arranging the 
Sixth International Congress on Birth Control 
to be held in this country in 1925. In the year 
ending June 1924 it distributed 610,000 pieces 
of free literature, published 114,000 copies of 
the Birth Control Review, enrolled 15,000 new 
members and held meetings in 33 cities. 

The Voluntary Parenthood League with Mrs. 
Mary Ware Dennett as director and_head- 
quarters at 10 West 44th Street, New York 
City, was formed in 1919. It began the publica- 
tion of The Birth Control Herald in 1923. Its 
objects are: “1. To render available for the 
people’s need, the best scientific knowledge as to 
how parenthood may be voluntary rather than 
accidental; and, as a first step the removal 
of the words ‘prevention of conception’ from the 
Federal obscenity laws. 2. The education of 
parents.” 

International. At the present time national 
organizations are found in England (founded 
in 1877), Holland (1885), Germany (1889), 
France (1895), Spain (1904), Belgium ;(1906), 
Switzerland (1908), Czechoslovakia (Bohemia) 
(1901), Portugal, Brazil (1905), Cuba (1907), 
Sweden (1911), Italy (1913), Algeria, Mexico 
(1918), and Japan (1921). These bodies con- 
stitute the Federation of Neo-Malthusian 
Leagues of which Dr. Alice Drysdale Vickery, 
London, is president. In 1922 Mrs. Sanger made 
a world tour in which she visited most of the 
countries of the northern hemisphere. The es- 
tablishment of an organized movement in Mexico 
was soon followed by increased interest in 
South America. 

In Europe increased activity and growing 
favor for propaganda were manifest in Eng- 
land, Germany and Austria, but not in France. 
In England widespread interest was aroused by 
the reports (see Literature below) of the first 
and second National Birth Rate Commissions 
organized by the National Council of Public 
Morals. These reports constitute a compendium 
of religious, social, medical and biological opin- 
ion for and against. Religious opinion in Eng- 
land appears divided, though the Catholics pre- 
sent the same opposition there as in this 
country. Medical and scientific opinion, as also 
of social workers, is overwhelmingly favorable. 
Great publicity was secured by the propaganda - 
of Dr. Marie Stopes and her husband, Dr. H. V. 


Roe, who established in March, 1921, The 
Mothers’ Clinic. Two additional clinics in 
London were opened the following year. The 


Fifth International Birth Control Congress was 
held at London July 11-14, 1922. 

In France during the war the censorship 
greatly interfered with birth control publica- 
tions and such efforts as revived in 1919 were 
terminated by an act of July, 1920, which dras- 
tically and comprehensively prohibited every sort 
of propagation of knowledge of contraconception 
and abortion. The publication, transportation, 
and sale of literature is prohibited and public 
lectures forbidden. Violations, moreover, are to 
be tried by the judges of the Tribunal Correc- 


BIRTH CONTROL LEAGUE 


tionnel instead of the juries of the Cours 
d’Assizes. This not only means secret proceed- 
ings and hence no propaganda value in the 
trials but places the guilty at the mercy of the 
judges. This legislation was undoubtedly a 
reaction of publicists, employers and militarists 
to the after-war desire for population increase to 
insure national safety and prestige. It had the 
support of numerous economists and demog- 
raphers and of various organizations, such as, 
L’Alliance nationale pour Vaccroissement de la 
population francaise. 

In Vienna, Austria, a clinic was opened in 
November, 1923 by Johann Ferch, with the 
support of the League Against Forced Mother- 
hood. This began agitation for repeal of the 
law prohibiting abortion. Dr. Ferch says, 
Birth Control Review, July, 1924: “We pro- 
pose that poor and sick women in the first three 
months of pregnancy shall have the right, for 
social and health reasons, to interrupt the 
pregnancy.” The proposed law was defeated in 
December, 1923 by the combined opposition of 
clericals and national militarists. An inter- 
national congress on contraceptive devices was 
held at Amsterdam, Holland, Aug. 29-30, 1921. 
Representatives were present from the United 
States, England, France, Germany and Holland. 

Japan, China and India all show increasing 
consciousness of overpopulation. Unchecked 
births and decreasing death rates compel a dis- 
cussion of Neo-Malthusianism. In spite of offi- 
cial opposition a birth-control group was formed 
at Tokyo in 1921 with Baroness Ishimoto as 
head. In 1922 official objection to Mrs. Sanger’s 
visit was withdrawn on the understanding she 
would hold no public meetings. Nevertheless, the 
Japan Birth Control League began issue of a 
magazine in May, 1922. The first supporting 
organization in China was formed by the 
women of the National University in 1922. 
About the same time organized propaganda be- 
gan in India. See ABORTION. 

Bibliography. Birth Control Review, 104 
Fifth Avenue, New York City; William J. 
Robinson, Woman: Her Sex and Love Life, 
New York; The Critic and Guide Company, 
Proceedings, First American Birth Control 
Conference, November 1921; Margaret Sanger, 
What Every Woman Should Know; The Pivot 
of Civilization; S. Adolphus Knopf, M.D., Birth 
Control—Its Medical, Social, Economical and 


Moral Aspects; Adelyne More, Uncontrolled 
Breeding, or Fecundity versus Civilization ; 
National Birth-Rate Commission, The Declin- 


ing Birth Rate, Its Causes and Effects, 
London, 1916; Problems of Population and 
Parenthood, London, 1920; Harold Cox, The 
Problem of Population, contains the best 
presentation of the ethical aspects of birth 
control; Eden and Cedar Paul (Ed.), Popu- 
lation and Birth Control; H. H. Laughlin, 
Eugenical Sterilization in the United States; 
Rev. James Marchant (Ed.), Control of 
Parenthood; Rev. John M. Cooper, Birth Con- 
trol, a most effective presentation of the Catho- 
lie viewpoint, National Catholic Welfare Con- 
ference, Washington, D. C. 

BIRTH CONTROL LEAGUE, AMERICAN. 
A Society organized Nov. 2, 1921 and in- 
corporated under the laws of New York State, 
Apr. 5, 1922. The purposes of the society were 
stated as follows: ‘To enlighten and educate all 
sections of the American public in the various 
aspects of the dangers of uncontrolled procrea- 


178 


BISHOP 


tion and the imperative necessity of a world 
programme of birth control; to correlate the 
findings of scientists, statisticians, investigators, 
and social agencies in all fields; to organize and 
conduct clinics where the medical profession 
may give to mothers and potential mothers 
harmless, reliable methods of birth control; to 
enlist the support and codperation of legal ad- 
visors, statesmen and legislators in effecting the 
removal of State and Federal statutes which 
encourage dysgenic breeding. The League is in 
close relation with European organizations 
carrying on the same work. In 1924 there 
were 27,500 members. It published leaflets, 
pamphlets and books, and the monthly Birth 
Control Review. Besides the headquarters in 
New York the League maintained 10 branches 
in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Mas- 
sachusetts, Connecticut, Colorado, and British 
Columbia. President, Mrs. Margaret Sanger; 
vice-presidents, Mrs. Lewis L. Delafield, and 
Mrs. Juliet Barrett Rublee; Treasurer, Mrs. 
Frances B. Ackerman; Executive Secretary, 
Mrs. Anne Kennedy. Headquarters, 104 Fifth 
Avenue, New York City. 

BIRTH REGISTRATION. See Cuitp WEt- 
FARE, VITAL STATISTICS, 

BISCHOFF, DIETRICH (1866- ). A 
German author born at Bremen, formerly 
known under the pseudonym “Adam _ Ego.” 
He has written prolifically on social ethics, 
masonry, insurance laws, and kindred subjects, 
and at the same time held the presidency of the 
leading insurance company of Leipzig. His 
works include Pie Soziale Frage und Ihre 
Lésung (1896), Echte und Falsche Gerechtigkeit 
(1899), Der Soziale Grundgedanke der Frei- 
maurerlehre (1900), Der Individualismus in der 
Freimaurerei (1901), Maurertum und Men- 
schheitstum (1902), Wesen und Ziele der Frei- 
maureret (1912) SFrevmaurerische Kriegsge- 
danken (1914), Vom Zukunftsberuf der Deut- 
schen Freimaurer (1915), Religion und Frei- 
maureret (1916), Die WNSozialisirung Unseres 
Wirtschaftslebens (1918), Sozialismus und Re- 
ligion (1919), Die Sozialisirung der Geister 
(1919), Freimaurerei und Deutschtum (1920), 
and Vom Vaterlindischen Beruf der Deutschen 
Freimaurer (1919). 

BISHOP, FrepERIc LENDALL (1874— ie 
An American physicist, born at St. Johnsbury, 
Vt., and educated at the Massachusetts Insti- 
tute of Technology and the University of Chi- 
cago. In 1898 he became head of the depart- 
ment of physics in the Bradley Polytechnic In- 
stitute and remained there until 1909, when he 
was called to the chair of physics in the Univer- 
sity of Pittsburgh, and also became dean of its 
engineering college. His original investigations 
include studies on thermal conductivity and 
variations of wave length with pressure, sur- 
face tension, high temperature, and viscosity, 
on all of which he has published papers. Be- 
sides editing Hngineering Education, he has 
served as secretary of the Society for the Pro- 
motion of Engineering Education and is a mem- 
ber of many scientific societies. 

BISHOP, JosepH BucKLIN (1847- yi wAn 
American journalist and government official (see 
Vou. III). He is author of A Chronicle of 150 
Years (1918), Theodore Roosevelt and His 
Times, and Charles Joseph Bonaparte: His Life 
and Public Services (1922). Shown in His 
Letters, 2 vols. (1920), and edited Theodore 
Roosevelt’s Letters to His Children (1919). 


BISHOP 


BISHOP, Louis FAuaéres (1864— V0 An 
American physician born in New Brunswick, 
N. J., and educated at Rutgers College and 
Columbia University. He is professor of dis- 
eases of the heart and circulation in Fordham 
University Medical School and physician to 
Lincoln Hospital. He made many contributions 
to periodical literature on diseases of the heart 
and blood vessels and blood pressure, etc. His 
works include Heart Disease, Blood Pressure, 
etc., (1909), translated into French the fol- 
lowing year; Arteriosclerosis (1914), trans- 
lated into French by Francon in 1921; and 
Heart Troubles: Their Prevention and Relief 
(1920). 

BISSING, FERDINAND, BARON ‘von. See BEL- 
aiumM, History. 

BISSOLATI-BERGAMASCHI, LEONIDA 
(1857-1920). An Italian Socialist politician 
and statesman, born at Cremona, the son of 
Demetrio Bergamaschi, and adopted son of the 
philosopher, Professor Bissolati. Using as tools 
his weekly editions, La Critica sociale and La 
Lotti di Classe, and the daily Socialist organ, 
L’Avanti, he became widely known as the leader 
of the Socialist element in Italy which re- 
mained faithful to the government during the 
War. He was elected to the Chamber from 
Pescarolo in 1897, later from Budrio, and in 
1908, from the second division of Rome, which 
he represented until his death. Because he 
could not sympathize with the Socialists in 
their anti-patriotic sentiments, particularly in 
the Libyan War, Bissolati formed with Bonomi 
and other Socialist leaders what was called 
the Reformed Socialist group. On the out- 
break of the War he enlisted as a sergeant of 
the Alpini, was wounded, and was decorated for 
his valour. In June, 1916, after the fall of the 
Salandra government, he was appointed to the 
cabinet and served under Premier Bosselli as 
well as in the succeeding ministry of Orlando. 
At the Armistice he resigned because of a dis- 
agreement over the Pact of London. Although 
he advocated the annexation of Fiume, he lost 
popular support because of his opposition to 
the annexation of Alto Adige and North Dal- 
matia. When he expressed these views in his 
speech at Milan on the League of Nations, he 
was severely criticized. He died at Rome on 
May 6, 1920. He had not been popular in the 
last years of his life but was greatly mourned 
at his death. 

BITTERAUF, THEODOR (1877- Ws yrck 
German historian, born at Nuremberg. He was 
professor at the universities of Erlangen and 
Munich, lecturer on history at the military 
academy of Munich, and writer of Die Kurbair- 
wchen Polen im Srebenjaihrigen Kriege (1901), 
Geschichte des Rheinbundes (1905), Die Tradi- 
tionen des Hochstiftes Freising (1905-9), 
Bayern als Kénigreich (1906), Die Deutschen 
Polen und die Entstehung des Krieges (1915), 
Napoleon I (1916), Friedrich der Grosse (1916), 
Geschichte, der Franzdsischen Revolution (1921), 
and other historical works. 

BITUMINOUS COAL. See Coat. 

BITUMINOUS ROCKS. See ASPHALT. 

BJERKNES. See METEOROLOGY. 

BJORKMAN, Epwin Avcust (1866— ile 
An American author, born at Stockholm, Swe- 
den, where he was educated in the South-End 
Higher Latin School. When he was 25 years old 
he came to America and edited the Minnesota 
Posten at St. Paul (1892-94). His later work 


179 


BLACK 


in journalism took him as a reporter, music 
critic, and editor to The Times, Minneapolis 
(1894-97), the New York Sun and New York 
Times (1897-1905), and the New York Eve- 
ning Post (1906). Subsequently he was a de- 
partmental editor of The World’s Work and 
editor of the Modern. Drama Series (1912-15). 
In 1915-17, he represented the British Depart- 
ment of Information in Sw eden and directed the 
Scandinavian bureau of the Committee on Pub- 
lic Information (1918-19). Mr. Bjorkman be- 
came associate director of the League of Nations 
News Bureau in 1920. He wrote Is There Any- 
thing New Unden the Sun (1911); 'Gleams—A 
Fragmentary Interpretation of Man and His 
World (1912); Voices of To-morrow (1918) ; 
Scandinavia and the War (1914); The Ory of 
the Ukraine (1915); and The Soul of a Child 
(1922). In addition he translated plays of 
Bjérnson, Bergstrom, Schnitzler, and others. 

BJORNSTAD, ALFRED WILLIAM (1874— x 
An American army officer, born in St. Paul, 
Minn., educated at the University of Minnesota, 
which he left in 1896 to enter the army at the 
outbreak of the Spanish-American War. He 
was commissioned first lieutenant in the 13th 
Minnesota Infantry in 1898. In 1899 he was 
appointed Captain of Volunteers in the United 
States Infantry and in 1901 became first lieu- 
tenant in the Regular Army. He was promoted 
to the rank of major in 1917, to lieutenant- 
colonel in the National Army in the same year, 
and in 1918 rose to brigadier-general. From 
1898 to 1904 he served in the Philippines. He 
was on duty with the General Staff in 1911-12 
and served in various capacities with that body 
until 1917. He organized and directed, in that 
year, 16 training camps for training officers for 
the War. He served as Chief of Staff for the 
30th Division in 1917 and organized and di- 
rected the Army General Staff College in 
France, 1917-18. He was Chief of Staff for the 
3d Army Corps in 1918 and was commander of 
the 13th Brigade in 1918-19. In this capacity 
he took part in all the major engagements in 
France. After the War he resumed duty at the 
General Staff College and in 1920 was appointed 
commander at Fort Snelling, Minn. He re- 
ceived the Distinguished Service Cross and the 
Distinguished Service Medal and was decorated 
by the British and French governments. 

BLACK, HENRY CAMPBELL (1860- ). An 
American law author and editor, born at Os- 
sining, N. Y., and educated at Trinity College. 
After studying law, he was admitted to the bar 
in 1883. He practiced for several years at 
Williamsport, Pa., and St. Paul, Minn. In 1888 
he removed to Washington, where he devoted 
himself to legal literature. He was editor of the 
Constitutional Review and in 1917 lectured on 
constitutional government at Trinity College. 
Among his published books are Constitutional 
Prohibitions (1887) ; Dictionary of Law (1891- 
1910); American Constitutional Law (1895, 
1897, 1919); Income and Other Federal Taxes 
(1917 and 1919); and Relation of Executive 
Power to Legislation (1919). He contributed 
frequently to legal periodicals and encyclopx- 
dias. 

BLACK, Hucu (1868— ). An English 
theologian (see Vou. III). He is the author of 
The Open Door (1914), The New World (1915), 
and Lest We Forget (1920). 

BLACK, WILLIAM Murray (1855-— )eevAn 
American army officer (see Vou. III). In 1917 


BLACK WART DISEASE 


he was chairman of the Inland Transportation 
Committee of the Council of National Defense. 
He was a member of the United States Ship- 
ping Board in 1919 and retired from active 
service in the latter year. He was awarded the 
Distinguished Service Medal in 1918 for planning 
and administering the engineering and mili- 
tary railway service during the War. In col- 
laboration with Prof. E. B. Phelps he invented 
a method of purifying sewage by aération. 

BLACK WART DISEASE oF POTATOES. 
See PLANTS, DISEASES OF. 

BLACKWELDER, Exior (1880- ) aren 
American geologist, born at Chicago, Ill., and 
educated at the University of Chicago. In 
1902 he was given a fellowship at Chicago, where 
he also became an instructor in geology, but in 
1905 he transferred his allegiance to Wisconsin, 
where he remained until 1916, attaining full 
professorial rank in 1910. He was professor of 
geology and head of the department in the Uni- 
versity of Illinois, 1916-19, and in 1919 was 
visiting professor of geology at Leland Stanford 
Junior University, where in 1922 he became a 
full professor. From 1906 to 1918 he was also 
connected with the United States Geological 
Survey at first as field assistant in Montana 
and Wyoming but after 1909 as a _ geologist 
studying problems in northern Utah, south- 
eastern Idaho, western Wyoming, and _ then 
Alaska, especially the glacial and stratigraphic 
features and economic resources of these re- 
gions. He was a member of the California 
Petroleum Commission in 1917 and of geological 
expeditions to China and other foreign countries. 

BLACKWELL, ALiceE StToneE (1857- ae 
An American journalist (see Vox. III). She 
was editor-in-chief of the Woman’s Journal 
(Boston) until 1917, when the Woman’s Jour- 
nal, the Woman Voter, and the Headquarters 
News-Letter were consolidated as the Woman 
Citizen. She became contributing editor to the 
latter. She is the author of The Little Grand- 
mother of the Russian Revolution: Catherine 
Breshkovsky’s Own Story (1917). 

BLAKE, Epaar (1869— ). An American 
bishop, born at Gorham, Me., and educated in 
the common schools and in the Boston Univer- 
‘sity School of Theology. During 1895-1908 he 
was pastor in Methodist churches of Salem, 
Lebanon and Manchester, N. H. He was elected 
bishop in 1920. 

BLAKE, JosepH AuGustus (1864— Pomeran) 
American surgeon, born in San Francisco, and 
educated at Yale and Columbia Universities. 
At the outbreak of the War he had charge of 
the surgical ambulance at Neuilly, France, and 
in 1917 
Cross Military Hospital. In 1917 he was given 
the Cross of the Legion of Honor. He has 
written much on surgical subjects and in 1918 
published his Gunshot Fractures of the Hea- 
tremities. 

BLAKELOCK, Ratrpn Apert (1847-1919). 
An American landscape painter, one of the fore- 
most of the school (see Vor. III). During his 
long confinement in the State hospital for the 


insane at Bennington, N. Y., his great paintings, | 


from which he had been unable to eke a liveli- 
hood, brought record prices; “Moonlight,” for 
example, was sold to the Toledo Art Museum 
for $20,000. In 1916 he was released from the 
hospital as sane and endeavored to resume his 
work’ as a painter, but without success. He 
was taken back to the institution in 1918 and 


became head of the American Red © 


180 BLASCHKE 


died at the camp of a friend in the Adirondacks 
in 1919. 

BLAKESLEE, GEorcE HUBBARD (1871-— ). 
An American professor (see Vou. III). He is 
the editor of Recent Developments in China; 
Latin America; Problems and Lessons of the 
War; Mexico and the Caribbean; and the Jour- 
nal of International Relations. He organized 
the Clark University Conference on Internation- 
al Relations and in 1917-18 prepared reports on 
German colonies in the Pacific for the American 
Commission to Negotiate Peace. He was 
technical advisor to the American delegation at 
the Disarmament Conference in Washington, 
1921. 

BLAKEY, Roy GILLISPIE (1880— HAD 
American economist, born at Shelbina, Mo., and 
educated at Drake, Missouri, Colorado and Co- 
lumbia Universities. He began as a _ news- 
paper reporter, and later became a university 
instructor and member of various economic 
commissions. In 1919 he was made professor 
of economics of the University of Minnesota. 
Among his works are The United States Beet 
Sugar Industry and the Tariff (1912) and the 
brochure, The Comparative Costs of State Gov- 
ernments (1916). 

BLANCHARD, Artyur Horace (1877— ie 
An American civil engineer, born at Providence, 
R. I., and educated at Brown and Columbia Uni- 
versities. He began teaching in 1899 as an in- 
structor in civil engineering and mathematics 
at Brown, where he remained until 1911, when 
he returned to Columbia as professor of high- 
way engineering, a chair which he relinquished 
in 1917 and in 1919 went to the University of 


‘Michigan, where he became professor of highway 


engineering and highway transport. Meanwhile 
he was consultant to various official organiza- 
tions. During the War he was a member of 
the Council of Defense and 
chairman of the National Highway Commission. 
Besides being associated in the authorship of 
Highways (1910-12) and Highway Engineering 
(1913), he was editor-in-chief of the American 
Highway Engineer’s Pocketbook (1919) and the 


American Highway Transportation Handbook 
(1920). 

BLAND, EpirH NeEssir (Mrs. HUvsBERT) 
(1858-1924). An English poet and_ novelist 


(see Vou. III). She is the author of Garden 
Poems (1914), Five Children and It (1921), 
The Incredible Honeymoon (1921), The Story 
of the Amulet (1921), The Enchanted Castle 
(1922), The Lark (1922), and. Many. Voices: 
Poems (1922). New editions of many of her 
earlier books have appeared. 
BLAND-SUTTON, Sir Joun (1855- Ke 
An eminent British surgeon, born at Enfield 
Highway. His writings, concerned chiefly with 
pathology and gynecological surgery, include 
Introduction to General Pathology (1886) ; 
Ligaments, Their Nature and Morphology 
(1887); Evolution and Disease (1890); Surgi- 
cal Diseases of the Ovaries and Fallopian Tubes 
(1891), and Tumors, Innocent and Malignant 
(1893). The volume on tumors, his master- 
piece, went through its seventh edition in 1922. 
He has also written Gallstones and Diseases of 
the Bile-ducts (1907); Fibroids of the Uterus 
(1913), and Selected Lectures and Essays 
(1920). In collaboration with Giles he wrote 
a textbook on Diseases of Women (1897), 
which has also seen its seventh edition. 
BLASCHKE, Pau (1850- ). A German 


served as vice- — 


* (1918), 4 Woman’s Point of View (1919), 


BLASCO IBANEZ 181 


lexicographer, born at Wigandstal, and educated 
at the University of Leipzig. After employ- 
ment in the postal service, he spent several 
years as a tutor and finally became a lexicog- 
rapher. During the period 1878-1916, he pub- 
lished innumerable books on French, Italian, 
Portuguese, and Spanish grammar, German- 
English-French guides to conversations, a Ger- 
man-English-French and French-English-German 
electrotechnical dictionary (1913), a Polish 
grammar (1916), and a German-English-French 
medical dictionary (1916). 

BLASCO IBANEZ, Vicente 1867—_). 
A Spanish novelist, journalist, and politician. 
In his youth he occupied a prominent place in 
the political and literary controversies of the 
day and often found himself in difficulties with 
the authorities. His first novel, La Barraca, 
appears in 1899; thereafter he wrote volumin- 
ously. He was introduced to the English- 
speaking world with his Four Horsemen of the 
Apocalypse (1918), which achieved an extraor- 
dinary popularity. Other works done into Eng- 
lish were Our Sea (1920); Torrent (1923); and 
The Temptress (1923). For a time, Ibafiez 
ranked in the forefront of contemporary Span- 
ish novelists, but his reputation declined as fa- 
miliarity with other modern Spanish writers, 
Pio Baroja, for instance, grew. It was seen 
that while he had mastered narrative art, his 


_work showed scarcely any contact with reality. 


During the period he continued to attract Amer- 
ican attention by his sensational newspaper ar- 
ticles on Mexico, Europe, ete. 

BLATCH, Harrior Sranton (1856- ie 
An American lecturer and writer on feminism 
(see Vout. IIIT). In 1917 she became head of the 
speakers’ bureau of the Food Administration. 
She is the author of Mobilizing Woman Ra 
an 
Elizabeth Cady Stanton as Revealed in Her 
Reminiscences, Letters and Diary (1921). 

BLEI, FRANZ (1871- ). An Austrian, 
writer, born at Vienna, and educated in po- 


‘litical economy at the universities of Vienna, 


Paris, Berne, and Zurich. After traveling in 
France, Italy, and America, he entered the lit- 
erary field as playwright, but soon devoted 
himself to the essay. His principal works in- 
clude Oscar Wilde (1904), Novalis (1904), 
Von Amoureusen Frauen (1906), Felicien Rops 
(1906), Die Romantische Rennaissance (1906), 
Landfahrer und Abenteurer (1913), Die Puder- 
quaste (1913), Menschliche Betrachtungen zur 
Politik (1915), Summa (1918), and Retrung 
(1920). He has also translated numerous 
works of French authors, among them Marcel 
Schwob’s Monelle, André Gide’s Le Roi Can- 
daule, Maurice Barre’s Du Sang de la Volupté 
et de la Mort, and others of Paul Claudel, Walt 
Whitman, and Oscar Wilde. He has also edited 
the works of Goethe, Reinhold Lenz, and others. 
BLEIBTREU, Cart (1859- +). A German 
author and historian, born in Berlin. (See VOL. 
III). He is said to have inaugurated the mod- 
ern movement in German literature by his 
essay, Die Revolution der Litteratur (1885). 
His contributions to war literature are Englands 
Waterlooliige (1915) and Stegemanns Weltkrieg 
und die Marneschlacht (1916). 
BLEININGER, Atpert Victor (1873- yi 
A German-American chemist, born at Polling, 
in Bavaria, and educated at Ohio State Uni- 
versity, where he became instructor in ceramics, 
attaining an associate professorship in 1906. 


BLINN 


{In 1907 he went to the University of Illinois 
and three years later was made full professor 
and director of the department of ceramics. 
During 1908-10 he was in charge of the clay 
products section of the United States Geological 
Survey and in 1912-20 of a similar division of 
the Bureau of Standards, becoming in 1920, 
chemist to the Homer Laughlin China Company. 
He has lectured on his specialty at the Univer- 
sity of Chicago (1912) and at the Franklin 
Institute (1917) and was chairman of the com- 
mittee on ceramic industry of the National Re- 
search Council. Professor Bleininger is a mem- 
ber of various technical societies including 
the American Ceramic Society, of which he 
was president in 1918. Besides editing vari- 
ous journals he has published the Oollected 
Works of H. A. Seger (1903) and is the author 


of The Manufacture of Hydraulic Cement 
(1904). 
BLEULER, Pavut Evucen (1857- Yate, 


Swiss psychiatrist, known especially for his 
original conceptions of psychology and insanity. 
He has divided all mankind into schizoids and 
syntonics and has renamed dementia precox by 
calling it schizophrenia; that is, the highest pa- 
thological expression of the schizoid mind. 
Bleuler was born at Zollikon, received his med- 
ical degree from the University of Berne, and 
was appointed professor of psychiatry in the 
University of Ziirich. He wrote Dementia‘Pre- 
cox oder Schizophrenia (1911), translated into 
English by William A. White (1912); Das Au- 
tistisch-undisziplinierte Denken in der Medizin 
(1919), and Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie (1920), 
translated into English by A. A. Brill (1924). 
He was editor of the Jahrbuch fiir Psycho- 
analytische und Psychopathische Forschungen 
during 1909-13. He was the first of Freud’s 
contemporaries to speak favorably of psycho- 
analysis; however, he has never been classed as 
a militant member of this movement. 

BLICHFELDT, Hans FREDERIK (1873- ps 
Mathematician, born in Denmark. He came to 
the United States in 1888, and after settling in 
Washington he became in 1892 a draftsman in 
the engineering department of the city and coun- 
ty of New Whatcom. Two years later he en- 
tered Leland Stanford Junior University. He 
studied also at the University of Leipzig. He 
then returned to Stanford as instructor in 
mathematics, and after passing through the 
lower grades he was made professor of that 
subject in 1913. Dr. Blichfeldt has made orig- 
inal studies of various subjects on continuous - 
groups, linear homogeneous substitution groups, 
and the geometry of numbers, and has contrib- 
uted papers on the results to the American 
Journal of Mathematics and especially to the 
transactions and bulletins of the American 
Mathematical Society, of which he was a vice- 
president in 1912. His published papers are 
about 30 in number and include Finite Groups 
of Linear Homogeneous Transformations, pub- 
lished as Part Two of the Theory and Applica- 
tion of Finite Group (1916). 

BLINN, Hotsrook (1892-— ). An Ameri- 
can actor, born in San Francisco. He appeared 
on the legitimate stage as a child, played 
throughout the United States and in London, 
and did some good work for the moving pic- 
tures. His successes include Moliére (1919), 
A Woman of No Importance (1916), The Lady 
of the Camelias (1917), Getting Together 
(1918), and The Bad Man (1920-23). In the 


BLISS 


last he had perhaps his best stage part. In 
1923-1924 he worked in moving pictures. 

BLISS, GiILsertT AMES )(1876— An 
American mathematician, born at Chicago, 
where he was educated-at the university. As 
an instructor in mathematics he taught at the 
University of Minnesota. He went to Géttin- 
gen for a year in 1902 and then returned to 
Chicago as an associate. In 1904 he was called 
to the University of Missouri, and from there 
to Princeton, where he remained three years. 
Returning to Chicago in 1908 as associate pro- 
fessor, he continued in this capacity until 1913, 
when he attained full professorial rank. He 
has given special lectures in mathematics at 
Princeton in 1909 and at Harvard in 1911. 
The former were published as The Princeton 
Colloquium Lectures, Part One: Fundamental 
Existence Theorems (1913). During the War 
he served as a scientific expert on range firing 
sections in the United States Army. He has 
made special studies of differential equations, 
calculus of variations, and theory of functions 
of lines with an application to ballistics, on all 
of which he has contributed valuable papers to 
the American Journal of Mathematics and to 
the transactions and bulletins of the American 
Mathematical Society. Dr. Bliss was associate 
editor of the Annals of Mathematics in 1906—- 
08 and of the transactions of the American 
Mathematical Society in 1908-16. 

BLISS, Tasker Howarp (1853- )¢\ GAn 
American soldier, born at Lewisburg, Pa., and 
for two years a student at the university of 
that city, now Bucknell University. He grad- 
uated from the United States Military Academy 
in 1875, was professor of military science at the 
Naval War College from 1885 to 1888, and 
spent two years as military attaché at Madrid. 
At the close of the Spanish-American War in 
which he had served during the Porto Rican cam- 
paign. of 1898, he was appointed collector of 
customs at the port of Havana and in 1902 was 
made special envoy to Cuba, to negotiate the 
treaty of reciprocity between Cuba and the United 


States. He was commandant of the Army War 
College in 1903. From 1905 to 1909 he held 
commands in the Philippines. In the early 


part of 1911 he commanded the provisional 
brigade on the southern California border dur- 
ing the Mexican insurrection, after which he 
was for a short time commander of the Western 
Department. He was placed in command of 
the Department of the East on Aug. 12, 1911, 
and became chief of staff of the United States 
army, with the rank of general, on Oct. 6, 1917. 
Although he reached the legal age of retirement 
on December 31 of that year, he remained on 
active duty by order of President Wilson and 
was appointed to membership on the Supreme 
War Council in France. He was also a member 
of the American Commission to Negotiate Peace 
in Paris, 1918-19. On May 1, 1920, he was 
detailed by the President as governor of the 
United States Soldiers’ Home. He received the 
United States Distinguished Service Medal. 
BLOCH, Ernest (1880- ). A distin- 
guished Swiss composer, born at Geneva. He 
received his musical education at the Conserva- 
toire in Brussels and later at Hoch’s Conserva- 
tory in Frankfort. In 1909-10 he was conduc- 
tor of the subscription concerts in Lausanne, 
and from 1911 to 1915 professor of composition 
at the Geneva Conservatory. In 1916 he came 
to New York, where he taught composition at 


182 BLOCKADE 


the David Mannes School of Music. In 1920 he 
became director of the Cleveland Institute of 
Music. His music is rather harsh and austere; 
he draws his inspiration mainly from Jewish 
subjects and consciously attempts to give ex- 
pression to the aspirations and ideals of the 
Jewish race. His works include an opera, Mac- 
beth (Paris, 1910); three symphonies, in C 
sharp minor, in F (Jsrael), and Symphonie Or- 
ientale, on Hebrew themes; two symphonic 
poems, Hiver-Printemps and Vwre et Aimer; 
Trois Poemes Juifs for orchestra; Poémes 
@Automne for soprano and orchestra; Schelomo 
for ’cello and orchestra; Psalms 22, 114, and 137, 
for solo voices and orchestra; a string quartet 
in B; a violin sonata; and a viola sonata which 
won the Coolidge Prize at the Berkshire Cham- 
ber Music Festival, 1919. A second opera, 
Jezabel, was still unfinished in 1924. 

BLOCH, JEAN-RICHARD (1884— Jin 
French editor and author, born in Paris. In 
1910 he founded the review l’Effort, which was 
later enlarged and entitled V’Effort Libre. He 
wrote essays, short stories and novels. His 
best known works are Carnaval Est Mort, a col- 
lection of articles whose general tenor is that 
there is no more art because there is no more 
faith; Lévy; Premier Livre de Contes (1912) ; 
and Ht Cie., a novel (1918). The two last works 
are stories constituting a sympathetic analysis 
of the Jewish character. 

BLOCK, ALEexANDER A. (1880-1921). A 
Russian poet and playwright, born in Petrograd. 
He was one of the leaders of the Modernist 
school in Russia. His poetry shows two dis- 
tinct phases of development; during the earlier 
period he seemed to live in a mystic land of un- 
reality and dreams; later, he became vigorous, 
patriotic, hopeful. Songs of the Beautiful 
Lady (1905) belongs to the earlier phase, 
Poems on Russia (1915) to the later. His 
poetry is impressionistic, and he employs the 
so-called new rhythm, similar to that of Ger- 
man and English. Besides the works mentioned 
he is author of The Unexpected Joy (1907), 
Snow-Mask (1907), Snow-Bound (1908) Night 
Watches (1911), and The Twelve. The last is 
his masterpiece, giving a powerful picture of 
Petrograd at the beginning of the Bolshevist 
Revolution. Block, although not a Communist, 
was acclaimed by the Bolshevists after the 
publication of The Twelve. He died from ill- 
ness due to undernourishment under the Bol- 
shevist régime, on Aug. 1], 1921. 

BLOCK, Paut_ (1862- ). A German 
editor and author, born at Memel. He studied 
at Memel and Ko6nigsberg and specialized in 
history and literature. In 1899 he became con- 
nected with the Berliner Tageblatt, and has been 
its Paris correspondent (1906-11), war corres- 
pondent, and literary editor. His works are 
the novels, Der Grauménch (1885), Am Leucht- 
turm (1886), Anno Sturm (1887), Die Diaman- 
ten der Kénigin (1888); the plays, Der Racher 
(1888), Riibezahl (1888), Rolands Knappen 
(1888), In der Tiefe (1889), Bergmanns Glick 
(1889), Gift (1890); a volume of Parisian 
sketches (1911); Der Verwandelte Biirger 
(1919), dealing with the outbreak of the rev- 
olution in Germany; and numerous translations. 

BLOCKADE, AL.iep. The measures taken 
by Great Britain, with the approval of the other 
Allies, and to some extent assisted by them, to 
prevent goods from reaching Germany which 
could assist the latter in prosecuting the War, 


— 


BLOMFIED 


did not constitute normal blockade of the Ger- 
man Coast in the earlier sense of the word. 
At first, it was less than a blockade as hereto- 
fore understood; by 1916 it had become the 
most drastic and effective control of neutral 
commerce ever attempted by belligerents. Sub- 
marine mines and submarine boats had made a 
close blockade of the old type absolutely imprac- 
ticable. The blockade lines of cruisers were 
drawn across the English Channel in the south 
and between the north of Scotland and the Nor- 
wegian Coast. At the outbreak of war, the Al- 
lies announced that they would follow the rules 
of the Declaration of London, of which Great 
Britain and the United States were not signa- 
tories, with some modifications. No notice of 
formal blockade was given then or later, but 
lists of articles declared to be contraband were 
published; these lists were subsequently extend- 
ed. The results of these measures were very un- 
satisfactory. In an intensive war, where the 
whole population is concerned in efforts to main- 
tain the greatest field force possible, the receipt 
of almost any kind of goods from abroad will re- 
lease some of the people to military service or to 
some industry which is engaged in supplying the 
fighting line. Nearly all goods thus become con- 
traband in the sense that they assist the enemy 
in the prosecution of the war. Moreover, enemy 
goods sent to neutral countries furnished means 
for the purchase of goods for import in return. 

In the cases of neutral countries whose land 
frontiers bordered Germany, interruption of 
traffic in goods originating in the neutral coun- 
try or brought by land from some other neutral 
country was neither legal nor practicable. But 
in the case of goods imported by neutrals from 
overseas, the conditions were different. The doc- 
trine of “continuous voyage” was amplified and 
extended. All such goods in excess of local 
neutral requirements were seized and condemned 
for purchase by the Allies or for confiscation. 
The restrictions imposed on this trade, especial- 
ly in regard to insurance, censorship, cables, 
and the supply of coal and oil, forced the for- 


183 


mation of mercantile associations in the neutral . 


countries outside the Baltic, and these guaran- 
teed the purely neutral destination of cargoes. 
When the United States entered the War, the 
source of supply of goods which could be passed 
on to the enemy via neutral territory was re- 
duced to comparative unimportance, as control 
could be exercised at the place of export. The 
suppression of oversea trade designed to furnish 
supplies to Germany was then complete and 
was largely instrumental in forcing the enemy to 
sue for peace. 

BLOMFIELD, Sir Recinarp (1856— Va 
An English architect, born at Aldington, Kent, 
and educated at Haileybury, Oxford University, 
and Exeter College. After spending three years 
-in an architectural office and studying at the 
Royal Academy School of Architecture, he trav- 
eled on the Continent for a year and then 
started practicing in London in 1884. His style 
is late English Renaissance. Besides country 
houses he designed many public buildings in 
London and elsewhere including the Goldsmiths’ 
College, New Cross; the Imperial War Cross, 
Chelsea, and the new buildings for Lady Mar- 
garet Hall, Oxford. He also designed part of 
the facade of the Quadrant in Regent Street, 
London. At the outbreak of the War he ob- 
tained a commission in charge of trench work 
and was afterward chosen principal architect 


BLUE 


of the Imperial War Graves Commission. He 
was made Associate of the Royal Academy in 
1905 and served as professor of architecture 
there from 1906 to 1910. He was awarded the 
gold medal of the Royal Institute of British 
Architects in 1913 and in the following year was 
elected president of that body. Well-known as 
an art historian and critic, he was made Officer 
de l’Instruction Publique by the French govern- 
ment. His works include The Formal Garden 
in England, with F. I. Thomas (1892), History 
of Renaissance Architecture in England (1897), 
The Mistress Art (1908), and French Architec- 
ture, successive volumes (1911 and 1921). He 
was knighted in 1919. 

BLONDIN, Pierre Epovarp (1874— ) 
A Postmaster General of Canada, born at Saint 
Francois du Lac, Yamaska, and educated at the 
Séminaire de Nicolet, St. Michel’s College, To- 
ronto, and Laval University, Montreal. In 
1908 and 1911 he was elected to the House of 
Commons for Champlain and in the latter year 
was Deputy Speaker at the first session of the 
12th Parliament. He was sworn of the Privy 
Council and appointed Minister of Inland Rev- 
enue in 1914. Blondin enlisted in 1917 and 
was given command of the 158th Battalion of 
the Canadian Expeditionary Forces; he went 
abroad in October of that year as Commander 
of the Legion of Honor. He was a Conserva- 
tive member of Parliament for the county of 
Champlain in 1917 and in the following year 
was called to the Senate. 

BLOOD PRESSURE. Since about 1914 
many diagnosticians have formed the opinion 
that the ordinary measurement, the systolic, is 
insufficient to give a correct idea of the true 
state of the blood pressure. They have there- 
fore advocated that the diastolic and differential 
pressures be given more weight, the differential 
or pulse pressure being the true index of the 
circulation. While this attitude is sound in 
theory, it is so difficult to obtain satisfactory 
readings of the pulse pressure that some prac- 
tical men have returned to dependence on the 
systolic pressure alone. The practical value 
of the systolic pressure is still held to be great, 
but this value is restricted to a very few dis- 
eases. In regard to the prevention and relief 
of high blood pressure, certain factors common- 
ly accused have never been proved to cause or 
maintain this condition. Remarkable reduction 
of pressure has sometimes been obtained by the 
use of certain diets, as the so-called basie or 
alkaline diet, and also by the use of alkalies 
themselves. 

BLOOMFIELD, MaAvrice (1855- ). An 
American orientalist. He was born in Austria 
but came to America as a youth and studied at 
the University of Chicago and Johns Hopkins, 
as well as at Berlin and Leipzig. He has been 
professor of Sanskrit and comparative philology 
since 1885. His early works dealt with the 
Vedas, their religion, mythology and _ poetry. 
Recent publications of his are Life and Stories 
of the Jarna Savior Paravanatha (1916) and a 
work on the Rig Veda (1916). 

BLOS, Anna (1866-— ). A German social 
worker and teacher, born at Liegnitz. She has 
written on feminism and various social prob- 
lems. Among her works are Krieg und Schule 
(1915) and Frauenarbeit im Kriege (1917). 
She is the wife of Wilhelm Blos, the author. 

BLUE, Rupert (1867-— ). An American 
sanitarian and public official (see Vou. III). In 


BLUE 


1915 he was elected president of the American 
Medical Association and of the Association of 
Military Surgeons. In 1920-21 he was United 
States delegate to the International Office of 
Public Hygiene at Paris, and to the third Decen- 
nial Revision of International Nomenclature of 
Diseases. 

BLUE, Victor (1865- ). An American 
naval officer (see Vor. III). He commanded the 
battleship Texas in the North Sea under Ad- 
miral Beatty in 1917 and 1918. On Dec. 16, 
1918, he was reappointed chief of the Bureau of 
Navigation and was made rear-admiral on Apr. 
1; 1919. He was awarded the Distinguished 
Service Medal for service in the North Sea. 
He was retired in June, 1919, because of dis- 
ability received in line of duty. 

BLUNT, Witrrip ScAwEN (1840-1922). An 
English author (see Vou. III). In 1914 he pub- 
lished his complete poetical works. He also pub- 
lished My Diaries, in two parts (1919 and 
1920). 

BLYTHE, SAMUEL GEORGE (1868-— )? en 
American writer born at Geneseo, N. Y., where 
he was educated at the State Normal School. 
In the period 1893-99, he did editorial work 
for the Buffalo Express, the Buffalo Courier and 
Enquirer, and the Cosmopolitan Magazine. For 
the next seven years he was Washington corre- 
spondent for the New York World. He became a 
staff writer of the Saturday Evening Post 
(Philadelphia) in 1907. Among his publica- 
tions are We Have With us To-night (1909) ; 
‘Cutting It Out (1912); The Old Game (1914); 
The Fakers (1915); Hunkins (1919) and The 
Manikin Makers (1921). 

BOAS, IsmaAr_ (Isrmpor) (1858— yer A 
German physician and pioneer gastroenterolo- 
gist, born at Exin in Posen, and educated at 
Halle. In 1886 he established at Berlin the 
first service for diseases of the stomach and 
intestines. In 1907 he became professor of 
gastroenterology in the University of Berlin, 
began to write on gastroenterological sub- 
jects in 1886 and republished his minor ar- 
ticles in 1906 under the title Gesammelte 
Beitrége. His book, Diagnostik und Therapie 
der Magenkrankheiten, published 1890-93, was 
often republished, and an American translation 
was made by A. Bernheim in 1907. His com- 
panion book, Diagnostik und Therapie der 
Darmkrankheiten, first published in 1898, was 
followed in 1901 by an American translation by 
Seymour Basch. Other well known works of 
his are Die Lehre von der Okkulten Blitungen 
(1914), Diatetik der Magen-und Darmkrank- 
heiten (1920), and Das Hemorrhoidalleiden 
(1922). A monograph, Habitual Constipation, 
appeared in 1923 in a translation by Dr. T. L. 
Stedman. 

‘BOCKENHEIMER, Puitipr (1875- re 
German surgeon, born at Frankfurt-am-Main. 
In 1907 he was made professor of surgery in the 
University of Berlin. In 1904—06, in collabora- 
tion with Frohse, he published the Atlas 
Typischer Chirurgischen Operationen put into 
English by J. Howell Evans. The Atias Chirur- 
gischer Krankheitsbilder was issued by Bocken- 
heimer alone in 1907 and translated into Eng- 
lish by C. F. Marshall in 1908. Other works 
are the Leitfaden der Frakturen-Behandlung 


(1909); Plastische Operationen (1912), and 
Die Neue Chirurgie, (1921). 
BODANZKY, Artur (1877- ). An Aus- 


trian conductor, born at Vienna. After gradua- 


184 


BOEHN 


tion from the Vienna Konservatorium he began 
his career in 1897 as violinist at the Hofoper 
and studied composition with A. von Zemlinsky. 
His first position as conductor was at the 
Stadttheater at Budweis, where he conducted 
only operettas. In 1901 he went to the Karl- 
theater in Vienna, and two years later became 
Mahler’s assistant at the Hofoper. He then 
conducted one season at the Theater an der 
Wien (1904) and at the Lortzing Theater in 
Berlin (1905). In 1906-09 he was conductor 
at the Deutsches Landestheater in Prague and 
also conducted symphony concerts. There his 
excellent work soon attracted attention, and 
in 1909 he was called to Mannheim as direc- 
tor and first conductor of the Grandducal 
Theater and conductor of the symphony and 
oratorio concerts. In 1914 he conducted the 
first performances of Parsifal at Covent Gar- 
den, where Gatti-Casazza was so impressed 
with his ability that he secured him as Hertz’s 
successor at the Metropolitan Opera House in 
New York. This position he has filled with dis- 
tinction since he began his American career with 
a masterly performance of Gétterdimmerung 
(Nov. 17, 1915). Since 1916 he has also been 
conductor for the Society of the Friends of Music, 
and from 1919 to 1921 he led the concerts of 
the National Symphony Orchestra with con- 
spicuous success. After the amalgamation of 
the latter organization with. the Philharmonic 
Society (1921), he directed several Philhar- 
monie concerts as guest-conductor. He is a 
conductor of the Mahler type, authoritative, 
electrifying, and forceful. He revised the 
scores of Weber’s Oberon and Freischiitz, set- 
ting all the spoken dialogues to music. Both 
works were brought out at the Metropolitan 
Opera House under his direction, the former on 
Dec. 28, 1918, the latter on Mar. 22, 1924. He 
has made an excellent German translation of 
the libretto of Mozart’s Don Giovanni (1911). 

BODEWADT, Jacop A. C. (1883- 3 
German author born in Tondern (formerly 
Schleswig, now Denmark). He has specialized 


-on political.and literary subjects concerned with 


the Low Germans and is the author of Johannes 
Dose, der Erfolgreiche (1905), Gustav Frenssen 
(1906), J. H. Fehrs (1913), Weltkrieg und 
Niederdeutschtum (1915), Timm Kroger (1916) 
and some one-act plays in Plattdeutsch dialect. 
He edited Holstenart (1914), J. H. Fehrs’s Ge- 
sammelte Dichtungen (1913), Klaus Groth’s 
Briefe iiber Hoch-und Niederdeutsch (1914), 
Timm Kroéger’s Gedenkbuch (1920) and Zwi- 
schen zwet Meeren (1921), and an anthology, - 


Dichter der Nordmark (1921). 

BODLEY, JOHN EDWARD COURTENAY 
(1853- ). An English author (see VoL. 
III). He has written An Introduction to the 


English Edition of the National History of: 
France (1916) and The Romance of the Battle- 
line in France (1918). 

BOEHN, MAx von (1860- ). A German 
writer, born in Potsdam. He concerns himself 
with customs, fashions, and art. He is the au- 
thor of Spanische Reisebilder (1905), Menschen 
und Moden im Siebzehnten, Actzehnten, und 
Neunzehnten Jahrhundert (1906), biographies 
of Guido Reni, Giorgione, Palma Vecchio, Lo- 
renzo Bernini, and Karl Spitzweg (1907-09), 
Biedermeier 
ten (1916), Bekleidungskunst und Moderne 
(1917), Vom Kaiserreich zur Republik (1917), 
Modenspiegel (1919), Rokoko, Frankreich im 


(1911), Miniaturen und Silhouet- — 


BOGARDUS 


Achtzehnten Jahrhundert (1919), England im 
Achtzehnten Jahrhundert (1920), and Das Biihn- 
enkostum in Altertum, Mittelalter, und Neuzeit 

1921). 
; BOGARDUS, Emory Stepnen (1882- ). 
An American sociologist, born near Belvidere, 
Ill., and educated at Northwestern and Chicago 
Universities. At the University of California he 
was assistant professor of sociology and _ eco- 
nomics (1911-13) and associate professor (1913- 
15), and in 1915 he became professor of sociol- 
ogy, and head of the department two years 
later. He became director of the Division of 
Social Work at the same institution in 1920 
and in the same year editor of the Journal of 
Applied Sociology. He closely identified him- 
self with social work in southern California 
and has published several works on the sub- 
ject, among them Introduction to Sociology 
(1917); Essentials of Americanization (1919, 
1920) ; and a History of Social Thought. 

BOGART, Ernest Luptow (1870- ). An 
American economist and writer, born at Yon- 
kers, N. Y., and educated at Princeton and the 
University of Halle. He held assistant pro- 
fessorships at educational institutions, includ- 
ing his alma mater, and in 1909 became pro- 
fessor of economics at the University of I1- 
linois. He had charge of commodity studies 
for the research bureau of the War Trade 
Board in 1918 and in the next year was re- 
gional economist’ in the Foreign Trade Ad- 
viser’s Office for the Department of State. 
Among his works are Hconomic History of the 
United States (1907), Practical Economics 
(1910), Readings tn the Economic History of 
the United States (1915), Centennial History 
of Illinois (1918), Direct and Indirect Cost of 
the ‘Great World War (1919), and War Costs 
and Their Financing (1921). 

BOGERT, GEorGE GLEASON (1884— ). An 
American lawyer and educator, born in Scot- 
land, and was educated at Cornell University. 
After studying law he was admitted to the bar 
in 1908. For three years following, he prac- 
ticed at Elmira, N. Y., and in 1911 was acting 
assistant professor of law at Cornell. He be- 
came assistant professor in 1912, and professor 
of law and dean of the College of Law in 1921. 
In 1920 he was commissioner on Uniform State 
’ Laws for New York. During the War he 
served in many important legal capacities. In 
1919 he was appointed lieutenant-colonel and 
judge advocate in the General Corps. He 
was author of The Sale of Goods in New York 
(1912), The Elements of the Law of Trusts 
(1914), and Hornbook on Trusts (1921). He 
was for many years editor of the Cornell Law 
Quarterly. 

BOGERT, Lotra JEAN (1888—- )ov An 
American chemist, born at Scotland, S. D., and 
was educated at Cornell and Yale Universities. 
She served as instructor at Simmons College 
during 1910-12 and at Mt. Holyoke during 
1911-12. After further studies at Yale, she 
held teaching appointments there until 1919, 
when she became professor of food economy and 
nutrition at Kansas State Agricultural College. 
Her original investigations have included studies 


in human nutrition, blood volume, excretion of’ 


calcium and magnesium phosphate, and an im- 
portant research concerning pellagra. 
BOGERT, Marston (1868— ). An Ameri- 
can chemist (see Vou. III). During the War he 
was consultant of the Bureau of Mines and 


185 


-a full member in 1920. 


BOILERS 


held a number of important posts in the chemi- 
eal and gas service of the United States gov- 
ernment. He was honorably discharged on 


"May 1, 1919. 


BOHEMIA. See CzecHo-SLovakIA. 

BOHM, MAx (1868-1923). An American 
artist, born at Cleveland, Ohio, in 1868, and 
educated at the Cleveland Art School. At 19 
he went to Europe, where he was the pupil of 
Jean Paul Laurens, Lefebvre, and Benjamin 
Constant. Two years after his first visit to 
Europe he had a picture in the Paris Salon 
(1889). In 1898 he won prizes and the gold 
medal of the Paris Salon, and from that date 
his list of awards has been exeeptionally long. 
Among them is a gold medal from the Panama- 
Pacific Exposition 1915. Bohm was elected an 
Associate of the National Academy in 1917 and 
His best known pictures 
are “The Family” and “Happy Hours” in the 
Luxembourg Museum. Bohm’s work as a mural 
painter is well illustrated in the music room 
of Mrs. Mary Longyear’s house in Brookline, 
Mass. 

BOHR, Nie~ts HENprRicK Davip (1885-— Ip 
A Danish scientist, born at Copenhagen, and 
educated at the University of Copenhagen. 
When but little over 20, he decided to devote 
himself to the study of the atom. He became 
professor of mathematical physics at the Uni- 
versity of Copenhagen in 1916 and director of 
its Institute of Theoretical Physics in 1920. In 
1922 he won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his 
theory in respect to the electric structure of the 
atom (see CHEMISTRY: Electronic Theory of the 
Atom). In November of the following year he 
delivered a series of six lectures at Yale Uni- 
versity, describing his theory as to how atoms 
are built up by the binding of one electron af- 
ter another in an atomic nuclei. This theory 
has enabled other Danish scientists to discover 
a new element, hafnium. As a direct result of 
the Yale lectures, the Rockefeller International 
Education Board appropriated $40,000 for the 
enlargement and extension of Dr. Bohr’s lab- 
oratory at Copenhagen, in order that American 
students, as well as those of other countries, 
might work with him. In 1922 he published 
Theory of Spectra and Atomic Constitution. See 
PHYSICS. 

BOILER, Mercury. See QUICKSILVER. 

BOILER CODE. See BoILers. 

BOILERS. With the pronounced tendency to 
construct steam power plants of increasing size 
and efficiency during the period from 1914— 
1924 considerable attention was paid to boilers, 
and as a result units of larger capacity were 
installed capable of working at constantly 
greater pressures, and also at higher conditions 
of superheat. Not only were units of greater 
size provided, but also with the increased costs 
of fuel and labor, it was found necessary to 
secure the most efficient installations possible, 
and to provide automatic stokers and similar 
devices which would ensure regular feeding of 
the furnaces. This increased economy was 
seen particularly at public utility power plants 
where in 1919 a ton of coal produced 625 kilo- 
watt-hours of electricity. In 1923 it produced 
835 kilowatt-hours. Of course the boiler in- 
stallation was responsible for only a part of this 
efficiency. 

Naturally the largest boiler installations were 
to be found at the great central stations of the 
electric light and power companies as under 


BOILERS 
modern conditions it was desirable to concen- 
trate as much generating capacity as possible in 
large central stations favorably located for ob- 


taining supplies of fuel and condensing water. ~ 


For the larger central stations the tendency was 
to standardize the boiler installations with 
units of from 14,000 to 20,000 square feet 
of surface, and to provide for the more efficient 
burning of coal with the increased capacity 
and at the higher ratings. 

A boiler with a record for large size was 
that built for the Cleveland Electric [lluminat- 
ing Company with 30,600 square feet of sur- 
face. All of these large units, of course, were 
operated in connection with steam _ turbines 
which had become the approved practice in 
large central stations. Where powdered coal 
was employed the furnace volume was consider- 
ably increased, while with the larger furnace 
and higher temperatures more attention was be- 
ing paid to the brick work and thicker, larger 
walls were employed. A large number of plants 
were being equipped for the use of oil fuel, and 
with this object a portion of the installation of 
the power station of the New York Central 
Railroad at Yonkers was changed, as_ well 
as that of the Singer Building at New York 
City. 

At the Weymouth Station of the Edison II- 
luminating Company at Boston, and at the 
Calumet plant of the Commonwealth Edison 
Company of Chicago, in 1923, experiments were 
in progress with boilers designed for 1200 
pounds pressure which were sufficiently large 
that they would operate on a commercial load. 
This type of boiler had an inclined heater and 
cross-drum with upper and lower decks of two 
inch tubes separated to accommodate a primary 
and secondary superheater, the latter being 
used to reheat the steam exhausted from an 
extra high pressure turbine before it was de- 
livered into the main heater. 

Experiments in Germany by Dr. Wilhelm 
Schmidt indicated that steam could be gen- 
erated in boilers at pressures of 800 pounds and 
higher, to be used in an especially designed re- 
ciprocating engine with a gain of some 20 per 
cent in efficiency over the best turbine practice 
prevailing. In 1923 Schmidt had a high pres- 
sure boiler designed to generate 15,500 pounds 
at a gauge pressure of 850 pounds. In his re- 
ciprocating engine his exhaust had a pressure 
of 140 pounds passed to a heat accumulator 
supplying the steam hammers of the shop. The 
drums of the boilers were forged from a single 
piece of metal without welded or lifted joints, 
and were rendered more or less immune to 
internal stresses by being annealed after 
forging. 

In Sweden about the same time, a boiler de- 
signed for 1500 pounds pressure was operating 
successfully at 900 pounds. Here steam was 
produced from centrifugally formed shells of 
water in rotary tubes, 12 inches in diameter. 
An interesting test plant was installed to test 
experimentally the Benson super-pressure boiler 
where steam was generated under critical con- 
ditions at 3200 pounds per square inch, and at 
a temperature of 706 degrees Fahrenheit. This 
would be utilized by throttling to 1500 pounds, 
and then after being superheated to 788 degrees 
Fahrenheit would be passed through a high 
pressure turbine exhausting 200 pounds pres- 
sure. This exhaust steam would then be re- 
heated to 662 degrees Fahrenheit expanded in 


186 


BOILERS 


a standard turbine and condensed to 29 inches 
vacuum. 

Electric Boilers. An interesting development 
where coal or oil fuel was costly and water 
power cheap and abundant, as in the northern 
United States and Canada, was the use of elec- 
tric boilers, where electricity was employed to 
produce steam at the plant of the Laurentide 
Company of Canada, where in 1923, largest 
boilers of this type were in service. Each unit 
had a capacity of absorbing 35,000 kilowatts 
of electricity and producing 100,000 pounds of 
steam per hour. Another electric steam boiler 
installed at Berlin, New Hampshire, employed 
three phase, 60-cycle current at 22,000 volts, 
and had a capacity of 18,000 kilowatts generat- 
ing steam at 135 pounds pressure. 

National Boiler Code. A committee of the 
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ap- 
pointed in 1911 to consider the subject of a 
comprehensive national code for the construc- 
tion and installation of steam boilers, pre- 
sented a preliminary draft of such a measure at 
the annual meeting of the society in 1914. 
This code was approved by the council of the 
Society in 1915, and straightway it was recom- 
mended as a basis for uniform state and munic- 
ipal legislation. In preparing the draft the 
Massachusetts and Ohio state regulations were 
adopted as a basis, and all interested manu- 
facturers, users and engineers were invited to 
make suggestions. The report and the accom- 
panying code deal in detail with specifications 
for steam boilers and boiler tubes. 

Uniform rules for safety valves, fire tube and 
water tube boilers, and steam and hot water 
heating boilers combined practice with theory 
so that the interests of all. were protected and 
the safety of the public was insured. The 
American ‘Uniform Boiler Law Society was 
formed to further. the adoption of this code 
which secured the approval of a number of 
states and the enactment into statutes. In fact 
it received such general approval that the 
specification for boiler work on the Panama 
Canal provided that construction should be in 
accordance with the code with alternate bids 
on boilers not so constructed. 

This code came into effect in 17 states, the 
District of Columbia, and the Panama Zone, 
and in 14 cities. The states adopting the code 
included the more important states such as 
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, 
California, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan and 
Indiana. 

Mercury Boiler. The period from 1914 to 
1924 witnessed the culmination of.some success- 
ful experiments by W. M. L. Emmet in the de- 
velopment of a mercury boiler and turbine, 
where mercury vapor took the place of steam. 
Inasmuch as mercury vapor has a vapor pres- 
sure lower than that of steam its expansive 
force under the action of heat would be corres- 
pondingly greater, and for the same expendi- 
ture of fuel more energy would be developed. 
It was this increased theoretical economy that 
interested engineers and between 1914 and 
1924 Emmet was working on a practical solu- 
tion of the problem. In 1923 after some 15 
different experimental designs had been de- 
veloped a working installation was built and 
placed in commercial service at the Dutch Point 
Station of the Hartford Electric Light Com- 
pany. This equipment was designed to develop 
1800 kilowatts from the mercury turbine gen- 


BOISSEVAIN 


erator, while in addition at least 28,000 pounds 
of water steam would be generated from the 
condensing mercury, though up to the end: of 
1923 the plant had not been operated to gen- 
erate more than 15,000 kilowatts and 27,000 
pounds of steam per hour. In this Hartford 
boiler which was oil fired, mercury was va- 
porized at 812 degrees Fahrenheit and 35 pounds 
pressure. The vapor then passed to a special 
turbine engine, where it was expanded to 29- 
inches vacuum and 414 degrees Fahrenheit. 
The temperature of condensation was used in a 
connected steam boiler to generate steam for an 
ordinary steam turbine, or for delivery to the 
main steam line. Theoretically there was a 
considerable margin of economy to be gained, 
and it was stated that for each pound of fuel 
consumed a mercury-steam plant would afford 
52 per cent more electrical output than an ordi- 
nary efficient steam turbine installation operat- 
ing at 100 pounds pressure, while if the mer- 
cury equipment were added to the same turbine 
installation for an increase in fuel of 18 per 
cent, there would be an additional output of 
some 80 per cent. The Hartford equipment 
held about 32,000 pounds of mercury, which 
was evaporated at a rate of 230,000 pounds of 
mercury per hour, or in other words all the 
mercury used in the system would be vaporized 
about eight times in an hour. It required 
about 8.5 pounds of mercury to make 1 pound of 
steam. It was believed that in future instal- 
lations there could be a considerable reduction 
of the amount of mercury required by reducing 
the size of the mercury spaces in the mercury 
boiler and mercury economizer. 

A new edition of Steam Boiler Economy by 
William Kent was published in 1915, discussing 
modern practice up to the time of its publication. 

BOISSEVAIN, INEz MILHOLLAND (1886-— 
1916). An American suffrage leader and law- 
yer, born in New York. She was graduated from 
Vassar College in 1909, and being refused ad- 
mittance to Oxford, Cambridge, and the Harvard 
Law School on account of her sex, she entered 
the New York University Law School. Inez 
Milholland, as she was known in suffrage circles 
even after her marriage to Eugene Boissevain, a 
Dutch electrical engineer, was prominent at col- 
lege for her championship of radical social ideas. 
Part of her time was devoted to court proba- 
tion work in Poughkeepsie. During a vacation 
she went to England, joined Mrs. Pankhurst’s 
forces, and was arrested in. a demonstration. 
In 1912 she aided the shirtwaist strikers in 
New York. Her methods were somewhat spec- 
tacular, but her enthusiasm and ability as a 
speaker and organizer made her invaluable to 
the Woman’s party and the Congressional Union, 
with which she was identified. She died on 
Nov. 25, 1916, at Los Angeles, Cal., where she 
had been overtaken by illness during a speaking 
tour for the Woman’s Party. 

BOJER, JoHan (1872- ). A Norwegian 
novelist (see Vou. III). In 1916 he published 
Sigurd Braa, a drama. He is also the author 
of the following works, all of them translated 
into English: The Great Hunger (1916), The 
Face of the World (1917), God and Woman 
(1920), and The Last of the Vikings (1922). 
In 1923 he visited the United States. See 
SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE, Norwegian. 

BOK, Epwarp WILLIAM (1863-— ). An 
American editor and author (see Vor. III). In 
1919 he resigned from the editorship of The 


187 BOLIVIA 


Ladies’ Home Journal. He has written Why 
I Believe in Poverty (1915), The Americaniza- 
tion of Edward Bok (1920), Two Persons: an 
Incident and an Epilogue (1922), and The Man 
from Maine (1923). He was the originator of 
the American Peace Award, a prize of $100,000 
offered in 1923 for the most practicable plan 
for securing permanent world peace. 

BOKHARA. Formerly a dependency of the 
Russian Empire with a crowned head, but 
since the Revolution, an independent republic. 
It is situated in Central Asia, has an area of 
79,440 square miles, and an estimated popula- 
tion of 3,000,000. Bokhara, the capital, has 
a population of 75,000; Karshi, 25,000. Its 
civilization is typically Asiatic, the Occidental 
life pressing all about it having touched it not 
at all. The activities of the people still in- 
dicate the pastoral and handicrafts stages. 
Corn, fruit, silk, tobacco, cotton, and hemp are 
produced; goats, sheep, horses, and camels are 
bred. Green tea,'to the amount of 1125 tons 
yearly, was imported from India, which, in turn, 
received almost all of Bokhara’s raw silk. 

In September, 1920, the reigning Amir, Mir 
Alim Khan, was deposed as the result of the 
return of the exiled Bokharan progressive in- ° 
tellectuals who received help in arms and troops 
from Soviet Russia. A Soviet government was 
set up and an attempt made to modernize the 
country by closing the theological schools and 
introducing secular education. But religious 
feeling was too deeply implanted and a revolt 
at once broke out, in which Enver Pasha took a 
prominent part, which dragged on through 
1922, principally in the mountainous districts 
of Eastern Bokhara. A Soviet force defeated 
Enver’s troops in July, 1922, and Enver was 
reported killed. It was ascertained that the 
rebels received material aid from Afghanistan. 
Like the other Russian Succession States, 
Bokhara was treated generously by Russia and 
its independence assured through military and 
political agreements. (A _ political treaty on 
Mar. 4, 1921, and an economic treaty on the 
same day, were signed.) See RUSSIA. 

BOLIVIA. A South American republic, and 
the only country on the Western Hemisphere 
that has no direct access to the sea. It is sit- 
uated west of Brazil and northeast of Chile. 
Its area is estimated at 560,000 square miles, 
certain territories still being in dispute; and its 
population is estimated at 2,820,000. La Paz, 
the largest city and the actual seat of govern- 
ment, has a population of 107,250. Other large 
and important cities are: Cochabamba, 30,818; 
Potosi, 29,795; and Sucre, 29,686. 

Industry. Although mining was the prin- 
cipal factor of economic wealth in the country, 
agriculture continued to be the leading occupa- 
tion of the people. Of the agricultural prod- 
ucts, rubber was the most important. The rub- 
ber industry was centred in the departments of 
Beni and Santa Cruz. Rubber, in fact, was 
second in importance only to tin. The crude 
rubber production of Bolivia was only slightly 
inferior to that of Brazil, and many thousand 
acres of wild rubber trees were available. Bo- 
livia was, however, the second tin-producing 
country in the world, ranking after the Malay 
Straits Settlements, and in 1923 it was reported 
that Bolivia had taken the lead in world pro- 
duction of this mineral. Besides this, Bolivia 
produced important quantities of wolfram, sil- 
ver, lead, antimony, copper, and zine. Con- 


BOLIVIA 


siderable prospecting and some drilling for oil 
was undertaken during the period, particularly 
in the eastern part of the country, but no large 
production was reported. In 1921, the last year 
for which statistics were available, mineral ex- 
ports constituted over 81 per cent of the total 
export (54,604,131.51 bolivianos, out a total of 
66,919,445 bolivianos). Exportation of im- 
portant minerals for 1921 was as follows: tin, 
31,811,145 kilos for 42,909,303 bolivianos;  sil- 
ver, 16,719,027 kilos for 10,473,265; copper, 
33,330,891 kilos for 5,970,680. (One kilo equals 
2.2 pounds, and one boliviano equalled $0.23 
average for 1921.) 

Commerce. The total commerce of Bolivia 
for the year 1921 was approximately 30 per 
cent greater than the total figures for 1914. 
Practically the entire increase was due to larger 
importations, however, which increased from 
39,761,222 bolivianos in 1914 to 70,853,152 
bolivianos in 1921. The year 1918 marked the 
high level of exports, the ‘year’s total trade 
figures passing the 217,000,000 bolivianos mark. 
The 1920 total trade, however, was the largest of 
any year in the period 1914-21 inclusive. Fol- 
lowing are the trade figures for the more im- 
portant years of this period (in bolivianos) : 


Year Importations Exportations Total 
VOT Caters Saecp vie 39,761,222 65,801,146 105,562,368 
EOTG OAV ce 31,098,215 101,484,800 132,583,015 
MOURA be Sus shia 34,999,886 182,612,851 217,612,737 
2:0 Tat cites leenele 65,339,505 156,018,745 221,358,250 
OR Laas so) etmmens 70,853,152 66,919,445 137,772,597 


The chief articles of import were manufac- 
tured articles, foodstuffs and beverages, and 
textiles. The United States was the chief 
country to gain by Germany’s disappearance 
from the competitive market. However, Great 
Britain also made rapid strides in obtaining the 
trade of Bolivia. In 1921, the United States 
supplied 28.40 per cent of Bolivia’s imports, and 
took slightly over 37 per cent of her exports; 
the United Kingdom supplied 23.79 per cent and 
took 53 per cent. In 1919, the United States 
took 41 per cent of Bolivia’s exports, and Great 
Britain 49 per cent. 

Communications. In 1922, total length of 
railways in operation was 1100 miles including 
a new line, opened in July, 1917, from Oruro 
to Cochabamba. In addition 230 miles were 
under construction. A line was also projected 
to tap the oil lands in the east, but by 1924 
no construction work was under way. In 1921, 
a line from Atocha to Villaz6n was commenced, 
to be completed early in 1925. The importance 
of this road lay in the fact that it would con- 
nect with the Argentine frontier and thus form 
another means of transcontinental transporta- 
tion, via La Paz. Work was proceeding on this 
road in 1924, and considerable sums were being 
spent to push it to completion. 

Finance. The cost of government steadily 
mounted, and large deficits were returned each 


year. The 1924 budget called for revenues of 
23,938,533 bolivianos, and expenditures of 
38,623,832 bolivianos, a deficit of 14,685,299 


bolivianos. In 1912, revenues and _ expenses 
were almost equal at about 17,300,000 bolivianos. 
In 1922, the deficit was over 20,000,000 bolivi- 
anos. Annual charges for the foreign debt 
were estimated at 12,500,000  bolivianos; 
2,500,000 for internal debt, and 5,000,000 to cus- 
toms house warrants. On. May 28, 1923, the 


demimonde of two continents. 


188 BOLO 


foreign debt of Bolivia was reported as 
91,365,100 bolivianos; internal debt, 13,852,555 
bolivianos, and floating debt 6,345,354  bolivi- 
anos. This would make a total in dollars of 
$36,855,966, or approximately $13 per capita. 
A refunding loan of $24,000,000 was authorized 
in the United States in 1922, and a loan of 
12,000,000 bolivianos was secured in 1923, to be 
applied to the deficit. 

Education. An increasing 
evinced in education in Bolivia. 
free and obligatory. There were 504 national 
primary schools, about 650 municipal schools, 
and about 108 private schools, making a total 
of 1265 schools for lower education. Also, 16 
higher-grade schools were established, besides 
the National School of Commerce at La Paz, and 
the University at Sucre, which bestowed de- 
grees in law, medicine and theology. There 
were several specialized technical schools. The 
best secondary institutions were those schools 
endowed by American Methodists at La Paz 
and Cochabamba. 

History. General Ismael Montes was once 
more elected president of the republic for the 
term 1913-17, to suceeed President Villazon. 
During his administration the effects of the 
War were felt in the decline of exports, though 
purchases by the United States lightened the 
stringency considerably. As a result of Ger- 
many’s submarine campaign, Bolivia broke off 
diplomatic relations in April, 1917, and thus 
became one of the signatories of the Peace 
Treaty in 1919 as well as an original member 
of the League of Nations. For the term 1917- 
21, Sr. José Guerra was elected, but he was 
compelled to resign and leave the country in 
1920, as the result of a revolution caused by his 
friendliness toward Chile. In January, 1921, 
Sr. Bautista Saavedra, leader of the revolution, 
was elected president by the National Assembly ; 
he was recognized by the United States in 
February. 

Bolivia’s boundary lines with her neighbors 
were amicably settled, the Bolivian-Peruvian 
frontier being fixed in 1915, the Bolivian- 
Brazilian in 1920, and the Bolivian-Argentine 
in 1913. The Bolivian-Paraguayan frontier, 
provided for by treaty in 1913, had not yet been 
delimited in 1924 because of the disputed Gran 
Chaco region. Bolivia, because of her desire 
for an outlet to the sea, was precipitated into 
the Tacna-Arica dispute (q.v.), and in spite of 
the advances made by Chile, aligned herself with 
Peru. Bolivia’s claim for a corridor through 
Tacna was placed before the Peace Conference 
with no results. In 1920, in a protest to Chile 
on the matter of the treaty of 1904 which per- 
petually barred Bolivia from the Pacific, the 
Bolivian government called for a reopening of 
the question on the grounds of its international 
importance. Bolivia placed her claims before 
the United States government, which had been 
chosen mediator of the whole question, in 1923. 


interest was 


BOLL WEEVIL. See Cotton; AGRICUL- 
TURE. 

BOLLWORM, PINK. See EwntTomo.ocy, 
Economie. 


BOLO, Raver (PAScHA) (?-1918). A French 
adventurer. By 1914, as a result of his shady 
financial operations, Bolo Pasha (a title gained 
from the Egyptian Khedive) was known in the 
In 1917 he was 
arrested for treason; it was charged that he was 
in the hire of German agents. In particular, 


It was both © 


Se TON 


a LT ee PII 


ae er ae 


BOLSCHE 189 


he was accused of having traveled in the United 
States, in 1915-16, in the interest of Count von 
Bernstorff, German ambassador at Washington. 
He was tried in February, 1918, and shot at 
Vincennes, Apr. 17, 1918. An. attempt was 
made two years later to link Caillaux’s name 
with Bolo’s. 

BOLSCHE, Wirnerm (1861— +). ~A Ger- 
man writer on science, born in Cologne. He 
studied philology but specialized in nature and 
literature and has written on scientific subjects 
in a peculiarly fascinating style. He is the 
author of Naturwissenschaftliche Grundlagen 
der Poesie (1887), Entwicklungsgeschichte der 
Natur (1893-96), Darwin (1898), Liebesleben 
in der Natur (1898-1902), Vom Bazillus zum 
Affenschen (1899), Héckel (1900), Goethe 
(1900), Entwicklungslehre (1900), Hinter der 
Weltstadt (1901), Sonnen und Sonnenstiubchen 
(1902), Die Hréberung der Menschheit (1903), 
Aus der Schneegrube (1904), Die Abstammung 
der Menschheit (1904), Weltblick (1904), Na- 
turgeheimniss (1905), Stammbaum der Tiere 
(1905), Sieg des Lebens (1905), Auf dem Men- 
schenstern (1909), Stunden im All (1909), Was 
Ist die Natur (1907), Menschen der Vorzeit 
(1909), Komet und Weltuntergang (1910), 
Festland und Meere im Wechsel der Zeit (1913), 
Stirb und Werde (1913), Menschen der Zukunft 
(1913), Tierwanderung in der Urwelt (1914), 
Neue Welten (1915), Stammbaum der Mensch- 
heit (1916), Schutz und Trutzbiindnisse in der 


Natur (1917), Hiszeit und Klimatwechsel 
(1919), ete. Bélsche has also written some 
fiction and has edited the works of Goethe, 


Hauff, Novalis, Uhland, Heine, and others. 

BOLSHEVISM. Russian Bolshevism is 
merely an application of the well-known doc- 
trine of Communism familiar to Europe since 
the publication of the Communist Manifesto in 
1847. Its system includes these main precepts: 
the capture of the means of production and dis- 
tribution by the proletariat, by force if neces- 
sary, and the continued dictatorship of society 
by this proletariat, even though it should con- 
stitute a minority. The word Bolshevism is de- 
rived from Bolshevik (Russian Bolshevik, plu- 
ral Bolsheviki) the name applied to the mem- 
bers of the majority (Russian bolshinstv6) at 
the second Congress of the Russian Socialist 
party in 1903, as opposed to the Mensheviki or 
minority. This antagonism between the two 
wings of Russian socialism, centring mainly in 
the rejection, by the Bolsheviki, of democratic 
control, was continued up to the Russian Rev- 
olution (1917), and after. It served largely, 
too, to divide European and American socialism 
into two camps, the first of which was ready to 
accept the Bolshevist doctrine of the dictator- 
ship of the proletariat, and the second ‘to repu- 
diate it. Of the latter group may be mentioned 
the Englishman MacDonald, the German Kaut- 
sky, the Americans Berger and Hillquit. In 
the United States, after 1917, the term Bolshe- 
vism was applied loosely to almost all move- 
ments that aimed at radical change in the ex- 
isting system of private ownership, whether 
the means advocated were peaceful or violent. 
For the history of Russian Bolshevism, see 
Russia. See also Communism for other de- 
velopments in theory and practice. 

BOLTON, Guy REGINALD (? V3 
dramatic author, born in England. His first 
play, The Drone, written in collaboration with 
Douglas J. Wood, was produced in New York in 


BOMB 


1911. After 1911 he wrote many plays, mostly 
in collaboration. Those on which he worked 
with P. G. Wodehouse included Have a Heart 
(1917); Leave It to Jane (1917); Miss 1917 


(1917); Oh! Boy (1917); The Riviera Girl 
(1917); Ringtime (1917); Ask Dad (1918); 
The Girl Behind the Gun (1918); See You 


Later (1918); and The Rose of China (1919). 
With George Middleton he wrote Polly with a 
Past (1917); Adam and Eva (1919); The 
Light of the World (1920), and The Cave Girl 
(1920). In association with Wodehouse and the 
composer, Jerome Kern, he produced musical 
comedies of a novel elegance and refinement 
which were presented at the Princess Theatre 
(New York). 

BOLTON, THappEuS LINCOLN (1865- ). 
An American psychologist, born at Sonora, IIL, 
and educated at Michigan and Clark Univer- 
sities. After teaching in secondary schools, he 
became successively professor at the University 
of Washington (1897-98), University of Ne- 
braska (1899-1910), and University of Mon- 
tana (1912-17). In 1917 he became professor 
of psychology at Temple University (Philadel- 
phia), and in 1919, lecturer at the Philadelphia 
School of Occupational Therapy. His exper- 
imental researches include papers on rhythm, 
growth of memory, fatigue, motor power and 
intelligence, efficacy of consciousness, and _ in- 
heritance of special traits. 

BOLTWOOD, BERTRAM BORDEN (1870— ). 
An American chemist, born at Amherst, Mass., 
and educated at Yale University and abroad, 
chiefly in Munich. In 1894 he became an as- 
sistant in the chemical laboratory of the Shef- 
field Scientific School, and two years later an 
instructor in physical chemistry at Yale. Dur- 
ing 1900-06 he devoted his attention to re- 
search, chiefly in radium and _ radio-activity. 
He returned to Yale in 1906 and was made as- 
sistant professor of physics but spent the years 
1909-10 at the University of Manchester, where 
he held a John Harding fellowship. In 1910 
he resumed his teaching at Yale as professor of 
radio-chemistry and in 1918 became director of 
the Kent Chemical Laboratory. His published 
papers have been devoted for the most part to 
his specialty, radium, and its activities. On 
this subject he is perhaps the foremost author- 
ity in the United States. 

BOMB, AIRcRAFT. See BOMBING OF VESSELS, 
BY AIRCRAFT. . 

BOMB, DertH. A portable submarine mine 
carried by vessels in the Allies’ anti-submarine 
service during the War, and by some others’, for 
use against submarines which were submerged. 
The bombs were of two types: stick bombs for 
projection by bomb-throwers, and plain cylin- 
drical bombs for dropping or ejection from 
chutes. The bomb case was cylindrical, of 
sheet steel, and had a ring in each end for 
handling and securing. In stick bombs, the 
stick was secured in the cylinder like the handle 
of a hammer. In using either a single barrel 
or a Y gun bomb-thrower, the stick of the bomb 
was inserted in the muzzle. The firing mechan- 
ism of the bomb could be set to cause explosion 
at any desired depth, and the safety key was 
connected with the depth control. The charge 
was from 50 to 300 pounds of light explosive 
depending on the size of the bomb When a 
destroyer or patrol boat passed over the sup- 
posed position of a submarine, bombs were slid 
overboard from the chutes astern or projected 


BOMBING OF VESSELS 


from the bomb-throwers, which could throw 
them about 40 yards. The depth bomb was the 
most important weapon used against submarines 
in the War, and according to British reports, 
it destroyed 34 of them. The explosion of a 
300—pound depth bomb was always fatal at 
distances of 25 feet or less and even at more 
than 30 feet if the explosion took place below 
the plane of the submarine and not too near the 
surface. At moderate distances beyond the fa- 
tal range, the violence of the explosion caused 
serious leaks and often put out of action much 
of the operating mechanism thereby forcing the 
boat to the surface or to the bottom, while the 
effect on the nerves of the crew was severe. 
See BoMBING OF VESSELS; MINE, SUBMARINE; 
NAVIES OF THE WORLD; SUBMARINES AND THEIR 
Wak ACTIVITIES. 

BOMBING OF VESSELS, sy Atrcrarr. The 
use of bombs by aircraft in the attack of ves- 
sels was, during the War, chiefly directed 
against submarines. The bombs were small and 
of the type employed against troops, fortifica- 
tions, arms factories, railways, and the like, 
in the attack of which numbers were usually 
more important than great size. Although 
large bombing planes and large bombs were de- 
veloped during hostilities, their use was ex- 
ceptional. Since the close of the War, and par- 
ticularly since 1920, the large bombing plane 
designed to attack naval vessels of the best 
protected and most powerful type has received 
much attention and is being steadily improved. 
The first extensive tests in the United States 
were made in July, 1921. The ex-German bat- 
tleship Ostfriesland, the cruiser Frankfurt, the 
destroyer G-102, and the submarine U-117 were 
the vessels attacked. Both army and navy 
planes joined in the operations. The vessels 
withstood attack remarkably well. Bombs of 
600 pounds and less which landed on the deck 
of the Ostfriesland produced local damage only. 
She was finally sunk by 2000-pound bombs 
which exploded under water close alongside. 

Still more interesting tests were carried out 
in the summer of 1923. The old battleships 
New Jersey and Virginia were the targets. The 
ships were anchored. The weather was mild 
and so clear that approaching planes were vis- 
ible 15 miles away. In fact, all conditions were 
abnormally in favor of the attacking force. 
The first attack was made on the New Jersey 
from a height of 11,000 feet by five Martin 
bombers, each carrying four 600-pound bombs 
and one 100-pound sighting bomb. The planes 
moved in column, half a mile apart, in a large 
circle, and each dropped one bomb every time it 
passed over the target. Three hits were made, 
but the bombs exploded above decks and dam- 
aged only upper deck plating and fittings. The 
next attack was made by seven bombers at a 
height of 6000 feet, with each plane carrying 
one 2000-pound bomb. No hits were made, but 
one bomb exploded close alongside. The ship 
took a slight list, and it was thought she would 
sink; consequently, the next attack was made 
on the Virginia by seven bombers at 3000 feet, 
each carrying two 1100-pound bombs. One 
bomb struck the ship, and breaking through one 
or more decks, exploded below with enormous 
effect; the masts, smokepipes, upper deck, and 
upper works were demolished. Thirty minutes 
later, the vessel turned over and sank. Four 
hours after the attack with 2000-pound bombs, 
as the New Jersey was still afloat with only a 


190 


BONE 


slight list and no serious injury to masts, tur- 
rets, guns, or anything except light plating 
which was perforated and torn by the explosions 
and fragments of the 600-pound bombs, she was 
assailed by seven bombers, each carrying two 
1100-pound bombs and flying at 3000 feet. No 
hits were made, though apparently one bomb 
fell near enough to increase the ship’s list 
slightly. Two more bombers then appeared and 
dropped three 1100-pound bombs; one of these 
made a direct hit, and one fell close alongside. 
The bomb which hit broke its way through one 
or more decks and burst below, opening up the 
side or bottom plating so that the ship turned 
over and sank in five minutes. 

If, in these tests, the vessels had been under- 
way and steering zigzag courses at varying 
speeds, no hits would have been made except by 
accident. Had the upper decks been lightly 
armored, no explosions would have taken place 
below decks and the resulting injuries would 
have been no greater and perhaps less than the 
hit of a single 16-inch shell. Had the vessels 
been fitted with cellular anti-torpedo belts, the 
bombs which fell close alongside would have 
caused no serious damage except a slight reduc- 
tion in speed. If in addition the vessels had 
been equipped with anti-aircraft batteries, smoke 
shells, and smoke-producing apparatus, and if 
they had been accompanied by an aircraft car- 
rier with a squadron of combat planes designed 
for attacking bombers, then the attacking force 
would have been in much greater danger than 
the ships. In the present state of bomber de- 
velopment the vessels which have most to fear 
from them are light cruisers and auxiliary ves- 
sels, especially fuel and supply ships and trans- 
ports. These ought not to approach within 200 
miles of a shore bomber station without ade- 
quate protection by aircraft, by swift patrol 
vessels carrying numerous anti-aircraft guns 
and other defensive apparatus, or by both. See 
Boms, DEPTH; GUNNERY, NAVAL; ORDNANCE, 

BONE, MurrHEAD (1876- ). A British 
painter and etcher, born at Glasgow, and edu- 
cated at the Glasgow Evening School of. Art. 
In 1897 and the following years he produced 
excellent work in black and white for the Scots 
Pictorial. He established himself in London 
in 1891 and there quickly made a reputation by 
his etchings. He assisted prominently in found- 
ing the Society of Twelve and he was elected a 
member of the New English Art Club The 
National Art Collections Fund in 1906 bought 
his etching, “The Great Gantry, Charing Cross,” 
and presented it to the British Museum. He 
was appointed official artist on the western 
front and with the fleet by the British War 
Office from 1916 to 1918, and some of his draw- 
ings were subsequently reproduced in volume 
form. They include every phase of activity on 
the western front, military operations, hospital 
scenes, and camp and trench life. Chalk line 
and wash are successfully used to give rhythm, 
form, and atmospheric effect; in others of these 
sketches, charcoal is the medium. Mr. Bone 
has also done numerous individual portraits. 

BONE, Scorr CARDELLE (1860- pax Am 
American editor and governor born in Shelly 
County, Ind., and educated in the public schools. 
He wrote for the Indianapolis newspapers and 
later identified himself with the Washington 
(D. C.) Post for 17 years, first as news editor 
and later as managing editor. He owned and 
edited the Washington Herald (1906-11), and 


BONNER 


in 1911-18 he was editor-in-chief of the Seattle 
Post-Intelligencer. In 1914-15, he was chair- 
man of the Alaska Bureau of the Seattle Cham- 
ber of Commerce, and in 1921 was appointed 
Governor of Alaska, having held in the interim 
several positions of a political nature. 

BONNER, GERALDINE'- (1870- Vea AL 
American author (see Vou. III). Her later 
work includes The Girl at Central (1914), The 
Black Eagle Mystery (1916), Treasure and 
Trouble Therewith A1917), and Miss Maitland, 
Private Secretary (1919). 

BONNET, JoserH (1884- ). A famous 
French organist, born at Bordeaux. Under his 
father’s instruction his progress was so rapid 
that at the age of 14 he was appointed regular 
organist at St. Nicolas and, a little later, at 
St. Michel, where his recitals attracted atten- 
tion. He then entered the Paris Conservatoire, 
where he studied with Guilmant and carried off 
the first prize. In 1906 he won in competition 
the coveted post of St. Eustache, Paris; all 
competitors were first-prize winners of the Con- 
servatoire. This position he has filled since 
then but has been allowed frequent leave of 
absence for extended concert tours all over 
Europe. In 1917 he made his first tour of the 
United States and met with such success that 
he has repeated his visit annually. He aroused 
special enthusiasm with his series of five his- 
torical recitals, as well as with his extraordinary 
improvisations. In 1922 he organized in Roch- 
chester, N. Y., after the model of that of the 
Paris Conservatoire, a fully equipped organ de- 
partment at the Eastman Conservatory. His 
original compositions for the organ are held in 
high esteem. 

BONNEY, THoMAS GeEoRGE (1833-1923). 
An English geologist (see Vor. III). Among 
his later publications are The Present Relations 
of Science and Religion (1913); the text to 
Anderson’s Volcanic Studies (1917), and Mem- 
ories of a Long Life (1922). 

BONSAL, STEPHEN (1865- ). An Amer- 
ican newspaper correspondent (see VoL. III). 
In 1914 he was Commissioner of Public Util- 
ities in the Philippine Islands. He was _ sent 
on a special mission to Mexico in 1915 and was 
also with Hindenburg’s army on the eastern 
front in the same year. In 1916 he was advisor 
at the American-Mexican Conference. In the 
following year he was commissioned: major in 
the national army and was on duty in the War 
College in Washington. He went to France 
with the American Expeditionary Force in 1918 
and was American representative at the Con- 
gress of Oppressed Nationalities. He was ap- 
pointed lieutenant-colonel of infantry, attached 
to the American mission to the Peace Conference 


IgI 


BOOTS AND SHOES 


after the Armistice, and in 1919 was American 
member of the inter-Allied mission to Austria- 
Hungary under General Smuts and of the spe- 
cial mission to Germany and Bohemia. 

BOOTH, EVANGELINE Cory (?- ae | 
commander of the Salvation Army and daugh- 
ter of William Booth, founder of the Salvation 
Army. She was born in England and educated 
in London, later commanding field operations of 
the Salvation Army in Great Britain, Canada, 
and the Klondike, and in 1904, in the United 
States, with approximately 3000 officers and 
cadets and over 1200 corps and institutions un- 
der her. During the War she did noteworthy 
work, for which the United States government 
awarded her the Distinguished Service Medal 
(1919). 

BOOTS AND SHOES. In the production of 
boots and shoes the United States in 1924 
ranked first, followed by Great Britain and Ger- 
many, and in addition to its own domestic com- 
sumption it had a considerable export business. 
Naturally the manufacture of boots and shoes 
was seriously interfered with by the War and 
subsequent readjustment period as it affected 
the production, price of leather and the normal 
distribution. In 1921, according to the Bureau 
of the Census, boot and shoe manufacturing 
ranked fourteenth among the industries of the 
United States, with a product valued at 
$867,476,000 though in the previous census of 
1919 its value was $1,155,041,000. 

According to the census of manufactures of 
1919 New England was the centre of the boot 
and shoe industry and produced more than 49 
per cent of the total value of the country’s out- 
put. Of the different states Massachusetts 
ranked first with a production of 116,944,018 
pairs produced by 492 establishments, followed 
by New York with 62,246,321 pairs produced 
in 342 establishments; New Hampshire with 
22,700,694 pairs produced in 52 establishments; 
Pennsylvania with 23,617,362 pairs from 123 
establishments; Missouri with 26,362,367 pairs 
from 54 establishments, and Ohio 17,870,140 
pairs from 60 establishments. The five leading 
cities in the production of boots in the United 
States are Brockton, Massachusetts, New York 
City, Lynn, Massachusetts, St. Louis, Missouri, 
and Haverhill, Massachusetts. 

The condition of the industry in the interval 
from 1914 is shown in the accompanying tabula- 
tion from statistics published by the Bureau of 
the Census. Whereas in 1922 the total pro- 
duction of boots and shoes, exclusive of rubber 
footwear, was 323,876,458 pairs, or an increase 
of almost 11 per cent from 1914, the production 
in 1923 was 351,114,273 pairs, marking a 
record for the industry. 


PRODUCTION OF BOOTS AND SHOES IN THE UNITED STATES 


Kinds 1914 1919 1921 1922 

Pairs Pairs Pairs Pairs 
[otal boots) dnd shoes (.0.. tacts cies 292,666,468 331,224,628 286,771.101 323,876,458 
Ce 
High and low cut (leather) (total) 265,642,260 291,540,408 241,838,226 280,366,192 
CARAS tp lee tlie a 8 TR aii a Pie A 98,031,144 95,017,356 69,457,535 89,984,065 
BOVHa ATO VOUtSed < sos ces chctererereien ae 22,895,719 26,503,432 18,462,032 21,631,905 
WV CTEM SAUNT. on228% 5 Oo Maid sie} opMekehers 80,916,239 104,812,505 101,473,985 105,367,667 
Winsest and \ children’s: . «. ..0.5, 0 « 8s!éece 48,322,395 48,538,203 35,065,527 89,443,554 
IULAVIGS Eas, cua < «hc feo 2 oe he eaters 15,476,763 16,668,912 17,379,147 23,939,001 
Athletic and sporting (leather) ...... (*) 585,710 5,546,898 8,448,308 
Canvas and other textiles ............. G) 11,056,363 8,601,582 6,739,339 

All other (slippers and miscellaneous foot- 

DW iCR ES MMMEEANE TS oe. cite re! a;ona'levahe. 5 + biini'd) sive. 0)'6,< le toee 27,024,208 28,042,147 30,784,395 28,322,619 


LL et 


* Not reported separately. 


BOOTS AND SHOES 


The principal types of shoes manufactured in 
the United States may. be divided as follows: 
Goodyear welted, McKay sewn, screw or metal- 
lic fastened, stitched down and turned. In 
1919, 38 per cent of the shoes manufactured 
were of the Goodyear type, 36 per cent were 
McKay sewn, 19 per cent were turned and 4 per 
cent were standard screw or metallic fastened. 
In the United States the prices for shoes in- 
creased from 1913, during the War reaching a 
peak in 1920, as indicated by the accompanying 
table. 


AVERAGE WHOLESALE PRICE PER PAIR OF 
LEATHER BOOTS AND SHOES IN THE 
UNITED STATES 


From data published by the United States 
Department of Labor 


Men's Women’s 

Black Black Black Black Patent- 
calf calf vici kid leather 
Good- Good- kid lace pump, 
Year year year Good- Good- McKay 
welt welt year year sewn 

blucher bal welt welt 
OLD ah cavertny $3.11 $3.16 $2.86 $3.00 $1.37 
TUS) We Boot eae Soe 3.17 3.28 2.98 3.00 1.45 
POTH Sa a 3.25 3.30 3.10 3.00 1.50 
BOT Gis Sei 8.7 3.88 3.50 3.44 1.90 
oR ORCS Sr 4.75 5.14 5.06 4.49 2.15 
LOLS cere. seers 5.62 5.oL 5.44 4.37 2.93 
VOLS att Aes 7.60 7.10 7.24 6.59 4.07 
UO Owen rete. 8.95 7.50 8.33 7.66 4,86 
LO 2 aha «dalsivete 7.00 4,80 6.39 5.06 4.00 
DOA econ ee 6.50 4.61 5.83 4.33 3.60 


From that time there was a recession tending 
towards more suitakle prices but not reaching 
those prevailing before the War. In the Amer- 
ican shoe industry there was a tendency to- 
wards consolidation and larger factories, so that 


LEATHER BOOT, SHOE, AND SLIPPER 


Division of Statistics, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 


192 


BORDEAUX 


EXPORTS OF SHOES IN 1923 
Men’s and Boys’ 3,187,623 pairs, valued at $10,029,918 
at, oe oc “ 


Women's 2,292.96 5,302,641 
Children’s 1;S61;4 1308 *f FS 2,183,780 
Slippers 239,042‘ rs i 295,390 


In 1923 there were imported into the United 
States 398,929 pairs of all leather boots and 
shoes, valued at $1,246,176; 653,964 pairs of 
slippers valued at $280,015, and 884,862 pairs 
valued at $357,810. In, 1921 the exports in- 
cluded 2,600,000 pairs of men’s shoes sent to 
Russia. 

The accompanying table will show the extent 
of the boot and shoe export trade of the United 
States which developed extraordinarily in the 
years immediately following the War when the 
European markets were larger. consumers of 
American shoes. Ordinarily Cuba, Mexico, Ja- 
maica, Panama, the Dominican Republic, New- 
foundland and Labrador and the United King- 
dom and Canada are the most important export 
markets for the United States, though Austra- 
lia, British South Africa and some South Amer- 
ican, Asiatic and European countries take a 
quota. See also LEATHER. 

BORAH, WILLIAM EpGarR (1865- jan 
American politician (see Vou. III). 
again elected to the Senate in 1919. During 
the War he took an active part in all matters 
relating to war measures, while opposing the 
League to Enforce Peace, and violently advising 
against the policy of President Wilson, especial- 
ly in regard to the League of Nations. As 
delegate-at-large from Illinois, he spoke suc- 
cessfully against the League at the Republican 
national convention of 1920. He also opposed 


EXPORT TRADE OF ‘THE UNITED STATES 


Figures for 1913 are for fiscal year; all 


others are for calendar years. 


Year Total Men’s shoes Women’s Children’s Slippers 
shoes shoes 
Pairs Pairs Pairs Pairs Pairs 
MOTUS Bs oh ahetetevalichs ‘sid oie iebetclp 10,650,160 5,260,531 3,217,544 1,826,719 345,366 
PUIG) abst oiths Je Gis tapeils essiemedete te 21,682,751 11,928,156 5,891,753 3,434,670 BAe te kr (7) 
Os cane = oerenes Bete aot 17,069,254 7,711,310 5,064,472 4,065,810 227,662 
OAL Ce ede hiF eke a) side ne nae 9,019,263 5,173,776 1,767,880 2,016,041 61,566 
SD 2, MARE) < styelca ere hereto ue heettens 5,532,933 1,878,259 2,280,065 1,246,338 Pape Us 


the number of establishments decreased during 
the decade. 

Also, the industry suffered from the varia- 
tions due to fashion, some of which were of long 
life and led to considerable margin of profit by 
the retailer on sales actually made, while 
others were but temporary in their vogue. 
There was a tendency to decrease the number of 
styles and to standardize the production, but it 
was felt that fashion played an important part 
in the industry as at times there would be a 
vogue of low shoes in preference to those higher 
cut, and various temporary fashions more or 
less short lived. 

In addition the shoe industry suffered due to 
the increased use of motor cars and taxicabs, 
and it was estimated in 1923 that the average 
life of a pair of shoes was 25 per cent more 
than a few years previously before the motor 
car was so universally used in the rural dis- 
tricts, and in urban communities such means of 
transportation as motor busses and taxicabs had 
developed. ; 

In 1923 the exports of shoes from the United 
States were as follows: 


the Four-Power Treaty, believing that the 
United States should stand aloof. 

BORCHARD, Epwin MONTEFIORE (1884- __). 
An American lawyer and educator, born in New 
York City. He attended the College of the City 
of New York and afterward studied at New 
York Law School and the Columbia University 
Law School. In 1910 he was expert on inter- 
national law of the American agency of the 
North Atlantic coast fisheries arbitration at The 
Hague. In the same year he traveled through 
Europe for the Library of Congress and investi- 
gated and collected literature on continental 
law. He was law librarian of Congress from 
1911-16. In 1915 he accumulated commercial 
law material for the Department of Commerce. 
In 1917 he was appointed professor of law at 
the Yale University Law School. His published 
writings include Guide to the Law and Legal 
Literature of Germany (1911); The Diplomatic 
Protection of Citizens Abroad (1916); The De- 
claratory Judgment (1918), and Latin-Amer- 
ican Commercial Law, with T. E. Obregon 
(1920). wh are 


BORDEAUX, Henri (1870—- _—+)..:~SOA French 


BORDEN 


novelist and critic, born at Thonon, Haute- 
Savoie, and educated at the Collége de Thonon, 
the Collége Stanislas (Paris), the Sorbonne, 
and the Faculty of Law (Paris). In 1889 he 
was admitted to the bar at Thonon and spent 
two years in his father’s law office. He then 
went to Paris as counsel for the Paris-Lyons- 
Méditerranée Railroad. His father died in 
1896, and he was obliged to return to Thonon 
and go on with his father’s practice. After 
five years, however, he was able to go back to 
Paris and devote the rest of his life to letters. 
In the War he began his service on Aug. 1, 1914, 
as captain of infantry, was then transferred to 
the General Staff of the lst Army in Lorraine, 
then to the 2d Army at Verdun, and finally 
to General Headquarters. He was sent on a 
mission to Verdun in 1917, and received two 
citations and the rank of Chief of Battalion for 
his work. In 1920 he was received in the 
French Academy, taking the place of Jules 
Lemaitre. His first book, La Course a la Vie 
(1893), was a volume of poems, but he soon 
turned to the novel and critical essay. His 
writings show him to be a moralist and psy- 
chologist rather than a stylist. Yet he does 
not write romans a thése or belong to the na- 
turalist school He is a realist, but his realism 
consists in the depicting of the cultured classes. 
He pleads the cause of society against the in- 
dividual and upholds tradition, especially that 
of the family. Some of his more important 
works are Jeanne Michelin, his first attempt at 


a novel (1895); Le Pays Natal (1900): La 
Voie sans. Retour (1901); La Peur de Vivre, 
erowned by the French Academy (1902) ; 


LPAmour en Fuite (1908); La Petite Mademoi- 
selle (1905); Les Yeux Qui s’Ouvrent (1908) ; 
La Croisée des Chemins (1909); La Robe de 
Laine, considered one of his best novels (1910) ; 
Ta Neige sur les Pas (1911); La Maison 
(1913); and La Maison Morte (1922). Among 
his works of a critical nature are Vies Intimes 


(1904); Portraits de Femmes et d Enfants 
(1909); La Vie aw Thédtre, 4 vols. (1910- 
21); Quelques Portraits WHommes 1914); 


Jules Lemaitre (1920), and La Jeunesse d’Oc- 
tave Feuillet, 1821-90 (1922). Inspired by the 
War were La Jeunesse Nouvelle (1915); Trois 
Tombes (1916); Les Derniers Jours du Fort de 
Vaux; Les Captifs Délivrés; La Chanson de 
Vauzr-Douammount (1917); La Vie Héroique 
de Guynémer (1918); Sur le Rhin (1919); Le 
Plessis-de-Roye (1920), and La Resurrection de 
la Chair (1920). 
BORDEN, RT. Hon. SiR RospertT LAtRpD 
(1854— ). A Canadian statesman (see VOL. 
IIT). In 1914 he was created Grand Comman- 
der of the Order of St. Michael and St. George, 
in 1915 he received the Grand Cross of the Le- 
gion of Honor, and in 1916 the Grand Cordon 
of the Order of Leopold. He was honored with 
the freedom of the city of various British mu- 
nicipalities. In 1917 he formed a Union Gov- 
ernment and was appointed Secretary of State 
for External Affairs He was a member of the 
Imperial War Cabinet, the Imperial War Con- 
ference held in London, 1917-18, and was pres- 
ent at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 as a 
representative of Canada. It was he who 
presented the Peace Treaty to the Canadian 
Parliament in the same year. In July, 1920, 
he tendered his resignation as Premier. In the 
following year he was elected President of the 
League of Nations Society of Canada and was 


193 


BORI 


Marfleet Foundation Lecturer at the University 
of Toronto. In 1921-22, he represented Canada 
at the Washington Conference and signed many 
treaties in this capacity, among them, the treaty 
on limiting naval armaments, the four-power 
treaty relating to insular possessions and do- 
minions in the Pacific Ocean, the treaty relating 
to the use of submarines and noxious gases in 
warfare, and treaties in regard to China. 

BORDET, JuLes (1870- ). A Belgian 
pathologist and bacteriologist, born at Soignes. 
He graduated from the University of Brussels 
in 1892 and later became professor of bacteriol- 
ogy, parasitology, and epidemiology and_ pres- 
ident of the medical faculty there. In 1901 he 
was appointed head of the Brussels Pasteur In- 
stitute. He published two works on immunity, 
Etudes sur VImmunité (1909) and Traité de 
Vimmumté dans les Maladies’ Infectieuses 
(1920). In 1919 he was awarded the Nobel 
Prize in medicine. Bordet has much to his 
credit, for in 1900-01 he discovered complement- 
fixation, with Gengou; bacterial hemolysis in 
1898, and the bacillus of whooping-cough in 
1906. His theory of immunization is far sim- 
pler than that of Ehrlich, and many regard him 
as the leading figure in serodiagnosis and im- 
munization. 

BORGLUM, GUTZON (JOHUN GUTZON DE LA 
MontTHE) (1867- ). An American sculptor 
(see Vor. III) His best known achievement 
was the planning and execution of the Stone 
Mountain (Ga.) memorial to the Confederacy. 
This is a gigantic bas-relief depicting in heroic 
proportions a group of Southern leaders (Lee, 
Davis, Stonewall Jackson, Johnston, Forrest 
and Stuart), in the midst of marching troops, 
cut out of the mountain, and being a quarter of 
a mile in length. The distance from the knee 
of Lee’s horse to the General’s hat is’ 120 feet. 
The site of the memorial was dedicated in May, 
1919, but the work was not begun till 1922. 
General Lee’s head was unveiled Jan. 18, 1924. 
A part of the plan is a memorial hall, cut into 
the mountain below the sculpture, 320 feet long, 
40 feet high, and 78 feet deep. An important 
service to national art was the founding of 
the American School of Seulpture for practical 
instruction. 

BORGLUM, Soton (1868-1922). An Ameri- 
can sculptor (see Vou. III). He made the eques- 
trian statue, “The Pioneer,” at the San Fran- 
cisco Exposition (1915) and executed colossal 
portrait busts of generals ot the Civil War (for 
the Vicksburg, Miss., National Park). He re- 
ceived the Croix de Guerre for services with the 
French army in the War and was active in edu- 
cational work in the American Expeditionary 
Force in France. His most recent achievements 
include a group of 42 heroic figures in bronze, 
“Wars of America,” for Newark, N. J.; a colos- 
sal bronze equestrian statue of General Sheridan 
for Chicago, and a monument to Governor 
Aycock, Raleigh, N. C. 

BORI, Lucrezia (1888- ). A Spanish 
lyric soprano, born at Valencia. After six 
years of study under Vidal, in Paris, she com- 
pleted her education in Milan and Rome. Her 
very successful début in Rome as Carmen (Oct. 
31, 1908) led to engagements in Paris, Milan, 
Naples, and Buenos Aires Her American dé- 
but took place at the Metropolitan Opera House 
as the heroine in Puccini’s Manon Lescaut 
(Nov. 11, 1912); she immediately established 
herself in favor. Her brilliant career really be- 


BORING 


gan after her overwhelming success as Fiora 
in the American premiére of Montemezzi’s 
Amore dei Tre Ré (Jan. 2, 1914). In the next 
year she was stricken with an affection of the 
throat which necessitated a serious operation 
and for some time it was feared that her career 
had been ended. Fortunately she not only re- 
covered entirely, but after her illness her voice 
even gained in volume. She returned to the 
Metropolitan Opera House in 1921, where she 
continued as a regular member. 

BORING, EpwiIn GarricurEs (1886- ie 
An American experimental psychologist, born in 
Philadelphia. Originally destined for an _ en- 
gineering career, he took the degree of M.E. at 
Cornell University in 1908. Shortly afterward 
he became interested in the study of psychology. 
He was a member for more than 10 years of 
Professor Titchener’s laboratory in which he 
served first as assistant and then as instructor 
(1913-18). From 1919 to 1922 he was profes- 
sor of experimental psychology and director of 
the psychological laboratory at Clark Univer- 
sity. In 1922 he became associate professor of 
psychology at Harvard University. Professor 
Boring’s most important contribution has been 
in the field of cutaneous and organic sensations. 
He carried through the Head experiment in 
cutaneous nerve division and was able to chal- 
lenge Head’s theoretical conclusions as to the 
existence of two systems of nerve sensibility. 
In his systematic outlook Professor Boring fol- 
lowed the general introspective position of ‘the 
Titchener school but was more favorably dis- 
posed toward the newer doctrines. See Psy- 
CHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL. 

BORIS III (1894— ). The King of Bul- 
garia. He succeeded his father, King Ferdi- 
nand, on the latter’s abdication, Oct. 4, 1918. 
King Boris was born at Sofia, the eldest son of 
King Ferdinand and Marie Louise de Bourbon. 
He was educated in Bulgaria by tutors and at 
the Cadet and Officers’ School. Subsequently 
he was aide-de-camp to the King and several 
generals of the Bulgarian Army. 

BORNEO. One of the largest islands in the 
world, situated in the East Indian Archipelago. 
It has an area of 283,900 square miles. Po- 
litically it is divided into: (1) British Borneo 
which is made up of the divisions, North Bor- 
neo, Brunei, and Sarawak, covering the north- 
ern portion of the island (total area, 77,100 
square miles; total population, 832,637), and 
which is administered from the Straits Settle- 
ments (q.v.); (2) Dutch Borneo, covering the 
rest of the island, which is made up of the di- 
visions, West Coast Borneo, and South and 
East Districts of Borneo (total area, 206,810 
square miles; total population, 1,626,000), and 
which is administered from the Dutch East 
Indies (q.v.). 

BORNSCHEIN, Franz Cari (1879- ). 
An American violinist and composer, born at 
Baltimore. From 1895 to 1902 he studied at 
the Peabody Conservatory there with J. Van 
Husteijn (violin) and O. B. Boise (composition). 
In 1905 he became violin instructor at that in- 
stitution and director of the junior orchestra. 
In 1913 he was appointed conductor of the or- 
chestra of the Baltimore Music School Settle- 
ment. From 1910 to 1913 he was music critic 
of the Baltimore Evening Sun and at various 
times was connected with other publications. 
He wrote three symphonic poems for orchestra, 
The Sea-god’s Daughter, A Hero’s Espousal, 


194 BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA 


The Rime of the Ancient Mariner; a suite, The 
Phantom Canoe; a ballad for baritone and or- 
chestra, The Djinns; a violin concerto in G 
minor; a cantata for chorus and orchestra, 
Onowa; and some chamber music. 

BOROWSKI, Fetix (1872-— ). An Amer- 
ican composer, born at Burton, England. He 
began his musical education with his father, 
continued in London under A. Pollitzer (violin) 
and C. W. Pearce (composition), and in 1888 
entered the Cologne Conservatory, where he was 
a pupil of G. Jensen (composition), E. Hauser 
(piano), and G. Japha (violin). Having 
taught for some time at Aberdeen, he settled 
in 1894 in London and devoted himself to com- 
position. In 1897 he became professor of theory 
and composition at the Chicago Musical Col- 
lege and in 1916 was elected its director. From 
1906 to 1909 he was critic of the Chicago Eve- 
ning Post, and from 1909 to 1918 he filled a 
similar position on the Record-Herald. After 
1908 he wrote the programme-books for the Chi- 
eago Symphony Orchestra. His compositions 
include a ballet-pantomime, Boudoun (Chicago, 
1919) ; three symphonic poems, Eugen Oniegin, 
Printemps Passionné, Youth (North Shore Fes- 
tival prize, 1923); Valse Pathétique, Marche 
Triomphale, Ecce Homo, Elégie Symphonique, 
Trois Peintures, for orchestra; a piano concerto 
in D minor; Crépuscule and Serenade for string 
orchestra; Allegro de Concert for organ and or- 
chestra; a string quartet in A minor; a suite 
and two sonatas for organ; and pieces for violin 
and piano and for piano solo (Sonata russe, 
etc.). 

BOSANQUET, Bernard’ (1848-1923). A 
British philosopher. His death in February, 
1923, came at the height of his creative activity. 
His last book, left unfinished, has been pub- 
lished posthumously by his widow, under the 
title Three Chapters on the Nature of Mind 
(1923). The works written since the War be- 
long to the third period of his work, when he 
was defending the conception of the absolute. 
These include The Meeting of Extremes in Con- 
temporary Philosophy (1921), Implication and 
Linear Inference (1920), Life and the Individ- 
ual (Processes of the Aristotelian Society, 
1918), and Some Suggestions as to Ethics 
(1918). Taken together with the Gifford Lec- 
tures of 1911-12 (The Value and Destiny of the 
Individual), they may be regarded as constitu- 
ting a bulwark against the tide of easy-going 
philosophies of sentiment to which the modern 
mind is peculiarly inclined. In Contemporary 
Philosophy he pointed out how Italian neo- 
idealism (Gentile and Croce) and British neo- 
realism (Alexander) converg? at one focus 
after starting from diametrically opposite di- 
rections. 

“You cannot,” he wrote, “cut down the uni- 
verse to the creative work of constructive think- 
ing on the one hand, nor to the real world of 
the context of our waking bodies on the other. 
The narrowness and recognitions of neo-idealists 
and of neo-realists balance one, another and 
amplify our conception of the whole.” See 
AESTHETICS. 

BOSHER, KATE LANGLEY (“KATE CAIRNS”) 
(1865-— ). An American author (see VOL. 
III). She wrote How It Happened (1914), Peo- 
ple Like That (1915), Kitty Canary (1917), 
and His Friend, Miss McFarlane (1918). 

BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA. Up to Novem- 
ber, 1918, this land continued a territory of 


a 


ee Re See ee ee ee ee, 


Sa 


ee a ee 


nie sae 


or OD; Peta eto Aci magow PARED oy x; 


-_ 
7 


BOSPORUS STRAITS 


Austria-Hungary and was administered from 
the Dual Monarchy’s Ministry of Finance. (It 
has an area of 19,768 square miles, and a pop- 
ulation, in 1920, of 1,889,929, as compared with 
the 1910 population of 1,895,044.) On Nov. 
1, 1918, the Diet constituted itself a national 
government and took over the administration of 
the territory; the formation of Jugo-Slavia 
found Bosnia-Herzegovina a constituent prov- 
ince. 

BOSPORUS STRAITS. See DARDANELLES 
AND Bosporus STRAITS. 

BOSS, BENJAMIN (1880- ). An American 
astronomer, born at Albany, N. Y. He was 
graduated at Harvard in 1901 and at once be- 
came an assistant at the Dudley Observatory in 
Albany. In 1905 he became connected with the 
United States Naval Observatory in Washing- 
ton, and during 1906-08 he was in charge of 
the Naval Observatory at Tutuila in Samoa, 
where he made important observations of New- 
ecomb’s fundamental stars. On his return to 
the United States in 1908 he became secretary 
of the department of Meridian Astronomy of 
the Carnegie Institution, of which work he be- 
came director in 1915. In that year he re- 
turned to Albany, where he was called to the 
directorship of the Dudley Observatory, in suc- 
cession to his father. His scientific work has 
had to do principally with the determination 
of the star positions and motions. He was a 
member of the total eclipse exposition to Flint 
Island in 1908 and became editor of the As- 
tronomical Journal in the same year. 

BOSSANGE, Epwarp RAyMonp (1871- bs 
An American architect, born at Enghein in 
France. He was brought to the United States 
when nine years old and was educated at Co- 
lumbia University and at studios in New York 
and Rome. He was connected at various times 
with Ernest Flagg, Carrere and Hastings, and 
Warren and Whitmore; he was also a member 
of the firm of Bossange and Newton. From 
1913 to 1915 he was professor of architecture 
in Cornell University and in the latter year be- 
came a member of the faculty of the Carnegie 
Institute of Technology, where he was director 
of the College of Fine Arts (1918— Vis 

BOSTON. The capital of Massachusetts and 
the commercial metropolis of New England. 
The population rose from 686,092 in 1910 to 
748,060 in 1920 and to 776,683 by estimate of 
the Bureau of the Census for 1924. The 
metropolitan district, including territory within 
10 miles of the city boundaries, had a popula- 
ton of 1,772,254 in 1920. During the War, 
Boston shipping and port facilities expanded 
rapidly. Extensive plans for terminal and dock 
warehouses were made in 1918, and in 1919 a 
drydock, the largest in the United States, which 
had been begun by the State of Massachusetts 
before the War, was purchased by the United 
States Navy Department and completed. It 
was 1176 feet long and 149 feet wide and cost 
over $3,000,000. In 1922 the Boston airport 
was established. The Legislature made an ap- 
propriation for the airport and leased the land 
in East Boston for use as a landing field for 
$1 a year. Additional money was raised by 
private subscriptions to complete the construc- 
tion and equipment of the field. It was leased 
by the United States army for military pur- 
poses, on condition that commercial flyers were 
to be allowed full use of the field. Two new 
subways begun in 1912 were opened during the 


195 


BOSTON 


decade. The East Boston extension opened in 
1916 was .41 miles long and cost $2,287,000 to 
construct; the Dorchester tunnel completed in 
1918 at a cost of $10,582,000 was 2.26 miles in 
length. A second section of the Museum of 
Fine Arts was opened in 1915 and the State 
House was enlarged by the addition of east and 
west wings in 1919, at a cost of approximately 
$3,000,000. In 1922-3 the State Legislature 
authorized a new two-mile northern gateway to 
give the towns to the north and east of Bos- 
ton better access to the city. Downtown traffic 
was to be given more elbow room by the widen- 
ing of Kneeland and Tremont Streets; by widen- 
ing Cambridge and Court Streets, a new direct 
thoroughfare was to be provided in and out of 
the congested district. 

Within the city itself, the most notable de- 
velopment of the decade in the park ‘system 
was the cutting through of the Strandway in 
South Boston and Dorchester, along the shore 
of Dorchester Bay. This great improvement ran 
perhaps six miles almost from City Point to 
Neponset. Between the park roadway and the 
water was a continuous beach varying in width 
from about 50 to 500 feet. Along this, various 
public conveniences including bath and _ boat 
houses and playgrounds, baseball fields, ath- 
letic fields, ete., were arranged. Under the will 
of George E. White, something over $7,000,000 
was left as a fund almost without restrictions 
for the general public welfare of the city. It 
was administered by a board of five trustees, 
including three city officials, so that the use of 
the fund is such as to make it practically a 
part of the municipal finances of the commun- 
ity. The Board of Trustees up to 1924 devoted 
the income from the fund almost entirely to 
public health work, including the establishment 
of health centres in congested districts. In 
1919 the Metropolitan Parks Board, the Metro- 
politan Sewer Board and the Metropolitan 
Water Board were consolidated under the Metro- 
politan District Commission, and in 1923 the 
Legislature created a division of metropolitan 
planning, which began immediately to codrdi- 
nate the activities of all the planning boards in 
the 39 cities and towns of the metropolitan dis- 
trict. The zoning law of the city itself was 
amended. 

The exports of the city increased from $71,- 
963,879 in 1914 to $221,728,343 in 1918, and 
to $349,620,484 in 1923; imports rose from 
$163,013,099 in 1914 to $295,907,047 in 1918. 
After 1918 imports through the port of Boston 
did not continue to increase, owing in part to 
the fact that the ports to the south of New York 
had lower rates from the interior of the 
country. The imports that did come through 
Boston were very largely for the immediate use 
of the manufacturers in New England itself. 
Bank clearings increased from $7,866,664,000 
in 1914 to $19,068,369,000 in 1923. Postal re- 
ceipts in the Boston Postal District, one of the 
largest of the country in area, increased from 
$8,209,414 in 1914 to $13,817,716 in 1923. 
Manufacturing establishments in Boston in 
1922 turned out a product valued at $496,- 
982,035 as against $284,802,479 in 1914. 

The police force of the city went on strike in 
1919 to compel recognition by the city admin- 
istration of the organization of their union and 
their right to affiliate with the American Fed- 
eraton of Labor. Order was restored and main- 
tained by the State guard, and Calvin Coolidge, 


BOSTON SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA 


then Governor of Massachusetts, also requested 
Federal aid in case of necessity, but no fur- 
ther disturbances occurred. On the third day 
the strikers offered to return to duty, but the 
city, declining to receive them, recruited a new 
police force at an increased wage scale. 

BOSTON SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA. See 
Music, Orchestras. 

BOSTON UNIVERSITY. A _ nonsectarian 
institution at Boston, Mass., founded in 1869. 
The student enrollment increased from 1827 in 
1914 to 10,008, including evening and Saturday 
courses, in 1923-24, and 1082 in the summer 
session of 1923; the faculty was increased from 
170 to 382 members; and the number of volumes 
in the library from approximately 43,000 to 
92,134 volumes. The endowment was increased 
during the same period from $2,367,820 to $4,- 
179,984, of which $965,000 came by bequest in 
1918 from Mrs. C. C. Corbin. In 1922, a cam- 
paign for $4,500,000, called the Fiftieth En- 
dowment Fund, was launched, of which approx- 
imately $2,000,000 was pledged’ by June, 1923. 
President, Lemuel Herbert Murlin, D.D., LL.D. 

BOSTWICK, ArTHuR ELMORE (1860- 
An American librarian (see Vou. III). He was 
president of the Missouri Library Association in 
1917 and of the publication board of the Ameri- 
ean Library Association, 1918-21. He is the 
author of Earmarks of Literature (1914), The 
Making of an American’s Library (1915), Li- 
brary Essays (1920), and A Librarian’s Open 
Shelf (1920). He edited Classics of Ameri- 
can Librarianship, 3 vols. (1915-21). 

BOSWORTH, Epwarp INCREASE (1861-— hs 
An American theologian, born at Dundee, IIl., 
and educated at Oberlin College, Yale Uni- 
versity, and the University of Leipzig. After a 
year as pastor of a congregational church in 
Mount Vernon, O., he joined the faculty of the 
Oberlin Graduate School of Theology, of which 
he became dean in 1892. He was acting pres- 
dent of Oberlin College, 1918-19. His works 
include Studies in the Acts and Epistles (1898) ; 
Studies in the Life of Jesus Christ (1904); New 
Studies in Acts (1908); Commentary of Ro- 


mans (1919); and What It Means to Be a 
Christian (19238). 
BOTANY. Investigators in all fields of bo- 


tanical science were active in the period between 
1914 and 1924, and the amount of literature 
turned out was very large. Without disparag- 
ing in any way investigations in other fields, 
only the more recent discoveries in a few lines 
ean be noted here. 

General. The address of Dr. William Bate- 
son, “Evolutionary Faith and Modern Doubt,” 
delivered before the American Association for 
the Advancement of Science at Toronto, Canada, 
in December, 1921, was seized upon by the foes 
of the theory of evolution as a repudiation of 
that doctrine. Later Dr. Bateson attempted to 
correct this impression by stating, “Though no 
one doubts the truth of evolution, we have as 
yet no satisfactory account of that particular 
part of the theory that is concerned with the 
origin of species in the strict sense.” He was 
apparently considering the processes of varia- 
tion and not the survival of variants after they 
have appeared. He did not consider with favor 
DeVries’ Mutation Theory as an explanation of 
discontinuous variation. 

A. L. and A. C. Hagedoorn offer an explana- 
tion of the origin of species based on the modern 
conception of the crossing and inbreeding of 


196 


BOTANY 


species. According to their hypothesis the 
somatic characters possessed by any group of 
individuals capable of crossing are determined 
by the genes of the zygotes which produce them, 
and variation arises from the blending of genes 
that are not common to all the members of a 
group. This implies the influence of environ- 
ment and Tansley thinks it is conceivable that 
genes may be altered or new ones created by 
the long continued influence of environment. 
Bonnier reports the changed character of moun- 
tain species when grown on lowlands and vice 
versa, and Rawson claims to have produced a 
double strain of poppy by change of environment. 
Anthony has produced definite strains of violets 
by constant asexual propagation. <A review of 
the present day aspect of this subject was 
given by A. G. Tansley in an address before the 
botanical section of the British Association for 
the Advancement of Science, September, 1923. 

The principles of serum diagnosis, so success- 
fully applied for the recognition of certain dis- 
eases of man and domestic animals, have ‘been 
applied to plants by a number of botanists to 
determine the relationship of families of plants, 
and Lange presented a phylogeny of the Ranales 
based on serum diagnosis and morphological 
studies. Similar work was in progress in which 
Nelson and Dworak were making use of globu- 
lins from plants to determine resistance to cer- 
tain diseases, and no antibodies were formed 
when globulins .from resistant plants were in- 
jected into experimental animals. Lipman and 
Taylor reported experiments indicating that 
wheat plants grown in culture solutions could 
assimilate nitrogen from the air. Several ex- 
perimenters reported that certain green alge 
could utilize free nitrogen if they were fur- 
nished sufficient carbohydrates. These experi- 
ments appear to confirm the claim that the 
power of plants to assimilate free nitrogen from . 
the air is not limited to leguminous plants. 
Bristol and Page, however, questioned the abil- 
ity of green alge to assimilate free atmospheric 
nitrogen and claimed that when grown under 
control conditions no fixation of nitrogen took 
place with the species investigated, and the ques- 
tion was raised of a possible symbiosis between 
alge and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. 

Loeb, MacDougal and others have devoted 
much study to colloids, gels, artificial cells, ete., 
in an ‘attempt to determine the fundamental 
principles underlying certain plant activities. 
MacDougal has succeeded in producing an arti- 
ficial cell that exhibits some of the physical 
activities of the living cell, and with it he has 
measured the swelling of biocolloids, and the 
reaction of certain colloids in the external layers 
of the cell to the surrounding medium was 
ascertained. The bearing of some of these 
studies is noted elsewhere. 

Physiological studies. Among the studies 
of plant activity, photosynthesis, or the trans- 
formation of carbon dioxide and water vapor 
into carbohydrates under the influence of light, 
is one of the most attractive, as .it is the con- 
necting link between inorganic matter and or- 
ganized life. Willstitter has shown that the 
green coloring matter in leaves is composed of 
two pigments, chlorophyll @ and chlorophyll b, 
which are normally present in about the pro- 
portion of 72 per cent of the former and 28 per 
cent of the latter, and the greatest synthetic 
activity of the plant takes place when these 
proportions are maintained. Wlodek found that 


o~ 


BOTANY 


chlorophyll 6 increases in leaves during the day 
and chlorophyll @ during the night. Certain 
fertilizer constituents were also found to influ- 
ence the ratio between the two forms of chloro- 
phyll. A deficiency of potassium results in a 
decrease of 6 and an increase of a, while if the 
nitrogen balance is not maintained the oppo- 
site effect is produced on the chlorophylls. A 
deficiency of phosphorus reduces the normal 
fluctuation in the chlorophyll components. 
This shows conclusively the necessity of a proper 
balance of the nutrients available to a plant if 
normal vegetative activity is maintained. 

It is generally asserted that photosynthesis is 
earried on by the chlorophyll in the chloroplasts, 
but this appears to be true in part only. In- 
vestigations of Irving, confirmed by Briggs, in- 
dicated that some other agency than chlorophyll 
takes part in photosynthesis. Willstiitter and 
Stoll thought an enzymic factor was involved, 
and Spoehr claimed that the colorless components 
of the protoplasm of the chloroplasts exerted an 
important part in photosynthesis. Weinberg 
suggested that chlorophyll initiated the process 
of carbohydrate synthesis but that an enzyme 
was necessary to complete the transformation of 
the first product of photosynthesis. While carbon 
dioxide is generally obtained from the air, Pol- 
lacei_ showed that green plants deprived of 
supplies of carbon dioxide, except through their 
roots, were able to sustain growth for a con- 
siderable time. See CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC. 

The commonly accepted theory of photo- 
synthesis is that starch is the first visible 
product of such activity, but that formaldehyde 
is the first step in its synthesis. This appears 
to be confirmed by the chemical reaction of an 
aqueous solution of carbon dioxide when sub- 
jected to the action of ultra-violet light or in 
ordinary light in the presence of malachite 
green. Baly, Heilbron, and others demonstrated 
the formation of formaldehyde in this manner, 
and Heilbron claimed that photosynthesis was 
mainly the chemistry of the formation of formal- 
dehyde and the synthesis of other products from 
it. On the other hand, neither Mazé, Maquenne, 
nor Molisch was able to find any trace of formal- 
dehyde in living green leaves. Thunberg from 
chemical evidence deduced the hypothesis that in 
the assimilation of carbon dioxide by plants, 
sunlight decomposed water with the formation 
of hydrogen and hydrogen peroxide. The car- 
bon dioxide reacts with the hydrogen and hy- 
drogen peroxide to form methylene glycol which 
in turn is transformed into formaldehyde 
through the loss of a molecule of water. Wei- 
gert, discussing the above, believed that at a 
certain wave-length, radiant energy was trans- 
formed into chemical energy. Warburg con- 
sidered heavy metals in the cells of plants acted 
as catalysts for the production of formaldehyde 
from carbon dioxide, and McHargue claimed 
this as one function for manganese in plants. 

The theory of Bayer that formaldehyde is the 
first product of photosynthesis and that carbo- 
hydrates are derived by its condensation was 
rather generally accepted, but there was much 
doubt as to how the other products were formed. 
MacDougal did not believe that sugar can 
he formed by the simple condensation of formal- 
dehyde. Hexoses were considered by Dixon and 
Mason the first sugars formed, while Davis be- 
lieved saccharose was the first sugar produced 
in the process of photosynthesis, and that it was 
transformed into hexoses for transportation to 


197 


BOTANY 


other parts of the plant. Siegfred claimed that 
carbon dioxide must combine with some amino 
acid and that carbamino acid enters into the 
photosynthetic process. This theory received 
support, but Spoehr and Locke subjected salts 
of carbamino acids to the light of quartz mer- 
ecury lamps without observing a trace of formal- 
dehyde, ammonia, or hydrogen peroxide. Priest- 
ly gave an account of the metabolism of fat 
which was inseparable from the growth of 
plants. He claimed fat was present not only 
in storage organs but also in all rapidly grow- 
ing parts of plants as well as in assimilating 
tissues, and from its early appearance he con- 
cluded that fatty substances were synthesized in 
the light and were derived from carbohydrates. 
Illumination, temperature and carbon dioxide 
content of the air influence photosynthesis, and 
this led to the theory of Blackman on limiting 
factors. He claimed that a single factor de- 
termined the physiological activities of plants 
and where a number of factors were involved, 
the slowest acting one would determine the re- 
sult. Harder rejected this claim and held that 
where two or more factors were involved the 
rate of assimilation would depend on the com- 
bined value of all the factors. 

In 1920, Garner and Allard contributed a 
notable account of the action of light on plants, 
and they supplemented their report with ad- 
ditional data. By controlling the daily periods 
of illumination they were able to accelerate or 
retard growth and reproduction of a number of 
species of plants almost at will. Autumn- 
flowering plants were brought into flower in 
summer, biennials behaved as annuals, and an- 
nuals were retarded in their fructification. 
Some plants were forced out of their normal 
life cycle by reducing the period of daily illu- 
mination, others by increasing it. To this re- 
sponse of plants to the length of day the name 
photoperiodism has been given, that is, the 
length of day required to bring about fructi- 
fication. Each species of plant is assumed to 
have an optimum light. period for its growth 
and reproduction. As an indication of the effect 
of varying the period of illumination on plant 
development, tobacco plants that required from 
152 to 162 days for flowering with 12 hours’ 
illumination required but 55 to 61 days when . 
the period was reduced to seven hours daily. It 
was also thought that diminishing the length 
of day had an influence in preparing perennial 
plants to enter into the condition preliminary 
to winter dormancy. It was believed that photo- 
periodism not only controlled the photosynthesis 
of plants but it in some way influenced the 
acidity relations, the form of carbohydrate in 
the plant, and also the water content of the 
tissues. Confirmative evidence of this hypothe- 
sis was found by McClelland in Porto Rico, 
where variation in the length of the day is not 
great, and by Wanser at Lind, Wash., where the 
difference between length of day and night is 
quite marked. Wanser claimed that by proper- 
ly adjusting the daily illumination of wheat it 
was possible to cause heading irrespective of the 
time of year. On the other hand, Harvey repor- 
ted having grown an extensive list of plants from 
germination to seed-bearing, the plants having 
been subjected to continual illumination of 
strong electric light throughout the entire pe- 
riod of growth. ‘Setchell found eelgrass re- 
quired a rather definite range of temperature 
for growth and reproduction, and that with this 


BOTANY 


plant there was no evidence of photoperiodism. 
The reaction of the living cell to its surround- 
ing medium was the subject of many investi- 
gations. Loeb gave much attention to a study 
of the conductivity of the cell, and he found 
that difference of potentiality within and with- 
out the cell was influenced by the reaction of 
the surrounding medium. He made a special 
study of proteins and found their relations to 
electrolytes had an important bearing on cell 
permeability. Osterhout claimed that the elec- 
trical resistance of the protoplasm could be 
taken as a measure of the permeability of the 
cell. He also believed that there was some 
mechanism within the cell that protected the 
contents against too great concentration of 
solutes within the cell. Boas thought it was the 
cell colloids that protected against injury due 
to concentrations of injurious substances. 
Several investigators considered that an elec- 
trical stimulus changed the hydrogen-ion con- 
centration within the cell, rendering the plasma 
membrane permeable. Nernst claimed that the 
excitation produced by the passage of an elec- 
tric current through living tissues was due to 
changes in salt concentration produced at the 
surface of the plasma membrane, and _ that 
changes which influenced the hydrogen-ion con- 
centration would also increase or diminish per- 
meability. Narcotics generally reduce permea- 
bility through their reduction of the hydrogen- 
ion concentration. Applying the principles of 
colloidal chemistry to the study of his artificial 
cell, MacDougal claimed it was possible to 
measure accurately the osmotic action of cell 
contents, the amount of exosmose, and the loss 
of electrolytes from the immersion liquid. 
The cause of the movement of water through 
the stems of plants continued undetermined, but 
additional evidence was offered to explain that 
phenomenon. It was repeatedly shown that 
living cells were not necessary for the upward 
movement of water in vegetable tissues. Ren- 
ner, Steinbrinck, and others affirmed that the 
cohesion hypothesis was adequate to explain 
water conduction. Other investigators claimed 
there was a suction force exerted from above, 
and in partial support of this hypothesis Har- 
ris, Gortner, and Lawrence found there was an 
increased osmotie concentration in the leaf sap 
from lower to higher levels in trees and other 
tall growing plants. They also claimed there 
was a correlation between the habit of growth, 
environment, and osmotic pressure in plants. 
Ursprung and Blum considered that external 
conditions influenced the osmotic pressure in 
plants and that there was a daily as well as 
an annual periodicity in osmotic movement. In 
a later paper they claimed there was a suction 
pressure that draws water into the cells. Bose 
developed an instrument of great delicacy that 
was said to show the movement of sap, and 
from his experiments he developed the idea that 
there were pulsating cells throughout the 
length of the plant and that their pulsation gave 
rise to the conduction of sap even in the ab- 
sence of root pressure and_ transpiration. 
Dixon, in an address before the Botanical Sec- 
tion of the British Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science in 1922, claimed that the trans- 
portation of organic substances to the growing 
points of plants takes place in the trachex. The 
dissolved substances fill the trachee and are 
moved by the forces set up by transpiration, the 
expansion of growing cells and root pressure. 


198 


BOTANY 


The principles underlying plant growth re- 
ceived the attention of plant physiologists. 
Mitscherlich applied a formula to plant growth 
that was based on the increase in dry weight 
under the influence of a number of variable 
factors. Blackman claimed that the growth of 
annual plants proceeded, in the early stages, at 
a compound interest rate, but his formula was 
challenged by a number of investigators. Loeb 
was responsible for what is called the inhibition 
hypothesis of plant growth. From his studies 
of Bryophyllum he claimed that apical growth 
in stems is accelerated and lateral growth re- 
tarded by the production of inhibitory substances 
in the stems. By the action of these substances 
the dominant buds are forced into growth and 
others are retarded. This idea received the 
support of Reed, Barker, Lees, and others, but 
the hypothesis was vigorously attacked by a 
number of investigators. Jones was reported to 
have found from his study of cuttings of plants 
that only a limited portion of the stem toward 
the root apex would produce roots. The op- 
posite end tends to produce stems. It was im- 
possible to change the area of root growth ap- 
preciably, but stem growth apparently is pos- 
sessed by an extensive portion of the cutting. 
Short root cuttings were said to produce shoots 
from each end, but roots from one end only. 
In one of his last contributions on regeneration 
and growth, Loeb claimed that polarity in plant 
growth was determined by differences in .the 
tissues which were reached by ascending and 
descending sap, and this determined shoot and 
root growth. Kraus and Kraybill in 1918 found 
a very definite correlation between the propor- 
tion of carbohydrates and nitrogen available to 
plants and their growth and fruitfulness. Reid, 
from a recent study of the regeneration of 
tomato cuttings, confirmed their conclusions. 
He claimed that when carbohydrate reserves 
were high, and available nitrogen, either within 
or without the plant, was low, there would be 
vigorous root.development. When the relative 
percentage of nitrogen; was shoot 
growth was abundant. 

Ecology. This comparatively new branch of 
botany-had become by 1924 one of great ac- 
tivity. To provide an outlet for publications in 
this specialized field two journals were estab- 
lished, Journal of Hcology and Ecology. The 
field of ecology had not been definitely limited, 
but broadly it included the relation of the plant 
to its environment, plant associations, and plant 
distribution. The relation of the plant, or as- 
sociation of plants, to environment was the 
subject of many investigations, and numerous 
studies were published on the ecology of more 
or less restricted areas. It was generally rec- 
ognized that vegetation usually reflects the 
character of the soil, moisture, temperature, 
ete., and correlations were established between 
plant associations and soil types that were use- 
ful in determining the agricultural value of 
large areas of land. This led to studies of 
soil acidity as influencing the occurrence and 
distribution of plants. Wherry brought  to- 
gether a mass of information which is considered 
to show that the peculiar floras of bogs, salt 
marshes, sand barrens, ete., were due to soil 
acidity, and he believed that soil acidity was 
of fundamental importance in controlling the 
distribution of native plants. As a convenient 
method for determining the soil reaction, the 
hydrogen-ion concentration of the soil solution 


increased, 


BOTANY 199 


had come into common use, and many investi- 
gators reported on its value as an index to the 
dominant features of the vegetation of a soil 
type. Laboratory studies showed that a certain 
physiological balance of salts in solution was 
necessary for the normal growth of plants. At- 
tempts to apply this same principle to plants 
growing in soils did not always give satisfac- 
tory results. Enough had been done in this re- 
spect to indicate that the hydrogen-ion con- 
centration of a soil might be an important fac- 
tor in plant growth. Truog considered it had 
an important bearing on the feeding power of 
plants and the relation of plant growth to soil 
acidity and alkalinity. 

Olsen, from a study of the meadow and wood- 
land plants of Denmark, concluded that the oc- 
currence and distribution of plants under nat- 
ural conditions varied with the reaction of the 
soil as expressed by their hydrogen-ion con- 
centration. Kelley also claimed that soil acid- 
ity determined the flora of a soil type, and At- 
kins found many plants were restricted in their 
range by the hydrogen-ion concentration of their 
habitats. Similar claims were made by many 
other investigators. Experiments showed, how- 
ever, that the plant itself might exert an influ- 
ence on the medium in which it was grown. 
Rudolfs, Pantanelli, and many others demon- 
strated the reaction of plants to the medium, 
and the work of Hartzell, Pickering, and others 
showed the influence of one set of plants on the 
growth of a succeeding one. This may be due 
to the development of toxic substances in soils 
or by changing their chemical reaction. The 
question of soil acidity as an ecological fac- 
tor was considered very complex by Tansley. 
Comber believed that soil acidity was due to the 
relation of calcium to weak bases such as alum- 
inium and not to its ratio to potassium, sodium, 
and other metals. Salisbury considered the 
ratio of calcium to potassium and sodium as 
inadequate in determining the distribution of 
plants. Pearson and Priestly offered evidence 


regarding the basic ratio and plant distribution.. 


Kurtz reasoned, from the occurrence of many 
species of plants in soils of widely .differing 
reaction, that soil acidity could hardly be a 
dominant factor in plant distribution. 
Possibly on account of the inherent difficulty 
associated with their study, there had not been 
as many contributions to the phenomena of 
root growth as in other lines. Coupin claimed 
that the root tip was the most important region 
of absorption and the root hairs played a minor 
role. Knudson found that root caps separated 
from their roots could retain their vitality for 
several months. Robbins was able to grow ex- 
cised root tips of maize, peas, cotton, ete., in 
nutrient media for more than three months. 
Weaver believed that with few exceptions most 
plants were able to conform their roots to their 
habitat and that soil moisture is the determining 
factor in root distribution. Waterman con- 
‘sidered nutrition, rather than physical factors 
of the soil, responsible for the behavior of roots 
in their substrata. Hatton claimed that plants 
had as distinctive types of roots as of aérial 
parts, and Barker and Spink worked out a 
classification of apple stocks based on _ root 
characters. Merkle found that many desert 
plants were provided with surface roots, which 
were designated as absorptive roots, and deeper 
ones, which are considered to function mainly 
as anchor roots. Cannon, Free, Livingston, and 


BOTANY 


others paid especial attention to the question 
of root aération. Increasing the carbon dioxide 
in the soil beyond certain limits was said to have 
an injurious effect which was due not to the 
toxic effect of the carbon dioxide but to the 
lack of oxygen. Noyes found the injurious ef- 
fect of treating soils with carbon dioxide was 
apparent for more than nine months. Cannon 
believed that a deficiency of oxygen in the soil 
is a limiting factor in the rate of root growth. 
A subject of considerable importance in ex- 
plaining the distribution of plants was the hy- 
pothesis of Willis, known as the age and area 
hypothesis. It was claimed that “the area oc- 
cupied at any given time, in any given country, 
by any group of allied species depends upon 
the ages of the species of the group in that 
country.” Willis considered plant distribution 
in the present era with respect to its broader 
outlines was governed, mainly, by the time fac- 
tor, while the detailed distribution in the area 
was mainly dependent upon ecological factors. 
Ridley disagreed with this hypothesis and cited 
many widely distributed species, the distribution 
of which appeared not to be explained by the 
theory of their antiquity. Numerous local 
floras were studied by various authors and 
their conclusions in many instances were at 
variance with the age and area theory. 
Plant breeding. There was great activity in 
theoretical and practical plant breeding during 
the past ten years. To provide an outlet for 
the numerous papers which give the results of 
investigations in plant and animal breeding, a 
number of special journals were established, 
among them Hereditas, (Genetica, Genetics, 


‘Journal of Genetics, and Journal of Heredity. 


These and other publications contain many 
articles which are intended to interpret Men- 
del’s Law and De Vries’ Mutation Theory. 
Many types of inheritance were recognized that 
did not conform to the simple Mendelian for- 
mula, and Yves Delage predicted the down- 
fall of Mendelism through the weight of the 
many accessory hypotheses that have been of- 
fered for certain cases of inheritance. There 
was much speculation regarding the cell con- 
stituents that carried the factors of inheritance. 
Mottier and others believed that the chondrio- 
somes, granular rod-shaped bodies in the cyto- 
plasm that multiply by division and are perma- 
nent organs in the cell, are concerned in the 
transmission of inherited characters. The more 
recent theory of Morgan that the chromosomes 
carry the factors of inheritance was more gen- 
erally accepted. Each chromosome is consider- 
ed as carrying a large number of genes, or unit 
factors, which are brought together by crossing 
with the production of new combinations, 
through which new varieties are secured. 

In economic plant breeding work the question 
of sterility of hybrids is of great importance. 
Certain structural characters, as well as physio- 
logical incompatibilities, are recognized as hav- 
ing a bearing upon sterility, but the sterility of 
the hybrids is of such common occurrence that 
their frequent presence is expected by plant 
breeders. Sterility in plant hybrids may be due 
to impotent pollen, abortive ovules, or the 
failure of the germ cells to unite and fuse to- 
gether. The latter appears to be frequently the 
cause of sterility in plant hybrids. Horticul- 
turists have known for many years that certain 
varieties of apples, pears, plums, cherries, 
grapes, etc., are self-sterile, and that a compat- 


BOTANY 


ible variety should be introduced among the 
plantings if increased fruitfulness is desired. 
These observations have been repeatedly con- 
firmed by carefully controlled experiments with 
many species of plants. Sterility in plant hy- 
brids is generally attributed to lethal factors oc- 
eurring among the genes, and a study of the 
combination of these and other factors has an 
important bearing on plant genetics. When one 
variety of plant is sterile, reciprocal crosses 
with it will behave alike and the factors for 
sterility are inherited according to Mendel’s Law. 
Some of our most highly prized varieties of 
fruit are notoriously shy bearers, due to various 
causes, sterility among them. By the study of 
the several factors involved it is possible to 
lay a basis for proper interplanting of varieties 
to secure greater fruit production. 

Another line of plant breeding investigation 
was that of producing varieties or strains of 
important crop plants immune or resistant to 
plant diseases. Unlike some diseases of man 
and animals, immunity to subsequent attack 
does not appear to be conferred on plants 
through the incidence of disease. While little 
is known as to what causes resistance to dis- 
ease on the part of plants, it has been quite 
definitely established that in plant breeding re- 
sistance is dominant to susceptibility and the 


tendency of resistance can be inherited and prob- . 


ably increased by repeated crossing. There are 
now well established varieties of wheat that are 
resistant, or immune, to rust and smut; tobacco, 
to root rot; potatoes to black wart; sugar cane, 
to mosaic; cotton, to wilt; cowpeas, to nemato- 
des; beans, to anthracnose; cabbage, to yellows; 
tomatoes, to wilt; ete. In connection with breed- 
ing experiments for resistance to disease the 
interesting discovery was made that of many 
of the fungi which cause disease there are 
strains that cannot be differentiated except by 
biologic tests, and many of the resistant, varie- 
ties of crop plants may be susceptible to some 
strains of the fungus while highly resistant or 
even immune to other strains. More than 
thirty biologic strains of wheat rust have been 
described. Fortunately, as a rule, only a few 
of the strains occur in a given locality and some 
are limited by climatic and other factors that 
reduce the liability of their introduction, and 
the plant breeder must consider the strains that 
are prevalent in his locality when undertaking 
the production of resistant varieties. 

Bud selection, as a means for increasing the 
productivity of plants propagated vegetatively, 
has received considerable attention. Shamel 
and others worked with citrus species, sugar 
cane, etc., and they claimed that increased pro- 
ductivity has been secured through the propa- 
gation of buds from selected, high-yielding 
parent plants. Emerson considered bud varia- 
tion due to aberrant chromosomes, somatic mu- 
tation or vegetative segregation of plastids. A 
number of investigators attempted to duplicate 
the results reported with citrus, but Rawes 
claims that the bearing capacity of apple trees 
was not transmitted vegetatively, and Sax and 
Gowan found no evidence to support. the hy- 
pothesis of variation in yield being transmitted 
through vegetative propagation. 

Necrology. Among botanists of international 
repute who died during the decade 1914-24 were: 
F. Nobbe, L. Hiltner, P. Sorauer, W. Pfeffer, 
and §S. Schwendener, in Germany; G. Cuboni 
and P. A. Saccardo, in Italy; L. Matruchot, E. 


200 


BOTTOMLEY 


Prillieux, and G. Bonnier, in France; A. and 
C. DeCandolle; in Switzerland; I. Bayley Bal- 
four, G. Massee, M. C. Cooke, and J. G. Baker, in 
England; V. I. Palladin in Russia; and J. T. 
Burrill, W. G. Farlow, G. L. Goodale, B. D. 
Halstead and G. F. Atkinson, in the United 
States. 

Bibliography. Some recent books on phases 
of plant physiology, ecology and plant breeding 
are: W. R. G. Atkins, Recent Researches in Plant 
Physiology (London, 1916); N. Bernard, Prin- 
cipes de Biologie Végétale (Paris, 1921); J. C. 
Bose, The Pliysiology of the Ascent of Sap and 
Life Movements of Plants (London, 1923); F. 
O. Bower, Botany of the Living Plant \( London, 
1923) ; F. Czapek, Biochemie der Pflanzen (Jena, 
1920); D. T. MacDougal, Hydration and Growth 
(Washington, 1920); H. Molisch Pflanzenphysi- 
ologie (Berlin, 1917); M. W. Onslow, Practical 
Plant Biochemistry (Cambridge, 1920); V. I. 
Palladin, translated by B. E. Livingston, Plant 
Physiology (Philadelphia, 1923); R. W. That- 
cher, Chemistry of Plant Life (New York, 
1921); R. Willstiitter and <A. Stoll, Unter- 
suchungen iber die Assimilation der Kohlen- 
saure (Berlin, 1918); F. E. Clements, Plant Suc- 
cession (Washington, 1916), and Plant Indica- 
tors '(Washington, 1920); B. E. Livingston and 
F. Shreve, The Distribution of Vegetation in the 
United States as Related to Climatic Condi- 
tions (Washington, 1921); A. G. Tansley, Prac- 
tical Plant Ecology (London, 1923); J. E. 
Weaver, Ecological Relations of Roots (Wash- 
ington, 1919); E. B. Babcock and R. E. Clausen, 
Genetics (New York, 1918); E. Baur, Die Wis- 
senschaftlichen Grundlagen. den Pflanzenziich- 
tung (Berlin, 1921); L. Blaringhem, Les Prob- 
lems de VHérédité (Paris, 1920); E. M. East 
and D. F. Jones, Inbreeding and Outbreeding 
(Philadelphia, 1919); C. Fruiwirth, Handbuch 
der Landwirthschaftlichen. Pflanzenziichtung 
(Berlin, 1923); G. 8S. Gager, Heredity and Hvo- 
lution in Plants (Philadelphia, 1920); H. K. 
Hayes and R. J. Gerber, Breeding Crop Plants 
(New York, 1921); T. H. Morgan, The Physical 
Basis of Heredity (Philadelphia, 1919); and 
M. J. Sirks, Handbock der Algemeene Erfeli- 
jkeidsleer (The Hague, 1923). See PLANTS, 
DISEASES OF, HEREDITY; ZOOLOGY. 

BOTHA, Lovis (1862-1919). A South Afri- 
can general and statesman (see VoL. JIT). With 
General Smuts, Botha worked heroically, at the 
outbreak of the War, in the interests of the 
British Empire. In spite of the fact that he 
was Premier, he took the field first against the 
de Wet rebels, whom he crushed, and then in the 
campaign against German Southwest Africa. 
He remained at the head of the government un- 
til his death, Aug. 28, 1919. 

BOTTOMLEY, Horatio Wi1iAmM (1860- 

). An English journalist. He was of 
humble parentage and had little education, 
but by dint of hard labor and a sedulous cul- 
tivation of the tastes of the popular majority, 
he made himself one of the most feared of 
Englishmen. He first engaged in stock pro- 
motions and thus grew interested in journal- 
ism, so that the year 1922 saw him one of 
the four or five leading English newspaper 
publishers. His periodical John Bull was sen- 
sational and violent, with an enormous follow- 
ing. During the War, he fanned hatred against 


Germans; in the years following the Armis- 
tice he singled out the United States for 


vilifications. In 1922 his career was cut short 


SCULR IRE 


COURTESY OF THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART 


BOUCHARD 
“BLACKSMITH IN REPOSE” 
In the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City 


HENRI 


THE LIBRARY 
eo OE THE 
UNIVERSITY OF ILhiMQls 


BOTULISM 


to the infinite relief of intelligent Englishmen, 
when he was found guilty of misusing the great 
funds subscribed to his private patriotic organ- 
izations. He was sentenced to penal servitude 
for seven years. He had been an M.P., 1906- 
12 and 1918-22. 

BOTULISM, or BOTULINISM. Within the 
interval 1914-24, our knowledge of this affec- 
tion progressed to an extent hardly credible in 
comparison with the period when it was first 
associated with sausage poisoning. Nearly the 
entire range of preserved food products has 
been under review and much is still obscure, es- 
pecially in regard to the manner in which the 
bacillus gains access to the preserved foods. 
It has been found that home preserved food ‘is 
much more likely to contain it than the factory 
product. The high heat of the canneries is ordi- 
narily a guarantee of the purity of their prod- 
ucts, but the expulsion of the air as a result of 
the heat, regarded as the cornerstone of suc- 
cessful food preservation, is no safeguard against 
the bacillus but rather a menace, since it thrives 
in the absence of air. Since the spores can re- 
sist a high degree of heat, there is the fear 
that they may not be entirely destroyed and 
comparative studies show that the bacillus in 
some articles like spinach is more resistant 
than in other media. The safeguard then must 
consist in a high and sustained application of 
heat more than sufficient to destroy all spores. 

On the other hand, a certain concentration of 
sugar or salt in water is sufficient to render 
the bacillus helpless and no fear need be enter- 
tained of eating foods preserved in these media 
if the concentration is guaranteed. Numerous 
cases of botulism from preserved olives were 
found to be due to a concentration of less 
than 6 per cent of brine. The products of any 
of the great food-preserving factories may be 
regarded as safe enough, while some of the 
small, obscure canneries lack the requisite tech- 
nical knowledge and equipment, thereby re- 
sembling the home kitchen. Of interest in con- 
nection with the treatment is the use of the 
aéroplane for transporting the botulus anti- 
toxin from the source, when the poisoning oc- 
curs in an out-of-the-way locality. See also 
VETERINARY MEDICINE. 

BOUCHARD, HENRI (1875- \ aaa 
French sculptor, born at Dijon, the son of a 
joiner and woodecarver, who presided over his 
earliest artistic education. He studied at Dijon 
and at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, where 
he won the Prix de Rome in 1891. He was 
influenced by Rodin and early evinced a prefer- 
ence for labor subjects, such as the “Laborer 
in Repose” (1907), “Plowing in Burgundy” 
(Champs de Mars, Paris), “Accident to a 
Quarryman,”’ “Man with Hoe,’ the bronze 
“Blacksmith” (Metropolitan Museum, New York 
City), “The Stevedore” (Luxembourg Museum, 
Paris), and “The Fishermen.” His _ historical 
subjects, all Gothic, Charles the Bold (Brussels) , 
“The Master Workman,” and Claux Sluter 
(Dijon), are no less powerful and characteristic. 
In a very different vein is his light and charming 
bronze “Girl with a Gazelle” (Metropolitan 
Museum, New York City). His most famous 
achievement, done in collaboration with Paul 
Landowski, is the international monument to 
the Calvinist reformation, austere and sublime, 
built into the old wall of Geneva. The four 
great central figures, Farel, Calvin, Knox, and 
Beza, are by both artists, and those of the six 


201 


BOURGET 


lay heroes, Oliver Cromwell, the Great Elector 
of Brandenburg, and Roger Williams are by 
Bouchard. He is a realist of great power but 
in no sense a literalist. His art is synthesized, 
architectonic, and adapted to the material used; 
it excels especially in rhythm. 

BOUHELIER, SAINT-GEORGES DE (1876- ¥ 
A French author, born at Reuil, Seine-et-Oise. 
His works constitute a satire on society. The 
best of his productions is Le Carnaval des En- 
fants, a three-act play, published in 1911. In 
most of his writings he shows a lack of a sense 
of propriety and often becomes vulgar and even 
sacrilegious. His works include Discours sur la 
Mort de Narcisse, ou UVImpérieuse Métamor- 
phose: Théorie de VAmour (1895); L’Affaire 
Dreyfus; la Révolution en Marche (1898); La 
Route Noire (1900); La Tragédie du Nouveau 
Christ (1901); Histoire de Lucie, Fille Perdue 
et Criminelle (1902); Des Passions de l’ Amour 
(1904); La Tragédie Royale (1909); La Ro- 
mance de ’1 Homme, poems (1912); and La Vie 
dune femme; Cdipe; La Tragédie de Tristan 
et Yseult (1922-3). 

BOULOGNE CONFERENCE. See ReEpara- 
TIONS. 


BOURDELLE, ANToINE (1861- Vibe ue 
French sculptor, the foremost successor of 
Rodin, born at Montauban. Dominated by 


Gothic traditions, he studied chiefly at Paris, 
with Rodin, who esteemed him the most im- 
portant of his followers. His art, however, 
differs widely from Rodin’s, which is essentially 
pictorial, while Bourdelle’s is architectural, es- 
sentially sculpturesque, and dependent on the 
material. Archaic Greek and Gothic sculpture 
are the chief influences in his art. His early 
works include charming studies of girls and 
young women. More recent productions are a 
monument to the defenders of Montauban 
(1902); “The Archer Heracles” (1909; replica 
in The Metropolitan Museum of New York 
City); the remarkable reliefs on the Théitre 
des Elysées, Paris; monument to the Polish 
poet Mickiewicz (1917), apostle of Polish in- 
pendence; monument to General Alvear in 
Buenos Aires (1915-17), with colossal eques- 
trian statues and allegorical figures, two of 
which, “Force” and “Victory,” have been pro- 
nounced the finest sculptures the War brought 
forth. His most recent productions are a 
superb madonna and child (1922), in the Gothie 
spirit, and a monument to the miners of Mon- 
ceaux who fell in the War. His powerful 
portraits include busts of Beethoven (Luxem- 
bourg Museum), Rodin, Ingres, Anatole France 
(1919), and M. Simu (Bucharest), and figures 
of Carpeaux and Rodin at work. 

BOURGEOIS, Lfton’ Victor AUGUSTE 
(1851-— ). A French politician (see Vot. 
III). He was elected president of the Senate in 
1918. In 1919 he became the French member of 
the League of Nations Commission and did 
important work in the drafting of the Covenant. 
On Oct. 14, 1919, he was named first French 
representative on the League Council. In Jan- 
uary, 1923, he was reélected president of the 
Senate, but resigned shortly afterward to de- 
vote the remainder of his life to the advocacy 
of the League idea. This phase of his career re- 
sembled those of the English Lord Robert Cecil 
and the American ex-Supreme Court Justice 
John H. Clarke. 

BOURGET, PAvuL (1852- Vie 
novelist and critic (see Vou. III). 


A French 
His works 


BOURNE 


published after 1914 include Le sens de la 
Mort (1915), Lazarine (1917), Némésis (1918), 
Anomalies (1920), Laurence Albain (1920), 
L’Ecuyeére (1921), all novels; and a travel 
sketch, Le Démon du Midi (1914). 

BOURNE, RANDOLPH (SILLIMAN) (1886— 
1918). An American author, born at Bloom- 
field, N. J., and graduated at Columbia Uni- 
versity in 1913, where he obtained a traveling 
scholarship. He studied in London and Paris 
(1913-14). Essays which had appeared in the 
Atlantic Monthly and other papers were collect- 
ed in Youth and Life (1918). He was a well 
known contributor to the leading American 
magazines and was a member of the staff 
of the New Republic at its inception in 1914; 
later he wrote for The Seven Arts (1917) and 
the .Dial, with which he was connected at the 
time of his death. His point of view was radi- 
cal and always expressed with pointed style. 
His bitter opposition to the War, due rather to 
a high valuation of personality and freedom than 
to doctrinaire pacifism, was the core of the 
posthumous Untimely Papers, edited by James 
Oppenheim. Of more general interest was the 
still later History of a Literary Radical, com- 
piled by Van Wyck Brooks. Bourne’s other 
volumes were The Gary Schools (1916) and 
Education and Inving (1917). A somewhat 
sentimentalized picture of him is presented in 
Paul Rosenfeld’s Port of New York. 

BOUTROUX, ETIENNE EMILE Marie (1845- 
1921). A French philosopher (see Vou. III), 
who, although much advanced in years when the 
War came, served the cause of his country by 
public addresses which combined patriotism with 
enlightened internationalism. These addresses, 
published in book or pamphlet form, include 
Certitude et Vérité (1915), Philosophy and War 
(1916), The Relation between Thought and Ac- 
tion (1918), and L’Amérique dans la Guerre 
Mondiale (1918). 

BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. Sce VETERINA- 
RY MEDICINE. 

BOWDOIN COLLEGE. An institution for 
men at Brunswick, Me., founded in 1794. The 
student enrollment increased from 394 in 1914 
to 497 in 1923-24 and the faculty from 29 to 
34 members. The library was increased from 
110,000 to 130,000 volumes and the productive 
endowment from $2,312,552 to $3,563,950. In 
1920, the college offered new courses in philoso- 
phy, government, and the fine arts, and in 1921 
discontinued the medical school. In the same 
year it reported a marked decrease in the num- 
ber of students in the more humanistic studies, 
and an increase in the number of those specializ- 
ing in chemistry and economics. William De 
Witt Hyde, D.D., died in 1917 and was _ suc- 
ceeded in the presidency by Kenneth C. M. Sills, 
LL.D. 

BOWIE, WiLL1am (1872— ). An Ameri- 
can engineer born at Annapolis Junction, Md., 
and educated at St. John’s College, Trinity, and 
Lehigh. In 1895 he entered the United States 
~Coast and Geodetic Survey, serving at first in 
the field, both in the United States and its 
colonial possessions, but in 1909 he became chief 
of the division of geodesy. During the War he 
served in the Corps of Engineers with the rank 
of major. He has represented the United States 
at various international geodetic conferences 
and congresses and was president of the section 
of geodesy of the Geodetic and Geophysical 
Union in 1919. His scientific researches have 


202 BOXING 


had to do with the theory of isostasy and its 
applications to dynamic and structural geology. 

BOWLES, FRANcIS TIFFANY (1858- ). 
An American naval constructor (see Vou. III). 
He was assistant general manager of the United 
States Shipping Board from 1917 to 1919. 

BOWLEY, ALpert JESSE (1875- ys eae 
American army officer, born in Westminster, Cal. 
He graduated from the United States Military 
Academy in 1897 and was commissioned 2d 
lieutenant. He took part in the Spanish- 
American War and in campaigns in the Philip- 
pines. From 1901 to 1905 he was a professor in 
the United States Military Academy. He served 
again in the Philippines in 1910-11 and in the 
latter year was appointed military attaché to 
China. From 1915 to 1917 he did duty on the 
Mexican border. In the latter year he organ- 
ized the 17th Field Artillery, and commanding 
it in France, participated in nearly all the im- 
portant actions in which the American Army 
took part. In 1918 he was appointed com- 
mander of the 2d Field Artillery Brigade, 2d 
Division, and in the same year became Chief of 
Artillery, 6th Corps. From 1919 to 1920 he 
was on duty at the General Staff College. He 
was promoted to be brigadier-general in the na- 
tional army in 1918 and in the regular army 
in 1921. 

BOWMAN, Isaran (1878- ). An Amer- 
ican geographer (see Vox. III). In 1915 he be- 
came director of the American Geographical 
Society of New York, and later (1917) received 
the Bonaparte-Wyse gold medal of the Geograph- 
ic Society of Paris, for his explorations and pub- 
lications of South America. In 1918-19 he was 
chief territorial specialist of the American Com- 
mission to Negotiate Peace and became a mem- 
ber of the geographic committee of the National 
Research Council in 1920. He is author of 
South America (1915), The Andes of Southern 
Peru (1916), and The New World—Problems in 
Political Geography (1921). He was associate 
editor of the Journal of Geography in 1918-19 
and editor in 1919-20. In 1916 he became as- 
sociate editor of the Geographical Review. 

BOXING. Professional boxing established it- 
self as perhaps the most popular branch of com- 
mercialized sport during the period from 1914 
to 1924. The craze for fistic combats, particu- 
larly of the heavyweight variety, became world- 
wide with the United States setting the pace 
in the number of important bouts held, in the 
huge crowds of spectators attracted and in the 
size of the purses paid the contestants. Great 
Britain, France, Ireland, Italy, the Argentine, 
Chile, Peru and even the nations of the Orient 
all witnessed an amazing advance in interest 
shown both in local boxing events and in 
the many internation]! matches which took 
place. 


hands. In the heavyweight division Jack John- 
son, the negro, was deposed by Jess Willard, who 
in turn bowed to the prowess of Jack Dempsey 
(q.v.). Dempsey successfully defended his hon- 
ors on four different occasions between 1920 and 
1923, his opponents being Bill Brennan, Georges 
Carpentier (q.v.), Tom Gibbons and Luis Firpo. 
The battle between Dempsey and Carpentier 
which was held at Jersey City, July 2, 1921, at- 
tracted a throng of more than 80,000 persons 
who paid $1,626,580 for admissions. All for- 
mer records both for crowds and gate receipts 
were broken. The Dempsey-Firpo bout at the 


Several world championship titles changed 


i 


BOYD 


Polo Grounds, New York City, Sept. 14, 1923, 
drew a “gate” of $1,188,822. 

Another sensational boxer to make his ap- 
pearance was Benny Leonard, world champion 
of the lightweight division. Leonard won his 
title in 1917 from Freddie Welsh, of England 
and successfully defended it against several chal- 
lengers up to the beginning of 1924. 

The holders of world championship titles in 
the classes other than the heavyweight and the 
lightweight are: middleweight, Harry Greb; 
welterweight, Mickey Walker; light heavy- 
weight, Mike McTigue; featherweight, Johnny 
Dundee; bantamweight, Abe Goldstein;  fly- 
weight, Pancho Villa. 

Boxing among amateurs and in the colleges 
thrived along with the professional “game” dur- 
ing 1915-1924. The Amateur Athletic Union of 
the United States and the various European 
amateur federations conducted their usual tour- 
naments. 

An intercollegiate boxing league was organ- 
ized in the United States, comprising several of 
the institutions of the Eastern States, and there 
also were held a large number of dual boxing 
meets between college teams. In England the 
universities of Cambridge and Oxford took up 
the sport with much success. 

BOYD, Ernest ( ?- ). An American 
critic and journalist, born in Ireland. He was 
educated in France, Germany, and Switzerland 
for the British Consular Service, which he en- 
tered in 1913. He soon after came to the 
United States, where his efforts in familiariz- 
ing Americans with modern movements in Irish 
and European literature gave him at once a 
place of prominence among the younger critics. 
His writings in the American Mercury and the 
Bookman on American literary types and his 
causeries, first in the New York Evening Post 
and then in the New York Tribune on Conti- 
nental literary tendencies, were welcome con- 
tributions in the work of building up American 
critical standards. His writings include /re- 
land’s Literary Renaissance, The Contemporary 
Drama of Ireland, and Appreciations and De- 
preciations. 

BOYD, JAMES OscaAR_ (1874- 1 eran 
American theologian, born at Rahway, N. J., 
and educated at New York University, the Uni- 
versity of Erlangen, and Princeton. From 
1907 to 1915 he was assistant professor of Ori- 
ental and Old Testament Literature 
Princeton Theological Seminary, and from then 
until 1921 pastor of the Presbyterian Church 
of the Redeemer in Paterson, N. J. In 1921 
he was named secretary for Arabic for the 
American Bible Society. His works include 
Ezekiel and the Modern Dating of the Pent- 
ateuch (1908), and Sin and Grace in the Koran 
(1912). He edited the Octateuch in Ethiopic 
(1909) and A Brief Bible History (1922). 

BOYLE, HvucuH CHARLES (1873- ). An 
American bishop, born at Johnstown, Pa., and 
educated at Saint Vincent’s, Beatty, Pa. He 
was ordained to the Roman Catholic priesthood 
in 1898, and acted as assistant in Saint Aloy- 
sius’ Church, Wilmerding, Pa., and later in 
Saint Paul’s Cathedral, Pittsburgh. From 
1916-21 he was pastor of Saint Mary Magda- 
lene’s. Church, Homestead, Pa. In the latter 
year he was consecrated bishop of Pittsburgh. 

BOYLE, Joun J. (1851-1917). An Ameri- 
ean sculptor, born in New York City, and edu- 
eated at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine 


203 


in the 


BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA 


Arts in Philadelphia and at the Ecole des 
Beaux Arts, Paris. He was particularly suc- 
cessful as a sculptor of Indian figures and is 
chiefly known for his group portraits of them. 
“The Stone Age in North America,” one of his 
best works, is in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. 
Two other groups by Boyle are “The Alarm,” 
exhibited in Lincoln Park, Chicago, and “The 
Savage Age” at the Panama-Pacifie Interna- 
tional Exposition. His work also included 
the seated “Franklin” in Philadelphia and the 
figures of “Bacon” and “Plato” in the Congres- 
sional Library at Washington, D. C. The abil- 
ity of Boyle as a sculptor was recognized in his 
election as Associate to the National Academy 
in 1910 and to the executive council of the Na- 
tional Sculptors’ Society. 

BOYLESVE, REN&-MARIE-AUGUSTE (1867- 

). A French novelist, born at La Haye- 
Descartes, and educated at Poitiers, Tours, and 
the University of Paris, where he attended 
courses in a wide variety of subjects. In his 
early youth he had the ambition to become a 
poet, but the symbolist movement, which was 
then at its height, did not suit his bent, and he 
turned to novel-writing as his _ profession. 
He was received in the French Academy in 
1919. That he is a careful observer of pro- 
vincial life is shown in La Bequée, one of 
his best novels (1901). His work has strik- 
ing diversity. He is realistic, poetical, ironic, 
humorous, tragic. His works include Le Méd- 
ecin des Dames de Néans (1896), Sainte-Marie- 
des-Fleurs (1897), Le Parfum des Iles Bor- 
romées (1898), Mademoiselle Cloque (1899), 
L’Enfant a@ la Balustrade (1903), Le Bel- 
Avenir (1905), Mon Amour (1908), Le Meil- 
leur Ami (1909), La Jeune Fille bien Elevée 
(1912), Madeleine Jeune Femme (1912), Tu 
wv Hs plus Rien (1917); Nymphes Dansants 
avec des Satyres, short stories (1920); La 
Dangereux Jeune Homme (1921), and Llise 
(1921). He has used the pseudonym “René 
Jardiveau ” 

BOYNTON, Henry Watcottr (1869- is 
An American author (see VoL. III). He was 
appointed a member of the Bookman staff in 
1915, and from 1919 to 1921 was on the staff 
of the Review. In 1921 he identified himself 
with th Independent and the Weekly Review. 
He published an edition of Carlyle’s Hssay on 
Burns in 1922. 

BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA. A movement 
for character building and citizenship training 
in boys through a programme of work and 
play; organized in February, 1910, and incor- 
porated by Act of Congress in June, 1918. The 
number of scouts increased from about 300,000 
in 1910 to 445,700 in 1923 and the number of 
leaders from 11,500 to 141,878 in 1923. During 
the War the scouts did notable service selling 
1,867,047 subscriptions amounting to $278,744,- 
650 in the Liberty Loan campaigns, and $42,- 
751,031 worth of War Savings Stamps. They 
also operated thousands of War _ gardens; 
worked on farms and in orchards; spread food 
conservation propaganda; located and reported 
to the Forestry Service nearly 21,000,000 board 
feet of standing black walnut timber; collected. 
at the request of the War Department, and 
under the Chemical Warfare Service, several 
tons of carbon material; performed confidential 
service for the Third Naval District; and co- 
operated with the Red Cross, the War Camp 
Community Service, the American Library As- 


BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA 


sociation, the Salvation Army, ete. After the 
War their activities in community service in- 
cluded coédperating with forestry departments 
in fighting and preventing forest fires, helping 
to conserve wild life, working on the national 
highways, planting trees, conducting clean-up 
and safety first campaigns, acting as traffic aids 
and fireman’s aids, guarding dangerous cross- 
ings, ete. In 1920, the decennial of the move- 
ment in America, over 360 picked scouts and 
their leaders took part in the first Internation- 
al Boy Scouts’ Jamboree held at Olympia, Eng- 
land, in which representatives of the organiza- 
tion in 23 nations came together. In 1924 a 
troop of 48 boys and leaders represented the 
Boy Scouts of America at the second Interna- 
tional Jamboree held at Copenhagen. An_in- 
ternational conference of scout leaders was also 
held in London in 1920 which was attended by 
the officials of the American organization. A 
second International Conference in Paris in 
1922, and third in Copenhagen in 1924. The 
director of the department of education, and 
a group of former scouts, then students in 
Yale University, at the request of the American 
Committee for Devastated France, conducted a 
Boy Scout Camp at Compiégne, France, dur- 
ing the summers of 1920-1922 to give French 
scouts the benefit of the American programme, 
system, and equipment, and to help them to 
organize their own camps. Biennial confer- 
ences of scout executives were held in 1920, 
1922 and 1924. Boys’ Life, the official maga- 
zine of the organization, adopted a widely ex- 
tended programme in 1923 on receipt of a gift 
of $100,000 from the Laura Spellman Rocke- 
feller Foundation Fund. Through this gift the 
editors were enabled to raise the magazine to 
a standard hitherto impossible. They an- 
nounced that they would seek to combat the 
objectionable type of story by giving the boys 
the sort of reading they wanted with objection- 
able matter left out. A total of 33 gold, 140 
silver, and 423 bronze medals, and 336 Certifi- 
cates for Heroism were awarded to scouts for 
conspicuous acts of courage and efficiency in 
saving life. . 

The number of merit badge pamphlets was 
increased to 70, providing vocational and gen- 
eral training by experts at a low cost. Thirty 
editions of the Handbook for Boys, totaling 
over 2,200,000 copies were issued, and in 1924 
the Handbook for Scoutmasters was in its 5th 
imprint. Great progress was made in train- 
ing scout leaders. A home study course was 
conducted in codperation with Columbia Uni- 
versity. In 1923, 350 local councils gave train- 
ing courses which were attended by more than 
8000 men. About 100 colleges, normal schools 
and theological seminaries included courses in 
scout leadership in their curriculum. Courses 
for scout executives were conducted at Colum- 
bia, Yale and other universities and in connec- 
tion with regional conferences, to the number 


of 12. A bureau of church relations was estab- 
lished to promote codperation with the 
churches. 


In 1923, there were 2700 fully organized and 
equipped scout camps; during the summer 225,- 
000 scouts spent one to three weeks in camp 
at an average cost to each boy of $6.87 a week. 
Minimum standards of safety and sanitation 
were adopted and a certificate is issued to each 
camp. 

New Seascout requirements were adopted, 


204 BRADLEY 


and a revision of the Seascout manual under- 
taken. See also LonE Scouts. 

BRADFORD, GAMALIEL (1863- ). An 
American author (see Vor. III). He has writ- 
ten Confederate Portraits (1914), Union Por- 
traits (1916), Portraits of Women (1916), A 
Naturalist of Souls (1917), Portraits of Amer- 
ican Women, (1919); A Prophet of Joy, 
poem (1920); Shadow Verses, poems; Ameri- 
can Portraits, 1875-1900 (1921), Damaged 
Souls (1923), and The Love of Samuel Pepys 
(1924). 

BRADLEY, FRANcIS HERBERT (1846- ye 
A British philosopher,. born at Glasbury, and 
educated at academies Cheltenham and Marl- 
borough before going to Oxford in the late 
1860’s, just when the idealistic reaction had 
set in against the materialistic empiricism of 
Mill and Spencer. Mr. Bradley identified him- 
self with the Oxford school of Neo-Hegelians, 
which in the 1870’s counted such teachers as 
T. H. Green and John Caird. He developed a 
philosophy of monistic absolutism and for more 
than 40 years he served as a rallying centre for 
those who sought in philosophy something more 
than an echoing of the scientific commonplaces 
of the day. 

An invalid for the greater part of his life, 
Mr. Bradley has published his few works in 
the spells between ‘“‘intervals of compulsory 
idleness.” Presuppositions of COritical- History 
(1874) and Hthical Studies (1876) exhibit the 
earlier Bradley, whose idealism is not com- 
pletely emancipated from a certain empiricism. 
The Principles of Logic (1883) was an epoch- 
making work; it was reprinted with a com- 
mentary and terminal essays after a lapse of 
40 years (1922). Without doubt Mr. Brad- 
ley’s greatest book is Appearance and Reality 
(1893; 2d ed., rev., 1902). Its thesis reflects 
that single intuition, the perception of which, 
in the words of Bergson, marks the greatness of 
a philosopher. That the Absolute is and is 
One, that it is over and above the qualification 
of personality, that finite existents have their 
degrees of reality and truth only by relation 
to the Absolute, and that the more anything is 
spiritual, so much the more is it veritably real 
—such a thesis involves the fusion of science 
and religion, and it is calculated therefore to 
shock the advocates both of modern science and 
traditional religion. Nevertheless the work of 
Mr. Bradley stood up under the attacks of the 
Anglo-American pragmatists, and after 30 
years its influence was distinctly visible in the 
realistic system of Prof. Samuel Alexander. 

The Essays on Truth and Reality (1924) 
constituted a somewhat unsuccessful effort to 
extend the criterion of the degrees of truth to 
the world of scientific fact and prediction. The 
great difficulty is that this notion is essentially 
mystical and religious, and that science, in its 
own sphere at least, has wanted to treat all 
facts with democratic equality. 

BRADLEY, Harotp CornetiIvus (1878-— ). 
An American chemist, born at Oakland, Cal. 
and educated at the Universities of California 
and Yale, where he was instructor of physiolog- 
ical chemistry in 1904-06 in. the medical school. 
In 1906 he was called to Wisconsin, where in 
1917 he attained full professional rank. In 
1910 he became research director of the Woods 
Hole Marine Biological Laboratory. His orig- 
inal investigations have had to do with such 
subjects as the physiological chemistry of the 


M 
\ 
* 
* 
* 
} 
‘ 


BRADY 


mollusks and the presence of various metals, 
such as copper and zinc, in marine mollusca, 
and manganese in fresh water mussels. He has 
also studied the chemistry of the human pan- 
creatic juice and the specific nature of hxemo- 
globins. 

BRADY, ALIcE ( ?- . An American 
actress and singer, daughter of William A. 
Brady (q.v.). She graduated from the Boston 
Conservatory of Music, where she was a pupil 
of Theodora Irvine, and made her professional 
début under an assumed name in The Balkan 
Princess in 1911. Later she sang in Gilbert and 
Sullivan productions. She played Meg in Little 
Women with much success and appeared with 
John Barrymore in A Thief for a Night. During 
1914 her best parts were in Sylvia Runs Away 
and What Is Love? She began to act for the 
motion pictures as well as the legitimate stage 
in 1914 and has appeared in many pictures. 
Her legitimate successes after 1918 include her 
playing in Forever After, in Anna Ascends 
(1920), Drifting, and Zander the Great (1923). 

BRADY, WittiAM A. (1863- ). An 
American theatrical manager, born at San 
Francisco. He made his first stage appearance 
in that city in The White Slave in 1882. Six 
years later he started a repertory company 
which proved very successful. In 1896 he took 
over the management of the Manhattan The- 
atre and in 1911 built and opened the Play- 
house with Sauce for the Goose. The most 
notable productions under his management 
were Pretty Peggy, Foxy Grandpa, The Pit, 
The Law and the Man, Baby Mine, The Boss, 
Bunty Pulls the Strings, Clothes, and The Man 
and the Hour. He has presented Grace George 
(Mrs. Brady), Robert Mantell, Holbrook Blinn, 
Cyril Scott and others. In 1917 he was ap- 
pointed by President Wilson chairman of a 
commission to organize the motion picture in- 
dustry to codperate with the Committee on 
Public Information. 

BRAGA, THEOPHILO (1850-1924). A Portu- 
guese philologist and president of Portugal (see 


Vou. III). He edited and wrote the preface of 
Portugal: an Anthology by George Young 
(1916). 


- BRAGDON, CLaubdeE (1866- ). An Amer- 
ican architect, born at Oberlin, Ohio, who has 
written many books and essays on architectural 
subjects and was interested in the theatre. He 
produced Hamlet, Macbeth, and Cyrano de 
Bergerac for Walter Hampden. His recent 
books include A Primer of Higher Space (The 
Fourth Dimension); Projective Ornament: 
Four-Dimensional Vistas (1916); Architecture 
and Democracy (1918); Oracle (1921), ete. 

BRAGG, Str WILLIAM HENRY (1862-: hes 
A British physicist, educated at Cambridge. 
In Australia from 1886-1908 he was professor 
of physics in the University of Adelaide. He 
moved to England on his appointment as Cav- 
endish professor of physics at the University of 
Leeds, 1909-15. Jointly with his son, William 
John Bragg (q.v.), he received the Nobel Prize 
in physics for 1915. Both shared in other hon- 
ors for their pioneer work in the study of crys- 
tal structure by réntgen rays. In 1915 he took 
the chair of physics in the University of Lon- 
don. His chief writings are Studies in Radio- 
activity (1912), and X-rays and Crystal 
Structure (1915) written in conjunction with 
his son. He was knighted in 19209. 

BRAGG, Wr1iAmM JoHN (1890 P21, 


205 


BRAND 


British physicist, born in Adelaide, Australia, 
and educated at Cambridge. He was lecturer on 
natural sciences at Cambridge, 1914-19, but re- 
signed to become professor of physics at the Vic- 
toria University, Manchester, in 1919. He was as- 
sociated with his father in the authorship of X- 
Rays and Crystal Structure 1915, and shared 
the Nobel Prize for physics with him in the 
same year, 

BRAILSFORD, Henry Nort (1873- F 
A British author and journalist, born at Mir- 
field, Yorks, England. He was educated at 
Glasgow University and taught there for a 
time; later he wrote for the Manchester Guard- 
iam and other newspapers. In 1897 he volun- 
teered for service with the Greek Foreign Le- 
gion. He was editor of The New Leader, the 
British Socialist organ, and published The 
Broom of the War-God; Macedonia (1906) ; 
Adventures in Prose, essays; The War of Steel 
and Gold (1914); A League of Nations 
(1917); Across the Blockade (1919); After 
the Peace (1920), and The Russian Workers’ 
Republic (1921). 

BRAINARD, Davin Lecce (1856- jen vAn 
American explorer and army officer (see VOL. 
III). In 1917 he became brigadier-general of 
the National Army, and the following year 
brigadier-general of the United States Army. 
He was retired in 1918. 

BRAISTED, WILLIAM CLARENCE (1864- ). 
An American naval surgeon, born at Toledo, 
Ohio, and educated at Michigan and Columbia 
Universities. After four years of hospital and 
private practice, he entered the United States 
navy as assistant surgeon and after successive 
promotions was retired in 1920 with the rank 
of rear admiral; he served as surgeon-general 
during 1914-20. Conspicuous in his career 
were service as medical representative of the 
United States navy department during the Rus- 
so-Japanese War and service as fleet surgeon 
of the Atlantic Squadron during 1912-14. 
While surgeon-general, he was a director of 
the Columbia Hospital for: Women and a visi- 
tor of the Government Hospital for the Insane; 
also he was a member of the central committee 
and war relief board of the Red Cross. In Sep- 
tember, 1921, he was called to the presidency 
of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy and 
Science. He has received decorations for his 
services from Japan and Venezuela, while from 
his own government he received the Distin- 
guished Service Medal for his work during the 
War. He is a member of many scientific soci- 
eties, including the Association of Military 
Surgeons, of miiiot he was president in 1912-13, 
and the American Medical Association, which 
he served as president in 1919-20. He was 
made a Fellow of the Royal College of Sur- 
geons by the University of Edinburgh in 1919. 

BRAND, Cuartes Joun (1879- ). ‘An 
American agriculturalist and economist, born 
in Lac Qui Parie County, Minn. He graduated 
from the University of Minnesota in 1902 and 
in the year following was assistant curator of 
botany at the Field Museum of Chicago. From 
1903 to 1919 he was in the service of the United 
States Department of Agriculture, in charge of 
investigation of grasses and cotton. He was 
chief of the Bureau of Markets from 1913 to 
1919 and in the latter year became vice-presi- 
dent and general manager of the American 
Fruit Growers, Inc. He was a delegate to sev- 
eral scientific and agricultural conferences and 


BRANDEGEE 


served on several important commissions dur- 
ing the War, besides being a member of the 
wool section of the War Industries Board. He 
wrote numerous bulletins, addresses, and pa- 
pers on agriculture, and coéperative produc- 
tion, marketing, and distribution. 

BRANDEGEE, FRANK BosworTu (1864-___). 
An American politician (see VoL. III). He was 
reélected to the United States Senate in 1914 
and again in 1920. 

BRANDEIS, Louis Demsitz (1856- ). 
An American jurist (see Vou. III) and Associate 
Justice of the Supreme Court of the United 
States, appointed in 1916. Prior to his eleva- 
tion to the Federal bench Mr. Brandeis was 
prominent as a lawyer and reformer and took 
an active part in the Zionist movement and 
other matters relating to the Jews. He has 
written many articles on naval problems, rail- 
roads, trusts, and Zionism. 

BRANDENBURG, Ericn (1868- ) . ae 
German author, born in Stralsund. He studied 
law, then history, at the universities of Leipzig, 
Berlin, Géttingen, and Heidelberg, and became 
professor at Leipzig. From 1919 to 1920 he 
was rector of the Leipzig University. He is the 
author of Kénig Sigismund und Kurfiirst 
Friedrich I von Brandenburg (1891), Die Ge- 
fangennahme Heinrichs von Brawschweig 
durch den Schmalkaldenbund (1894), Herzog 
Heinrich von Sachsen und die Religidsen Par- 
teien im Reiche (1896), Martin Luthers Auf- 
fassung vom Staate und der Gesellschaft 
(1900), Die Parlamentarische Obstruktion 
(1904), Kénig Friedrich Wilhelms IV Brief- 


wechsel mit Ludolf Camphausen 1848-51 
(1905), Die Entstehung des Weltstaatensys- 
tems (1907), Der Eintritt der Siidstaaten in 


den Norddeutschen Bund (1910), Die Deutsche 
Revolution von 1848 (1911), Deutsche Kriegs- 
etele (1917), Martin Luther als Vorkimpfer 
Deutschen Geistes (1917), Wie Gestalten Wir 
Unsere Reichsverfassung (1919), Die Natural- 
istische Geschichtsauffassung: Ihr Wesen und 
Ihre Wandlungen (1920), ete. 

BRANDENBURG, Hans (1885- yo i 
German author and playwright, born in Bar- 
men. He has written verse and fiction and is a 
student of modern drama and the dance. His 
books include, in poetry, In Jugend und Sonne 
(1904), Hinsamkeiten (1906), Gesang iiber den 
Saaten (1912), Jtalienische .Elegien (1914), 
Die Ewigen Stimmen (1921); the novels, Hrich 
Westenkott (1896), Chloe, oder die Liebenden 
(1909), Das Zimmer der Jugend (1920); and 
a volume of sketches, Der Moderne Tanz. He 
has also written Das Theater und das Neue 
Deutschland (1919). 

BRANDES, GEORG (Morris CoHEN) 
(1842- ). A Danish critic (see Vou. III). 
One of the greatest sympathetic critics of liter- 
ature whose chief concern is with the “wide 
eurrents of European thought” rather than 
with “any national achievement or question of 
formal esthetics and technique.” His most re- 
cent work is Wolfgang Goethe, 2 vols., trans- 
lated by Allen W. Porterfield (1924). It is 
the assembling of many years’ notes on the 
famous German and outlines the development 
of the famous man “from cell up.” 

BRANGWYN, FRANK (1867— seu 
British painter and etcher (see Vou. III). His 
eight superb mural paintings for the Court of 
the Ages at the Panama-Pacific Exposition at 
San Francisco (1915) were masterpieces of 


206 


BRAUN 


color and composition, which brought him also 
the important commission for the mural decora- 
tion of the Missouri State Capitol. 

BRANSON, EpwWIn BAYER (1877-— )) An 
American geologist, born at Belleville, Kan., 
and educated at the University of Kansas. He 
won a fellowship at the University of Chicago. 
In 1905 he became an instructor in geology at 
Oberlin and four years later was advanced to 
full professorship. He went to the University 
of Missouri as professor and head of the geolog- 
ical department in 1910. He devoted much at- 
tention to Devonian, Mississippian, and Penn- 
sylvanian stratigraphy as well as to the geology 
of Missouri, and is an accepted authority on 
paleozoic fishes and Triassic amphibians. 

BRANTING, HJALMAR- (1860— Fons: 
Swedish statesman who first studied astron- 
omy, devoting himself for a time to scientific 
work in the observatory of Stockholm. He 
then entered politics as a member of a small 
group of Social Democrats in Sweden. By his 
control of the weekly journal Socialdemokraten 
(1886), he spread his social doctrines, and for 
his articles in that publication he was im- 
prisoned in 1888. In 1896 he was a member of 
the Second Chamber of the Riksdag. By his 
oratorical ability and as a leader of an in- 
creasingly powerful party, Branting rose to a 
position of national influence. In 1917 he be- 
came finance minister of the Eden government, 
and when that ministry fell in 1920 he was the 
head of a Social Democratic administration 
which, however, resigned in the same year. 
During the War and afterward, Branting took 
keen interest in all Social Democratic activ- 
ities. He was representative of Swedish Social 
Democracy at the First International Congress. 
In 1917 he was chairman of the Dutch-Scandi- 
navian delegation at Stockholm, and two years 
later, chairman of the International Social 
Democratic Conference in Berne. In addition 
he was a member of the executive committee 
of the Second International. In 1920 he was 
the member who introduced the question of 
“democracy and dictatorship” which terminated 
in a solid majority vote disapproving the Bol- 
shevists and their régime. 

At the Council of the League of Nations in 
September, 1922, and at Geneva in July, 1921, 
as Sweden’s leading delegate, he took up the 
cause of the inhabitants of the Aland Islands. 
In December, 1920, he was Sweden’s leading 
delegate at the meeting of the League of Na- 
tions at Geneva and was on the sixth commis- 
sion to settle questions of disarmament, etc. 

BRAUN, HEINRIcH (1854— ). A Ger- 
man Social Democratic politician and writer on 
social questions. He edited the important so- 
cialist publications, Neue Zeit, Archiv fiir So- 
ztale Gesetzgebung und Verwaltung, Die Neue 
Gesellschaft, and Annalen fiir Sozialpolitik und 
Gesetzgebung. He was minister for agricul- 
ture in the Prussian government under the 
presidency of Hirsch (1919). His wife, a fa- 
mous writer and pamphleteer on feminism and 
socialism, was the daughter of General von 
Kretchman, an East Prussian Junker. See 
BRAUN, LILy. 

BRAUN, Lity (1865-1916). A German 
writer, a feminist and socialist, who kept aloof 
from party activities. She was born in Halber- 
stadt. Her grandmother was Jenny von Gus- ~ 
tedt, an illegitimate daughter of Jerome Bona- 
parte and a prominent figure in old Weimar. 


BRAUN 


Her father was General von Kretschmann, 
whose Kriegsbriefe, 1870-71, she edited. She 
married Prof. Georg von Gizycki, a leader in 
the Ethical Culture movement of Germany, and 
after his death Dr. Heinrich Braun, a sociolog- 
ist and editor of the Newe Gesellschaft, a mag- 
azine of great merit but short life. Among her 
works are Die Frauenfrage (1901); Im WSchat- 
ten der Titanen, a novel based on the life of 


Jenny von Gustedt (1908); Memoiren einer 
Sozialistin, two volumes of autobiography 
(1909-11); Die Liebesbriefe der Marquise 
(1912); Mutter Maria, a tragedy (1913); 


and Die Frauen 
She died at Berlin in 


Lebenssucher, a novel (1914) ; 
und der Krieg (1915). 
1916. 

BRAUN, Ortro (1897-1918). A German 
writer whose one posthumous volume gave him 
a place in literature. He was the son of Dr. 
Heinrich Braun and Lily Braun (q. v.) and re- 
ceived his education mainly from private tu- 
tors. Although only 16 at the outbreak of the 
War, he enlisted and served first on the eastern, 
then on the western front, where he fell in 
April, 1918. The diary, begun at the age of 
10 and containing letters and poems, among 
them Hros and Psyche, and five scenes on mo- 
tives from Apuleius, was published by a friend 
of his mother, Julie von Vogelstein, under the 
title Aus den Nachgelassenen Schriften eines 


Friihvollendeten (1920), and appeared in an 
English translation as The Diary of Otto 
Braun (1924). 

BRAUNFELS, WaAttTerR’ (1882- erates 


German composer, born at Frankfort, where he 
studied with I. Kwast and then with Leschetiz- 
ky and Navratil in Vienna. After further 
study with L. Thuille in Munich he settled 
there in 1903, devoting himself entirely to com- 


position. His works show decidedly futuristic 
tendencies. He wrote the operas Prinzessin 
Brambilla (Stuttgart, 1909), Uhlenspiegel 


(1913), and Die Vogel (Munich, 1920); Ariels 
Gesang and Serenade for small orchestra; Phan- 
tastische EHrscheinung eines Themas von H. Ber- 
lioz for full orchestra; Revelation, for tenor 
solo, chorus, and orchestra; sorgs for baritone 
and orchestra; a piano concerto, and piano 
pieces and songs. 

BRAWLEY, BENJAMIN GRIFFITH (1882-__). 
An American clergyman and author, born at 
Columbia, S. C., and educated at the Atianta 
Baptist College, the University of Chicago, and 
Harvard University. He taught English in the 
Atlanta Baptist College (Morehouse College) 
and in Howard University, 1902-20. In. 1921 
he became pastor of the Messiah Baptist Church 
of Brockton, Mass. Among his publications are 
A Short History of the American Negro (1913; 
rev. ed., 1919); The Negro in Literature and 
Art (1918); Women of Achievement (1919) ; 
A Social History of the American Negro (1921) ; 
A Short History of the English Drama (1921) ; 
and Early Effort for Industrial Education, a 
brochure (1923). 

BRAY, FrAnK CuHApin’§ (1866- pit 
American editor (see Vout. III). He was associ- 
ate editor of Current Opinion from 1914 to 1916. 
In 1919 he was editorial secretary of the 
World’s Court League and editor of the League 
of Nations Magazine, and became in the next 
year a member on the editorial staff of the 
Literary Digest. 

BRAY, WILLIAM CROWELL (1879+ ). 
American chemist, born at Wingham, Ont. 


8 


An 
He 


207 


BRAZIL 


was graduated in 1902 at Toronto, where he be- 
came an Exhibition Scholar, and then studied 
chemistry in Leipzig. Returning to the United 
States, he became a research associate in physi- 
cal chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology and in 1910 was made an assistant 
professor. In 1912 he was called to California, 
where in 1918 he became full professor of chem- 
istry. During the War he served with the 
Chemical Warfare Service in Washington 
(1918) and as associate director (1919) of the 
fixed nitrogen research laboratory. His orig- 
inal investigations have had to do with qualita- 
tive analysis, ionization, and the halogens, on 
which subjects he has published papers in the 
Journal of the American Chemical. Society. 

BRAZIL. The largest country on the con- 
tinent of South America, with an area of 3,275,- 
358 square miles, and a population (census of 
1920) of 30,635,605. This was a gain of 13,317,- 
049 over the last official census year (1900), or 
an average annual increase of 3.84 per cent. 
The average annual increase for the period 1890- 
1900 had been 2.12 per cent. The density of 
population increased from 5.2 in 1900 to 9.3 in 
1920. The populations of the largest cities 
were: Rio de Janeiro, 1,157,873; Sao Paulo, 
579,033; Bahia, 283,422; Pernambuco, 238,843; 
Paré, 236,402; Porto Alegre, 179,263. The 
steady flow of immigration, which with 1911 
began to assume increasing proportions, was 
checked by the War, but with 1920 once more 
took on importance. Between 1820 and 1920, 
3,647,301 immigrants entered the country, of 
which 30 per cent entered during the years 1908- 
20 alone. The greatest single year was that of 
1913, when 192,683 reached Brazilian ports. 
In 1923, there were 86,767 immigrants distrib- 
uted by nationalities as follows: Portuguese, 
31,866; Italians, 15,839; Spaniards, 10,141; 
Germans 8254. With the conclusion of hostil- 
ities, the government applied itself once more 
to the stimulation of immigration and offered 
agricultural laborers every facility to induce 
settlement in the federal colonies. In 1922, it 
was reported that these federal colonies had.a 
population of 44,459. Japanese laborers were 
admitted into Sao Paulo at the rate of 5000 a 
year. 

Agriculture. Only a small fraction of 
Brazil’s soil has yet been brought under culti- 
vation. In 1921, this area was 23,938 square 
miles distributed among the following states: 
Sio Paulo, 8277 square miles; Rio Grande do 
Sul, 4513; Minas, 4248; rest, 6900. There were 
650,000 proprietors of land by the census of 
1920. Coffee continued the leading crop, the an- 
nual average production remaining 12,000,000 
bags (1 bag=132 pounds) because of regula- 
tions and restrictions. In 1923, the yield was 
1,140,735 metrie tons of which 882,426 were ex- 
ported (724,818 in 1912). The 1922 sugar crop, 
raised chiefly in Rio de Janeiro and Pernam- 
buco, was 826,400 tons of which 252,111 tons 
were exported (4772 in 1912). Cotton, grown 
chiefly in Sao Paulo, Ceara, Rio Grande do 
Norte, Parahyba, Pernambuco, Maranhao, and 
Sergipe, in 1923 amounted to 107,256,800 kilo- 
grams of which 19,169,584 kilograms were ex- 
ported. Tobacco, cultivated in Bahia and Rio 
Grande do Sul, netted in 1923, 70,896 tons of 
which 36,536 tons were exported (24,706 in 
1912). Cacao (cocoa) cultivated in Espirito 
Santo and Bahia, yielded in 1923, 65,329 tons 
and 51,963 tons were exported (30,492 in 1912). 


BRAZIL 


Other important products with quantity export- 
ed for 1912 and 1923 were: maté (tea) 62,880 
and 87,580 tons; rubber, 42,286 and 17,995 tons; 
hides, 36,255 and 57,798 tons. The packing in- 
dustry, which was non-existent before the War, 
under the stimulation of American capital took 
on important proportions immediately, the ex- 
port of frozen and chilled meats in 1923 being 
76,829 tons. The exportation of pine, too, be- 
came an important factor in Brazilian com- 
merce in recent years. Areas devoted to vari- 
ous purposes in 1923 were: 


Products Area Per cent Number 
Hectares of total of estab- 

lishments 

Coffee and mining .. 45,657,927 26.0 243,304 
Cattle and cereal ... 71,887,492 Adlcd 209,803 
Sugar, cacao, cotton 33,075,521 18.9 155,349 
Rubber and nuts .... 24,488,735 14.0 39,697 


Mining. Gold and diamond industries were 
steadily languishing, while the industrial ores, 
under spur of foreign capital, made consider- 
able strides. Manganese ore, mica, and mona- 
zite sand showed the greatest improvements. 
Of the first, 154,870 tons were exported in 1912, 
and 235,831 tons in 1923. The mineral exports 
in 1913 were valued at $3,412,950, while in 1923 
they were worth only $4,578,000. Coal, hereto- 
fore a negligible factor, began by 1920 to play 
a serious part so that in 1923 it was estimated 
that domestic coal (about 400,000 tons in 1923) 
was supplying one-third of the local needs. 

Manufacturing. Cotton mills continued to 
occupy the leading place in Brazilian home in- 
dustries, the mills increasing from 194 with 
761,816 spindles in 1910 to 357 mills with 
1,700,000 spindles in 1923. This native indus- 
try supplied about three-fourths of the local 
textile needs. Other indigenous industries 
showing gains were the tobacco, sugar-refining, 
and shoe manufactures. During the period, 
iron and steel manufacturing grew steadily so 
that by 1923, 70,000 metric tons were being 
produced annually. Pig iron was being turned 
out in Minas Geraes, and steel bars in Sao 
Paulo. By the census of 1920 there were 11,- 
335 factories employing 151,841 hands, with an 
investment of 665,676,000 milreis and an output 
valued annually at 741,536,000 milreis. Under 
the stimulation of a high protective tariff such 
artificial industries as brewing, flour milling, 
tanning, etc., were being developed. 

Commerce. The end of the War saw Brazil’s 
foreign trade steadily mounting, the 1920 total 
value of exports and imports being $845,469,578 
as compared with $539,285,040 in 1910. The 
adverse conditions following 1920 brought the 
1923 total down to $565,585,666. The exports 
for almost every year during the decade showed 
a favorable balance for Brazil, that for 1919 be- 
ing the largest in its history ($211,115,204). 
In 1923, it was $103,326,092. However, the 
factors of invisible exchange offsetting this were 
considerable. These included the country’s exter- 
nal indebtedness, the earnings of foreign capital 
invested in the country (British investments, 
$500,000,000; French, $100,000,000; American, 
$10,000,000), personal remittances of foreign 
residents, particularly Italians and Portuguese, 
expenditures abroad of Brazilian tourists and 
students so that there existed for the year 1923 
an adverse balance of foreign payments of 
nearly $35,000,000. The United States during 


208 


BRAZIL 


the War stepped to the forefront as the leading 
factor in Brazilian foreign commerce and thus 
for the first time dislodged Great Britain from 
its commanding position, only to lose it again, 
however, in 1922. In 1923 and 1917, the Unit- 
ed States sent 16 and 47.25 per cent of the 
Brazilian imports and received 33 and 44.68 per 
cent of her exports. In 1920 and 1923, these 
figures were: imports, 42.1 and 20 per cent; ex- 
ports, 41.38 and 43 per cent. In 1923, Great 
Britain took 11 per cent of Brazil’s exports and 
sent 24 per cent of the imports. Other coun- 
tries participating were Argentina, France, 
Portugal, Italy, India, Uruguay, Germany. 
Leading imports were iron and steel prod- 
ucts, wheat and wheat flour, machinery, pe- 
troleum, hardware, automobiles, chemicals, cod- 
fish, coal. From a merchant navy of 238 steam- 
ers of 130,582 tons in 1911, ships flying Brazil- 
ian flags increased to 1419 steamers of 598,261 
tons in 1919. The Brazilian Lloyd Company, 
formed of German vessels seized by the govern- 
ment on its declaration of war, established a 
regular service between Rio de Janeiro and New 
York and also with Liverpool and Portugal. In 
1922, 25,264 vessels of 27,459,975 tons entered 
Brazilian ports as compared with 17,072 vessels 
of 12,927,000 tons in 1905. 

Communications. In 1923, 18,554 miles of 
railway were open for traffic as compared with 
13,848 miles in 1911. The individual states pos- 
sessing the greatest mileage were Sao Paulo, 
4160 miles; Minas Geraes, 4189 miles; Rio de 
Janeiro and Federal District, 2657 miles; Rio 
Grande do Sul, 1708 miles; Pernambuco, 1300 
miles. During the period construction went on 
in the interior, a line in 1916 being completed 
from Itapura to Porto Esperanga (State of 
Matto Grosso). In 1921, a third line into Matto 
Grosso was projected for the purpose of eventu- 
ally tapping the rich Madeira country. It was 
planned to run it from Agua Clara to: Cuyaba. 
Another plan called for a railway from Para- 
guay to Sao Paulo to divert the former’s traf- 
fic from Buenos Aires. In 1919, there were 
54,526 miles of telegraph line; 252,318 miles of 
telephone wires; in 1920, 3696 post-offices. 

Finance. The national budget continued to 
show deficits in spite of heroic measures on the 
part of the government. The 1921 account 
showed a deficit of 56,011,364 paper milreis; for 
1922, the deficit was 84,446,437 paper milreis; 
and the deficit in 1923 amounted to $21,578,000. 
For 1923, the expenditures were 92,000,000 gold 
milreis and 997,000,000 paper milreis (59,248,- 
045 gold and 443,952,452 paper in 1912); the 
revenues, 99,000,000 milreis gold and 743,000,- 
000 paper (92,195,610 gold and 312,627,500 pa- 
per in 1912). On Dee. 31, 1923, the consolidat- 
ed foreign debt was $677,134,899. This total 


included £102,729,434, $68,996,500, and 322,249,-’ 


500 franes. The internal debt on Dec. 31, 1923, 
amounted to 1,514,481,300 paper milreis, and 
the floating debt on the same date amounted to 
957,267 gold and 372,928,685 paper milreis. 
The total paper money in circulation on the 
above date was 2,643,192,867 milreis. The to- 
tal public debt amounts to $856,707,899. <Av- 
erage 1923 value of paper milreis was $0.102 


(normal value $0.327). 


Education. The advance in educational fa- 
cilities was inconsiderable since attendance was 
not compulsory. There were, according. to the 
latest reports, about 14,000 primary schools, 
11 agricultural, and 9 commercial schools. 


Bisbee cee. 


BRAZIL 


Courses in law, medicine, and engineering were 
given by 29 colleges. In 1920, the University 
of Rio de Janeiro was founded. 

Defense. The total peace strength, based on 
compulsory military service, was, in 1921, 54,- 
000; the complete mobilization force was placed 
at 120,000 men. The military expense was 
steadily cut, it being estimated that in 1922 the 
figure had become 45 per cent lower than that 
of 1913. No new dreadnoughts were laid down 
after 1907 but the government decided in 1921 
to reorganize completely the navy under the 
supervision of American naval officers. A mis- 
sion, headed by Commander Vogelgesang, was 
attached in an expert capacity to the Brazilian 
naval department. Dry docks at Rio de Janeiro 
and five naval stations on the coast were pro- 
vided for in 1922. The Rio de Janeiro, dread- 
nought of 27,500 tons laid down in 1911, which 
Brazil failed to purchase and which saw service 
in the War under the British flag, was reported 
as sold to Brazil in 1921. This decision to con- 
tinue the naval programme of 1906 was received 
with misgivings by Brazil’s South American 
neighbors, Chile in particular protesting against 
steps that could end only in an armament- 
building race. See NAVIES oF THE Wor LD. 

Explorations. In 1914, Theodore Roosevelt, 
accompanied by a Brazilian party, made an ex- 
ploring expedition down the River of Doubt, a 
tributary of the Madeira, which succeeded in 
confirming the existence of the hitherto ques- 
tioned river. It was established that the river 
was 940 miles long. In honor of the explorer, 
Brazil named the body the Rio Roosevelt. 

History. Brazil’s internal history did not 
show the settled condition of her important 
neighbors and revolts continued to trouble her 
governments and distract attention from more 
important concerns. <A rebellion that broke out 
in February, 1914, among’ the rubber collectors 
of Ceara reached alarming: proportions and _ ne- 
cessitated the intervention of the central govern- 
ment. 
of Rio Grande do Sul led to protracted fight- 
ing and it was not until June, 1923, that regu- 
lar troops had the situation under control as a 
result of the capture of Alegrete, the stronghold 
of the revolutionists. There was a similar local 
uprising in Sao Paulo in July, 1924, which did 
not, however, attain serious proportions but 
which necessitated the intervention of Federal 
troops. The outbreak of the War affected Bra- 
zil’s commercial stability seriously because of 
the country’s dependence upon the European 
purchasing and money markets. The tempo- 
rary falling off of imports and exports with an 
accompanying decline in customs receipts, the 
government’s mainstay, led to the establishment 
of a moratorium for the redemption of foreign 
securities. Like other South American coun- 
tries, Brazil naturally gravitated toward the 
United States, as the figures above given indi- 
cate, with the result that the trade record 
steadily mounted. Brazil, like the United 
States, was forced into the arms of the Allies 
by the German submarine campaign and the 
sinking of three Brazilian steamers. In May, 
1917, Congress authorized the President to de- 
clare war at his pleasure and seize German in- 
terned vessels (about 45 in number). On Oct. 
26, 1917, a state of war was declared and 
Brazil gave much material aid. Late in 1917, 
a new military act was promulgated providing 
for a draft army but this move came too late to 


aug 


Again, late in 1922, a revolt in the state: 


BREASTED 


give any assistance on the battle fronts. As 
an ally Brazil was represented at the Peace 
Conference, took her place in the League of Na- 
tions and was elected a member of the Council. 
The “A. B. C.” Entente of Argentina, Brazil, and 
Chile was cemented in May, 1915, by the sign- 
ing of a treaty, providing arbitral machinery in 
ease of disputes. Discord did not appear until 
1923, when Chile, aroused by Brazil’s increased 
naval programme, brought up pointedly the 
question of disarmament. A meeting of the 
A. B.C. powers, preliminary to the annual Pan- 
American Conference, was held at Valparaiso in 
January, 1923; but here and at the Conference 
itself nothing was accomplished. The adminis- 
tration of Dr. Wenceslio Braz (1914-18) suc- 
ceeded to some extent in cutting the national 
deficit though that factor always rose to trou- 
ble administrators. The success of his admin- 
istration was due mostly to the great prosperity 
of the War period when Brazilian products 
were much in demand. He was followed for 
the next term by the former president, Sr. 
Alves, who died in 1919 without assuming office. 
In the special election following, Dr. Epitacio 
de Silva Pessda, then head of the Brazilian 
peace delegation at Versailles, was chosen to fill 
out the term, 1918-22. For the presidential 
term 1922-26, Dr. Arturo da Silva Bernardes 
was elected. Brazil’s centennial anniversary 
was celebrated by an exposition held in Rio de 
Janeiro, beginning Sept. 7, 1922. Secretary of 
State Hughes attended as official delegate of the 
United States. The cordiality displayed in Sec- 
retary Hughes’ reception received material con- 
firmation in the most-favored nation agreement 
reached between Brazil and the United States 
in October, 1923. 

Throughout the period reviewed Brazil’s lead- 
ing preoccupation was her industrial develop- 
ment. Possessing vast economic resources of 
timber, coal, iron, and water power, it was only 
a question of years when Brazil would become 
a nation of great wealth and economic inde- 
pendence. To this end the government’s policy 
was plainly paternalistic. An irrigation pro- 
gramme was announced in 1915 and was 
rapidly being pushed; local coal mines and 
the sources of hydroelectric power were be- 
ing tapped; a loan of $25,000,000 was being 
applied to the electrification of the central 
Brazil Railways; protective tariffs on the im- 
ports of textiles and the like were being for- 
mulated for the encouragement of native indus- 
tries. To cope with the social problems to 
which the country’s industrialization was giv- 
ing form, a national labor council was erected 
in 1923 with an ambitious programme for re- 
search. This was to include the study of labor 
disputes, work davs, women and children in in- 
dustry, social insurance, rural] credit banks, ete. 
Another evidence of the new orientation was the 
presence, up to 1924, of foreign missions in 
the country: an American mission to advise 
on naval matters, a French on military affairs, 


and a British on finances. See also PAN- 
AMERICAN CONFERENCES. 
BREASTED, James HENRY (1865— ). 


An American historian (see Vout. III). He be- 
came head of the Department of Oriental 
Languages in the University of Chicago in 1915, 
Tarl Lecturer at the Pacific School of Religion 
and the University of California (1918), Hale 
Foundation Lecturer at the American Academy 
of Science in Washington, D. C. (1919), and 


BRECK 


president of the American Oriental Society in 
1918. In 1919 he was appointed director of the 
Oriental Institute of Chicago, and in the year 
following he had charge of the archeological 
survey for the Institute, in Mesopotamia. He 
is author of Outlines of European History, I, 
with J. H. Robinson (1914); A Short Ancient 
History (1914-15), Ancient Times, A History 
of the Early World (1916), Survey of the An- 
cient World (1919); History of Ewrope, Ancient 
and Medieval, with J. H. Robinson (1920) ; 
Ancient History Atlas (1920); General History 
of Europe, with Robinson and Smith (1921); 
and The Oriental Institute of the. Unwersity of 
Chicago, a Beginning and a Program (1922). 

BRECK, Josepn (1885- ). An American 
art director, born at Allston, Mass. He was 
graduated from Harvard, studied art in Europe 
for a year, and did graduate work in art at 
Harvard, 1908-09. He was appointed Assist- 
ant Curator in the Department of Decorative 
Arts at the Metropolitan Museum in 1909 and 
director of the Minneapolis Society of Fine 
Arts, 1914. In 1917 he returned to the Metro- 
politan Museum. His works in art scholarship 
include: catalogues of the Romanesque, Gothic, 
and Renaissance sculptures in the Metropolitan 
Museum. He is a member of the American As- 
sociation of Museums, the American Federation 
of Arts, and the Association of Art Museum 
Directors. 

BRENNERT, Hans (1870- ). A Ger- 
man author and poet, born in Berlin. He stud- 
ied political economy and history, but turned 
to literature, and has written two volumes of 
verse, Landsturm (1914) and Frihlingskiisse 
(1918); three books of short stories, Jungfern 
und Junggesellen: Lieblose Geschichten (1906), 
Lumpel (1916), and Der Erdbeersiisse Mund 
(1919); and the comedies, Die Hasenpfote 
(1901), Die Indische Amme (1901), Der Kai- 
serjager (1905), Blau und Rot (1916), Von 
Finf bis Sieben (1918), and Bumerang (1920), 
besides numerous adaptations of plays from the 
Danish and French, alone or in collaboration 
with Erich Urban and others. 

BRENT, CuHartes Henry (1862- ). An 
American bishop (see Vou. III). He was elected 
bishop of New Jersey in 1914 but declined. In 
1919 he accepted the bishopric of western New 
York. In 1921 he was Duff Lecturer at the 
Universities of Edinburgh, Aberdeen, and Glas- 
gow, and a member of the board of overseers of 
Harvard University. For his services as chap- 
lain at the General Headquarters of the Amer- 
ican Expeditionary Forces in France in 1918- 
19, he received the Distinguished Service Medal 
and other honors. He is author of Presence 
(1914), Prisoners of Hope (1915), Inspirations 
of Responsibility and Other Papers (1915), The 
Revelation of Discovery (1915), A Masterbuild- 
er (1916), The Conquest of Trouble and the 
Peace of God: Musings (1916), The Mount of 
Vision (1918); The Commonwealth of Mankind, 
a sermon (1918), and Soldiers of the Wooden 
Cross, an address (1919). 

BRENTANO, Franz (1838-1917). An Aus- 
trian philosopher (see Vou. III). He died in 
March, 1917, and left behind a large number of 
unpublished scientific writings. Their general 
content was made known to the scientifie world 
through the biography published in 1919 by 
Oscar Kraus, with reminiscences by Carl Stumpf 
and Edmund Hus.erl. The papers deal largely 
with logical theory, including the theory of ob- 


210 


BRETT 


jectives as developed by the so-called Austrian 
school, the notion of substance, and the scien- 
tific utility of that conception. One of the most 
interesting articles is on the Lorenz-Kinstein 
problem. In it Brentano hag pointed out the © 
assistance which might be obtained from the 
consideration that physics and chemistry deal 
merely with the relations and transformations 
of the accidents of an immutable substance. 

BRENTANO, Lugo (1844- ). A German 
economist (see VoL. III), descendant of the 
Brentano family prominent in the romantic pe- 
riod of German literature. He has a great number 
of works on economic and philosophic subjects 
to his credit; within the decade 1914-24 he 
published Die Anfdnge des Modernen Kapitalis- 
mus (1916); Die Byzantinische Volkswirtschaft 
(1917); Arbeitslohn und Arbeitszeit nach dem 
Kriege (1918); Der Weltkrieg nach E. D. Morel 
Aah and Clemens Brentano’s Liebesleben 
B21) 

BRENTANO, THEODORE (1854- ). An 
American jurist and public official, born at 
JXalamazoo, Mich., and educated in the public 
schools of that city and in Germany and Swit- 
zerland. In 1882 he was admitted to the bar 
by the Supreme Court of the District of Colum- 
bia. He acted as attorney in the office of the 
corporation counsel of Chicago in 1887 and in 
the following year was assistant city attorney. 
From 1890 to 1921 he was judge of the Supreme 
Court of Cook County, Il., serving also as chief 
justice. He was appointed Minister to Hun- 
gary by President Harding, in 1922. 

BRERETON, Lewis H. (1890- ) at 
air attaché of the American Embassy in Paris, 
born in Allegheny, Pa., and educated at St. 
John’s College and the United States Naval 
Academy. In 1919 he was rated military avia- 
tor, for distinguished service against the enemy 
in action at the front: 

BREST-LITOVSK, Treaty or. 
Huneary; Russia, History; 
OF THE. 

BRETHREN, Cuurcu or THE. The largest 
of the five branches of the denomination known 
as the German Baptist “Dunkers,” organized in 
1708 at Schwarzenau, Germany, and in this 
country in 1719. The number of communicants 
increased from 95,000 in 1914 to 115,241 in 
1923, the number of congregations from 1000 to 
1024, and the ministers from 3060 to 3264. In 
1923 there were 1302 Sunday schools with 
149,528 pupils. Mission work was carried on 
throughout the decade in India, China, Sweden, 
and Denmark, and was begun in Africa in 1923. 
Subsidies were made to 10 colleges. The Five- 
Year Movement in the church was carried on, 
from 1920 to 1924 inclusive, for the purpose of 
general expansion in membership, missionary, 
and educational fields. The Gospel Messenger 
and The Missionary Visitor were the official 
publications of the denomination during the 
decade. 

BRETON, ANDRE ( ?- ). A French 
poet, one of the most important representatives 
of the Dadaist school in France. He published 
an exposé of the doctrine of Dada in the Nou- 
velle Revue Francaise (August, 1920). Besides 
this he is author of Rieuse, La Forét Noire, in- 
fluenced by Rimbaud and Mallarmé, and Olé de 
Sol. 

BRETT, GeEorRGE SIDNEY (1879- co 
Canadian professor of philosophy. He was ed- 
ucated at Christ Church, Oxford, and after his 


See AUSTRIA- 
War, DIPLOMACY 


BREWER 


graduation entered the Indian Educational 
Service. He was called to the University of 
Toronto in 1908, where he occupied first the po- 
sition of lecturer and then that of professor of 
philosophy (1916- ). His works include The 
Philosophy of Gassendi (1908) and a standard 
History of Psychology, 3 vol. (1912-21). 

BREWER, DANIEL CHAUNCEY (1861- y: 
An American lawyer, born at Boston, and edu- 
eated at Williams College and the law depart- 
ment of Boston University. In 1887 he took 
graduate courses at Princeton, and was admit- 
ted to the bar the next year, and from that 
time practiced in Boston. He was trustee, di- 
rector, or officer for many public service, reli- 
gious, and educational corporations. He was 
president of the North America Civil League for 
Immigrants; a member of the Immigration 
Committee of the National Civic Federation, 
the Massachusetts Committee of Public Safety, 
and the Massachusetts Constabulary Commis- 
sion; and in 1917-18, was chief of the Foreign- 
Speaking Soldier Section of the General Staff, 
United States Army. He was the author of 
Rights and Duties of Neutrals (1916) and 
wrote on international law in various reviews. 

BREWSTER, BENJAMIN (1560- ). An 
American bishop, born at New Haven, Conn., 
educated at Yale University and at the General 
Theological Seminary, New York City. In 
1886-1906 he was minister or rector of churches 
in New York City, South Orange, N. J., and 
Colorado Springs, Colo. He was dean of Saint 
Mark’s Cathedral, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1906-— 
09, and from the latter year until 1916 he was 


missionary bishop of western Colorado. In 
1916 he became bishop of Maine. 
BRIAN, Donatpd (1877- ). An actor 


and singer born at St. Johns, Newfoundland. 
After his first stage appearance at Lawrence, 
Mass., in 1896 as Hardie Grant in Shannon of 
the Sixth, he appeared continuously in Ameri- 
can theatres; later successes included charac- 
terizations of Sandy Blair in The Girl from 
Utah (1914), the Grand Duke in Sybil (1916), 


André de Courcy in Her Regiment (1917), Rob- | 


ert de Lambrissae in The Girl Behind the Gun 
(1918), and Sunny in Buddies (1919). This 
last role made him known all over the United 
States when he toured with the production, 
1920-21. 

BRIAND, ARISTIDE (1862— ). A French 
statesman (see Vou. III). It was during the 
War that M. Briand especially distinguished 
himself. He was Minister of Justice from Aug. 
26, 1914, to Oct. 29, 1915, and in the latter year 
he succeeded Viviani as premier, continuing in 
this office until Mar. 20, 1917, when Clémenceau 
came into power. His ambition was to equalize 
military efficiency of the Allies, and he succeed- 
ed in taking the first steps toward this end, in 
spite of the opposition of the French Parlia- 
ment, who wanted more than their share in the 
conduct of the War. He also came into conflict 
with the British in regard to the Saloniki ex- 
pedition. Later, when he was Minister of For- 
eign Affairs, he succeeded in bringing Rumania 
into the War under the Allies. On Jan. 6, 1921, 
he became prime minister for the seventh time. 
He was faced with the difficult task of protect- 
ing France in the enforcement of the Peace 
Treaty. In November, 1921, he attended the 
Disarmament Conference at Washington and 
pleaded his country’s cause very eloquently. 

BRICK. See RoAps AND PAVEMENTS, 


BRIDGEPORT 


BRIDGE. A card game which bears consid: 
erable resemblance to whist, four players taking 
part. Following the opening lead, the partner 
of the dealer places his cards upon the table 
exposed. These cards are played by the dealer 
in the fashion of “dummy” whist. The trump 
suit is named by the dealer or his partner, the 
former having first say. ‘No trumps” also 
may be declared. The value of the tricks and 
honors varies with the suit named as trumps, 
honors not counting toward the winning of the 
rubber but being added afterwards to the trick 
score to fix the value of the rubber. 

According to the latest revision of the rules 
for the game each trick above six counts two 
points with spades as trump, four with clubs, 
six with diamonds, eight with hearts and 
twelve with no trumps. Thirty points consti- 
tute a game, the rubber ending when either of 
the contesting sides has captured two games, 
the winners being permitted to add one hundred 
points to their score. 

The honors comprise ace, king, queen, jack, 
ten of the declared suit. If one side holds three 
honors it counts twice the value of a trick; four 
honors, four times the value; five honors, five 
times. In a no-trump declaration the side hold- 
ing three aces scores thirty for honors; four 
aces forty and if four aces are in one hand one 
hundred is tallied for honors. 

A recent development of the game is called 
auction bridge which has more of the gambling 
flavor, so to speak, than the original game. 
The dealer after inspecting his hand must as- 
sert his ability to win by at least one “odd” 
trick and then each player in turn starting at 
the dealer’s left has the right to outbid the 
dealer by doubling, redoubling or overcalling 
until all the players are content. The actual 
playing of the combined hands rests finally with 
the partners making the highest bid. 

Consult: R. F. Foster, Bridge Tactics and 
Laws and Principles of Bridge. 

BRIDGE, FRANK (1879- ). A British 
composer, born at Brighton, and educated at 
the Royal College of Music in London. He has 
the reputation of being one of the finest viola 
players in England. In 1910-11 he was conduc- 
tor of the Brema opera season at the Savoy 
Theatre, and in 1913 assistant to Beecham at 
Covent Garden. As a composer he shows a de- 
cided predilection for chamber music. His 
works include a string quartet in E minor; 
three Idylls, three Noveletten and a Phantasy 
for string quartet; a string sextet in KE, per- 
formed at the Berkshire Chamber Music Festi- 
val (1923); a piano trio; and for orchestra, a 
symphonic poem, Isabella, a Dance Rhapsody ; 
a suite, The Sea, and a Dance Poem. 

BRIDGEPORT. A city and port of entry of 
Connecticut, on Long Island Sound. The popu- 
lation increased from 102,054 in 1910 to 143,555 
in 1920 and in 1924 was locally estimated at 
155,000. During the War a large proportion of 
the ammunition used by the United States and 
the Allies was made in this city. The Reming- 
ton U. M. C. Company built several large fac- 
tories employing 20,000 men night and day in 
eight-hour shifts. Two or three other munition 
factories were opened and _ practically every 
metal-working: concern in the city was employed 
on sub-contracts. To meet the housing problem 
raised by continued increase in population, 
some of the factories and a specially-organized 
housing company erected several thousand new 
dwellings. 


BRIDGES 


BRIDGES. Bridge construction throughout 
the world naturally suffered during the War, 
and for a while in the period of readjustment 
subsequent to the close of hostilities. In Europe 
naturally in the war period there was demoli- 
tion of bridges rather than construction, except 
of a most temporary character. After the Armi- 
stice, however, it was of course essential to car- 
ry on a vast amount of reconstruction in such 
countries as France, Poland and Austria, where 
the destruction of the railways had been ruth- 
less and in places complete. For a while the 
simplest and even temporary repairs were made, 
but gradually permanent construction was de- 
veloped as funds were made available. It was 
the general lack of funds for such important 
expenditures that restricted bridge building, 
not only in Europe but also in the United 
States, for a period of economy and retrench- 
ment was enforced on the railways, as well as 
the governments, ani while some important 
bridges were built it was not for a considerable 
while that many large structures were planned. 

By 1924 it was realized that structural work 
had reached a point, so far as design and ma- 
terials were concerned, where the size of a bridge 
depended upon financial conditions making 
possible its development, rather than upon what 
could be designed and fabricated. Naturally 
the cost of iron and steel subsequent to 1914 in- 
creased along with coal, so that on this score 
alone it would appear probable that the limits 
of large bridge construction might be reached 
within the twentieth century. For example, in 
the interval 1914-1924 the prices of iron and 
coal had more than doubled, while a timber 
truss bridge, once inexpensive and common in 
the United States, by 1924 would involve great- 
er expense than the equivalent in either a steel 
or concrete bridge. 

Likewise the masonry and stone arch was no 
longer economically feasible, and the last and 
largest stone arch to be built was the arcaded 
railway bridge of 282-foot span, erected in 1905 
over the Isonzo River in Istria, Italy. Erection 
of this structure was facilitated by the fact 
that this region not only produced suitable ma- 
terials but also developed highly skilled stone 
masons who were in demand for construction 
work all over Europe. This bridge was de- 
stroyed in 1916 in the course of military opera- 
tions. 

On the other hand while the use of wood, 
masonry and steel tended to become more re- 
stricted it was foun. possible to employ con- 
crete and reinforced concrete for various types 
from small bridges to such a concrete arch as 
that spanning the Seine between the towns of 
St. Pierre-du-Vauvray and Ande (about 16 
miles from Rouen) which had a clear span of 
131.8 meters (432.44 feet). Concrete construc- 
tion lent itself readily to bridge building, not 
only on account of the moderate cost of mate- 
rial, but also as it produced a bridge which re- 
quired a minimum of maintenance and natural- 
ly reduced outlay for inspection, painting and 
other care. As additional experience was 
gained in the design of concrete structures; it 
was found possible to increase the leneth of 
Span and capacity, and the bridge engineer of- 
ten was able to construct structures of ar- 
mored or reinforced concrete far superior to 
those of steel. 

With their additional durability and decreased 
cost of maintenance, in many cases it was pos- 


212 BRIDGES 


sible also to secure a pleasing architectural 
appearance, so that such structures with the 
addition of suitable embellishments, were built 
in many cases aS memorials. Reinforced con- 
crete bridges came to be constructed in a vari- 
ety of types ranging from small highway 
bridges to spans of over 600 feet, and high via- 
ducts, such as the Tunkhannock viaduct on the 
Delaware Lackawanna and Western Railroad, 
were possible. 

In the various undertakings proposed bridge 
engineers were in no way daunted at designing 
bridges of great capacity and extreme length 
of span. This was well demonstrated in the 
two-deck suspension bridge designed to cross 
the Hudson River at New York City with a 
river span of 3240 feet and two shore spans 
each of 1650 feet making with the approaches 
a total length of bridge of 7340 feet. This proj- 
ect involving as it did a large capacity bridge 
supporting wide roadways and multiple tracks, 
on its engineering side, at least, received the 
approval of bridge and other engineers of emi- 
nence who expressed no doubt as to the feasi- 
bility of such an enormous undertaking. In 
connection with bridges of large capacity and 
long span such as were built or projected from 
1914 on, it must be realized that such struc- 
tures were largely possible only by the use of 
alloy steels, such as nickel steel, chromenickel 
steel, and silicon steel which had considerably 
greater strength than carbon steel, so that it 
became possible to secure adequate strength 
with less weight of material. The substitution 
of nickel steel for the older structural steel 
might afford a saving of 10 to 15 per cent in 
the cost of a chain or stiffening truss. 

The leading types of bridges where consider- 
able length of span was involved and steel con- 
struction must be employed, were the arch, the 
cantilever and the suspension. During the pe- 
riod under review the architectural feature of 
such bridge construction as well as those built 
of masonry or concrete was receiving more at- 
tention. It was found in the larger and monu- 


mental designs that often it was possible to se- 


cure grace and beauty. In fact the appearance 
of the water front of New York City is materi- 
ally enhanced by the large structures crossing 
the East River, and for many years the Firth 
of Forth bridge has stood as a design of pro- 
nounced beauty. Of these types the cantilever 
principle was the least adaptable to artistic 
treatment, but even here a long span can be 
made attractive, as is demonstrated in the 
Firth of Forth bridge just mentioned. 

An arch bridge without question can be made 
beautiful in appearance. Such a bridge as the 
Hell Gate bridge of the New York Connecting 
Railways, standing out in bold relief, is typical, 
not only of strength but of graceful design 
which was to be repeated in large measure in 
the New Sydney, Australia, bridge. The sus- 
pension bridge, which may be said to be purely 


‘American in its development, also lends itself 


to architectural treatment, not only in the 
graceful curves of its suspending cables, but 
also in the towers employed. Apparently no 
limit of length had been reached for such 
bridges, and in addition to those about New 
York City, and the Philadelphia-Camden bridge 
under construction in 1924, long span suspen- 
sion bridges were proposed for Detroit, and 
Nagasaki, Japan. 

Highway development in the United States, 


3 
, 
i; 
a 
" 


| 


due to the increased use of motor vehicles, was 
responsible for a large number of bridges of 
varying sizes and designs. Furthermore with 
the increased weights of motor vehicles it was 
found necessary to replace many of the coun- 
try highway bridges, while to obtain through 
routes wide rivers had to be bridged or crossed. 
Usually these bridges were erected by public au- 
thority and for the most part were free, but 
where toll bridges were provided the increase 
in traffic made them in many ways remunera- 
tive. 

Highway bridges were required across the 
Hudson as at Bear Mountain and Poughkeepsie, 
and across the Willamette in the vicinity of 
Portland, Ore., of which the 350-foot steel arch 
at Oregon City built in 1922 was a conspicuous 
example. Several bridges- were proposed for 
San Francisco Bay of which that over Car- 
quinez Straits at San Mateo was under con- 
struction in 1924. In the previous year the 
United States War Department had granted 
permission for the construction of two vehicu- 
lar bridges across the lower’ end of San Fran- 
cisco Bay. One of these was to have its west- 
ern end at Little Coyote Point about 24 miles 
by highway south of San Francisco, while the 
other involved a bridge at Dumbarton near the 
site of the railroad bridge of the Southern Pa- 
cific. The first of these projects involved a 6- 
mile bridge across the south end of San Fran- 
cisco Bay from San Mateo. Inasmuch as there 
was navigable water with a depth of 40 feet 
for a distance of 1 mile this was to be bridged 
by a 200-foot lift span and arches of 250-foot 
span. Shorter concrete arches were to be em- 
ployed for 2 half-mile approaches and the re- 
maining 4 miles was to consist of trestle or fill. 
The roadway was to be 60 feet wide. 

Suspension Bridges. This type of bridge 
construction not only was developed in America 
but was employed there for the longest spans 
and for the heaviest loads. In Europe, on the 
other hand, no wire suspension bridges of any 
size had been built, and but few where the 
cables were made of eye-bars, or of plates and 
angles. The Elizabethan bridge at Budapest, 
built in 1903 with a span of 951 feet, a bridge 
across the Oder at Breslau, built in 1911 with 
a span of 415 feet, and the only suspension 
bridge across the Rhine at Cologne, eompleted 
in 1917, with a span of 605 feet, are outstand- 
ing examples. In the case of the Cologne bridge 
the cables are formed of plates and angles 
which are rivetted into tension members. ‘The 
horizontal thrust at the ends is taken up by 
box stiffened girders extending from end to end 
so that at the anchorage only vertical forces 
must be resisted. The steel towers of this 
bridge are plain and without decorative fea- 
tures, so that the structure as a whole in its 
architectural design does not compare favorably 
with American work of the same character. 

In most of the more notable American sus- 
pension bridges wire cables were employed, and 
this type of construction was employed in the 
Delaware River bridge under construction in 


- 1924 where parallel wires were united in cables 


aggregating 30 inches in diameter. These ca- 
bles were the largest to be used and the em- 
ployment of parallel wire construction for such 
large members received some criticism, as it 
was argued that eye-bar cables would be prefer- 
able. 

Preposed Hudson River Bridge at New 


BRIDGES 213 


BRIDGES 


York. The longest span and heaviest bridge 
yet to be proposed was the design of Gustav 
Lindenthal to cross the Hudson River at New 
York City with a span of 3240 feet to which 
reference has been made. Elaborate plans for 
this structure were developed and its feasibility 
was accepted by engineering experts called in to 
pass upon the project, but it was doubtful, how- 
ever, that such a structure in the form designed 
ever would be built, notwithstanding it provid- 
ed for a vast capacity of tracks and roadways, 
and involyed comprehensive transportation 
schemes with extensive approach and terminal 
arrangements. Nevertheless, it must be con- 
sidered as a bold and interesting engineering 
conception, though from an economic standpoint 
it was questionable whether it could success- 
fully compete with a system of tunnels. 

Philadelphia-Camden Bridge. In 1921 an 
interstate bridge commission of Pennsylvania 
and New Jersey approved the plans for the 
erection of a suspension bridge across the Dela- 
ware River between Philadelphia and Camden 
prepared by a board of engineers consisting of 
Ralph Modjeski, George S. Webster and Lau- 
rence A. Ball. The design involved a suspen- 
sion bridge with a central span of 1750 feet, 
which exceeded by 150 feet the Williamsburgh 
Bridge across the East River at New York, pre- 
viously the longest suspension bridge. The 
Delaware River bridge was 3536 feet long from 
anchorage to anchorage with a total length of 
bridge structure, including approaches, of 8126 
feet. The selection of- the suspension type with 
wound wire cables was interesting in view of 
the fact that this form of bridge was decided 
on after a consideration of both the cantilever 
and the arch types. The suspension bridge was 
much lighter, involving 33,000 tons of steel, as 
compared with 47,000 tons for the cantilever, 
and was believed to afford less risk in construc- 
tion, as well as being adapted more readily to 
the subdivision of the contracts. Furthermore, 
the foundations and the anchorages for such a 
bridge were less extensive and it could be con: 
structed much more quickly. 

This bridge was for vehicular traffic only, 
and with a total width of 57 feet between 
curves provided six vehicular lanes, each 9% 
feet, and outside of the 57 feet roadway there 
were two car tracks in each direction, and two 
10-foot pedestrian ways, the latter being placed 
above on the upper lateral bracings. 

The two towers were solid built steel posts 
bearing the cables firmly attached to their sad- 
dles, following the practice in the Manhattan 
Bridge across the East River at New York City. 
The cross-section of each post increases from 
7x12 feet at the top to 7x40 feet at the base. 
The two 30-inch cables are spaced 89 feet from 
each other, and while these cables were the 
largest ever to be formed of parallel wires, being 
made up of 16,500 parallel wires, each being 
0.192 inches in diameter, they were selected in 
preference to four cables. This feature of the 
design was criticized by some bridge engineers 
as the largest cables with parallel wires hither- 
to employed were the 20.5 inch cables of the 
Manhattan Bridge at New York City. 

From the cables the suspended hangers were 
spaced about 20 feet, and each consisted of four 
25% inch galvanized wire ropes attached to a 
east steel saddle. A short channel length was 
considered desirable for the stiffening trusses, 
20.5 feet for the main span and 20.5 feet for the 


BRIDGES 


side span. These trusses were of simple tri- 
angular web system continuous across the span, 
and were supported at the towers by stiffening 
hangers. 

Local conditions required that the anchorages 


must be placed a considerable distance back of © 


the towers so that suspended side spans were 
adapted whose length was slightly less than 
the main span. The cables have a sag of 200 
feet. For the main part of the structure high 
strength alloy steel was selected and high car- 
bon steel wire for the cables and hangers. A 
unit stress of 72,000 pounds per square inch 
was in the cable wires and was considered per- 
missible in the emergency live loading, and 60,- 
000 pounds under normal full loading. The 
two river piers measured 70x 143 feet at the 
base, and required for both some 62,000 cubic 
yards of masonry. They were granite faced 
down to the point below water level, and were 
built by sinking pneumatic caissons to the 
rock. See FOUNDATIONS. 

Bear Mountain-Hudson River Suspension 
Bridge. In 1924 a large suspension bridge 
across the Hudson River above Peekskill and 
between Bear Mountain on the west and An- 
thony’s Nose on the east bank was reaching 
completion. Here the opposite shores of the 
river approach within 1600 feet of each other, 
making possible an advantageous location of a 
bridge with a reasonable short span where there 
was ground suitable for foundations for towers 
near the shore line. This bridge affords accom- 
modation for vehicular traffic between New York 
and New England, as well as the more adjacent 
regions on both sides of the river, and was 
the only bridge across the Hudson so far to be 
constructed below Poughkeepsie, where there 
was a railroad bridge, although plans had been 
prepared for a state vehicular bridge at Pough- 
keepsie for which authority was granted by the 
state legislature in 1924. 

The Bear Mountain bridge design involved a 
suspension bridge with straight (unloaded) 
backstays. It was of 1632 feet main span, and 
had steel towers 355 feet above high water 
foundations, resting on concrete piers and sup- 
porting two steel wire cables 18 inches in dia- 
meter, each containing 7452 wires of 0.192 
inches in diameter. These cables are placed 61 
feet, 4 inches centre to centre, and carry double 
suspender steel wire ropes, 2% inches in. diam- 
eter to which are attached transverse suspender 
beams supporting stiffening trusses 30 feet deep 
and 55 feet centre to centre. On the east there 
is an approach span 220 feet long, crossing the 
New York Central Railroad tracks, while on 
the west bank there is a truss span of 220 feet 
length also, and a 100-foot truss of two 50-foot 
plate girder spans. 

The total length of the Bear Mountain bridge 
between abutments is 2238 feet. The bridge 
floor is 48 feet wide between railings, affording 
a 38-foot roadway and two 5-foot sidewalks. 
The cable wires and the suspender ropes are of 
220,000 pounds ultimate strength, being made 
of carbon steel, as are the other parts of the 
bridge excepting the stiffening trusses which 
are of silicon steel. At either end inclined tun- 
nels for anchor pits were carried into the bank 
about 100 feet deep, and here were placed cast 
steel bases to which the anchorage eyebars 
forming the terminals of the cables were con- 
nected. 

Brazilian Suspension Bridge at Florian- 


214 BRIDGES 


opolis. A notable eye-bar suspension bridge 
with a 1114-foot span was completed in 1924 
at Florianopolis in the province of Santa Cath- 
arina, Brazil, being a combined highway and 
railway bridge connecting the island on which 
the city is located with the mainland. Not 
only was this one of the world’s largest suspen- 
sion bridges, but it was the first application 
of modern eye-bar chain construction to such a 
bridge, although this type of design frequently 
had been proposed for structures of this class. 
In connection with the use of eye-bars for the 
chain and the unloaded backstays, there was 
involved also an unusual stiffening truss which 
developed considerable rigidity and economy. 

The eye-bar type of chain was adopted inas- 
much as heat treated eye-bars of 75,000 pounds 
per square inch minimum elastic limit could be 
fabricated, making possible a working stress of 
50,000 pounds per square inch in an eye-bar 
chain, rendering this type more economical 
than a wire cable suspension bridge. The eye- 
bar chains are carried by towers formed of 
two-column steel bents with battered legs rising 
to a height of 225 feet above the base on the 
pier. The stiffening trusses have curved top 
chords so arranged as to afford maximum, depth 
at the quarter-points, for the top chord in the 
middle section is formed by the suspension 
chain itself. The truss spacing is at 33% feet 
which gives a 28-foot clear width of roadway. 
The backstays support no load but are carried 
back down directly to masonry anchorages, one 
of which is on rock, while the other is carried 
by a pile foundation. 

The approaches to the suspension span are 
steel viaducts, the spans directly adjacent to 
the towers being each of 185 feet. The two 
chains were formed each of four eye-bars 12 
inches wide from anchorage to anchorage. 
Their thickness varied from 2 inches for the 
backstays to from 2 inches to 1'%e inches 
for those on the main span. The suspenders 
from the chains are of two parts, being formed 
of 1% inch galvanized wire steel rope sock- 
eted to clevis attachments of the top chords 
of the trusses. The total dead weight allowed 
for was 4370 pounds per lineal foot of span 
with a live load of 2000 pounds. 

Continuous Truss Bridges. One of the 
most important types to be developed in Amer- 
ican bridge practice was the continuous type 
which found favor for railway bridges. In this 
type not only was strength and economy of 
material secured but also ease of erection so 
that it was extensively used by American rail- 
ways. Thus the Sciotoville bridge over the 
Ohio River, which was completed in 1917, had 
two spans each of 775 feet, thus making a record 
for span length of this type of construction. 
In the following year the Allegheny River 
bridge was built, near Pittsburgh, with three 
continuous spans of 272, 520 and 347 feet, fol- 
lowed by three continuous spans of 347, 350 
and 272 feet. In the same year the Hudson 
Bay railway bridge was built over the Nelson 
River at Kettle Rapids, and consisted of three 
continuous spans of 300, 400 and 300 feet. 

Arch Bridges. The arch type of bridge was 
selected over the cantilever for the Sydney Har- 
bor bridge in Australia, for which a contract 
was awarded early in 1924. This bridge with 
a span of 1650 feet essentially reproduced the 
Hell Gate, New York, arch bridge, which was 
designed for but one half of its live load, The 


BRIDGES 


Australian bridge which was to be 170 feet 
above high water, was designed to carry four 
lines of railway tracks and 80 feet of roads and 
footways. A notable arch bridge, but of short- 
er span, construction on which was begun in 
1923, is a single steel arch of 640 feet across 
the Niagara Gorge at Niagara Falls built for 
the Michigan Central Railroad to replace a 
cantilever bridge constructed in 1883. Not- 
withstanding strengthening in 1900 the older 
structure had become inadequate and obsolete. 
The new bridge, which has a single deck car- 
rying a double track was designed as a two- 
truss, two-hinged spandrel braced type with the 
lower chords in the form of a parabolic curve 
and with the top chords horizontal. It has a 
rise of 105 feet. 

Reinforced Concrete Bridges. The con- 
struction of reinforced concrete bridges had 
developed to a stage in 1923 where a design 
was presented for the bridge to cross the Elorn 
River in Brittany, between Brest and Ploug- 
astet, a tidal estuary. This bridge had an ex- 
treme length of 2300 feet in addition to ap- 
proach viaducts at either end of 425 feet in 
length. There are three spans of 613.36 feet, 
639.6 feet and 672.4 feet in each case from cen- 
tre to centre of the piers, making, of course, 
the clear span somewhat less. There is pro- 
vided a free navigable channel 230 feet wide 
with a height from the water surface to the 
arch crown of the principal span of 118 feet, 
the arches in each case being identical in con- 
struction, of a radius of 459.2 feet. They are 
built up of parallel hollow ribs of a rectangu- 
lar section, the width of each rib being 8.7 feet. 

This bridge has a double deck 26.24 feet in 
width to the outside of the sidewalks with a 
roadway of 19.68 feet in width. The overall 
width, however, is increased at the crown of 
the arch to 30.5 feet. The railway level is 
17.29 feet below the under side of the highway 
deck, for the bridge carries the tracks of the 
Chemin de Fer de l’Ouest-Etat. The roadway 
or upper platform was so designed as to receive 
the third classification in order of importance 
among French government roads, being styled 
as a Chemin de Grande Communication, 

The two river piers are built upon pile 
foundations sunk to granite bed rock. The de- 
sign which was prepared by M. Freyssinet was 
selected in competition with eight other bids, 
three of which were for a metallic structure 
and five for one of concrete construction. The 
plans chosen provide for the longest arches yet 
attempted, and the work was to be put under 
Way as soon as government funds were avail- 
able. 

The longest concrete arch to be built up to 
1924 was in northern France where a single 
span bridge of 131.8 meters (432.44 feet), was 
built across the Seine between the towns of St. 
Pierre-du-Vauvray and Ande, replacing an old 
iron bridge which had been damaged by pass- 
ing vessels during high flood. In this bridge 
_ there is a single arch composed of two hollow 
ribs of large section to which are attached con- 
crete encased steel bands supporting the floor 
system. Only at the arch ends were the ribs 
tied together, and the difference between the 
axes of the two ribs is 8.9 meters. The rise 
from the spring to the crown of the arch is 
25 meters, and the exterior width of each arch 
is 2.5 meters or (7.2 feet), with a depth vary- 
ing from 4.1 meters at the springing to 2.5 


215 


BRIDGES 


meters at the crown. The floor system has a 
total width of 8.80 meters (28.87 feet) of which 
8 meters is the usable width, providing a road- 
way 3.5 meters in width and 2 sidewalks of 
1.345 meters each. 

Hangers made of steel bands encased in con- 
crete carry a floor system on reinforced con- 
crete lattice girders spaced 5.2 meters centre 
to centre. Each hanger consists of 40 spans 
of steel cable, each 10 millimeters in diameter, 
and treated with a rich mixture of cement so 
as to form a band of reinforced concrete 14 
centimeters (0.46 feet) square in section, the 
concrete serving merely against the disintegra- 
tion of the metal. 

Naturally for such a construction the arch 
centre was most important and two groups of 
dolphins in the river bed and two others near 
each bank of the river supported the centring 
by a system of trusses. The reinforcement of 
the arch ribs composed of round steel bars of 
small diameter distributed uniformly in the 
arch ribs and in the side walls was relatively 
unimportant, the amount of metal varying from 
one part of the rib to another, and ranging 
from 10 bars of 14 millimeters in diameter to- 
wards the key to 10 of 7 millimeters in diam- 
eter for each of the horizontal faces to 11 bars 
7 millimeters in diameter for each of the side 
walls. 

A large reinforced concrete bridge for which 
a contract at $1,870,000 was let in the spring 
of 1924, was to span the Minnesota River con- 
necting Fort Snelling and Mendota, Minnesota. 
This bridge is 4119 feet in length, and contains 
twelve 304-foot spans, carried on foundations 
made by sinking cylindrical reinforced concrete 
caissons, four to each pier. The superstructure 
is of ribbed arch construction, two ribs to each 
span, and the deck was supported from ribs on 
columns and consisted of flat slab designs with 
depressions over the columns, The deck carries 
a 45-foot roadway with a 6-foot sidewalk on 
each side. There is a. hand railing of paneled 
concrete 4 feet 3 inches high, with paneled steel 
railing 3 feet 6 inches high between posts. 
The roadway carried double track street car 
lines. The bridge reaches a maximum height 
of 120 feet above the river. 

An important large municipal American war 
memorial in the form of an arch highway 
bridge was completed over the Vermillion River 
at Danville, Illinois, in 1924, forming the 
northern terminus of the Danville, Marshall 
and St. Louis Railway. This bridge was a re- 
inforced concrete structure 1037 feet in length, 
and consisted of six arches and seven short 
approach spans. The longest arch, forming the 
river span, was 195 feet, and the shortest was 
107. The bridge is 75 feet high at the river, 
and its deck contained a 30-foot roadway and 
two 7-foot walks, flanked on either side by or- 
namental reinforced concrete open hand rails 
of the Greek cross design. 

Cantilever Bridge. A notable cantilever 
bridge, the third largest to be constructed was 
building in 1924 across San Francisco Bay. . 
In the spring of 1923 the United States War 
Department granted permission to construct a 
cantilever bridge across Carquinez Straits be- 
tween Vallejo and Valona, Cal., spanning one 
of the upper reaches of San Francisco Bay. 
The project involved a cantilever bridge with a 
central pier and two 1100-foot spans. Work 
was started shortly after the permission was 


BRIDGES 216 


obtained and on August 29 the first concrete 
was poured in the north anchor pier. This 
structure was designed for vehicular traffic ex- 
clusively and would be the longest bridge of 
this type used for such a purpose. There were 
to be two 1100-foot spans and two 500-foot 
spans, the former consisting of two 300-foot 
overhanging arms and a 500-foot supported ap- 
proach anchor-span. 

There was a centre pier located in the Strait 
but on either side of this central pier a clear 
channel 1070 feet wide would be left. The 
other piers would be located within the pier 
head lines and each would be reached by a 500- 
foot approach anchor-span. The new bridge 
was estimated to cost $4,000,000 and would be 
completed by July 4, 1925. t 

Bascule Bridge. The bascule bridge in its 
various types of which there were several of 
considerable merit continued in vogue during 
the period under consideration both for railway 
and highway bridges. The most notable de- 
signs of bascule bridge were the Rall type, and 
the Scherzer type. The length of span and 
capacities of bascule bridges had been increased, 
and in many cases they were considered prefer- 
able to swing bridges for crossing narrow wa- 
terways where there was considerable traffic. 
This type of bridge was extensively employed 
in Chicago, and here in 1923, 22 simple trun- 
nion bridges were employed. ‘Two of these were 
built with double decks and that across the Chi- 
cago River at Wells Street completed in 1921 
had a span of 268 feet centre to centre of trun- 


nions affording a clear channel width of 220. 


feet. Each leaf of this bridge is carried by two 
trunnions and weighs 2500 tons of which 1300 
tons is counterweight. In addition to Chicago 
these bridges found extensive use across the 
waterways of Seattle. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Among the important works 
on bridge construction published in the period 
under review were the following: 

J. A. L. Waddel, Bridge Engineering (New 
York, 1916); id. Hconomics of Bridge Work, 
(New York, 1921); C. A. Ellis, Essentials in 
the Theory of Framed Structures (New York, 
1922); The WStructural Engineers’ Handbook 
Library (New York, 1923-24), edited by George 
A. Hool and W. S. Kinne, included the follow- 
ing titles, which were special articles prepared 
by authorities in the different fields, and cov- 
ered a wide range of subjects connected with 
bridge building: Foundations, Abutments and 
Footings (1923); Structural Members and Con- 
nections (1923); Stresses in Framed Struc- 
tures (1924); Steel and Timber Structures 
(1924); Reinforced Concrete and Masonry 
Structures (1924); Movable and Long Span 
Steel Bridges (1923). See also FOUNDATIONS. 

BRIDGES, CALVIN BLACKMAN (1889— ys 
An American biologist, born at Schuyler’s Falls, 
N. Y., and educated at Columbia University. 
He was research assistant in genetics to Pro- 
fessor Morgan (1910-19) and member of the 
research staff in genetics at the Carnegie In- 
- stitution of Washington (1919). He published 
numerous papers on genetics and was co-author 
of Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity, with Mul- 
ler, Morgan, and Sturtevant (2d. ed., 1923). 

' BRIDGES, Roserr (1844— ). An Eng- 
lish poet laureate. In 1923-24 he had the 
Honorary Fellowship in Creative Arts, Univer- 
sity of Michigan. He published Anthology in 
English and French (1916), Yattendon Hym- 


was called to Boston University. 


BRIGHTMAN 


nal, Ibant Obscuri (1917), Britannia Victria 
(1919), and October, and Other Poems (1920). 
BRIDGES-ADAMS, W. (1889- Poa ° 
British stage director, educated at Oxford. He 
gained experience as an actor in the provinces 
and in 1910 was assistant manager to William 
Poel. A year later he joined the late Laurence 
Irving. He was part manager and producer 
for the Bristol Repertory Theatre, 1914-15, and 
in 1916-17 manager and producer for the Liver- 
pool Repertory Theatre, which he renamed the 
Playhouse. In 1919 he undertook the direction 
of the Stratford-on-Avon Shakespearean Festi- 
vals and founded and organized the New 
Shakespeare Company under the auspices of a 
joint committee of the Shakespeare Memorial 
National Theatre and the governors of the 
Memorial Theatre, Stratford-on-Avon. Bridges- 
Adams designed the scenery for the Gilbert and 
Sullivan revivals at the Prince’s Theatre dur- 
mer1919—2 i . 
BRIDGMAN, Percy WILLIAMS (1882- ie 
An American physicist, born at Cambridge, 
Mass., and educated at Harvard. Receiving a 
fellowship, he continued his scientific studies 
and also served as an instructor in physics, of 
which department he was made full professor 
in 1919 and given the directorship of the Jef- 
ferson laboratory. His researches have _ in- 


- cluded important studies on various topics in 


mechanical physics, such as measurements of 
high hydrostatic pressure, and in _ physical 
chemistry, such as change of phase under pres- 
sure and modifications of phosphorus. 

BRIEUX, EuGkne (1858— ). A French 
dramatist (see Vor. III). His recent works in- 
clude Le Bourgeois aux Champs (1914) and 
Les Américains Chez Nous (1920). 

BRIGADE. See ARMIES AND ARMY ORGAN- 
IZATION. 

BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY. An 
institution at Provo, Utah, under the auspices 
of the Church of the Latter Day Saints, 
founded in 1875. The enrollment increased 
from 650 in 1914 to 1123 in 1923-24; the fac- 
ulty was increased in the same decade from 
30 to 80 members, and the library from 6000 
volumes to 30,000 bound volumes and about 


the same number of pamphlets. President, 
Franklin Stewart Harris, Ph.D. 
BRIGHOUSE, Haroitp  (1882- Wie 


writer of plays and fiction. His recent pro- 


ductions include The Road to Raebury, in col- 


laboration with Stanley Houghton (1915); 
Hobson’s Choice and The Clock Goes Round 
(1916); Other Times and Three Lancashire 
Plays (1920); Once a Hero (1922); The Hap- 
py Hangman (1922), and The Apple Tree 
(1923). His stories include Fossie for Short; 
The Silver Lining; The Marbeck Inn (1920) ; 
Hepplestalls (1922); and The Wrong Shadow 
(1923). He filmed Hobson’s Choice and The 
Game in 1920. During the War he was with 
the Royal Air Force. 

BRIGHTMAN, Engar SHEFFIELD (1884-__);. 
An American professor of philosophy, born at 


Holbrook, Mass., and educated at Brown and 


Boston Universities and at Berlin and Mar- 
burg in Germany. He taught successively at 
Brown University, Wesleyan College (Neb.), 
and Wesleyan University (Conn.). In 1919 he 
In his philos- 
ophy he is a strong advocate of the religious 
doctrine of personalism. His works include 
The Sources of the Hexateuch (1918) and Re- 


BRIGHT’S DISEASE 


ligious Values and Recent Philosophy (1921). 
He is also a contributor to the projected Ln- 
cyclopedia of Protestant Theology, The Ameri- 
can Journal of Theology, The Journal of Re- 
ligion, and other periodicals. 

BRIGHT’S DISEASE. See NEPuRITIS. 

BRILL, GerorcE MACKENZIE (1866- € 
An American mechanical engineer, born at 
Poughquag, N. Y., and educated at Cornell Uni- 
versity. During 1891-96 he was engineer of 
tests with the Solvay Process Company of Syra- 
euse, N. Y., of which he then became chief engi- 
neer; in 1897 he entered the employ of Swift 
and Company, of Chicago, serving them as their 
chief engineer until 1900. He was chairman of 
the jury of awards on general machinery at the 
Panama-Pacifie Exposition in 1915 and during 
the War was in the Ordnance Department with 
the rank of major. He served also as chief of 
the requirement section of the Emergency Fleet 
Corporation in 1918. 

BRILL, NaAtTuANIEL Epwin_ (1861- ye 
An American physician, born in New York and 
educated at the College of the City of New 
York and the University of New York. He was 
appointed physician to Mt. Sinai Hospital in 
1891 and clinical professor of medicine at Co- 
lumbia in 1910. In 1917 he was made a major 
of the medical officers’ reserve corps and direc- 
tor of Base Hospital No. 3 in France. In 1910 
he acquired much renown for the recognition 
of an endemic, non-contagious form of typhus 
fever which had evidently prevailed in New 
York City at intervals for many years. This 
aberrant form of typhus is known in honor of 
its discoverer as Brill’s disease. He contrib- 
uted much to periodical medica] literature on 
this and numerous other subjects and in 1898 
translated Klemperer’s book on physical diag- 
nosis under the title Clinical Diagnosis. 

BRINTON, CuristiaAn- (1870- aes: 
American art critic, born at West Chester, Pa., 
and educated at Haverford College, the Uni- 
versities of Heidelberg and Paris, and the Ecole 
du Louvre. Aniong his works on art are Mod- 
ern Artists (1908), Masterpieces of American 


Painting (1910), Impressions of Art at the 
Panama-Pacific Exposition (1916), Introduc- 
tion to the History of Scandinavian Art 


(1921), and many catalogues and contributions 
to leading magazines and art reviews. He also 
contributed to the Iconographic Dictionary of 
Art. Christian Brinton was decorated by King 
Gustav V of Sweden in 1917 and in 1915 was 
made advisory editor of Art in America. 

BRISBANE, ArtTHuR- (1864— y. ‘An 
American newspaper editor (see Vou. III). He 
bought the Washington Times in 1917 and the 
Evening Wisconsiv in 1918. Both of these he 
sold to William Randolph Hearst in the follow- 
ing year. In 1918 he became editor of the 
Chicago Herald and Examiner. He resigned 
from the editorship of the New York Evening 
Journal in 1921. 

BRISTOL, Mark LAMBERT (1868- ). An 
American naval ofiicer, born in Glassboro, N. J. 
He graduated from the United States Naval 
Academy in 1887 and in 1889 was appointed en- 
sign. During the Spanish-American War _ he 
served on the battleship Texas. He made a 
special study of gunnery, torpedoes, and air- 
eraft. From 1913 to 1916 he was in charge of 
the development of aéronautics for the Navy. 
In 1917 he commanded the North Carolina, 
convoying troops to Europe, and was given 


217 


- Seotia. 


BRITISH COLUMBIA 


command of the Oklahoma in the American 
battleship division in European waters in 1918. 
In 1918-19 he commanded the United States 
Naval Base at Plymouth, England. He was a 
member of the International Armistice Com- 
mission in Belgium in 1918, and in the follow- 
ing year commanded the United States Naval 
Forces in Turkey. He served as high commis- 
sioner to Turkey in 1919-20 and was a member 
of the International Commission of Inquiry in 
the Greek occupation of Smyrna, in 1919. He 
had general charge of American interests in Asia 
Minor during the Greco-Turkish .campaign of 
1922 and did efficient service after the destruc- 
tion of Smyrna in relief of refugees and pro- 
tection of American interests, 1922-23. 

BRITISH COLUMBIA. A Canadian prov- 
ince on the Pacific coast. Area, 355,855 square 
miles; population in 1911, 392,480; in 1921, 
524,582. In 1921 the urban population num- 
bered 247,562 and the rural 277,020. The rural 
thus comprised 52.8 per cent of the population, 
which was a gain over the 48.1 per cent of 1911. 
Chinese immigration was restricted by a head 
tax, while Japanese and Hindu immigrants 
were regulated by diplomatic arrangements. 
Vancouver, the largest city, had a population 
in 1921 of 117,217 (100,401 in 1911); Victoria, 
the capital, had 38,727 (31,660 in 1911); New 
Westminster, 14,495 (18,199 in 1911). By 
1922 enrollment in elementary and secondary 
schools had increased to 91,919 (44,945 in 
1911). The educational system also included 
48 high schools, several normal schools, and the 
provincial university. Total expenditures for 
education in 1911, $2,641,522; in 1922, $7,833,- 
578. 

Industry. Only a small proportion of the 
country was under crops. Intensive agricul- 
ture was the rule, the leading activities cen- 
tring in fruit raising, hop growing, stock rais- 
ing, and the cultivation of root crops. Oats 
was the most important field crop. Recent de- 
velopments were the increasing attention given 
to barnyard animals (poultry, swine, etc.) and 
dairy products. Lumbering, pulpwood, etce., 
ranked first among the industries. In 1921, 
the value of products was $71,108,307. Of this, 
the pulpwood produced was valued at $4,796,- 
000, and newsprint about $8,000,000. The 
woods most sought after were Douglas fir and 
white spruce. The mineral production of the 
province ranked second only to that of Nova 
In 1922, the total value of minerals 
was $39,423,962 as compared with $30,076,635 
in 1912. Gold, in 1922, yielded $4,286,718; sil- 
ver, $4,828,384; coal, $14,622,317; lead, $5,430,- 
265; and copper, $4,273,700. The undeveloped 
coal fields were particularly rich. The local 
fisheries ranked next in importance, the 1922 
catch being valued at $18,872,833. The leading 
commercial fish were salmon ($13,106,315), 
halibut ($3,918,441), and cod, sturgeon, smelts, 
sardines, and herring. Whaling brought in 
$158,814. The seal industry was, economically, 
terminated, as only natives were permitted to 
participate in it. Capital invested in the in- 
dustry was divided: $6,765,827 in boats,- ete., 
$13,185,74< in canning and curing establish- 
ments. The depletion of the Fraser River sal- 
mon pack was giving pravincial authorities 
much concern and conservation schemes were 
receiving attention. In 1921, there were in all, 
2470 industrial establishments, mainly con- 
cerned with the lumber and fish industries, 


BRITISH EMPIRE 


that represented a capital of $210,798,811. 
Employees totaled 28,700; wages, $35,775,528 ; 
and value added by manufacture, $82,604,700. 
The total available water power in the province 
was estimated at over 1,931,142 h.p.; of this 
328,977 had been developed. 

Trade and Communications. In 1922, 
there were 4374 miles of railway in the prov- 
ince as compared with 1855 in 1912. Ocean- 
going steamboats and coastwise vessels were be- 
ing operated by the Canadian Pacific railway. 
Communications were regularly maintained be- 
tween Vancouver and Prince Rupert. The Pan- 
ama Canal was being utilized to bring Canadi- 
an Pacific and Atlantic ports into closer touch. 
In 1921-22, 37,475 vessels entered and cleared, 
while 35,705 vessels entered and cleared in the 
coastwise trade. The trade of the province in- 
creased considerably over the period. In 1912, 
exports and imports were valued at $20,272,840 
and $49,345,161; by 1923, these were $93,971,- 
000 and $60,257,000. Exports consisted of min- 
erals (gold, silver, copper, coal), sea products 
(salmon, halibut, herrings, whale products and 
oil), lumber, furs, skins, etc. Fruit was 
shipped in large quantities to the Canadian 
prairie provinces. 

Government. The province’s representation 
in the Canadian Parliament was increased to 6 
in the Senate and 13 in the House of Commons. 
Revenues for 1921-22 were $16,987,869 ($10,- 
479,459 in 1913-14) ; expenditures for 1920-21 
were $17,436,487 ($15,762,912 in 1913-14). 
Women were granted the ballot. 

BRiTISH EMPIRE. The purpose of this 
article is to deal with general matters concern- 
ing the British Empire as a whole, the affairs 
of Great Britain, Ireland and the several colo- 
nies being set forth elsewhere in separate ar- 
ticles, to which the. reader is referred for 
details. 

Much to the chagrin of its enemies, the Brit- 
ish Empire failed to disintegrate, on the out- 
break of war in 1914, under pressure of the se- 
cessionist forces upon which German imperial- 
ists had so confidently counted. Only in South 
Africa (q.v.) were the German hopes of an 
anti-imperial rebellion measurably  gratified,. 
and even there the insurrection led by Boer 
irreconcilables (Maritz, de Wet, Beyers, and 
Kemp), in October, 1914, was speedily crushed 
by Boer loyalists, Premier Botha and Defense 
Minister Smuts. Conspiracies in India and 
elsewhere were only flashes in the pan. The 
Turkish sultan’s proclamation of a Holy War 
failed to move the Moslem masses in British 
possessions. The Empire held together. More- 
over, the self-governing dominions came to the 
mother country’s aid with an enthusiastic loy- 
alty few had ventured to anticipate. Canada 
enlisted 595,441 men and sent 432,642 of them 
to fight overseas; Australia sent 329,682; New 
Zealand raised an army of 124,211 and sent 
100,444 soldiers and nurses to distant battle 
fronts; South Africa mustered 146,515 men, of 
whom 30,000 were used in Europe and 43,000 
in East Africa, besides conquering German 
Southwest Africa and raising a force of 85,000 
colored troopers and military laborers. India, 
instead of rebelling, supplied 1,679,416 men, to 
be drawn on for battles in France, on Gallipoli, 
in East Africa, while the British garrison in 


India was at one time reduced to, as few 
as 15,000 men. Altogether, the dominions, 
colonies, and India _ contributed 3,284,943 


218 


BRITISH EMPIRE 


men, of whom 202,321 were killed and 428,644 
wounded, to defend the empire to which they 
belonged. 

The War not only demonstrated the strength 
but also enlarged the territorial extent of the 
Empire. Cyprus, occupied since 1878, and 
Egypt, occupied since 1882, were declared Brit- 
ish protectorates shortly after Turkey entered 
the conflict in 1914, and were definitely ceded 
by the latter in the Treaties of Sévres (1920) 
and Lausanne (1923), along with Palestine and 
Mesopotamia over which Great Britain became 
mandatory, together with the connecting Ara- 
bian hinterlands. The former Turkish province 
of Hedjaz, having declared independence at 
British prompting during the War, became a 
veiled protectorate, whose nominally indepen- 
dent king accepted a subsidy and advice from 
Britain. All except the northwestern corner of 
German East Africa, a thin slice of the Cam- 
eroons, somewhat less than half of Togoland, 
and the island of Nauru, became British man- 
dates as a result of the peace settlement; but to 
these should be added the Australian mandate 
over German New Guinea (Kaiser Wilhelm’s 
Land and Bismarek Archipelago), the New Zea- 
land mandate over German Samoa, and the 
South African mandate over German Southwest 
Africa. The mandates gained by Britain and 
her dominions added 884,500 square miles to 
the Empire, and if one includes Egypt, Cyprus, 
and Hedjaz, the total territorial accretion was 
about 1,300,000 square miles. At the close of 
the world conflict, the Empire embraced over 
2,000,000 square miles and 330,000,000 persons 
in Asia; over 4,000,000 square miles and 63,- 
000,000 persons in Africa; 4,000,000 square 
miles and 11,000,000 inhabitants in America; 
and 3,250,000 square miles and almost 8,000,- 
000 persons in Australasia: a grand total of 
almost 14,000,000 square miles and nearly half 
a billion human beings. 

So huge an empire proved, in years after the 
War, to be not an unmixed blessing. Cyprus, 
the mandates, and several older colonies, pre- 
sented the harassed taxpayers of England with 
unwelcome annual deficits to be paid, while the 
maintenance of occupying forces in Mesopo- 
tamia, Persia and elsewhere was almost incred- 
ibly expensive. Moreover, the awakened na- 
tionalism of backward races strengthened the 
tendency toward which the need of financial re- 
trenchment pointed. Instead of meeting native 
demands with bullet and bayonet, Great Britain 
granted conditional independence to Egypt (q.v.) 
and to Mesopotamia (q.v.) in 1922, withdrew ~ 
from Persia (q.v.) and Baku in 1920-21, ac- 
quiesced in Afghanistan’s (q.v.) reassertion of 
independence in 1921, and by the Government 
of India Act of 1919 accorded incomplete satis- 
faction to the Indian aspiration for “swaraj.” 
Different in motive, but similar in the tendency 
to diminish rather than expand the Empire’s 
holdings, were the cession to Italy after the 
War, of the Jarabaib strip on the West-Kgyp- 
tian frontier and of Jubaland (from Northeast- 
ern Kenya), and the promise at the Washing- 
ton Conference to restore Wei-hai-wei to China. 
With the accession of a Labor government to 
power in 1924, the decline of aggressive British 
imperialism was accentuated, for Labor in prin- 
ciple favored extension of self-government for 
backward peoples and professed immunity from 
imperialist land-hunger. 

While perceptibly loosening her grasp on a 


BRITISH EMPIRE 


few colonial areas, the mother country signifi- 
cantly readjusted her relations with the great 
self-governing dominions. Due largely to the 
personal infiuence of the South African General 
Smuts, Downing Street statesmen were brought 
to realize that the solidarity of the Empire 
could be strengthened better by placating than 
by resisting the desire of the dominions for 
complete autonomy. Accordingly, the domin- 
ions and India received separate representation 
in the Peace Conference (q.v.) and separate 
membership in the League (q.v.) as quasi-in- 
dependent states in the proposed Anglo-French 
alliance, a clause permitting separate adhesion 
by the dominions was inserted; Canada’s re- 
quest for a separate legation at Washington 
was conceded, though not actually realized; and 
in general the principle of independence in in- 
ternational status seemed to be tentatively, and 
only tentatively, established. It was also be- 
lieved by some observers that as regards in- 
ternal affairs Downing Street would adopt Gen- 
eral Smuts’s principle of complete non-inter- 
ference, allowing the common sovereign and 
common loyalty alone to preserve unity. Ire- 
land (q.v.), it should be remembered in this 
connection, took its place on a par with the 
dominions under the Free State Treaty of 1921 
(which, by the way, substituted the locution 
“Commonwealth of Nations’ for ‘“Empire’) 
and southern Rhodesia was promised responsi- 
ble self-government in 1923. For authority, 
Downing Street endeavored to substitute co- 
operation in its relations with the dominions. 
In 1917, an Imperial Conference of their repre- 
sentatives, and, significantly, of Indian repre- 
sentatives, was held in London, and simultane- 
ously the dominion premiers were allowed to sit 
with the War Cabinet, which, for the time be- 
ing, was considered an “Imperial War Cabinet.” 
At this time it was planned to hold in 1922 
a constituent Imperial Conference which would 
establish a stable constitutional basis for im- 
perial solidarity. The sessions of the Imperial 
Conference and Imperial War Cabinet in 1918 
were interested chiefly in plans to develop em- 
pire resources and to prevent foreign control 
of raw materials after the War. The notable 
Imperial Conference in 1921 not only consid- 
ered the proposed renewal of the Anglo-Japa- 
nese Alliance (to which Canada objected), and 
naval defense, but also decided that dominion 
premiers and Indian representatives should be 
summoned annually for conference, and that the 
projected constituent meeting in 1922 would be 
unnecessary. The seventh Imperial Conference, 
convening in October, 1923, included the presi- 
dent and minister of external affairs of the 
Irish Free State, as well as_ representatives 
from Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South 
Africa, Newfoundland, India, and Great Bri- 
tain. Various questions of foreign policy and 
imperial defense were discussed, but what chief- 
ly attracted attention was the demand of Gen- 
eral Smuts of South Africa, seconded by other 
dominion spokesmen and reinforced by the Im- 
perial Economic Conference then in session, for 
effective measures to develop the Empire’s nat- 
ural resources and industries. As it later de- 
veloped, this plea meant, practically, the adop- 
tion by Great Britain of a protective tariff, 
with preferential rebates for colonial products, 
which would thus be able to compete victo- 
riously with American beef, grain, cotton, to- 
bacco, and fruits in the English market. How 


219 


BROAD 


Premier Baldwin determined to establish a 
preferential tariff, but was decisively defeated 
by the British electorate, is told in the article 
on Great Britain (q.v.). But it should be re- 
marked here that the British election of 1923 
marked a definite setback for the movement 
Which had been gaining headway for a genera- 
tion, especially during the War and since, to- 
ward the cementing of imperial ties by tariff 
preferences, the establishment (after the War) 
of protective duties in several crown colonies, 
besides the dominions, the imposition of dis- 
criminatory export duties on raw materials 
(e.g. palm kernels, goatskins, tin)—in short, 
a system of economic imperialism which, if per- 
fected, would surely arouse envy and _ resent- 
ment among the other industrial nations of the 
world. 

BRITISH HONDURAS. A British crown 
colony in Central America. Area, 8592 square 
miles; population in 1921, 45,317 as compared 
with 40,458 in 1911. Belize, the chief town, 
had 12,661 inhabitants in 1921. Agriculture 
continued to engage the population. Chief ex- 
ports, in 1921, in value of dollars, were: ba- 
nanas, $169,298; cedar, $24,494; chicle, $1,323,- 
967; coconuts, $142,564; mahogany, $1,054,- 
165; plantains, $22,301. The War saw the 
colony’s trade mount, but totals fell again in 
1922, as the following reveals: imports for 
1913-14, $3,186,062; for 1922, $3,290,402; ex- 
ports for 1913-14, $3,126,954; for 1920-21, $5,- 
051.895; for 1922, $2,817,597. The United 
States in the decade 1913-23, became the most 
important factor in the country’s trade, taking 
71 per cent of her exports in 1922 to Great 
Britain’s 19.38 per cent, and furnishing 57.46 
per cent of her imports to Great Britain’s 27.38 
per cent. In 1923, the country’s commerce 
gained somewhat. By 1922-23, revenues and 
expenditures almost doubled those of 1913-14. 
For 1922-23, they were: revenue, $1,137,529; 
expenditure, $1,477,194. The debt in 1923, $1,- 
073,164, was greater than that of previous 
years. The attempts to exploit the forests of 
the country showed little success during the 
period, for production of cedar, mahogany, and 
logwood was considerably lower in 1921 than 
in 1911. 

BRITISH ISLES. See GREAT BRITAIN. 


BRITISH LABOR PARTY. See Great 
BRITAIN, History. 
BROAD, CuARLIE DUNBAR (1887- yi 


An English professor. of philosophy, born in 
London, and educated at Cambridge, where he 
achieved high honors as a student of metaphys- 
ical and ethical philosophy. He was _ succes- 
sively fellow of Trinity College, assistant pro- 
fessor of logic at the University of St. Andrews, 
lecturer on logic at University College, Dundee, 
and professor of philosophy at the University 
of Bristol. In common with the rest of the so- 
called Cambridge group, Professor Broad ap- 
proaches philosophy from the point of view of 
science. His first work, Perception, Physics 
and Reality (1914), was an attempt to find out 
what knowledge science gives us about the real 
world. This investigation is continued in NSci- 
entifie Thought (1923). In both of these he 
has expounded a theory of perception involving 
epistemological dualism. In addition to these 
works he has contributed several articles to 
Mind, The Hibbert Journal, Proceedings of the 
Aristotelian Society, and International Journal 
of Ethics. 


BROADCASTING 


BROADCASTING. See RaApio TELEPHONY; 
RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE. 

BROADCASTING MUSIC. See 
Mechanical Reproduction, 

BROCA, BENJAMIN AUGUST (1857- Yeu 
distinguished French surgeon, usually spoken 
of as August Broca, who received his medical 
degree from the University of Paris. His nu- 
merous writings include Traitement des Tum- 
eurs Blanches chez VEnfant (1890) ; .Traité de 
Thérapeutique Infantile, with Légendre (1894) ; 
Sur VAnatomie Chirurgicale et Chirurgie @ 


Music, 


Oreille Moyenne, translated into English 
(1901); and Legons Cliniques de Chirurgie In- 
fantile (1902). During the War Broca_ pro- 


duced numerous works on military surgery, 
Précis de Médecine Opératoire (1916); La 
Prothése des Amputés en Chirurgie de Guerre 


(1917); Les Séquelles Osteo-articulaires des 
Plaies de (Guerre, translated into English 
(1916); Ligations et Amputations, English 


translation (1917), and Chirurgie de Guerre et 
Apres-guerre (1921). 

BROCK, REGINALD WALTER (1874- 15 
A Canadian geologist, born at Perth, Ont. He 
studied at Toronto, and later at Heidelberg. 
Meanwhile he was instructor at the School of 
Mining in Kingston, Canada, but in 1897 en- 
tered the service of the Geological Survey of 
Canada, of which he was director in 1905-14. 
In the latter year he was deputy commissioner 
of mines of Canada and dean of the faculty of 
applied science in British Columbia. From 
1902 to 1914 he had been professor of geology 
in the School of Mining. As consulting geolo- 
gist he served in Egypt, and during the War in 
the Canadian Military forces, with the rank of 
major. He was a member of many scientific 
and technical societies and a fellow of the 
Royal Society of Canada, which he served as 
general secretary. 

BROCKDORFF, BARON Cay VON 
(1874— ). A German writer on philosophi- 
cal topics. He was educated in the German 
state universities and became professor of phil- 
osophy at the University of Kiel. His philos- 
ophical works include Die Philosophischen An- 
fangsgriinde der Psychologie (1905), Die Ges- 
chichte der Philosophie und der Problem ihrer 


Bergreiflichkett (1906), Die Wissenschaftliche 
Selbsterkenntnis (1908), Philosophie und Pad- 
agogik (1912), Diskontinuwitét und Dialektik 
(1914), Die Wahrheit wber Bergson (1915), 
Hobbes (1919), and Schopenhauer und de 
Nachkantianern (1919). In his volume on 


Bergson, which was written during the War, 
he charged the French philosopher with bor- 
rowing his principal ideas from German sources, 
particularly from Schelling. 

BROCKELMANN, Kari (1868- oa 
professor at the University of Halle (see VoL. 
IV). In 1917 he published Die Alteren Vor- 
liufer der Osmanischen Litteratur. 

BRODRICK, WILLIAM Sr. Joun F. 
COUNT MIDLETON)  (1856— ). An English 
statesman (see VoL. IV). He became Knight 
of the Order of St. Patrick in 1915. In 1917-18 
he served on the Irish Convention. He was 
created First Earl of Midleton, Ireland, and 
Viscount Dunsford of Dunsford, Surrey, in 
1920. 

BRONSON, Howarp Locan’ (1878— ie 
An American physicist, born at Washington, 
Conn., and educated at Yale. In 1904 he was 
called to McGill University and remained there 


( VIS- 


220 


BROOKLYN POLYTECHNIC 


until 1910, when he accepted the Munro chair 
of physics at Dalhousie. His original work has 
included studies on radio-activity, high resis- 
tance and standard cells, on which he has pub- 
lished valuable papers. He was president of 
the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, 1918— 
20. 

BROOKE, Rupert (1887-1915). An Eng- 
lish poet, born at Rugby, and educated at Rug- 
by School and King’s College, Cambridge, where 
he later won a fellowship. His first published 
volume was Poems (1911). Two years later he 
made a trip to America and on to the Samoan 
Islands, meanwhile writing letters home about 
his travels. These were published at the time 
in a London newspaper and have since been 
published in book form as Letters from Amer- 
ica (1916), with a preface by Henry James. 
One other book, 1914 and Other Poems, pub- 
lished posthumously, and an essay on John 
Webster and the Elizabethan Drama (1916) 
conclude his short list of contributions to liter- 
ature. Brooke’s writing possessed so much 
power that lovers of poetry felt sharply the loss 
to English literature in his premature death 
on Apr. 23, 1915. He had joined the Naval 
Brigade early in the War and was on his way 
to Gallipoli when he became a victim of blood- 
poisoning. His Collected Poems, prefaced by 
Edward Marsh, were published in 1918. 

BROOKLYN INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND 
SCIENCES. An institution founded in 1824 in 
Brooklyn, N. Y., and reincorporated in 1890. 
Until 1917 it was divided into three general de- 
partments, education, museums, and the botan- 
ic garden; in that year the biological labora- 
tory, founded in 1889 under Institute auspices, 
became a fourth department of the Institute. 
The department of education offered courses in 
a variety of subjects, and also arranged lec- 
tures and concerts by prominent men and wom- 
en and eminent artists. A branch of the Insti- 
tute was maintained throughout the period at 
Jamaica, L. I., but the Huntington branch was 
discontinued in 1921. The receipts rose from 
$385,748 in 1917 to $600,000 in 1923, and the 
permanent funds from $942,400 to $1,639,000. 
Membership in 1924 was about 10,000, includ- 
ing an enrollment of 600 at Jamaica. The In- 
stitute received a bequest of $61,000 from Mrs. 
Georgietta Proctor for the work of the depart- 
ments of physics and engineering, $10,000 from 
Mrs. Caroline Mather for its general work, and 
the final payment of $20,000 on the Robert B. 
Woodward bequest. Frank L. Babbott  suc- 
ceeded A. Augustus Healy as president in 1920, 
and John H. Denbigh became secretary in 1922, 
succeeding Herman Stutzer. 

BROOKLYN POLYTECHNIC INSTI- 
TUTE. An institution for the technical educa- 
tion of men founded in 1853. The day registra- 
tion increased from a total in 1914 of 187, 
covering all departments, to a total in 1924 of 
465, and the evening registration from 514 in 
1914 to 1000 in 1924, The graduating class 
increased from 45 to 102 during the same pe- 
riod. Productive funds rose from $389,876 to 
$586,665, the annual income from $163,278 to 
$221,300, and the value of buildings, grounds 
and equipment from $935,292 to $1,339,281. 
The laboratories increased from 10 to 27; the 
one general library became six departmental 
libraries, i.e. English literature, mathematics, 
modern languages, mechanical engineering, 
chemistry, and the Mailloux Electrical Library. 


BROOKS 


Ten additional fraternities were organized and 
eight general societies; two new publications 
were established. The courses were radically 
revised; two special courses of one year each, 
three graduate courses, and summer review 
courses were added. President, Fred W. Atkin- 
son, Ph.D. 

BROOKS, Atrrep Huse (1871- ye «adn 

American geologist and explorer (see Vor. IV). 
He was Lieutenant-Colonel of Engineers in 
1918, and also chief geologist of the A.E.F., 
serving in France from 1917 to 1919. He was 
with the American Peace Commission in Feb- 
ruary and April, 1919. 
_ BROOKS, CuHartes (1872- ). An Ameri- 
can plant pathologist, born in Salem, Ind. He 
graduated from the University of Indiana in 
1904 and took graduate courses at the Univer- 
sity of Missouri. In 1906 he was instructor of 
botany at the New Hampshire College, and 
from 1906 to 1912, professor and botanist of 
the New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment 
Station. From 1912 he was pathologist at the 
Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States 
Department of Agriculture. He was a member 
of several scientific societies and in 1917 was 
Vice-president of the Phytopathical Society. 
He carried on researches in fruit diseases, espe- 
cially those of apples. 

BROOKS, JoHN GRAHAM (1846- lio 4 
American author and lecturer (see Vou. IV). 


He published Labor’s Challenge to the Social 
Order in 1920. . 
BROOKS, Van Wyck _ (1886- yr a 


American critic, born at Plainfield, N. J., and 
educated at Harvard. For a time he was an 
instructor at Leland Stanford Junior Universi- 
ty. In 1920 he came to the Freeman, whose 
literary editor he was until that excellent peri- 
odical suspended publication in 1924. Early 
works published were: The Wine of the Pur- 
itans (1909); The Malady of the Ideal (1913), 
and John Addington Symonds (1914). With 
the appearance of his America’s Coming-of-Age 
(1915) it at once was apparent that Mr. 
Brooks, better than any one else in his genera- 
tion, had placed his fingers on the reason for 
America’s esthetic sterility. His appreciation 
of the material and moral conditioning influ- 
ence of the frontier on the development of 
American cultural life was a discovery of the 
first importance. His Ordeal of Mark Twain 
(1919) and his papers on Henry James pub- 
lished in the Dial (1923), really developments 
of the same theme, were by many considered 
the most important critical works of the pe- 
riod. For the latter he received the Dial prize 
for 1923, 

BROOKS, WILLIAM PENN (1851- Pare at 
American agriculturist, born at South Scituate, 
Mass., and educated at the Massachusetts Agri- 
cultural College and in Germany. From 1877 
to 1887 he was on the faculty of the Imperial 
College in Japan and for several years acted 
as its president. From 1889 to 1906 he was 
on the faculty of the Massachusetts Agricul- 
tural College. In 1889 he became director of 
the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion and also acted after 1918 as consulting 
agriculturalist. He was a member of several 
scientific societies and contributed many re- 
ports on agricultural subjects to their proceed- 
ings. He wrote Agriculture (1901) and Gen- 
eral Agriculture, Dairying and Poultry Farm- 
ing. 


221 


BROWN 


BROSSART, Ferpinanpn (1849- ). An 
American bishop of the Roman Catholie Church, 
born in Germany, and educated at St. Fran- 
cis College, at Mt. St. Mary Seminary (Cincin- 
nati), and in Belgium at the College of St. 
Nicolas and the University of Louvain. From 
1872 until 1916 he was rector in various towns 
in Kentucky or vicar general of the diocese of 
Covington. He became bishop of Covington in 
1916. He translated several theological works 
from the German of Denifle, Meyenberg, and 
Schaeffer. 


BROUGHTON, Ruopa (1840-1920). An 


English novelist (see Vout. IV). She died at 
Headington on June 5, 1920. Her latest novels 
include Concerning a Vow (1914; 6th ed., 


1920), A Thorn in the Flesh 
in her Folly (1920). 

BROUN, Hreywoop (CAMPBELL) (1888- )% 
A newspaper columnist and author, born in 
Brooklyn, N. Y., and educated at Harvard. He 
was connected with the Morning Telegraph 
(1908-09; 1910-12), the New York Tribune 
(1912-21), and the New York World (1921- hie 
He is the editor of the column “It Seems To 
Me” in the World. Heywood Broun has made 
himself known as a breezy and outspoken hu- 
morist, with now and then a guarded philoso- 
phy breaking the surface of his mirth. He is 
the author of American Expeditionary Forces— 
with General Pershing and the American Forces 
(1918); Seeing Things at Night (1921); The 
Boy Grew Older (1923), and The Sum Field 
(1923). 

BROWN, Atice (1857— ). An American 
author (see VoL. IV). Her later books include 
Children of Earth (1915); Bromley Neighbor- 
hood (1917); The Prisoner (1916); The Flying 
Teuton (1918); Homespun and Gold (1920); 
The Wind Between the Worlds (1920); One-Act 
Plays (1921); Lowise Imogen Guiney—a Study 
(1921); The Old Crow (1922); and Ellen 
Prior, verse (1923). 

BROWN, ARgtuur Jupson (1856— i An 
American clergyman and author (see Vou. IV). 
He has written The Why and How of Foreign 
Missions (rev. ed., 1921), Unity and Missions— 
Can a Diwided Church Save the World? (1915), 
Rising Churches in Non-Christian Lands 
(1915), Russia in Transformation (1917), and 
The Mastery of the Far East (1919; rev. ed., 
1921). 

BROWN, CHARLES REYNOLDS (1862- ). 
An American clergyman (see Vor. IV). In 
1920 he was Ingersoll lecturer on immortality 
at Harvard University, and in the same year 
published his lectures under the title Living 
Again. He is also the author of The Healing 
Power of Suggestion (1916), Five Young Men 
(1917), Who Is Jesus Christ? (an address, 
1917), The Master’s Way (1919), Story Books 
of the Harly Hebrews (1919), Yale Talks 
(1919), The Religion of a Layman (1921), So- 
cial Rebuilders (Mendenhall Lectures, 1921), 
The Honor of the Church (1922), Lincoln, the 
Greatest Man of the Nineteenth Century (1922), 
The Art of Preaching (Yale University Lyman 
Beecher Lectures, 1922), and The Larger Faith 


(1917), A. Pool 


(1923). 
BROWN, DemetrrA KENNETH (DEMETRA 
VAKA) (1877- ). A Greek-American au- 


thor, born on the Island of Bouyouk Ada, Sea 
of Marmora. Her early life was passed in close 
touch with the Turkish people, but many of 
their customs revolted her, especially the pre- 


BROWN 


arranged marriages. She ran away from home 
to escape such a marriage, and came to the 
United States with the family of a relative. 
She joined the staff of the Greek newspaper 
Atlantis in New York City, but after six 
months of this, she gave up journalism and be- 
came a teacher of French at the Comstock 
School (New York), where she remained until 
1903, except for a short interval in 1901 when 
she returned to Turkey for a visit. In 1904 
she was married to Kenneth Brown, (q.v.) nov- 
elist, and soon began to write. Her second book, 
Haremlik, published in 1909, commanded wide 
attention. It consisted of 10 studies of Turk- 
ish women. A Child of the Orient (1914) re- 
lates the story of the author’s own childhood. 
Other books of hers include The First Secretary 
(1907); The Duke’s Price (1910); Finella in 
Fairyland (1910); In the Shadow of Islam 
(1911); The Grasp of the Sultan (1916); The 
Heart of the Balkans (1917); and In the Heart 
of German Intrigue (1918), which grew out of 
interviews with King Constantine. 

BROWN, Ernest WILLIAM (1866- hs 
An American mathematician (see Vou. IV). 
He was president of the American Mathemat- 
ical Society from 1914 to 1916. In 1920 he 
published Tables of the Motion of the Moon. 

BROWN, FRANK CHOUTEAU (1876- ys 
An American architect, born at Minneapolis, 
Minn., and educated at the Minneapolis School 
of Fine Arts and the Boston Art Club and in 
Europe. In 1902 he began practice in Boston 
and from 1907 until 1919 was editor of the 
Architectural Review. In 1916 he became a 
member of the faculty of Boston University and 
in 1919 head of the department of art and ar- 
chitecture. His publications include Letters 
and Lettering (1902); The Orders of Architec- 
ture (1904); New England Colonial Houses 
(1915); Modern English Churches (1917); and 
The Brick House (1919). 

BROWN, GLenn (1854- ). An Ameri- 
can architect, born in Fauquier County, Va., 
and educated at Washington and Lee and 
George Washington Universities and the Massa- 
chusetts Institute of Technology. He began 
practice in 1878, and was admitted to member- 
ship in important architectural societies of Eu- 
rope and America, as well as to the American 
Academy in Rome and the National Institute 
of Arts and Letters. His publications include 
Healthy Foundations for Houses (1885); Trap 
Syphonage (1886); A History of the United 
States Capitol (1900); Papers on the Improve- 
ment of Washington City (1901); Personal Rec- 
ollections of Charles F. McKim (1916), and 
Roosevelt and the Fine Arts (1919). He was 
also the editor of several series, among them be- 
ing the Proceedings of the American Institute 
of Architects (1899-1909). 

BROWN, KENNETH (1868-— ) aad 
American author and journalist (see Vor. IV). 
In 1917 he went with his wife to study the 
Greek situation; together they published In 


Pawn to a Throne (1919). He is also author 
of Putter Perkins (1923). See  BRown, 
DEMETRA, 

BROWN, Puitip MARSHALL (1875- Ne 


An American educator and diplomat, born at 
Hampden, Me., and educated at Williams Col- 
lege. In 1900-01, he served as secretary to 
Lloyd C. Griscom and from 1901 to 1903 was 
second secretary for the American Legation of 
Constantinople. He served as Secretary of Le- 


222 


BROWNE 


gation to Guatemala and Honduras, 1903-07, 
and as secretary of the American Embassy of 
Constantinople, 1907-08. From the latter year 
to 1910 he was minister to Honduras. Resign- 
ing from the diplomatic service, he was ap- 
pointed instructor in international law at Har- 
vard University in 1912 and in the following 
year became assistant professor of international 
law and diplomacy at Princeton, where he was 
later appointed professor of international law 
(1915). He was associate editor of the Ameri- 
can Journal of International Law and was an 
associate member of the Institute of Interna- 
tional Law at Brussels. He was the author of 
Foreigners in Turkey (1914), International Re- 
alities (1917), International Society (1923), 
Gfe; 

BROWN, PrREstTon (1872- ). An Ameri- 
can army Officer, born in Lexington, Ky. He 
graduated from Yale in 1892 and in 1904 en- 
tered the army as a private. He was commis- 
sioned 2d lieutenant in 1897 and rose through 
the various grades; he became a major in 
1916 and a_ lieutenant-colonel in 1917. In 
1918 he was appointed colonel of the national 
army and in August of the same year was pro- 
moted to be brigadier-general. He served as 
Chief of Staff in the 2d division at Chateau- 
Thierry and St. Mihiel in 1918, and was Chief 
of Staff for the 4th army corps. In August, 
1918, he was appointed Commanding General 
of the 3d division, serving in that capacity 
through the battle of Meuse-Argonne. In No- 
vember, 1918, he became Assistant Chief of 
Staff at General Headquarters in the occupied 
German territory. He was appointed instruc- 
tor in the Army General Staff College in 1919. 
He was awarded the Distinguished Service Med- 
al for Exceptional Service for his work as Chief 
of Staff and in other capacities. In 1921 
he was acting commander of the Army War 
College and in the same year appointed Com- 
ee General of the third infantry brig- 
ade. 

BROWN, Roy Sruart_ (1888- pa 
major in the United States air service, born in 
Minneapolis. He was in charge of pilots’ 
schools and experimental work during the War. 
In 1919-21 he saw service in the Philippine 
Islands. 

BROWN, Wiiiam ADAmMs_ (1865- \e 
An American theologian (see VoL. IV). He 
was acting provost of Yale University, 1919-20. 
From 1917 to 1919 he was Secretary of the Gen- 
eral War-time Commission of the Churches. 
He was also chairman of the committee on the 
War and religion, and a member of the commit- 
tee of the Outlook, the Committee of Fourteen, 
and the administrative committee of the Fed- 
eral Council of Churches of Christ in America. 
He is the author of Modern Theology and the 
Preaching of the Gospel (1914), Is Christiamty 
Practicable? (1916); Modern Missions in the 
Far Hast, privately printed (1917); Christian- 
ity and Industry, addresses (1919); Minister 
as Teacher, lectures (1920), and The Church in 
America (1922). : 

BROWNE, Epwarp GRANVILLE (1862- ie 
An English professor (see VoL. IV). He is the 
author of The Press and Poetry in Modern Per- 
sia (1914), Material for the Study of the Babi 
Religion (1918); The Persian Constitutional 
Movement (1918), a continuation of his Liter- 
ary History of Persia (1920); Literary History 
of Persia, vol. ii, 3d ed. (1921); Translation 


Sree a 


BROWNE 


of Chatédr Magdta, with notes 
Arabian Medicine (1921). 

BROWNE, GeEorcE ELMeErR (1871- yee. An 
American artist born at Gloucester, Mass., edu- 
cated at the School vf Drawing and Painting, 
the Museum of Fine Arts and Cowles Art School 
(Boston) and was a pupil of Jules Lefebvre and 
Robert Fleury in Paris. He was elected an As- 
sociate of the National Academy in 1919. Mr. 
Browne’s canvases are broad in treatment and 
his manner very energetic. His pictures have 
been exhibited throughout Europe and the Unit- 
ed States. In 1904 the French government 
bought his painting, “The Bait Sellers of Cape 
Cod,’ from the Salon. A collection of nine 
lithographs is in the New York Public Library. 
“The Wain Team” is in the National Gallery at 
Washington. 

BROWNE, MAURICE (1881- pia 
theatrical director and dramatist, born in Eng- 
land, and educated at Cambridge. He came to 
the United States in 1910 and founded, with 
Ellen Van Volkenburg, the Chicago Little Thea- 
tre, in 1912. His most recent books include 
The Rhythmic Drama (1914) and The King of 
the Jews, a tragic drama (1916). 

BROWNE, Porter Emerson (1879- ie 
An American novelist and playwright, born in 
Beverly, Mass. He began writing short stories, 
verse, and essays in 1901. He was one of the 
founders of the Vigilantes in 1916. Among his 
plays are A Fool There Was (1906), The Spend- 
thrift (1908), A Girl of To-day (1915), and 
The Bad Man (1920). He also wrote of the 
one-act plays, A Hero, In and Out, Married, ete. 
Other works of his are A Fool There Was, a 
novel (1908); Peace at Any Price (1916) ; 
Stars and Stripes (1917), and Some one and 
Somebody (1917). 

BROWNELL, Wittiam Crary (1851- ). 
An American author (see Vor. IV). He has 
written Criticism (1914), Standards (1917), 
and American Prose Masters (new edition, 
1923). 

BROWNING, Oscar (1837-1923). An Eng- 
lish author and lecturer. (See Vou. IV). He 
became Fellow of the Arcadia Academy, Rome, 
in 1918. In 1921 he was made trustee and 
chairman of the British Academy of Arts in 
Rome. He is the author of A History of Me- 
dieval Italy, 568-1530 (1914), A General H1s- 
tory of Italy (1915), History of the Modern 
World (popular edition, 1916), and Memories 
of Later Years (1923). 

BROWN-TAIL MOTH. See ENTOMOLOGY, 
Economic. 

BROWN UNIVERSITY. An institution at 
Providence, R. I., founded in 1764. It increased 
in enrollment during the decade 1914-24 as fol- 
lows: Undergraduate men students from 910 
in 1914 to 1233 in 1924; graduate students 
from 102 to 157; students in the Women’s Col- 
lege, which is entirely separate, from 203 in 
1914 to 370 in 1924; students in the School of 
Education, instituted in 1916, 51; and _exten- 
sion students from 360 to 1606 in 1924. In 
1919, the university liberalized the entrance re- 
quirements by modifying the language and 
mathematics requirements and increasing the 
number of electives, and made compulsory a 
comprehensive psychological test. The faculty 
was increased in membership during the decade 
from 77 to 113; $4,015,000 was added to the 
- endowment, bringing the total to $8,291,983; 
the library was increased by approximately 68,- 


(1921); and 


223 


BRUCE 


000 volumes, making the total 292,827, includ- 
ing the McClellan Collection of Lincolniana 
given in 1922. The Arnold Biological Labora- 
tory was built in 1915; the Soldiers’ Memorial 
Gate in 1919; and the Jesse Metcalf Chemical 
Laboratory in 1923. At the Women’s College, 
Metcalf Hall was completed in 1919. In 1924, 
the university began the construction of a new 
stadium, baseball field, and extensive facilities 
for baseball, football and tennis. Funds were 
also available and the plans under considera- 
tion in 1924, under a gift from the estate of the 
late John R. Hegeman, for the erection of Hege- 
man Hall, a new dormitory, and under the gift 
of Edgar L. Marston, for the erection of the 
Marston Modern Language Building. In 1924, 
William H. P. Faunce, D.D., LL.D., completed 
25 years of service as president of the univer- 
sity. 

BRUCE, ANDREW ALEXANDER (1866-— Mi: 
An American jurist, born at Nunda Drug in the 
Madras Presidency of India, and educated in 
England, and at tne University of Wisconsin. 
He practiced law in Chicago from 1893 to 1898 
and in the latter year was appointed assistant 
professor of law at the University of Wiscon- 
sin. In 1902 he was appointed professor of law 
at the University of North Dakota and from 
1904 to 1911 acted also as dean of the College 
of Law. He was appointed associate justice of 
the Supreme Court of North Dakota in 1911 
and served until 1916, when he became chief 
justice. In 1919 he was appointed professor of 
law at the University of Minnesota. He was a 
member of the Committee of the American Bar 
Association which investigated on the report of 
court martial proceedings in the United States 
army in 1919. He was the author of Property 
and Society. (1916), Non-Partisan League 
(1921), and The Law of Bailments, and was a 
frequent contributor on legal subjects to maga- 
zines and newspapers. 

BRUCE, Donatp (1884— ). An Ameri- 
ean forester, born at Newtonville, Mass., and 
educated at Yale University. He graduated 
from the Yale School of Forestry in 1910. 
From that year until 1916 he was forest assist- 
ant, forest examiner, and forest professor of 
the United States Forest Service. He was pro- 
fessor of forestry at the University of Califor- 
nia from 1915. He wrote on subjects of forest 


engineering. 
BRUCE, (HenRy) ADDINGTON (BAYLEY) 
(1874- ). An American author (see VOL. 


IV). In 1916 he resigned as staff contributor 
to the Outlook. In 1915 he became psycholog- 
ical adviser to the Associated Newspapers. He 
is the author of Adventurings in the Psychical 
(1914), Sleep and Sleeplessness (1915), Psy- 
chology and Parenthood (1915), The Riddle of 
Personality (new and revised edition, 1916), 
Handicaps of Childhood (1917), Nerve Control 
and how to Gain It (1918), and Self-Develop- 
ment (1921). He has edited The Education of 
Karl Witte (1914) and the Mind and Health 
Series of Medical Handbooks (1915). 

BRUCE, STANLEY MELBOURNE (1884- Ve 
A premier of Australia. He was educated at 
Cambridge and served with distinction in the 
War from 1914 to 1917, being twice wounded. 
In 1918 he was elected to the Australian Par- 
liament and represented his country before the 
League of Nations in 1921. He succeeded Wil- 
liam M. Hughes as premier in 1923. 

BRUCE, WILLIAM Spiers’ (1867-1921). 


BRUCE-JOY 224 


Scottish explorer and scientist (see Vou. IV). 
Between 1912 and 1920 he made four scientific 
voyages to Spitzbergen, on which region he was 
an acknowledged authority. 

BRUCE-JOY, Apert (1842- ) An 
Irish sculptor (see Von. IV), whose later ideal 
subjects include: “Thetis and Achilles,’ “The 
Pets,” “The Cricketer,” “The Fencers,’” “Tennis” 
and “The Boy Scout.” 

BRUNE, ApotpH GERHARD (1870- DE 
An American composer, born at Bakkum, Ger- 
many. He received his first instruction from 
his father and then studied organ with E. Bren- 
necke in Osnabriick. In 1889 he went to Peoria, 
Ill., where he remained five years as organist 
of St. Joseph’s and the Cathedral. He then 
moved to Chicago and after further study there 
under E. Liebling (piano) and B. Ziehn (com- 
position) was appointed professor of piano and 
composition at the Chicago Musical College in 
1898, a position he still held in 1924. Included 
among his works are three symphonies (E flat, 
E minor, and D); three symphonic poems, Lied 
des Singschwans, Evangeline, Ein Dimmerungs- 
bild; four overtures; Symphonic Fantasy in ©; 
variations on a theme by Beethoven; A Fairy 
Tale; two concertos for piano and orchestra, in 
C minor and F minor; a concerto for organ and 
orchestra in E flat minor; Jerusalem, a cantata 
for mixed voices and orchestra; two male cho- 
ruses with orchestra, Stingers Fluch and Saxons’ 
War Song; a Mass, six parts 4 cappella; Psalm 
84 for ten parts; five string quartets; two 
string quintets; a string sextet; and numerous 
works for organ and for piano. 

BRUNEI. See Srrairs SETTLEMENT. 

BRUNSCHVICG, Lton_  (1869- eA 
French philosopher born at Nantes. On the 
death of Lachelier and Boutroux he became the 
recognized leader of the French school of criti- 
cal idealists. Accepting from Boutroux the no- 
tion of the contingence of the laws of nature 
and from Lachelier the belief in the primacy of 
the act of judgment, he has transformed the 
legacy of his masters into a modern philoso- 
phy of science standing equidistant from pure 
empiricism and from ontological rationalism. 
Brunschvicg was educated at the Ecole Normale 
Supérieure and won a prize from the Academy 
of Moral and Political Science in 1891 for a 
memoir on Spinoza. This youthful work, sub- 
sequently revised and expanded by the most 
painstaking scholarly research, has gone through 
several editions, and has earned for its author 
the reputation of one of the keenest modern in- 
terpreters of Spinozism. Through his interest 
in the philosophy of the seventeenth century he 
was led to undertake a commentary on Pascal 
and published an edition of the Pensées in three 
volumes and the complete works in 14 vol- 
umes. His philosophic reputation rests chiefly 
on two volumes on the philosophy of mathemat- 
ics and of science. After ascending the regular 
academie ladder, Brunschvicg was called to the 
Sorbonne in 1914. In 1920 he was elected to 
the Academy of Moral and Political Science, 
and in 1923 he was nominated to the Legion of 
Honor. His works include Spinoza (1894), 
Cambronne (1894), La Modalité du Jugement 
(1897), Pensées et Opuscules de Pascal (1897), 
Introduction a@ la Vie de VEsprit (1900), 
L’Idéalisme Contemporain (1905), Htapes de la 
Philosophie Mathématique (1912), Nature et 
Liberté (1921), L’Hapérience Humaine et la 
Causalité Physique (1922), Spinoza et ses Con- 


BRYAN 


temporains (1923), and (Muvres de Pascal 
(1904-14). 

BRUNTON, Sir Tuomas LAvupER (1844- 
1916). A distinguished British physician who 
devoted much of his time to original research 
in physiology and pharmacology. Born in Bow- 
don, Roxburghshire, he was educated at the 
University of Edinburgh. He spent years on 
the Continent, at Vienna, Berlin, Leipzig and 
other medical centres, in the study of drug ac- 
tion, physiological chemistry and _ physiology. 
With St. Bartholomews he discovered the medi- 
cal uses of amyl nitrite. As early as 1874 he 
tested a muscle extract on a diabetic patient 
and thus claimed priority in the use of internal 
secretions. His principal writings are On Digi- 
talis, his graduation thesis (1868); Tables of 


Materia Medica (1877); Textbook of Phar- 
macology, Therapeutics and Materia Medica 
(1885); On Disorders of Digestion (1886) ; 


Lectures on the Action of Medicines (1897) ; 
Index of Diseases and Remedies (1890), trans- 
lated into German, Italian and Russian; Dis- 
orders of Assimilation and Digestion (1901); 
Therapeutics of the Circulation (1908); and 
Collected Papers on Circulation and Respiration 
(1916). He was knighted in 1900 and made a 
baronet in 1908. 

BRUSILOFF, 
(1853- ). A Russian general, born at 
Kutais in the Russian Caucasus. He came 
from a family long distinguished in Russian 
military and political life. Having been edu- 
eated for the Russian army, he embarked on a 
career of unvarying success. By 1910 he had 
risen to the rank of corps commander and at 
the outbreak of the War he was elevated to 
head the Russian eighth army. He _ distin- 
guished himself in Galicia first in 1914 and 
1915 and again in the great Russian victories 
of 1915-16. With the Russian Revolution, he 
accepted Bolshevism, tacitly at any rate, and 
was for a time reported to be in command of 
the Red armies. He never approved of the op- 
erations of Kolchak, Denikin, Yudenich, and 
Wrangel, but valued the welfare of the Russian 
mation more:than any one faction. For a time 
he was at work in creating a militia system for 
Russia. He soon retired to his stud farm near 
Moscow and in 1924 was living in seclusion. 

BRUSSELS CONFERENCE. See REPARA- 
TIONS. 

BRYAN-CHAMORRO 
NICARAGUA. 

BRYAN, Cuartes W. (1867- ). An 
American politician, born at Salem, Ill. He is 
the younger brother of William Jennings Bryan. 
He was educated in the public schools and for 
a short time read for the bar but soon relin- 
quished these studies to take up farming. For 
many years he was associated with the political 
activities of his more distinguished brother, to 
whom he was personal adviser, business mana- 
ger, and assistant in the editing of The Com- 
moner. As his brother’s interests in Nebras- 
kan politics declined, Charles W. Bryan’s cor- 
respondingly increased, so that at one time or 
another he was mayor of Lincoln, member of its 
council, and street commissioner. In 1922 he 
ran for governor of Nebraska and carried that 
normally Republican State by a majority of 
50,300. It was because he had in this cam- 
paign the support of the Farmer-Labor party, 


ALEXEI ALEXEIVITCH 


TREATY. See 


the “Big Four” railway brotherhoods, and un- - 


organized labor, that he was tendered the nom- 


. 
t 


BRYAN 


ination for the vice-presidency of the United 
States by the Democratic national convention 
in July, 1924. 

BRYAN, Ermer Burritr (1865- ). An 
American university president (see VoL. IV). 
On his resignation from the presidency of Col- 
gate University he became president of Ohio 
University in 1921. 

BRYAN, NATHAN PHILEMON (1872- ). 
An American judge (see Vor. IV). He became 
judge of the United States Circuit Court of Ap- 
peals, fifth judicial circuit, in 1920. 

BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS (1860- V4 
Ex-Secretary of State of the United States (see 
Vor. IV). He resigned as Secretary of State 
on June 9, 1915. In 1918 he became president 
of the National Dry Federation. He is the au- 
thor of The Making of a Man (1914), Man 
(1914), A Message from Bethlehem (1914), 
The People’s Law (1914), The Price of a Soul 
(1914), Royal Art (1914), The Value of an 
Ideal (1914); Prohibition, an address (1916); 
The War in Europe and Its Lesson for Us (re- 
printed, 1916), World Peace, a debate with 
William Howard Taft (1917), The First Com- 
mandment (1917),  MHeart-to-heart Appeals 
(1917), The Menace of Darwinism, and the Bi- 
ble and Its Enemies (1921), and In His Image 
(James Sprunt Lectures, 10th series, 1922). 

BRYAN, WILL1AmM Lowe (1860- )ceR An 
American psychologist and university president, 
born at Bloomington, Ind., and educated at the 
Universities of Indiana, Berlin, Paris, and 
Wurzburg. He taught philosophy as a member 
of the faculty of the University of Indiana 
(1885- ), and in 1893 became vice-president 
and in 1902 president of the university. In 
1910 he was chosen trustee of the Carnegie 
Foundation. His principal professional contri- 
butions to psychology have dealt with the de- 
velopment of motor ability and the psychology 
of occupations. 

BRYCE, JAmMes (1838-1922). An eminent 
English writer and diplomat (see Vor. IV). 
During the War he exercised great influence in 
favor of the Allies and was chairman of a com- 
mittee to investigate the charges of outrages in 
Belgium and France by the Germans. He was 
an ardent supporter of the League of Nations. 
During his later years he was engaged in writ- 
ing a book on Modern Democracies which was 
published in 1921. It is a comparative history 
of several democratic governments. 

BRYN MAWR COLLEGE. A nonsectarian 
institution for the higher education of women 
at Bryn Mawr, Pa., founded in 1880. Through- 
out the decade between 1914 and 1923-24, the 
student enrollment and the number of members 
of the teaching staff remained about the same; 
in the latter year the registration was 468 and 
the faculty numbered 64. The number of vol- 
umes in the library increased from 74,293 vol- 
umes in 1914 to 101,900 volumes in 1923-24, 
and the productive funds of the college were in- 
creased from $1,184,323 to $5,753,560.87, large- 
ly as the result of an endowment campaign car- 
ried on 1918-20. A summer school for women 
workers in industry was opened in 1921 under 
the direction of a committee composed of an 
equal number of representatives of the college 
and of women workers in industry. A depart- 
ment of music was established in 1921 in the 
winter session of the college. M. Carey Thomas, 
Ph.D., resigned from the presidency of the col- 
lege, which she had held for 28 years, in 1922, 


225 


BUBONIC PLAGUE 


and was succeeded in office by Marion Edward 
Parks, Ph.D. 

BRYUSOV, Vatery J. (1873- yore. 
Russian Bolshevist poet, novelist, and critic, 
born in Moscow. With Balmont (q.v.) he was 
one of the leading Decadents and helped found 
the Modernist school. Also, like Balmont, he 
was strongly influenced by Poe’s works, both 
prose and verse. His first verses, published in 
1894, show an affinity for the French Symbol- 
ists, but in his later works, which include ex- 
cellent critical studies, he expresses his real 
character better. He writes of the modern in- 
dustrial city. Using Pushkin as his model, he 
emphasizes the horrible. He was editor of The 
Scales during its entire existence and subse- 
quently became director of the literary section 
of Russkaja Myslj. The character of public 
criticism of him swerved from laughter and 
ridicule to admiration, and eventually Bryusov 
was recognized as a master of classical litera- 
ture. His works include sStephanos (1905) ; 
The Axis of the Globe, short stories and plays 
(1907); The Flaming Angel, a novel (1909) ; 
and The Far and Near, two volumes of essays. 
His complete works in 25 volumes were pub- 
lished in 1912. He is the translator of numer- 
ous foreign poets, including Verlaine, Maeter- 
linck, D’Annunzio, Oscar Wilde, and Verhaeren. 

-BUBER, Martin (1878— ). A Jewish 
author and scholar, born in Vienna. His prin- 
cipal works are Die Geschichte des Rabbi Nach- 
man (1906), Die Legende des Baalschem 
(1907), Ekstatische Konfessionen (1908), Reden 
und Gleichnisse des Tschuang-Tse (1910), Drew 
Reden iiber das Judentum (1911), Daniel 
(1913), Vom Geiste des Judentums (1915), Die 
Jiidische Bewegung (1917), Die Rede, die Lehre 
und das Lied (1917), Worte an die Zeit (1919), 
Cheruth (1919), Der Heilige Weg (1919), and 
Der Grosse Maggid (1921). Buber edited the 
Kalevala and identified himself with Die Gesell- 
schaft. 

BUBONIC PLAGUE. It has been supposed 
that this disease is primarily endemic among 
rats and that man is secondarily infected from 
the rodent but recent experience with the plague 
in Africa shows that although this may be the 
rule, the reverse may be seen, man carrying the 
infection to man and the rat becoming infected 
only after some time has elapsed. In regard to 
man-to-man diffusion, it is an error to believe 
that a victim of plague is too ill to travel long 
distances. Photographs of plague patients may 
show vigorous looking men with no other ap- 
parent anomaly than the large swellings in the 
groins, which of course are not visible in the 
clad man. In this connection it may be reaf- 
firmed that plague in the bubonic form is not 
necessarily dangerous to a community of whites 
even in a plague focus in a tropical city. 
When, as often happens, isolated cases appear 
in the cities of the temperate zone, as has been 
the case in the United States, Great Britain, 
France, and elsewhere, there seems little tend- 
ency to diffusion. Nevertheless there is every 
reason for promptly stamping out the disease 
wherever it gains a foothold, ‘for the pneumonic 
form may develop from the ordinary bubonic 
form and the disease then becomes highly con- 
tagious and highly fatal. Even the ordinary 
bubonic form may have its virulence intensified 
and the disease may spread to different kinds 
of rodent and thus become a permanent menace. 

The close similarity in some respects between 


BUCHAN 


plague-pneumonia and influenza-pneumonia gave 
rise to the belief that the influenza pandemic of 
1918 with its huge percentage of pneumonic 
complications was nothing but plague-pneumo- 
nia. It was pointed out that in both affections 
the high mortality came not so much from the 
immediate cause of the disease as from the su- 
peradded infection from the ordinary strep- 
tococcus and pneumococcus and that in both 
diseases there was a similar type of broncho- 
pneumonia. The best way of exploding this 
parallelism is by study of the epidemiology of 
the two diseases, both of. which occurred but a 
few years apart in the large city of Dakar, in 
West Africa. In 1914-15, a severe epidemic of 
plague occurred in this locality. It was orig- 
inally of the pneumonic form and had been 
brought from a distant focus by persons un- 
known. But throughout it was limited to cer- 
tain quarters of the town, certain streets and 
even certain houses. Quarters inhabited by 
Europeans only were spared entirely. The dis- 
ease lingered for eight months, despite the most 
vigorous measures to combat it. About four 
years later the same city was visited by the 
influenza pandemic, which had probably been 
brought to it by European steamers. It dif- 
fused itself quickly, attacking all quarters of 
the town and black and white indifferently and 
ran its course rapidly, becoming extinct within 
a very short time. See INFLUENZA. 

BUCHAN, Joun (1875- ). An English 
author, born at Perth, and educated at Glasgow 
University and Brasenose College. He received 
the Newdigate Prize in 1898. In 1901-03, he 
was private secretary to Lord Milnor, then the 
High Commissioner of South Africa, and in 
1906 joined the Edinburgh publishing firm of 
Thomas Nelson and Company. In the War he 
was on the headquarters staff of the British 
Army in France (1916-17) and was later made 
an Officer of the Crown of Belgium and the 
Crown of Italy. His early publications, which 
include The African Colony (1903) and A 
Lodge in the Wilderness (1906), are obviously 
based on his life in Africa early in his career. 
Among his later- publications are some excep- 
tionally well-written novels and accounts of the 
War, particularly a History of the Great War 
(1921-22; 4 vols., 1923). The last mentioned 
is an effective summary of its gigantic subject. 

BUCHAREST, TREATY or, Marcu, 1918. 
See RUMANIA. 

BUCHER, Karu (1847- ). A German 
historian and economist, born in Kirberg. He 
studied history, philology, and economy at 
Bonn and Géttingen and was professor at the 
universities of Dorpat, Basle, and Karlsruhe, 
and rector at Leipzig. He is the author of 
many works on economic and social topics, 
among them Die Aufstdnde der Unfreien Ar- 
beiter (1874), Die Frauenfrage im Mittelalter 
(1882), Die Gewerblichen Betriebsformen in 
Ihrer Historischen Entwicklung (1892), Arbeit 
und Rhythmus, 5th ed. (1919), Der Deutsche 
Buchhandel und die Wissenschaften (1904), Das 
Zeitungswesen (1911), Der Deutsche Kaufmann 
und die Handelshochschule (1911), Unsere 
Sache und die Tagespresse (1915), Das Stdd- 
tische Beamtentum in Mittelalter (1915), Die 
Deutsche Tagespresse und die Kritik (1917), 
Der Sozialismus (1919), and Lebenserinnerun- 
gen (1919). 

BUCHHORN, Josrer (1875- ). 
man writer, born at Cologne. 


A Ger- 
He has been con- 


226 


BUFFALO 


nected with various newspapers and has pub- 
lished Die Hohenstauffen, a novel (1908); Lug- 
insland, a volume of sketches of the lower 
Rhine (1909); the plays, Studenten and Sehn- 
sucht (1918); the comedy, Der Schdfer von Jena 
(1920); some volumes of war verse, Deutsche 
Jugend, Wach’ Auf (1917); Der Deutsche Zeit- 
spiegel (1920); and numerous works of a mili- 
tant character, like Wir Vergessen zu Leicht 
(1917), Zwischen Goethe und Scheidemann 
(1919), Politik und Presse (1919), Bekennt- 
nisse (1920), Hindenburg, der Fiihrer in Unsere 
Zukunft (1920), Lasst uns vom Reiche Zeugen 
(1921), ete. 

BUCHNER,Max (1881- ). A German 
writer, born at Munich. He studied at the uni- 
versity, specialized on the history of the Caro- 
lingian period, and wrote, among other works, 
Fine Humanistische Lobrede auf Kilian von 
Bibra (1908), Lntstehung und Ausbildung der 
Kurfurstenfabel (1912), Bayerns Teilnahme an 
den Deutschen Kénigsuahlen (1913), Grundla- 
gen der Beziehungen zwischen Landeskirche und 
Thronfolge im Muittelalter (1913), Biographie 
des Aldrich (1914), Zum Briefwechsel Einhards 
und des Anseigs (1918), and Hinhard als Kiinst- 
ler (1919). 

BUCK, BEAUMONT BONAPARTE (1860- ). 
An American army officer, born in Mayhew, 
Miss. He graduated from the United States 
Military Academy in 1885 and was commis- 
sioned second lieutenant in the same _ year. 
During the Spanish-American War he served as 
major of the 2d Texas infantry. He was 
appointed captain in the regular army in 1899 
and in 1914 was commissioned lieutenant-colonel 
of infantry. He became a colonel in 1916 and 
brigadier-general of the national army in 1917. 
He commanded the 28th Infantry of the Ist di- 
vision of the American Expeditionary Force in 
1917, and in the same year was given command 
of the 2d infantry brigade of the Ist divi- 
sion. In 1918 he was appointed commander of 
the 34th division and participated in the first 
all-American offensive in 1918. He also took 
part in all the other major campaigns of the 
American troops in France. In November, 
1918, he returned to the United States and was 
appointed commander of Camp McArthur. He 
served as commander of various other camps 
and departments and in 1921 became acting 
chief of staff with the 90th division of organ- 
ized reserves. 

BUDGET, AMERICAN. See 
BANKING. 

BUFFALO. A city of New York, the second 
of the State in population and one of the Great 
Lakes ports. The population increased from 
423,715 in 1910 to 506,775 in 1920, and to 545,- 
273 by estimate for 1924. The industries of 
the city numbered 2225 in 1914; in 1924 nearly 
2500 (estimately). The number of wage earners 
increased from 54,416 in 1914 to 75,899 in 1919, 
while the value of the product increased from 
$247,516,000 in 1914 to $634,410,000 in 1919. 
After 1920 several nev flour milling companies, 
which increased the annual output of flour ap- 
proximately from 6,000,000 barrels to 10,000,- 
000, were added to the city’s industries. The 
capacity of its grain elevators, all of modern 
construction, was enlarged to 32,000,000 bushels. 
The city also increased in the decade as a steel, 
iron, copper, and brass centre, and during and 
following the War it became the largest air- 
plane manufacturing city, the largest aniline 


FINANCE AND 


BUILDING 


producing centre, and one of the most impor- 
tant rubber and tire centres of the country. 
The city developed its commerce in the 10 years 
to such an extent that in 1924 it was the third 
largest port in the country, the second largest 
inland port in amount of tonnage, and the fifth 
port in foreign commerce. The growth of in- 
dustry forced the greater utilization of the 
hydro-electric power resources of Niagara Falls, 
so that by 1924 more than 95 per cent of the 
power used was from that source. The assessed 
valuation of property increased from $346,560,- 
790 in 1914 to $768,821,091 in 1924. Bank 
clearings increased from approximately $500,- 
000,000 to $2,500,000,000. The number of 
dwellings erected within the limits of the city 
increased from 2007 in 1914 to 3615 in 1923. 
Several important municipal improvements 
were effected in this period. A tunnel 6500 feet 
long was bored to carry the water from Lake 
Erie to the city’s new pumping station, and a 
new water purification plant was built at a cost 
of $4,000,000. A high pressure system for fire 
protection was installed in the business dis- 
tricts. The outer harbor was improved during 
the decade; the Buffalo River was deepened and 
enlarged upstream, and a new drawbridge, per- 
mitting the passage of large vessels, was built. 
In 1924 the city had 37.4 miles of water front. 
Many new office buildings and other struc- 
tures were completed. These included hotels, 
apartment houses, the Buffalo Athletic Club, 
the new Elks Club Building, the Liberty Bank 
Building, the Saturn Club, the largest normal 
school in the State, the National Sciences Mu- 


seum, seven branch libraries, and new bath 
buildings. Two water front parks were con- 


structed by reclaiming land from Lake Erie and 
Niagara River. The New York Barge Canal 
system, which had its western terminus in Buf- 
falo, was provided in the decade with two large 
terminals at which the largest lake freighters 
transferred their cargoes. 

In 1916 the city adopted the commission 
form of government. It provided for a coun- 
cil, composed of the mayor and four commis- 
sioners elected at large on a nonpartisan ticket 
for four-year terms. The mayor is head of 
the department of public safety; the other de- 
partments are finance and accounts, public af- 
fairs, public works and parks, and_ public 
buildings. See GARBAGE AND REFUSE DISPOSAL. 

BUILDING. See City PLANNING. 

BUKOVINA. Formerly a _ crownland of 
Austria, but since November, 1918, a Rumanian 
province. Area, 4031 square miles; population 
in 1910, 800,098; estimated population in 1922, 
689,907. In spite of Austrian occupation since 
1777, the population was largely Rumanian and 
Ruthenian. The Rumans, numbering about 
275,000 in 1910, had spread north from their 
plain country; the Ruthenians, 300,000 in 1910, 
had moved south from Galicia. The rest were 
Germans. Among all these there were some 
100,000 Jews. The largest town, Cernauti 
(Czernowitz), had an estimated population of 
100,000 in 1920. The inhabitants, densely set- 
tled on the land, devoted themselves to agricul- 
ture and its by-products, the most important 
industries being brewing and flour milling. 
The cultural level of the people was low, and 
illiteracy was higher there than in any other 
of the former Austro-Hungarian crownlands ex- 
cept Dalmatia. There were, in 1920, 400 miles 
of railway. Late in 1918, when the fall of the 


227 


BULGARIA 


Austrian monarchy seemed imminent, the peo- 
ple expressed their desire for reunion with Ru- 
mania, only the Ruthenians, who indeed were 
in a plurality, dissenting because of their tradi- 
tional friendship with Austria. The Treaty of 
St. Germain allocated almost the whole prov- 
ince to Rumania except for a small territory in 
the north crossed by the railroad running from 
Zaleszcyki to Kolomea and including a railroad 
junction, which was given to Poland. In 1920, 
Bukovina’s national council was dissolved and 
a provincial government was erected, drawing 
its powers from the central government. Buk- 
ovina was represented by 19 senators and 16 
deputies in the Rumanian parliament. 

BULGARIA. A European kingdom situated 
in the Balkan Peninsula. Area in 1928, 40,667 
square miles; in 1914, 43,305 square miles. - 
The census of Dec. 31, 1920, recorded 4,861,439 
inhabitants. By the census of 1910 there were 
4,337,513 inhabitants to which were added 130,- 
000 people in 1913, as a result of the territo- 
rial gains of the Balkan wars. By the Treaty 
of Neuilly, Bulgaria was compelled to cede to 
Jugo-Slavia the following districts on its west- 
ern front: Tsaribrod (21,000 Bulgarians and 
no Serbs), Bosilegrad (22,000 Bulgarians and 
no Serbs), Strumitsa (25,000 inhabitants, most- 
ly Bulgarians with a few Macedonians and 
Serbs), and a portion of the Timok valley. To 
Greece went Western Thrace, thus depriving 
Bulgaria of her outlet on the Atgean. (See 
TuRACE.) The capital, Sofia, in 1920 had 154,- 
431 inhabitants. Other large towns, with their 
populations in 1920, are: Phillippopolis (63,- 
418), Varna (50,819), Ruschuk (41,574), Sliv- 
no (28,695), Plevna (27,779). 

Agriculture and Industry. Agriculture as 
the chief occupation continued to engage two- 
thirds of the people, most of whom possessed 
their lands outright. In 1921, 9,290,175 acres 
were under cultivation. The accompanying ta- 
ble indicates the principal crops, and their 
yields (in short tons) for 1913 and 1922. (Fig- 
ures are not exactly comparable because of 
changes in boundaries.) 


1913 1922 
Crops Acreage Yield Acreage Yield 
Wiheatoijieet. 6245389 150" 12195605) 232949803: 10, 183)8 16 
ACI oer eed A 494,180 223,744 441,920 208,630 
Barley 508,075 PAT AD | 513,801 286,511 
Oats eee 390,150 5070 To SED SD 146,266 
Corn? . #389! 1,465,850 T73,61201 ob2ziaie 4333285 
Tobacco 15.366 5,616 53,550 19,836 


It is evident, therefore, that the country’s lead- 
ing activity was little deranged. While the ex- 
port of surplus cereals fell off considerably as 
the two years are compared (370,110 metric 
tons in 1913 and 225,272 in 1922), the export 
of tobacco was more than six times that of 
1913 (4543 metric tons in 1913 and 29,025 in 
1922). Other articles to gain were silk co- 
coons and charcoal. The mining industry, too, 
showed great advances. Coal mined in 1923 
totaled 1,063,662 metric tons as compared with 
an average pre-war yield of 125,000 tons. Cop- 
per, salt, and lead production were considerable. 

Commerce and Transportation. Because of 
the fluctuating state of the exchange, the lev be- 
ing worth 5 to the dollar in 1914, 7 to the dol- 
lar in 1915, 70 to the dollar in 1921, and 160 
to the dollar in 1922 (though the June, 1923, 
quotation showed a rise to 80.0108), the com- 
merce of the country, considered generally, was 


BULGARIA 


sadly disorganized. Converted on a basis of 
average annual exchange, imports for 1913, 
1920, 1922, were valued at $36,535,000, $39,- 
849,000, $27,795,000; exports for the same 
years were $18,013,000, $29,574,000, $29,805,000. 
Thus 1922 saw the first favorable trade balance 
since the War. Principal countries of origin 
of imports (1922) were Germany, United King- 
dom, Italy, Austria, United States. American 
imports reached an average of $200,000 for 
1910-14, $1,900,000 for 1921, and $600,000 for 
1922. Principal countries of. destination of ex- 
ports in 1922 were Turkey, Germany, Italy, 
France, United States. Exports to the United 
States totaled an average of $400,000 for 1910- 
14, $400,000 for 1921, and $1,300,000 for 1922. 
Size of shipping, an excellent index of the state 
‘ of the country, showed that 4,951,452 tons en- 
tered Bulgarian ports in 1911; in 1920, only 
1,111,515 tons. In 1913, total length of rail- 
ways was 1388 fniles, all state owned; in 1921, 
these had increased to 1582 miles. Several 
short lines were projected after the War but 
lack of funds held up the work of construction. 

Finance. On Jan. 1, 1912, the public debt 
totaled 623,346,807 leva (with the lev equal 
to the franc). On May 31, 1922, the foreign 
debt stood at 530,985,000 francs, consolidated 
debt; 432,057,500 franes, unconsolidated; other, 
24,967,000 frances. Reparations by the Treaty 
of Neuilly were fixed at 2,250,000,000 gold 
frances but early in 1923 were lowered to 550,- 
000,000 gold francs, payable during 60 years. 
The internal debt, of course, was insignificant 
because of the depreciation of the currericy. 
Revenues in 1909 were $38,584,418; 
ditures, $36,830,884; of which latter, for debt 
service, $415,120. For 1922, government fi- 
nances were (converted at average exchange 
rate) : revenues, $29,912,000; expenditures, $31,- 
980,000; of which, for debt service, $8,074,000. 
The paper currency steadily increased. In 
1913, 188,742,000 leva were in circulation; at 
the end of 1923, 3,977,621,000. For this, there 
was in the country on Dec. 1, 1923, 39,000,000 
leva in gold and 14,412,000 leva in silver. The 
cost of living rose twentyfold between 1913 and 
1922, and continued to rise in 1923 and 1924. 

Defense. By the Treaty of Neuilly, Bul- 
garia’s war establishment was to be reduced to 
an army of 20,000 men, voluntarily enlisted for 
a 12-year term; a frontier guard of 3000, and 
a gendarmerie of 10,000. Enlistments were 
slow, however, so that by September, 1922, the 
regular army consisted only of 7000 men, the 
frontier guard of 430, and the gendarmerie of 
3800. 

History. Still smarting from the humilia- 
tions of the Treaty of Bucharest (1913), Tsar 
Ferdinand and the ruling clique—for the Bul- 
garian population was a peasantry and had lit- 
tle understanding of the purport of modern na- 
tionalism—regarded the War as an _ opportu- 
nity for the retrieving of their fortunes. The 
outcome in the beginning was uncertain, and 
while Ferdinand really meant to enter the 
struggle, he wavered for more than a year. 
During this period propaganda and counter- 
propaganda filled the country, as representa- 
tives of the Entente and the Central Powers 
exerted all their blandishments to gain Bul- 
garian aid. It was the Entente’s inability to 
meet all of Bulgaria’s demands, because of the 
unwillingness of Serbia and Greece to relin- 
quish the portions of Macedonia claimed ‘by 


,. 


228 


expen-_ 


BULGARIA 


Bulgaria, that made the latter’s codperation 
with the Central Powers inevitable. An _ op- 
position for a brief moment lifted its head: 
Stambulisky, the leader of the Agrarian 
party, boldly declared for neutrality, but with 
his silencing (he was sentenced to life impris- 
onment), the way was clear, and on Oct. 12, 
1915, war was declared on Serbia. Bulgaria’s 
entry was a strategic victory, rather than a 
material one, for the Central Powers. While 
great aid might be expected in the Balkans, it 
was the fact that now the road lay clear to 
Constantinople and the East, that Gallipoli 
might be defended with munitions sent through 
an open land route, the connection between the 
Allies and Russians severed, and that the Allies 
must send troops to the southeastern front, i.e. 
Saloniki, that made Bulgaria’s step such an 
important one. On her own side, Bulgaria’s 
successes were phenomenal in the first two 
years. Serbia was immediately overrun, her 
armies pressed to the Adriatic, and a vain- 
glorious manifesto from the Bulgarian king 
declared that the traditional enemy no longer 
existed. War was declared on Rumania, Sept. 
1, 1916, and armies occupied the Dobrudja. In 
November, Monastir fell, opening Macedonia to 
the invader. Germany had helped her Balkan 
ally with an annual allotment of money and 
technical units; Field-Marshal von Mackensen 
himself had directed the Bulgarian armies to 
their victories. Yet, though Bulgaria was 
united to Germany by every bond of gratitude, 
it was perceptible in 1917 that the Bulgarian 
war effort was weakening. The failing food 


supply, the discontent of the soldiers who had 


long been gone from their homes and their 
fields, and the necessity for lengthening the line 
of defense because of the Austro-Hungarian de- 
feat in Albania in July, 1918, all served to ren- 
der the Bulgarian position a precarious one. 
In September, 1918, the Serbian troops broke 
across the frontiers, and the Bulgarian high 
command, realizing defeat,’asked for an armis- 
tice. On Oct. 4, 1918, King Ferdinand abdi- 
cated, and with him fled the ministry. Boris 
III succeeded to the throne. Stambulisky was 
released from prison and formed an Agrarian 
government, which was, on Noy. 27, 1919, in- 
vited to sign the Treaty of Neuilly. The terms 
were onerous. Territorial cessions were re- 
quired in disregard of e¢éonomic and_ ethno- 
graphic considerations. Certain small districts 
on the western frontier were turned over to 
Jugo-Slavia purely for strategic reasons. The 
renunciations of Thrace deprived Bulgaria of 
her Aigean littoral as well as important winter 
pasture lands in the valleys south of the moun- 
tains which were made the international bound- 
ary. Other terms were: the confirmation of 
the cession of the southern Dobrudja to Ru- 
mania; the reduction of the army; the surren- 
der of all tanks, armored cars, poison gas, 
aéroplanes; a reparation charge of 2,250,000,- 
000 gold francs; restitution of all live stock 
seized; an annual supply for 5 years of 50,000 
tons of coal to Jugo-Slavia; the support of all 
Allied commissions. Concessions were made in 
a guarantee of freedom of transit to the Augean 
and a promise of the protection of Bulgarian 
minorities in neighboring states. The _ prob- 
lems of the new government were intensified by 
the 300,000 refugees who flocked into the coun- 
try from Thrace, Macedonia, and the Dobrudja. 

The Agrarian government was confirmed in 


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BULGARIA 229 


power by the general elections of Mar. 28, 1920, 
which returned 110 Agrarians, 50 Communists, 
and 9 Socialists, as compared with 59 for the 
bourgeois parties. Under M. Stambulisky an 
internal policy was formulated wholly in the 
interest of the agricultural class. A _ recon- 


struction programme, stubbornly pushed in the . 


face of the opposition of the bourgeoisie, in- 
cluded such diverse items as compulsory labor 
(1920), the expropriation of Crown and Church 
lands and all estates over 75 acres in the in- 
terests of the landless peasantry (1921), the 
prohibition of speculation and_ profiteering 
(1920), the extension of the education code 
(1920), government control of foreign trade 
through consortiums. Stambulisky’s tone to- 
ward his Central European neighbors was 
friendly. A healthy agrarianism was the foun- 
dation of his country’s well-being as, he saw, 
it was also of Czecho-Slovakia, Poland, Jugo- 
Slavia and Rumania. In January, 1921, he 
tried to gain the support of the first two 
for the creation of an international agrarian 
league, the so-called Green International, for 
their common protection against the bourgeois 
reactionaries and the communist radicals. The 
same purpose was expressed in the declarations 
of the congress of the Bulgarian Peasant Un- 
ion, held in February, 1921. To lighten his 
country’s burdens by gaining the good will of 
the Supreme Council and to show Western Eu- 
repe that Bulgaria had parted with the old 
ways, Stambulisky during 1921-23 proceeded 
against those ministers who had involved the 
country in the War by contracting an alliance 
with Germany and breaking off relations with 
Serbia without the consent of the Sobranje. 
The last step taken was the sentencing to life 
imprisonment of six members of the Radoslav- 
off ministry, April, 1923. As a result of these 
activities, Lloyd George, at the Genoa con- 
ference (1922) gave Stambulisky his support, 
while in March, 1923, the Reparations Commis- 
sion, equally convinced of Bulgaria’s good in- 
tentions, reduced the Bulgarian indemnity to 
550,000,000 gold francs. 

There was no lack of opposition at home, of 
eourse. Bourgeois outbreaks occurred frequent- 
ly during 1922 and, in September, street fight- 
ing in Sofia led to 15 deaths and the wounding 
of over. 200. The elections of April, 1928, 
seemed to indicate that the country wholeheart- 
edly supported the Agrarian cabinet, for 212 
Agrarians, 16 Communists, and 15 Bourgeois 
were returned; but that any hope for contin- 
ued domestic peace and sanity was illusory was 
shown when, in the morning of June 9, 1923, a 
coup d’état overthrew the government, forced 
the arrest of all the ministers save Stambuli- 
sky, who was absent from the capital, and set 
up a bourgeois bloc ministry headed by M. 
Tsankoff. Stambulisky himself was tracked 
down and killed five days later; the Sobranje 
was dissolved; and with the recognition of the 
revolutionary government, first by King Boris, 
and later (June 27) by the Little Entente, the 
revolution was complete. An indication of the 
temper of the new government was shown in 
the insistence with which it made demand upon 
the Lausanne Conference for an outlet to the 
figean by way of the Maritza valley and 
the port of Dedeagatch, and the refusal of the 
treaty commissioners to comply resulted in 
the familiar sabre-rattling, so characteristic of 
the old Bulgaria. Throughout the year affairs 


BULLARD 


were turbulent. The government attempted a 
diversion by attacks on the Communists, 95 
of whom were brought to trial in July for 
counter-revolutionary agitation; while Agrari- 
ans and Communists retaliated by disorders 
and riots, even going so far as to seize and hold 
several towns in the northeast (September, 
1923). The rising was short-lived though the 
government did not cease its repressive actions, 
and this in spite of the presumably popular 
victory which it obtained at the polls, Novem- 
ber 18, when the bourgeois parties gained 185 
seats against the opposition’s 62. Where once 
there had been confidence, now was to be found 
suspicion: Bulgaria again became the storm- 
centre of Balkan intrigue and recriminations. 
Jugo-Slavia, Rumania, and Greece regarded 
askance Bulgaria’s request for permission to 
employ conscription in the recruiting of the 
army; Bulgaria, Serbs charged, had become the 
stamping ground of Macedonian anti-Serb prop- 
aganda; from Greece came the demand that the 
recruiting of bands near the Thracian frontier 
cease. Throughout 1924 two discordant notes 
were still in evidence in internal affairs: the 
agitations of the Macedonian party which 
threatened repeatedly to embroil Bulgaria in a 
war with Jugo-Slavia, and the continued activ- 
ities of the Communists and Agrarians, whose 
strength could not be broken in spite of the 
high-handed actions of the government. Early 
in 1924, the government broke up the Com- 
munist party and in May, 1924, suppressed 
all newspapers showing Communist tendencies. 
Yet in the provincial councils’ elections, the 
Communists-Agrarians gained 150 seats as 
against 352 by the government party (May, 
1924). See also Stavontic LITERATURE; WAR, 
DIPLOMACY OF THE. 

BULKLEY, Lucius Duncan (1845- i 
An American physician (see Vor. IV). As a 
dermatologist and founder of the Skin and 
Cancer Hospital, Dr. Bulkley’s natural interest 
in the subject of malignant tumors led him to 
devote his attention entirely to the possibili- 
ty of their non-surgical treatment. He has 
published four new books on this subject since 
1915, Cancer: Its Cause and Treatment, 2 vols. 
(1915-16); The Medical Treatment of Cancer 
(1919); Cancer and Its Non-surgical Treat- 
ment (1921), and Cancer of the Breast (1924). 
He also established a new quarterly periodical, 
Cancer, the first number of which was issued 
in October, 1923. 

BULLARD, ARTHUR (1879- ). An 
American author, born at St. Joseph, Mo., and 
educated at Blair Presbyterian Academy and 
Hamilton College (Clinton, N. Y.). As foreign 
correspondent he has been connected with 
Harper's Weekly, Collier’s Weekly, The Out- 
look, Atlantic Monthly, etc. In 1917-19, he 
was a member of the committee on public in- 
formation and subsequently director of its Rus- 
sian and Siberian divisions. Among his works 
are The Diplomacy of the Great War (1915) ; 
Mobilizing America (1917); The Russian Pen- 
dulum (1919); The Stranger (1920), and 
A B O's of Disarmament and Pacific Problems 
(1920). 

BULLARD, Rosert LEE (1861- een 
American army officer, born in Youngsboro, Ala. 
He graduated from tue United States Military 
Academy in 1885 and was appointed second 
lieutenant in the same year. During the 
Spanish-American War he served as colonel of 


BULLOCK 


the third Alabama Infantry. In 1889 he was 
commissioned colonel of volunteers in the army, 
and in 1902, following his discharge from the 
Volunteer Service, became a major in the Regu- 
lar Army. He was promoted to be colonel in 
1911 and major general in 1917. He com- 
manded the second brigade of the first division 
in France in June, July, and August, 1917, and 
in the last month was appointed major general 
in the national army. He commanded the first 
division in all its engagements and operations 
against the Germans, from December, 1917, to 
July, 1918. He was promoted lieutenant-gen- 
eral in 1918 and major general of the Regular 
Army in November of the same year. From 
October, 1918, to April, 1919, he commanded the 
second army. He was awarded the Distin- 
guished Service Medal and was. decorated by 
Irance, Belgium, and Italy. He was appointed 
commander of the Department of the East in 
1921. He was the author of numerous articles 
in magazines and military journals. 

BULLOCK, SHAN F, (1865- ). An Eng- 
lish novelist (see Vout. IV). He is the author 
of The Making of a Soldier (1916) and Mr. 
Ruby Jumps the Traces (1917). 


BULOW, Bernuarp HErnricH Kart MARTIN, 


PRINCE VON (1849- ). A German states- 
man (see VoL. IV). Having been very active 
previously in furthering the German _ policy 


which caused the War, he was given temporary 
charge of the German Embassy in Rome on Dec. 
19, 1914, to try to smooth over the differences 
between Austria-Hungary and Italy. He was 
unsuccessful, and Italy declared war on May 23, 
1915. He is the author of Imperial Germany, 
a book defending his own foreign policy. It 
was translated into English in 1914, and a re- 
vised edition, omitting many compromising pas- 
sages, appeared in 1916. 

BUMPUS, HERMAN CAREY (1862- i An 
American educator (see VoL. IV). He re- 
signed as president of Tufts College in 1919 and 
in the same year held the chairmanship of the 
Massachusetts Security League. 

BUMSTEAD, HENRy ANDREWS’ (1870- 
1920). An American physicist, born at Pekin, 
Ill., and educated at Johns Hopkins University, 
where he became instructor in physics until 
1893, when he received a similar appointment 
in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale. He 
left Yale in 1906 to become full professor at the 
Sloane Physical Laboratory. He also became 
director of the latter, a place which he held 
until his death. During the War he was a sci- 
entific attaché of the United States Embassy 
in London (1918-19). Hz was connected with 
the National Research Council (1920). His 
scientific researches included studies on radio- 
active gait in water and on atmospheric radio- 
activity, as well as on the effects produced by 
rontgen rays in different metals. He also pub- 
lished a series of papers on the emission of elec- 
trons by metals under the influence of alpha 
rays. 

BUNDY, Omar (1861- ). An American 
army officer, born in Newcastle, Ind. He grad- 
uated from the United States Military Acad- 
emy in 1883 and in the same year was commis- 
sioned second lieutenant. He rose through the 
various grades, becoming colonel of the 16th 
infantry in 1914 and adjutant general in 1915. 
His earlier service included campaigns against 
the Indians and the Spanish-American War. 
He served in the General Staff College from 


230 


BURGENLAND 


1902 to 1905. In 1917 he was appointed brig- 
adier general of the national army and major 
general in the same year. From October, 1917, 
to July, 1918, he commanded the second divi- 
sion of the American Expeditionary Forces in 
France; in 1918 he commanded the-sixth and 
seventh army corps. At the close of the War 
he was appointed major general of the regular 
army and was given command of the Philippine 
department in 1922. 

BUNIN, Ivan A. (1870- ). A _ Russian 
poet and novelist. An opponent of the modern- 
ists, he followed the older classic tradition. 
And in exile in Paris since the Revolution, he 
has described with vivid realism ruined estates, 
the miserable life of the peasants (for whom, 
however, he had no love), and the Intelligenzia. 
He made his real début about 1905, with a vol- 
ume of short stories and poems, becoming a 
stabilizing force in Russian literature, which 
had run wild under the influence of the de- 
cadents and the early revolution. His works 
include various collections of poems (1886- 
1915); The Village, sketches (1910); The Tem- 
ple of the Sun (travel sketches); The Gentle- 
man from San Francisco, short stories, (1917) ; 
The Ory, ten stories (1921); and translations 
of Byron, Tennyson, and Longfellow. 

BUNZELL, HerRpert Horace (1887- ). 
An American chemist, born near Prague, Czecho- 
Slovakia. In 1903 he removed to the United 
States and in 1906 graduated from the Univer- 
sity of Chicago. He did graduate work at that 
institution and in Berlin. After service at the 
University of Chicago, he was an expert with 
the United States Department of Agriculture 
in 1910-11 and chemical biologist in the same 
department, 1911-16. He served for several 
years on the faculty of Georgetown University 
and in 1917-18 was professor and head of the 
department at the University of Cincinnati. 
He was professor of chemistry at the Woman’s 
Medical College of Pennsylvania in 1920 and 
also practiced as consulting chemist. He con- 
tributed numerous papers to chemical journals 
and was a member of several scientific societies. 

BURBANK, LUTHER (1849- ). An 
American naturalist (see Vor. IV). He con- 
tinued his experiments at the Burbank Experi- 
ment Farms at Santa Rosa, Cal. Here he 
evolved many new varieties of fruits and flow- 
ers, including new apples, peaches, nuts, ber- 
ries, and valuable trees. On these farms he 
has over 5000 distinctive botanical specimens 
from all parts of the world, and over 1,000,000 
plants are raised every year for testing. He 
was special lecturer on evolution at Leland 
Stanford Junior University. He wrote Train- 
ing of the American Plant; Luther Burbank, 
His Methods and Discoveries; and How Plants 
Are Trained to Work for Man (1921). 

BURGENLAND. The problem which this 
region, sometimes known as German West Hun- 
gary, presented in the peace settlement, was un- 
usual in involving the transfer of territory 
from one enemy country, Austria, to another, 
Hungary. The Burgenland, lying on the fron- 
tier between Austria and Hungary and includ- 
ing parts of the three Hungarian counties of 
Vas, Sopron, and Moson, has an area of 1684 
square miles and a population of 330,000. 
Ethnical divisions were: Germans, 235,000; 
Croats and Wends, 50,000; Magyars, 25,000; 
Jews and others, 20,000. On the grounds of 


race, therefore, the validity of the Austrian 


BURGENLAND 


claims before the Peace Conference were obvi- 
ous. Other considerations were favorable to 
the transfer, and it is likely that some of these 
bore more weight with the Supreme Council 
than the matter of ethnography. It was 
pointed out that the Burgenland was “the 
kitchen garden of Vienna” and that its separa- 
tion from the city by an international boundary 
would entail distinct hardships. Again, the 
territory would serve as an excellent buffer re- 
gion between the two states, an important de- 
sideratum in view of the establishment of the 
Bolshevist régime of Béla Kun in Hungary. 
It has also been suggested, not without reason, 
that the Allies purposed, by making Burgen- 
land a cause of dissension between Austria and 
Hungary, to prevent the restoration of the 
former Habsburg Empire. Therefore, on July 
20, 1919, the Peace Conference decided to cede 
the Burgenland to Austria without a plebiscite, 
though it is interesting to note that the Aus- 
trians themselves suggested a vote for the as- 
certainment of the wishes of the inhabitants. 
Throughout 1920 Hungary remained in control, 
and as negotiations regarding the cession 
yielded no definite results, tension increased. 
The advent of reaction in Hungary under 
Horthy complicated matters. A frenzied prop- 
aganda in favor of the retention of the dis- 
puted region filled the country, and cultural 
and sentimental reasons were adduced to feed 
the flame of the new Hungarian nationalism. 
It was maintained that the Burgenland was one 
of the richest regions of the former kingdom 
and that 30 per cent of its population had been 
engaged in various manufacturing establish- 
ments vital to the economic life of Hungary. 
There were located coal mines and stone quar- 
ries as well as the city of Sopron (Oedenburg), 
the centre of a great carrying trade of cattle 
and foodstuffs. From the Burgenland had 
come Haydn, Liszt, and Count Stephen Szechen- 
yi; and its counties had always been regarded 
by the patriotic as the outposts of Magyar civ- 
ilization on the West and the rampart of Hun- 
gary against Germanism. It was becoming 
plain that Hungarians would not relinquish the 
region without a struggle. In August, 1921, 
irregular troops, of the party of ex-premier 
Friedrich and the reactionary society known 
as “The Awakening Hungarians,’ poured into 
the country and forcibly ejected the Austrian 
officials who had appeared to take possession in 
accordance with the provisions of the Treaty 
of the Trianon. Austria, by this time, had be- 
come more than eager for the cession; Hungary, 
for her part, stubbornly maintained her rights 
to the eastern portion and refused to move 
against the armed bands. In September, Czecho- 
Slovakia, for the Little Entente, appealed to 
the Allies in behalf of Austria. On September 
25 the Council of Ambassadors demanded the 
withdrawal of Hungarian troops, meanwhile, 
at the behest of Italy, refusing to permit 
Czecho-Slovakia and Jugo-Slavia to interfere. 
Largely as a result of Italian intervention a 
truce was patched up, October 13, by which 
Hungary promised to clear the counties of the 
predatory bands and hand over the Burgenland 
to Austria, while Austria consented to the hold- 
ing of a plebiscite in the town of Sopron and 
its environs. Such a plebiscite was held in 
December at Sopron and proved favorable for 
Hungary. On December 30, therefore, Sopron 
and those districts contiguous to the Hungarian 


231 


BURKE 


frontier were turned over to the Hungarian 
police by an Allied military commission. 

The encounter had aroused great interest in 
Europe because of the anomalous position of 
Austria throughout. At first accepting the de- 
cision of the Supreme Council with a real reluc- 
tance, her government had complied with the 
spirit of the treaties in every particular, only 
to see itself thwarted by a lawless aggression 
on the part of Hungarians, encouraged by 
French intrigue; and then, for fear of estrang- 
ing a powerful neighbor, she had yielded to the 
Italian plan for a plebiscite. The impotence 
of Austria under these conditions chagrined her 
citizens and troubled’ the liberal elements of 
Europe and America. The settlement revealed 
to them the basic injustice of the peace treaties 
and their aftermath. 

BURGESS, (FRANK) GELETT (1866- i 
An American author and illustrator (see Vot. 
IV). He is the author of Burgess Unabridged 
(1914), The Goop Encyclopedia (1915), The 
Romance of the Commonplace, enlarged edition 
(1916), War the Creator (1916), and Mrs. 
Hope’s Husband (1917). He edited My Maiden 
Effort (1921) and Have You an Educated 
Heart? (1923). 

BURGESS, GrEoRGE KIMBALL (1874— ¥: 
An American physicist, born at Newton, Mass. 
He was graduated in 1896 from the Massa- 
chusetts Institute of Technology, where for two 
years he served as assistant in physics. Re- 
ceiving a fellowship, he studied in Paris. On re- 
turning to the United States he taught in the 
Universities of Michigan and California. In 
1903 he went to Washington as physicist in the 
Bureau of Standards, where after successive pro- 
motions he became in 1923 director of the Bureau 
in succession to Dr. S. W. Stratton. Dr. Bur- 
gess also served the United States as a member 
of various foreign service and engineering com- 
missions of the National Research Council, espe- 
cially during the War, and he was likewise a 
member of the National Aircraft Standards 
Board. The results of his many investigations 
have been published in a series of papers on the 
constant of gravitation, on high temperature 
measurements, and on the properties of metals 
and alloys; many of these were issued in the 
series of technical papers of the Bureau of 
Standards. 

BURGESS, Joun WrtttamM = (1844- Ie 
An American university dean (see Vou. IV). 
In 1914-15 he was visiting American professor 
in Austrian universities. He is the author of 
Causes of the Luropean Conflict (1914), The 
European War of 1914 (1915; popular edition, 
1916), The Reconciliation of Government with 
Liberty (1915), The Administration of Presi- 
dent Rutherford B. Hayes (1915), America’s Re- 
lations to the Great War (1916), Militarism and 
the Emperor (1916), The Russian Revolution and 
the Soviet Constitution (1919), The Trans- 
formation of the Constitutional Law of the 
United States Between 1898 and 1920 (1921), 
and Recent Changes in American Constitutional 
Theory (1923). 

BURKE, Brirtie (Mrs. FrLorENzZ ZIEGFELD, 
Jr.) (1886— ). An American actress, born 
in Washington, D. C. She made her début in 
London in support of Edna May in The School 
Girl at the Pavilion Musie Hall. She appeared 
as leading woman in Mr. George (1907). In 
the same year she came to America and was 
very successful in her characterization of Bea- 


BURKITT 


trice Dupré as John Drew’s leading woman in 
My Wife. Her later successes in New York were 
in Jerry, The Rescuing Angel, Cesar’s Wife and 
The Intimate Strangers (1921). She has also 
devoted much time to the movies. 

BURKITT, FRANcIS CRAWFORD (1863- 2. 
An English professor (see Vor. IV). Among his 
later works are Jewish and Christian Apoca- 
lypses (Sweich Lectures) (1914), Some Thoughts 
on the Athanasian Oreed (1916), Eucharist and 
Sacrifice (1921), and Harliest Sources of the 
Life of Jesus (rev. ed., 1922). 

BURLEIGH, Henry THACKER (1866- i 
An American song writer, born at Erie, Pa. 
In 1892 he entered the National Conservatory 
in New York City, studying there with Rukin 
Goldmark, J. White, and M. Spicker. In 1894 
he became baritone soloist at St. George’s, and 
in 1899 baritone soloist at the Temple Emanu-El. 
As a song writer he justly gained wide popu- 
larity. In 1917 he was awarded the Spingarn 
Medal for the highest achievement during 1916 
by an American citizen of African descent. In 
1920 Harvard University conferred on him the 
degree of Doctor of Music. 

BURLESON, Apert SIDNEY (1863- Die 
An American Postmaster-General (see Vou. IV). 
In 1918 he became chairman of the United 
States telephone and telegraph administration. 
He retired from the office of Postmaster-General 
in .1921. 

BURLESON, HucuH LATIMER (1865- ps 
An American bishop, born at Northfield, Minn., 
and educated at Racine College, Wis., and at the 
General Theological Seminary in New York 
City. From 1893 to 1900 he was curate, as- 
sistant, or rector of Protestant Episcopal 
churches in New York and Wisconsin. During 
the seven years following, he was dean of the 
Cathedral of the District of North Dakota, and 
in 1909-16, secretary of the Board of Missions 
of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the 
United States. In the latter year he became 
bishop of South Dakota. He wrote The Conquest 
of the Continent (1911) and Our Church and 
Our Country (1918). 

BURLIN, NaTALice Curtis (?-1921). An 
American writer born in New York City. She 
studied music in France and Germany and de- 
voted herself particularly to the collection of 
folk-songs of Indian tribes, traveling widely 
among them for that purpose. She made similar 
studies among the Zulu and other tribes of 
South Africa and among American Negroes. 
In 1917 she married the artist, Paul Burlin. 
Among her writings, which include probably the 
most successful works in the field of aboriginal 
American life, are Songs of Ancient America 
and The Indian’s Book. The latter was again 
published in 1923 under the title, The Indian 
Book, with a few additions. 

BURNET, JouHn (1863- ). An English 
professor and dean (see Vout. IV). In 1919, he 
became Associate of the Royal Academy of Bel- 
gium and in the same year was also made Hon- 
orary Fellow of the Educational Institute of 
Scotland. He is author of Greek Philosophy: 
Thales and Plato (1914), The Socratic Doctrine 
of the Soul (1916), and Higher Education and 
the War (1917). 


BURNETT, Frances (ELIzA) Hopeson 
(1849- ). An American author (see VOL. 
IV). After 1914 she added to her already long 


list of works One I Knew the Best of All (1915), 
Little Hunchback Zia (1916), White People 


232 BURR 


(1917), Good Wolf (1919), The Head of the 
House of Coombe (1922), The Fair Barbarian 
(1923), Robin (sequel to The Head of the House 
of Coombe, 1922), and others. She edited The 
Children’s Book (1914). 

BURNHAM, CLARA LOUISE (1861- 1. 
An American author, born at Newton, Mass. 
She wrote many stories and poems for the maga- 
zines and the text for many of her father’s 
cantatas. Among her novels were Dr. Latimer 
(1893); The Right Princess (1902); Jewel 
(1903) ; Jewel’s Story Book (1904); The Opened 
Shutters (1906); The Leaven of Love (1908) ; 
The Inner Flame (1912); The Right Track 
(1914) ; Instead of the Thorn (1916); Hearts’ 
Haven (1918); In Apple-blossom Time (1919), 
and The Keynote (1921). She was a Christian 
Scientist and most of her books are permeated 
with the principles of that faith. She was 
notably successful in depicting New England 
characters. 

BURNS, James Atoysius (1867- ). An 
American clergyman and college president, born 
at Michigan City, Ind., and educated at the 
University of Notre Dame. 
spent as a lay teacher he was ordained to the 
Roman Catholic priesthood in 1893 and from 
that time until 1900 was professor of sciences 
in the University of Notre Dame. He was then 
made president and professor of moral theology 
in Holy Cross College (Washington). In 1919 
he returned to the University of Notre Dame as 
president. 
Origin and Establishment of the Catholic School 
System (1908); The Growth and Development 
of the Catholic School System (1912), and 
ee Education: A Study of Conditions 
CLOLT hi 

BURNS, Rr. Hon. JoHn (1858- ). An 
English parliamentarian (see Vou. IV). In 
1914 he resigned from the presidency of the 
Local Government Board,. and became president 
of the Board of Trade. He resigned from the 
latter office when war was declared. Until 1918 
he was a radical member of Parliament. 

BURNS, Keivin (1881- ). An Ameri- 
can spectroscopist, born at Pleasant Ridge, N. B. 
He was graduated at the University of Min- 
nesota in 1903. He was connected with the Lick 
Observatory during 1904-07 and again as a 
Martin Kellogg fellow during 1910-12. In 1913 
he was a physicist at the Bureau of Standards 
(Washington), but in 1920 he became the as- 
tronomer at the Allegheny Observatory. His 
specialty is the application of the spectroscope 
to heavenly bodies, the orbit of lambda An- 
dromede, the ring nebula in Lyra, and the Orion 
region, on which he has published his findings. 

BURNSIDE, RICHARD H. (“ZIPP”) 
(?- ). A dramatic author and stage director 
best known for Chin-Chin, written with Anne 
Caldwell (1914), Hip-Hip Hooray! (1915), The 
Big Show (1916), Cheer Up (1917), Happy Days 
(1919), Miss Millions (1919), Tip-Top, with 
Anne Caldwell (1920): and others. He was 
general producer for the New York Hippodrome. 

BURR, GrEorcGeE LINCOLN (1857-— ). An 
American professor (see Vor. IV).- In 1919 he 
became John Stambaugh professor of history in 
Cornell University. He edited Narratives of 
Witchcraft Cases (1913). 

BURR, WILLIAM WESLEY (1880- ). An 
American agriculturalist, born at Goodland, Ind. 
He graduated from the University of Nebraska 
in 1906 and until 1913 was associate professor 


After two years — 


His publications include Principles, - 


4 
E 
i 


2 
4 
; 
Le 
ui 


BURRAGE 


of erops and soils there. From 1903 to 1913 
he was also in charge of the codperative work in 
the office of dry land agriculture in the North 
Platte Experiment Station, Bureau of Plant In- 
dustry, United States Department of Agricul- 
ture. From 1913 to 1916 he was assistant ag- 
riculturalist and from the latter date professor 
of agronomy and head of the department at the 
University of Nebraska. He was also vice- 
director of the experiment station of that uni- 
versity. He was a member of several scientific 
societies and wrote on soil moisture, crop pro- 
duction, dry land agriculture, etc. 

BURRAGE, CHAMPLIN (1874- ). An 
American scholar born at Portland, Me., and 
educated at Brown University and at Berlin, 
Marburg, and Oxford. From 1912 to 1915 he 
was librarian of Manchester College, Oxford, 
and from 1915 to 1917, librarian and mem- 
ber of the faculty of Brown University. His 
publications include A New Years Gift by 
Robert Browne, 1588 (1904); The Church 
Covenant Idea (1904); The True Story of 
Robert Browne (1906); New Facts Concerning 
John Robinson (1910); The Early English Dis- 
senters in the Light of Recent Research (1912); 
John Penry, the So-Called Martyr of Congre- 
gationalism (1915); Nazareth and the Begin- 
nings of Christianity (1914); John Pory’s Lost 
Description of Plymouth Colony (1918); An 
Answer to John Robinson of Leyden (1920) ; 
The Minoan Hieroglyphic Inscriptions, I: The 
Phestos Whorl (1921), and Prehistoric A’gean 
Inscriptions from Minoan Crete, the Agean Is- 
lands, Cyprus, Greece and Troy, Part I (1922). 

BURRELL, Davin JAmes (1844- eA ni 
American clergyman (see Vor. IV). He is the 
author of We Would See Jesus (1914), The 
Apostles’ Creed (1915), Why I Believe the Bible 
(1917), The Laughter of God (1918), Campaigns 
of Paul (1919), The Resurrection and the Life 
Beyond (1920), Paul’s Companions (1921), and 
Paul’s Letters (1921). 

BURRELL, MARTIN (1858— yiioA 
Canadian statesman (see Vout. IV). From 1917 
to 1919 he was Secretary of State of Canada and 
Minister of Mines, having previously been Min- 
ister of Agriculture. In 1920 he became Par- 
liamentary Librarian of Canada. 

BURRITT, Maurice CHASE (1883- je 
An American agriculturist, born at Hilton, N. Y., 
educated at Cornell. From 1902 he was engaged 
in farming at Hilton, N. Y. He was scientific 
assistant for the United States Department of 
Agriculture from 1908 to 1911 and was county 
agent leader for the New York State College of 
Agriculture at Cornell University, 1914-17. In 
‘1917 he became vice-director of extension work 
at that institution. He took a prominent part 
in organizing a farm bureau and agricultural 
extension system in New York State. He wrote 
Apple Growing (1915), and The County Agent 
and the Farm Bureau (1922). 

BURROUGHS, Joun (1837-1921). An 
American essayist and naturalist, born at Rox- 
bury, N. Y. His writings in his later years 
took on a wider aspect than his earlier books 
and were devoted largely to a general study of 
life and its meaning. In 1913 he published The 
Summit of the Years; in 1915, The Breath of 
Life; in 1916, Under the Apple Trees, and in 
1919, Field and Study. John Burroughs died 
on March 29, 1921, and was buried at his farm 
on the Hudson River, “Slabsides.” Since he 
had lived there for many years, the farm was 


233 


BURTON 


purchased by a number of his admirers and 
made a permanent memorial to his life and 
works. 

BURROWS, Montrosr Toomas (1884- 1 & 


An American pathologist, born at Halstead, 
Kan., and educated at Kansas and Johns 
Hopkins. For a year he held a_ fellowship 


at the Rockefeller Institute, where also during 
1909-10 he was assistant pathologist. In 1910 
he became instructor in anatomy at the Cornell 
Medical College, and in 1915 he accepted the 
appointment of pathologist to the Hopkins Hos- 
pital. Five years later he was called to the 
chair of pathology in the Washington University 
Medical School in St. Louis, and in 1920, he 
became director of the research laboratory at the 
Barnard Face, Skin and Cancer Hospital (St. 
Louis). His original investigations have in- 
cluded studies of tissue cultivation, mechanism 
of growth and division of cells and heart muscle 
contraction, inter-cranial processes, and various 
problems in epidermiology. . 

BURSTING CHARGES. See Expiostves. 

BURTON, Ernest Dewitt (1856- yen 
American theologian (see Vout. IV). He is the 
author of Harmony of the Synoptic Gospels in 
Greek, with Edgar J. Goodspeed (1920); Com- 
mentary on Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians 
(1920); Jesus of Nazareth, How He Thought, 
Lived, Worked, and Achieved (1920) ; and Source 
Book for the Study of the Teaching of Jesus 
in Its Historical Relationships (1923). 

BURTON, Marion Le Roy (1874- }: 
An American University president (see Vor. IV). 
In 1917-he resigned as president of Smith Col- 
lege (Northampton, Mass.), to accept the presi- 
dency of the University of Minnesota. He 
stayed in the latter institution until 1920, when 
he became president of the University of Michi- 
gan. His works include Life Which Is Life In- 
deed (1914), First Things (1915), and On Being 
Divine (1916). 

BURTON, RicHARD EUGENE (1861- ) 
An American college professor (see Vor. IV). 
His works include How to See a Play (1914), 
Bernard Shaw—the Man and the Mask (1916), 
Poems of Earth’s Meaning (1917), and Charles 
Dickens—How to Know Him (1919). He was 
president of the Drama League of America, 
(1914-15). 

BURTON, THEODORE ELIJAH (1851- ). 
An American Congressman (see Vor. IV). He 
was a member of the Sixty-seventh Congress 
(1921-23) for the Twenty-second District of 
Ohio. In 1921 he was a member of the exec- 
utive committee of the Interparliamentary Union. 
He had the unanimous support of the Ohio 
delegation for presidential nominee in the 
Republican national convention in 1916. From 
1917 to 1919 he was president of the Merchants’ 
National Bank of New York City, and in the 
latter year he was also Stafford Little Lecturer 
at Princeton University. His works include 
Some Political Tendencies of the Times and the 
Effect of the War Thereon (1919). 

BURTON, WitriAm MerrRIAM (1865-— ). 
An American chemist, born at Cleveland, Ohio, 
and educated at Western Reserve and Johns 
Hopkins Universities. In 1889 he entered the 
service of the Standard Oil Company of Indiana 
as chemist and after serving as stiperintendent 
and vice-president became its president in 1918. 
His important investigations have had to do 
with the technology of petroleum, notably a 
“cracking” process which has doubled the out- 


BURY 


put of gasoline. The Willard Gibbs medal of 
the American Chemical Society was conferred 
on him in 1918, and in 1922 he received ‘the 
Perkins medal of the Society of Chemical In- 
dustry. 

BURY, Sir GEoRGE (1866- ). A Canad- 
ian railway official. He was educated at Mon- 
treal College and in 1883 entered the employ 
of the Canadian Pacifie Railroad. In 1907 he 
was made general manager of its western lines 
and from 1911 was president of the road. In 
1917 he visited Russia in order to assist in the 
reorganization of shipping in that country. In 
the same year he was knighted. 

BUSCH, Cari (1862- ). An American 
composer and conductor, born at Bjerre, Den- 
mark. After completion of his studies at the 
Conservatory in Copenhagen he spent a year in 
Paris as viola player in Godard’s orchestra. 
In 1887 he settled in Kansas City, where in 1912 
he founded the Kansas City Symphony Orchestra, 
which he conducted. He frequently appeared 
with other orchestras in the United States, Ger- 
many, and Denmark, as conductor of his own 
works. His works include a symphonic pro- 
logue, The Passing of King Arthur; a symphonic 
poem, Minnehaha’s Vision; Ode to France and 
Negro Carnival for orchestra; A Chant from the 
Great Plains for military band; Sir Galahad for 
baritone, chorus and orchestra; and nine canta- 
tas. 

BUSCH, Josrepi FrAncis (1866- atv An 
American bishop, born at Red Wing, Minn., and 
educated at Innsbruck, Austria, and at the 
Catholic University (Washington, D. €.). Or- 
dained to the Roman Catholic priesthood «in 
1889, he became secretary to Archbishop Ireland 
and assistant pastor in St. Paul, Minn. He was 
then pastor in South St. Paul, Minneapolis and 
LeSueur, Minn. In 1910 he was made bishop 
Uae S. D., and in 1915 bishop of St. Cloud, 
Minn. 

BUSH, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1860- ie 
An American railway official, born in Wellsboro, 
Pa., and educated at the State Normal School 
at Mansfield, Pa. He began his railway service 
on the Northern Pacific Railroad in 1882. In 
1887 he was appointed division engineer of the 
Union Pacific Railroad in Idaho and Oregon. 
He served as general manager and superintendent 
of several railroads in the west and in 1907 was 
appointed president of the Western Maryland 
Railroad. He was president also of the Denver 
and Rio Grande Railroad in 1912 and 1915 and 
of the Western Pacific Railroad in 1913. He 
went back as president to the Western Maryland 
in 1917. In addition to his service as railway 
official he held several important government 
offices and was a member of the advisory board 
on fuels and structural material in 1907. Dur- 
ing the War he acted as regional director in the 
southwestern district for the Federal railroad 
administration. 

BUTLER, HENryY MonTacu’ (1833-1918). 
An English educator (see Vor. IV). He pub- 
lished a volume of classical verse, Letsure Hours 
of. a Long Life (1914). He died at Cambridge 
on Jan. 14, 1918. 

BUTLER, Howarp RUSSELL (?- ). An 
American artist who won the Carnegie prize 
from the National Academy of Design (1916) 
and the prize from the Duxbury Exhibition in 
1917. He accompanied the United States Naval 
Observation Expedition to Baker, Oregon, and 
painted the solar eclipse of June 1918. This 


Gold in Blue. 


234 BYELY 


last painting is owned by the American Museum 
of Natural History. 

BUTLER, NicnoLas Murray (1862- y 
An American educator, president of Columbia 
University (see Vor. IV). He continued to 
take an active part in educational and political 
affairs in the decade 1914-24. From 1914 he 
was president of the France-America Society, 
and from 1919 was corresponding member of the 
Academy of Arts and Letters of Naples. In 
1917 he was president of the American Hellenic 
Society. THe was mentioned as a possible ecandi- 
date for the presidency in 1920 and received 
several votes in the National Convention. In 
May, 1924, he created a nation-wide sensation by 
a speech delivered at a dinner of the Missouri 
Society, in which he denounced the Prohibition 
Constitutional Amendment, and declared that it 
should be repealed. For -this attitude he was 
both praised and denounced by newspapers, or- 
ganizations and individuals throughout the coun- 
try. His later publications include The Mean- 
ing of Education (1915); The World in Perment 
(1917); Is America Worth Saving? and Other 


Addresses (1920); WScholarship and Service, 
(1921). 
BUTTENWEISER, Moses _ (1862- Jc 


An American scholar, born at Beerfelden in 
Germany and educated at the universities of 
Wiirzburg, Leipzig, and Heidelberg. In 1897 he 
became professor of Biblical exegesis in the 
Hebrew Union College of Cincinnati, Ohio. 
His works include Vhe Hebrew Elias-Apoca- 
lypse, in German (1897); An Outline of Neo- 
Ilebraic Apocalyptic Literature (1901); The 
Prophets of Israel (1914); The Book of Job 
(1920), and numerous articles in learned pub- 
lications. 

BUTTER. See DAIRYING. 

BUXTON, Noeut (1869- ). An English 
social reformer and labor leader. He was edu- 
eated at Cambridge and acted as aide-de-camp 
to his father when the latter was Governor of 
South Australia. He founded a farmers’ co- 
operative society, was an active member of many 
organizations engaged in social reform work 
and also of the Christian Social Union. In 
January, 1924, he was appointed minister for 
agriculture in the Labor cabinet of Ramsay 
MacDonald. He published Europe and_ the 
Turks and With the Bulgarian Staff, and was 
part author of The Heart of the Empire, Travel 
and Politics in Armenia, The War and the 
Balkans, and Balkan Problems and European 
Peace. 

BUXTON, SyDNEY CHARLES BuxTon, first 
Viscount (1853— ). An English statesman 
(see Vor. IV.) 
and Governor General of South Africa in 1914 
and was at the same time created Viscount Bux- 
ton. In 1920 he retired from office. 


BYELY,  ANDREY (Bo: N. | BoGayeEv) 
(1880- ). A Russian poet, novelist, and 
critic. He early showed talent in a variety of 


directions; he was gifted in mathematics, phi- 
losophy, and music, but turned all his gifts to 
the cause of the literary symbolists. Just as 
he passed through many stages in the develop- 
ment of his philosophy as a theosophist, so his 
writings include all genres and styles. He began 
his career in 1904 by a series of philosophical 
and critical essays in The Scales and also by 
his first volume of collected poetry, entitled 
He came to be regarded as the 


most individual of the Russian modernists. 


He became High Commissioner 


ee med 


Feat Erg 


BYNG 


His works include Symphonies (symbolic poems 
in prose; The Heroic (Northern Symphony), 
1902; The Second (Dramatie Symphony), 1904; 
The Return (Third Symphony), 1905; The Gob- 
let of Snow-Storms (Fourth Symphony), 1908; 
The Silver Dove, a novel, 1910; Petersburg, a 
novel, 1912; Poems, 1904-17; and Symbolism 
(essays on artistic creation), 1910. The two 
novels form parts of a trilogy, of which the 
third part, Kotik Letajew, appeared during the 
Revolution. 

BYNG, JULIAN HEDWoRTH GEORGE ByYNa, 
first BARON oF (1862- ). <A British general. 
He saw service in India and South Africa, and 
in 1909 was made major general. When the 
British occupied Egypt in 1912 he was placed in 
charge of the army of occupation. During the 
War he was a Corps commander, first in the 
Dardanelles campaign (1915-16) and then on 
the western front where he was chosen to head 
the newly formed Canadian army corps (1916). 
In this position he was responsible for the 
celebrated storming of Vimy Ridge (Apr. 9, 
1917). In June, 1917, he was raised to the 
post of army commander, executed the attack 
on the Cambrai front in November, and was 
promoted to the rank of full general. His other 
honors included a peerage in 1919, a grant of 
£30,000, and decorations from all the Allies. 
In 1921 he was appointed Governor General of 
Canada. . 

BYNNER, WITTER (1881- ). An Ameri- 
ean playwright, born in Brooklyn and educated 
at Harvard. He is associate editor of Palms. 
His best known work includes The New World 
(1915) ; Iphigenia in Tauris (1915); Any Girl 
(1917); Grenstone Poems (1917); A Canticle 
of Praise (1919); The Beloved Stranger (1919) ; 
A Canticle of Pan (1920); Pins for Wings 
(1920, under pseudonym of Emanuel Morgan) ; 
A Book of Plays, from the French of Vildrac 
(1922), and A Book of Love (1923). He is co- 
author with Arthur Davison Ficke of Spectra 
(1916); with Julia Ford, Snickerty Nick 
(1919); with Dr. Kiang Kang-hu, The Jade 


235 BYRNE 


Mountain, translated from the T’ang poets 
(1924). 


BY-PRODUCT COKE. See Coke. 


BY-PRODUCTS. Recovery or. See CHEM- 
ISTRY, ORGANIC. 
BYRAM, Harry  E. (1865- yon An 


American railway official, born in Galesburg, 
Ill., and educated in the common schools. He 
began his railway service with the Chicago, 
Burlington and Quincy Railroad at the age of 
16. He served in several capacities in this ecom- 
pany until 1894, when he began service with the 
Great Northern Railroad as chief clerk in the 
vice-president’s office. In the years following he 
filled important positions with several railroads 
in the Middle and Far West and was appointed 
general superintendent for Nebraska of the Chi- 
cago, Burlington and Quincy in 1904. In 1917 
he was appointed president of the Chicago, Mil- 
waukee and St. Paul Railroad. 

BYRNE, CuristopHer Epwarp (1867- Dis 
An American bishop, born at Byrnesville, Mo., 
and educated at St. Mary’s College (Kan.) and 
St. Mary’s Seminary (Baltimore, Md.). From 
1891 to 1918 he was pastor of churches in Co- 
lumbia, Edina, and Saint Louis, Mo. In 1918 
he was made bishop of Galveston, Tex. 

BYRNE, Donn (BRIAN OSWALD DONN 
BYRNE) (1889- ). An American author, 
born in New York City, and educated at the 
University College, Dublin, and in Paris and 
Leipzig. On his return to New York he was 
connected with the New York Sun and the Brook- 
lyn Daily Eagle. Even though Donn Byrne said 
of his own writing, “its faults are because I 
cannot write better yet,” and though that was 
perhaps true, he has, in his contributions to 
magazines and in his books, caught a beauty 
which is haunting and elusive. Stories Without 
Women, published in 1915, was followed by The 
Stranger’s Banquet (1919); The Foolish Matron 
(1920); The Woman God Changed (1921); 
Messer Marco Polo (1921): The Wind Bloweth 
(1922), and The Changeling (1923), a collection 
of short stories. 


C 


ABELL, JAMES BRANCH 

1879- ). An American author, 

born at Richmond, Va., and edu- 

cated at William and Mary Col- 

lege. For a year he was instructor 

in French and Greek in William 
and Mary College, and thereafter, until 1901, 
was occupied as a journalist in Richmond 
and New York. His works include The Soul of 
Melicent (afterwards published under the title 
Domnei) (1913); The Rivet in Grandfather’s 
Neck (1915); The Certain Hour (1916); The 
Cream of the Jest (1917); Jurgen (1919); The 
Judging of Jurgen (1920); Figures of Earth 
(1921); Joseph Hergesheimer (1921); The 
Jewel Merchants (1921); The Lineage of Litch- 
field (1922), and others. 

CABLE STEERING. See NAVIGATION. 

CABOT, RicuAarD CLARKE (1868- ) weer 
American physician, born at Brookline, Mass., 
and educated at Harvard University (A.B. 
1889; M.D. 1892). He became full professor of 
medicine at Harvard in 1919 and was Chief of 
the Medical Staff of the Massachusetts General 
Hospital from 1912 to 1921. During the War 
he saw service abroad and became Lieutenant- 
Colonel of the Medical Reserve Corps. Among 
his publications are: A Guide to the Clinical 
Examination of the Blood (1898); Physical 
Diagnosis of Diseases of the Chest (1900); Case 
Teaching in Medicine (1906); Differential Diag- 
nosis (1911); What Men Live By (1914); A 
Layman’s Handbook of Medicine (1916); Social 
Work (1919). Several of his practical works 
have gone through numerous editions and his 
Differential Diagnosis was translated into Ger- 
man. The author originated a new feature in 
medical teaching in these volumes, the subject 
matter consisting wholly of case histories pre- 
sented in novel fashion. 

CADMAN, CnArRLES WAKEFIELD (1881- ). 
An American composer, born at Johnstown, Pa., 
Dee. 24, 1881. Ile received his entire musical 
education from private teachers in Pittsburgh, 
where he lived until 1909 as organist of various 
churches, conductor of a male chorus and critic 
of the Pittsburgh Dispatch. Having become in- 
terested in the music of the American Indians, 
he spent some time at the reservation of the 
Omaha Indians, making phonographiec records 
of their songs and pieces for flute. Together 
with Princess Tsianina Redfeather, a _ full- 
blooded Indian mezzo-soprano, he lectured on 
Indian lore, making extensive tours of the United 
States and also visiting Paris and London. Of 
his operas, Shanewis or The Robin Woman was 
produced at the Metropolitan Opera House 
(Mar. 23, 1918). The Garden of Mystery (one 
act) and The Red Rivals or Daoma (three acts) 
have not yet been produced. His other. works 
consist of a piano-trio in D, a piano-sonata in 
A, a Japanese song-cycle, and several Indian 
song-cycles. 

CADMAN, (SamMurL) PARKES (1864- se 
An American clergyman, born at Wellington, 
England, and educated at the University of Lon- 


don. From 1896 to 1901 he was pastor of the 
Metropolitan Temple, New York City, and after 
that time pastor of the Central Congregational 
Church of Brooklyn, N. Y. He was a popular 
lecturer, active in Y. M. C. A. work, his Sunday 
afternoon talks being broadcast by radio. His 
works include: Charles Darwin and Other Eng- 
lish Thinkers (1911); The Victory of Christmas; 
The Religious Uses of Memory (1912); The Life 
of William Owen (1912); The Three Religious 
Leaders of Oxford (1916); and Ambassadors of 
God (1920). \ 

CADORNA, Count Luiai (1850— ) a A 
Italian general, born at Pallanza of a distin- 
guished Italian family. He entered the army 
in 1886, was promoted steadily, ana in 1914 
became chief of the general staff. After 
the defeat at Caporetto he was transferred to 
the Military Council at Versailles, and later, 
as a result of the findings of the Caporetto 
inquiry commission, was retired from the 
army. 

CAILLAUX, JOSEPH (1863-— ae 
French public official (see Vou. IV). Six days 
after the release of Mme. Caillaux, who had been 
tried for the shooting of M. Gaston Calmette, 
and acquitted, the War began. In 1916, Cail- 
laux went to Rome, and because of remarks 
made by him to Italian statesmen that France 
could not continue the War after the spring of 
1917 and that first peace and then-an alliance 
with Germany should be concluded, Briand gave 
permission to the Italian government to arrest 
Caillaux and confiscate his papers. The taking 
of these papers proved most embarrassing to 
Caillaux, one being the elaboration of a project 
to overthrow the legal government and have 
himself made dictator, and the other containing 
the names of politicians, newspaper managers, 
etc., whom it would be necessary to arrest or 
exile. He claimed they were merely dreams, but 
he was condemned to three years in prison and 
to 10 years’ suspension of his civil rights. He 
was not allowed to live in Paris or in several 
other large cities. He was released several days 
after the verdict, however, but up to July, 1924 
was an exile in the-provinces. In that month he 
was granted amnesty and allowed to return to 
France. 

CALCIUM. See CHEMISTRY. 

CALDER, JAMES ALEXANDER (1868— Ve 
Canadian public official (see Von. IV). After 
1914 he was Minister of Railways and High- 
ways, first vice-president of the Canadian Cham- 
ber of Commerce of London, and a member of 
the Imperial War Conference (1918). 

CALDWELL, ANNE (?- ). A dramatic 


author and composer whose best known works 


include besides collaborations with Richard Burn- 
side (q.v.): Pom-Pom (1916); Go to It (with 
John Golden and J. E. Hazzard, 1916); A New 
Girl (1919); The Lady in Red (1919); She’s 
a Good Fellow (1919); The Night Boat (1919) ; 
The Sweetheart Shop (1920). 

CALDWELL, Burns Durpin (1858- de 
An American railway official, born in Placerville, 


236 


CALENDAR 


Cal. He was educated in the public schools of 
Chambersburg, Pa., and began his railway serv- 
ice in 1875 with the Vandalia Line. From 1886 
to 1892, he was employed in important capacities 
with several western railroads and from 1889 to 
1902 was traffic manager of the D. L. & W. Rail- 
road. From 1902 to 1911, he served as vice- 
president of that road and from 1911 was presi- 
dent of Wells Fargo & Company. From 1918, 
he was chairman of the board of the American 
Railway Express Company. 

CALENDAR. See ASTRONOMY. 

CALIFORNIA. The second State in size 
(158,297 square miles), and the eighth in popu- 
lation; capital Sacramento. The population of 
the State increased during the decade 1910-20, 
from 2,377,549 in 1910 to 3,426,861 in 1920, a 
gain of 44.1 per cent. ‘The white population in- 
creased from 2,259,672 to 3,264,711; the Negro, 
from 21,645 to 38,763; the Indian, from 16,371 
to 17,360; in 1920. While the Chinese showed a 
decrease from 36,248 in 1910 to 28,812 in 1920, 
the Japanese increased from 41,356 to 71,952. 
The native white population increased from 
1,742,422 in 1910 to 2,583,049 in 1920, while 
the foreign-born whites increased from 517,250 
to 681,662. The urban population in 1910 was 
1,469,739; in 1920, 2,331,729; while the rural 
population showed an increase of from 907,810 
to 1,095,132. The populations of the chief cities 
increased as follows: San Francisco (qv.) from 
416,912 in 1910 to 506,676 in 1920; Oakland 
(q.v.), from 150,174 to 216,261; San Diego from 
39,578 to 74,683. During the decade, Los Angeles 
(q.v.) passed San Francisco as the largest city 
in the State, with a population of 319,198 in 
1910 and 576,673 in 1920. 

Agriculture. While the population in the 
State was increasing 44.1 per cent in the dec- 
ade, 1910-20, the number of farms was increas- 
ing by 33.4 per cent (from 88,197 in 1910 to 
117,670 in 1920), owing partly to the cutting 
up of large tracts. In 1910, the acreage was 
27,931,444; in 1920 it was 29,365,667, an in- 
crease of 5.1 per cent; and the improved land 
in farms increased from 11,389,894 acres in 
1910 to 11,878,339 in 1920. The total value of 
farm property in the State apparently increased 
from $1,614,694,584 to $3,431,021,861, or 112.5 
per cent; the average value of farm property, 
from $18,308 to $29,158, an increase of 59 30 
per cent. In interpreting these values, how- 
ever, and, indeed, all comparative values in the 
decade 1914-24, the inflation of the currency in 
the latter part of that period is to be taken into 
account. The index number of prices paid to 
producers of farm products in the United States 
was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 1920. The total per- 
centage of the land area in farms increased 
from 28 per cent in 1910 to 295 per cent in 
1920; but the percentage of improved farm land 
decreased slightly. from 40.8 to 40.4 per cent 
Of the total of 117,670 farms in 1920, the num- 
ber operated by owners was 81,580 as compared 
with 66,632 in 1910; by managers 4949, as com- 
pared with 3417; and by tenants, 25,141, as 
compared with 18,148. There was an increase 
in the decade of about 20,000 owners and 7000 
tenants. The white farmers in 1920 numbered 
111,184, as compared with 85,119 in 1910; and 
the number of Japanese farmers had increased 
from 1816 to 5152 during that time. The total 
number of colored farmers. including Negroes, 
Indians, Japanese and Chinese. was 6486 in 1920 
as compared with 3078 in 1910. The farms free 


237 


CALIFORNIA 


from mortgage numbered 36,042 jin 1920, as com- 
pared with 39,368 in 1910; while the number of 
mortgaged farms increased from 26,749 in 1910 
to 44,109 in 1920. Of the 117,670 farms in the 
State in 1920, 67,391 were irrigated, or a total 
irrigated area of 4,219,040 acres In 1920, 57.3 
per cent of all farms were irrigated, as com- 
pared with 44.6 per cent in 1910. 

The number of cattle in 1920 and 1910 was 
2,008,037 and 1,809,226, respectively. The num- 
ber of sheep increased from 1,525,288 to 2,400,- 
151. Poultry-raising developed appreciably in 
the decade, the number of fowls being nearly 
11,000,000 in 1920. The production of small 
fruits in 1919 was 15,458,726 quarts, compared 
with 26,824,120 quarts in 1909; oranges, 21,628,- 
444 boxes compared with 14,436,180 in 1909; 
lemons, 6,551,657 boxes compared with 2,756,221 
boxes; and grapefruit, 465,085 boxes compared 
with 122,515. The coming of prohibition, which 
it was anticipated would paralyze the wine- 
grape industry and depreciate the value of lands 
used for the purpose, had quite the opposite 
effect. The vine-growing area more than dou- 
bled, although not all yet in bearing, and prices 
for the crop far in excess of those that previ- 
ously prevailed were secured. The estimated 
production of the chief crops in 1923 was as fol- 
lows: corn, 4,557,000 bushels; wheat, 16,157,000 
bushels; oats, 5,475,000 bushels; barley, 34,346,- 
000 bushels; rice, 5,470,000 bushels; potatoes, 
8,121,000 bushels; sweet potatoes, 797,000 bush- 
els; hay, 4,459,000 tons; sugar beets, 538,000 
short tons; and cotton, 49,000 bales. Compar- 
ative figures for 1913 are: corn, 1,815,000 bush- 
els; wheat, 4,200,000 bushels; barley, 33,150,- 
000 bushels; rice, 293,000 bushels; potatoes, 
8,092,000 bushels; hay, 3,600,000 tons; and 
cotton, 23,000 bales. 

Mining. California is one of the most im- 
portant of the mineral-producing States, and in 
the value of its products in 1921 ranked third, 
being surpassed only by Pennsylvania and West 
Virginia in that year. The most important of 
its mineral products are petroleum, gold, natu- 
ral gas, and cement. The development of the 
petroleum fields of the State has been one of the 
most important events in the history of mineral 
production in the country, the extent of this 
development being shown by a comparison of 
figures for several of the years in the period 
1914 to 1924 In 1914, the production was 99,- 
775,327 barrels, valued at $48,066,096; 1916, 90,- 
951,936 barrels, $53,702,733; 1918, 97,531,997 
barrels, $118.770,790; in 1920, 103,377,000 bar- 
rels, $178,395,000; 1921, 112,600,000 barrels, 
$203,138,000; 1922, 138,468,000 barrels, $173,- 
381,000. On the other hand, the production of 
gold in the State has decreased, with the excep- 
tion of one or two years during the decade 1914— 
24. The production in 1914 was 999,113 fine 
ounces, valued at $20,653,496; in 1916, 1,035,745 
fine ounces, $21,410,741; in 1918, 799,588 fine 
ounces. $16,528,953; 1920, 692,297 fine ounces, 
$14,311,043; 1922, 709,677 fine ounces. This 
decrease was due partly to the exhaustion of a 
number of the deep mines and to general depres- 
sion in the gold-mining industry in the last few 
years. The cement industry has shown a com- 
paratively steady increase during the decade. 
There were produced in 1914 5,075,114 barrels; 
in 1916, 5,332,860; in 1920, 7,098,084; in 1921, 
7,302,784; and in 1922 8,711,515. The output 
of natural gas increased from 17,828,928 M. 
cubic feet in 1914 to 39,718,941 M. cubic feet 


CALIFORNIA 


in 1918. In 1920, the production was 66,041,- 
000 M. cubic feet, and in 1921, 75,942,000 M. 
cubic feet. There was produced also a consid- 
erable amount of copper, the output varying from 
30,507,692 pounds in 1914 to 48,153,139 in 1917; 
12,626,272 in 1920; 11,743,404 in 1921, and 22,- 
539,485 in 1922. The silver production of the 
State has always been important. In 1914 it 
was 1,471,859 fine ounces; in 1916, 2,564,354; 
in 1919, 1,107,189; in 1920, 1,706,327; in 1921, 
3,629,223, and in 1922, 3,100,065. The State has 
produced large quantities of lead and zine. The 
lead production has varied from 4,251,923 pounds 
in 1914 to 21,868,628 in 1917; 13,372,049 in 
1918; 4,813,510 in 1920; 1,124,276 in 1921, and 
6,312,536 in 1922. The zine production in 1914 
was 389,471 pounds, which increased in 1916 
to 15,256,485 pounds, fell again in 1919 to 472,- 
990 pounds, then rose in 1921 to 1,057,731 
,pounds, and in 1922, to 3,012,950. In addition 
to the minerals mentioned above, California pro- 
duces asphalt, clay products, stone and many 
other products of great value. The total value 
of the mineral production of the State in 1914 
was $101,013,199; in 1918, $204,673,547; in 


1920, $269,404,686; reaching $297,025,679 in 
1921. 
Manufactures. California is an important 


industrial State. The number of manufacturing 
establishments increased during the decade from 
7659 in 1909 to 10,057 in 1914, and 11,942 in 
1919, while the number of persons engaged in 
manufacture rose from 141,576 to 176,547, and 
296,858, in those years. The capital invested in 
1909 was $537,134,359; in 1914, $736,105,445, 
and in 1919, $1,233,480,273. The most impor- 
tant industries are those connected with can- 
ning and preserving, California ranking first 
among the States in the canning of fruits and 
vegetables. The value of these products in 1909 
was $32,915,000; in 1914, $61,163,000; and in 
1919, $219,279,000. The value of the products 
of the petroleum-refining industry, which is sec- 
ond in importance, was $17,878,000 in 1909; $55,- 
528,000 in 1914 and $213,292,000 in 1919. Ship- 
building and boatbuilding, ranking third in the 
value of its product, had an output in 1909 val- 
ued at $4,132,000; in 1914, $8,104,000, and in 
1919, $185,882,000; the extraordinary growth 
from 1914 to 1919 being the result of great ship- 
building operations carried on because of the 
War. Slaughtering and meat-packing is also an 
important industry. The value of the product 
in 1909 was $34,280,000; in 1914, $50,012,000, 
and in 1919, $94,450,000. The increase in the 
value of products from 1914 to 1919 is in great 
measure due to the changes in industrial condi- 
tions brought about by the War; a more definite 
evidence of progress is shown by a comparison of 
the number of wage earners and of the horse 
power used, both of which indicate unmistakably 
a decided growth in the manufactures of the 
State. 

The chief manufacturing cities are San Fran- 
cisco, Los Angeles and Oakland. In San Fran- 
cisco, the number of manufacturing establish- 
ments, with value of their products, was: in 
1909, 1796 and $133,041,000; 1914, 2334 and 
$162,300,000; 1919, 2360 and $417,321,000. 
Similar figures for Los Angeles were: in 1909, 
1325 and $68,586,000; 1914, 1911 and $103,458,- 
000; 1919, 2540 and $278,184,000. The manu- 
facturing establishments of Oakland increased 
from 441 in 1909 to 573 in 1914 and 593 in 1919, 
the value of the product in those years being 


238 CALIFORNIA 
$22,343,000, $28,522,000, and $134,755,000, re- 
spectively. 
Education. California has always been 


among the foremost States in its educational ad- 
vancement. In 1913, the ex-officio Board of Ed- 
ucation was abolished, and was superseded by 
the State Department of Education, which, how- 
ever, was handicapped by the fact that it was in 
a measure double-headed and divided authority 
between the Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
tion and the Governor. In 1921, a special legis- 
lative committee on education studied the school 
system of the State with the object of suggest- 
ing improvement in the laws to render the edu- 
eational administration more efficient; and the 
Legislature of that year passed a law which 
carried into effect many of the recommendations 
made by the commission, although it could not 
alter the administrative form of the educational 
system, such a change involving a constitutional 
amendment. The Legislature of 1923 further 
amended the law of 1921. The total enrollment 
in the schools of the State in 1914, including 
kindergarten, elementary, high and normal 
schools, was 501,921. In 1919, the enrollment 
in the kindergartens was 20,721; elementary 
schools, 423,562; and high schools, 95,405. In 
1922, the enrollment in kindergartens was 20,- 
061; in the elementary schools, 571,678, and in 
the high schools, including junior colleges and 
special schools, 227,270. The total expenditures 
for elementary schools in 1922 was $55,764,910; 
for high schools, $27,612,854. California’s per- 
centage of illiteracy is among the lowest of the 
States. It decreased from 4.3 per cent in 1910 
to 3.9 per cent in 1920; the decrease among na- 
tive whites being from 0.6 to 0.4 per cent; among 
the Negroes from 8.4 to 5.6 per cent. 

Finance. For finance, see STATE FINANCES. 

Political and Other Events. The decade 
1914-24 was important in the political history 
of the State. During this period Hiram W. 
Johnson rose to a commanding position in the 
State government and in national affairs. While 
James D. Phelan, the Democratic candidate for 
United States Senator, was elected in 1914, Gov- 
ernor Johnson, running on a Progressive ticket, 
was reélected by a large majority. At this 
election a proposed prohibition amendment to 
the constitution was defeated. The Progressives 
continued to control the State Legislature. A 
unique departure in legal procedure was the ap- 
pointment, in 1914, ef a public defender in Los 
Angeles County. His duties correspond roughly 
to those of the public prosecutor, except that 
he serves the defendant. He is allowed to ac- 
cept cases brought to him by those unable to pay 
a lawyer, in addition to those assigned to him 
by the court. On Apr. 30, 1914, there was an 
eruption of Mt. Lassen, a supposedly extinct 
voleano in the northern part of the State. In 
the same year serious floods in Los Angeles and 
other cities resulted in the death of six persons 
and the loss of property valued at millions of 
dollars. There were no events of political im- 
portance for 1915. In 1916, as a result of area 
added in the municipal elections, Los Angeles 
became the largest municipal area in the coun- 
try. On July 22, 1916, during a preparedness 
parade in San Francisco, an infernal machine 
was exploded in the crowd, causing the death of 
six and the injury of 25. On Jan. 28, 1916, 
following a six-day storm, the dam at San Diego 
burst, causing the death of 65 persons and a 
property loss of $200,000,000. In the same 


& 

¢. 
~~ 
a 


CALIFORNIA 


period other floods in the State caused great 
loss. California occupied a prominent place in 
the presidential election in 1916. The Repub- 
lican party was divided by factional dispute and 
as a result the Democratic electors received a 
plurality of 3373 votes. This result gave the 
election to President Wilson. For the first time 
in the history of the State, women voted in 
1916 in the presidential campaign. Governor 
Johnson was elected to the United States Senate. 
At this election a constitutional amendment pro- 
viding for prohibition was again defeated. 
William D. Stephens, lieutenant-governor, be- 
eame governor of the State on Mar. 10, 1917, 
succeeding Senator Johnson, who was reélected 
in 1918. Two prohibition amendments submitted 
at the election of this year were decisively de- 
feated. The Supreme Court in 1918 upheld the 
constitutionality of the State primary election 
law. Aside from the work of the Legislature, 
there were no special political events in 1919. 
In 1920 elections were held for United States 
Senator and certain State officers. Samuel M. 
Shortridge was elected Senator, defeating J. D. 
Phelan, Democrat. At this election a prohibi- 
tion amendment and an act prohibiting vivi- 
section and compulsory vaccination were de- 
feated. In the presidential election of 1920, W. 
G. Harding received 624,992 votes and J. M. 
Cox 229,191. <A referendum was held on Nov. 
2, 1920, on the anti-alien land leasing law passed 
by the Legislature. This resulted in a vote of 
acceptance by a majority of over 220,000 votes 
and the act was declared in force on Sept. 10, 
1920. The chief object of this act is to prevent 
Japanese from owning agricultural land in Cali- 
fornia. Its effect is to render it impossible for 
60,000 or 70,000 residents in the State to lease 
land in their own right or in behalf of their 
children. In the State elections held in Novem- 
ber, 1922, Friend W. Richardson, Republican, 
was elected governor and Hiram W. Johnson was 
reélected to the Senate. Upton Sinclair, the 
well-known Socialist and writer, as a candidate 
for the Senate, received 23,668 votes. Governor 
Richardson assumed office in January, 1923. He 
demanded, in his inaugural address, strict en- 
forcement of the prohibition act. An investiga- 
tion into election expenses by corporations was 
earried on by the State Senate during the year, 
and several measures were passed to prevent 
excessive expenditures. On Sept. 17, 1923, a 
fire in Berkeley caused a property loss of over 
$10,000,000. On November 11 of this year the 
United States Supreme Court declared valid 
laws prohibiting alien ownership of land in the 
State. In the presidential primaries held in 
1923, President Coolidge was endorsed by the 
Republican voters and William G. McAdoo by the 
Democrats. Senator Johnson, who was a candi- 
date, was defeated by President Coolidge. 
Legislation. The most important measures 
enacted by the Legislature during the decade 
1914-24 were as follows: The Legislature of 
1915 passed a measure abolishing political party 
distinction from the ballots. This, however, was 
defeated by referendum later in the year. At- 
tempts to amend the anti-alien land act, passed 
in 1913, failed. This law was held constitu- 
tional by the State court. The Legislature in 
1917 enacted several measures relating to the 
judiciary and the administration of justice. A 
constitutional amendment was passed providing 
for a compensation law subject to the approval 
of the people. A “blue sky” law was also enacted 


239 


CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE 


and a constitutional amendment providing for 
social insurance. These were also subject to the 
approval of the people. In 1919 the Legislature 
appropriated $1,000,000 for the extension of the 
State land settlement project including preferen- 
tial selection of farms by returned service 
men. A $40,000,000 highway bond issue was 
submitted to the people and adopted on July 1. 
A constitutional amendment providing for a con- 
stitutional convention was voted on in Novem- 
ber, 1920, and was also passed. This legislature 
passed also a compulsory education law and cre- 
ated a department of agriculture. It ratified 
the Federal prohibition law and the woman suf- 
frage amendment. In 1921 the Legislature 
passed several measures to aid _ soldiers; re- 
organized numerous State boards and offices in- 
to six administrative departments under the 
governor; created a small claims court and 
county public defenders, and enacted a State 
prohibition enforcement act. In 1923 the Legis- 
lature made instruction in the Constitution of 
the United States compulsory in all schools, 
amended the workmen’s compensation law, and 
passed an absent voters act. 

CALIFORNIA, UNIversiry or. A _ nonsec- 
tarian, coeducational State institution at Berke- 
ley, Cal., founded in 1860. The student enroll- 
ment increased from 7526 in 1914 to 13,167 in 
1923-24, plus 1645 fully matriculated students 
not working for regular degrees; the faculty in- 
creased from 434 to approximately 1500 mem- 
bers; and the library from 200,000 to 500,000 
volumes. The productive funds grew from $5,- 
540,263.92 in 1914 to $8,751,962 in 1924, and 
the annual income from $2,793,173.74 to $7,985,- 
179. Five buildings were completed in 1917 
from a $2,000,000 State bond issue: Wheeler 
Hall, a classroom named for the president of 
the university; a new wing for the library; Hil- 
gard Hall, an agriculture building; a wing for 
the chemical laboratory; and a unit for the 
power plant. In 1923, Le Conte Hall for the 
department of physics, Hesse Hall, the first unit 
oi a group of buildings for the engineering de- 
partments, and the California Memorial Sta- 
dium, costing $1,350,000, were completed, and 
Haviland Hall for the School of Education was 
in the course of construction. In 1917, de- 
partments of preventive medicine and home eco- 
nomics were established. David Prescott Bar- 
rows, Ph. D., succeeded Benjamin Ide Wheeler 
as president in 1919 and was succeeded in turn 
in 1923 by William Wallace Campbell, Sce.D., 
LL.D. 

CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECH- 
NOLOGY. A nonsectarian institution for the 
technical education of men at Pasadena, Cal., 
founded in 1891. The student enrollment rose 
from 58 in 1914 to 572, of whom 56 were in the 
Graduate School, in 1924; the library increased 
from 5185 to 14,893 volumes; and the staff of 
instruction and research from 22 to 106 mem- 
bers. The productive funds increased from 
$576,000 to $5,565,000, and the income from 

75,000 to $303,000. The Gates Chemical Lab- 
oratory was built in 1917; the east wing of 
the Norman Bridge Laboratory of Physics was 
erected in 1917, the central section in 1923, and 
the west wing in 1924; an auditorium, a high- 
voltage research laboratory, a research labora- 
tery of applied chemistry, and a temporary 
building for student activities, were constructed 
and equipped. Eight acres were added to the 
campus. The Carnegie Institution (q.v.) of 


CALIPHATE 


Washington gave $30,000 a year for five years 
for the support of researches on the structure 
of matter and radiation, under the direction of 
Dr. R. A. Millikan (q.v.) and Dr. A, A. Noyes. 
The name of the institute was changed in 
1920 from Throop Polytechnic Institute to 
the form given above. Dr. James A. B. Scherer 
was president until his resignation in 1920; 
from that time the administration was in the 
hands of an executive council, of which Dr. 
Robert A. Millikan was chairman. 

CALIPHATE. The Caliphate or leadership 
of the Mohammedan world, which had been held 
by rulers of Turkey since the 16th century, was 
allowed to lapse on Mar. 3, 1924, when the 
Turkish Grand National Assembly at Angora de- 
posed Abdul Mejid from the office of Caliph and 
abolished the institution, at least temporarily, 
in so far as Turkey was concerned. The Cali- 
phate immediately became the subject of inter- 
national intrigue and universal discussion. The 
spiritual and temporal powers which the Turk- 
ish Sultans had enjoyed as Caliphs have often 
been exaggerated, even to the point of erroneous- 
ly comparing the Caliphate to the Papacy. In 
theory, to be sure, the Caliph was the repre- 
sentative or vicegerent of the prophet Moham- 
med, guardian of the sacred law of Islam, de- 
fender of the faith, and spokesman of some 300,- 
000,000 Mohammedans. As a matter of fact, al- 
though for a while after Mohammed’s death, a.p. 
632, the Caliphs enjoyed great prestige, the 
office was not recognized by the large body of 
schismatic Shahs in Persia and elsewhere, nor 
did it in modern times command much more 
than nominal respect among non-Turkish Mo- 
hammedan populations. It was a mere shadow 
when it was taken by Sultan Selim I from the 
last of the Abbasids, in the sixteenth century, 
to become hereditary in the house of Othman. 
Abdul Hamid II used it as a convenient in- 
strument to strengthen his political pretensions 
and to enlist support from Mohammedans out- 
side his empire, and the dramatic German Em- 
peror William II generously but inaccurately re- 
ferred to the Sultan “whom 300,000,000 Moham- 
medans throughout the world revere as the 
Caliph’; but after the revolution of 1908 and 
the rise of the Young Turks, the artificially in- 
flated prestige of the Caliphate was punctured 
by .a series of inglorious wars and by Arab re- 
volts against the Pan-Turanian policies of the 
Young Turk leaders. The Young Turks, indeed, 
were willing to use the Caliphate for their own 
nationalistic ends, but placed little confidence in 
its dubious vitality. - 

The outbreak of the War made the use of 
sentiment once more desirable. To rally the 
Islamic host to the aid of Turkey, the Sultan, 
Mohammed V, in 1915 was induced to become 
once again the head of a militant Caliphate and 
to proclaim the dreaded Jihad or Holy War. 
The Holy War failed outside of Turkey, for 
Arab, Berber, and Indian Mohammedans fought 
in the Allies’ cause; it became increasingly evi- 
dent to the West that the Caliph’s position, 
heretofore magnified by the Powers in the in- 
terests of their own policies, was really sadly 
insecure. For Mustapha Kemal and the Nation- 
alist Turks, after the War, the institution of the 
Caliphate possessed no attraction. It is difficult 
to say whether, in their admiration for western 
institutions, the Nationalists did not lean too 
far over to the left, and in pretending a lack 
of sympathy for religious ideas, tend to minim- 


240 


CALIPHATE 


ize the hold that Mohammedanism still had 
on the great masses of the Turkish population. 
At any rate, action was drastic. After the 
Mudania Convention had given Constantinople 
into their hands, the Nationalists, on Nov. 2, 
1922, deposed the Sultan-Caliph, Mohammed VI, 
and abolished the Sultanate. They named Ab-. 
dul Mejid Caliph, but they sheared the office of 
all its temporal power. Islam was made to 
realize that Turkey merely waited for a propi- 
tious moment to rid herself of the Caliphate al- 
together. The too eager interest of Indian Mo- 
hammedans furnished the opportunity. After 
the War, Indian extremists worked heroically 
for the resurgence of the Caliphate’s high dig- 
nity, not in the interest of Turkey but rather 
in that of an independent India. The appeal 
was frankly religious and sentimental; around 
Nationalist Turkey, which had successfully de- 
fied Great Britain, crystallized a myth of the 
new Mohammedan leader who was to guide the 
Islamic world back to its former greatness. 
The Nationalists regarded such talk with sus- 
picion. To them, in an agitation of this kind, 
the way seemed easily left open for foreign in- 
terference in Turkish affairs. When the well- 
intentioned Indian Mohammedans, the Aga Khan 
and Ameer Ali, in a letter to Ismet Pasha, the 
Turkish Premier, on Nov. 24, 1923, urged on the 
Angora government the necessity for upholding 
the power of the Caliphate, summary action 
was decided on. The so-called tribunal of in- 
dependence was appointed to try the Constanti- 
nople editors whose papers were alleged to have 
published the letter before Ismet Pasha had 
even received it. And then, in the debate on 
the budget in the Assembly, on Mar. 1, 1924, 
Mustapha Kemal demanded the abolition of the 
Caliphate. Two days later the Assembly com- 
plied, and on the next day Abdul Mejid and 
his son were bundled across the European fron- 
tier. To indicate how completely secular and re- 
ligious affairs were henceforth to be sundered, 
drastic measures were enacted providing for the 
seizure of effects and estates belonging to the 
deposed Othman family, the confiscation of all 
the property of the Pious Foundations, the sub- 
ordination to the civil authorities of the law 
administration based on the Koran, and the 
abolition of religious schools. Turkey thus 
parted with her past and frankly accepted Oc- 
cidental standards. Whether the loss of the 
prestige which the Caliphate had formerly con- 
ferred on her would militate against Turkey’s 
influence remained to be seen. The interesting 
question to be determined was whether Turkey, 
now that she had voluntarily relinquished her 
place as a first rate eastern power, would be- 
come, with her diminished population and her 
broken economic life, merely a third rate west- 
ern state, or the great driving force of her lead- 
ers could succeed in raising her to a command- 
ing position in world affairs. The abolition of 
the Caliphate threw an apple of discord among 
Moslems, and among the imperialist Great 
Powers. Hussein, King of the Hedjaz, with the 
implicit support of the British government, im- 
mediately announced his candidacy. The French 
looked favorably on the ambitions of the Sultan 
of Morocco. Other aspirants were King Fuad 
of Egypt, the Amir of Afghanistan, and the Aga 
Khan. British diplomacy triumphed when the 
Arabs of Mesopotamia, Transjordania, and the 
Hedjaz, on Mar. 7, 1924, formally proclaimed 
Hussein Caliph. But the matter was by no 


CALKINS — 241 


means settled, for France and Italy, because of 
their colonial Mohammedan populations, were 
too deeply concerned to be ready to accept an 
initial setback as final defeat, and Indian Mo- 
hammedans, most interested in the survival of 
the Faith which the Caliphate had represented, 
refused to commit themselves. This aloofness 
was perhaps more disquieting than the noisy de- 
bates of the French and Italian press. At any 
rate, in 1924 it was perceptible that the problem 
of the Caliphate had rent wide open the world 
of Islam and again revealed the fundamental 
differences existing among Turks, Arabs, and 
Indians. See, also, TURKEY; PAN-ISLAMISM; 
and PAN-TURANIANISM. 

CALKINS, Ransom M. (1863- ). An 
American railway official, born at Ogdensburg, 
N. Y. He was educated in the public schools of 
that city and began his railway service with the 
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad in 
1879. He rose through various grades with that 
road and in the years following served with 
many important railways in the West, chiefly 
as traffic manager. He served in this capacity 
with the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Rail- 
road from 1913 to 1917 and was made president 
of that road in 1918. In 1920, he became presi- 
dent of the Chicago, Milwaukee and Southern 
Pacific Railway. 

CALLAN, Joun Gurney (1875- ran 
American mechanical engineer, born in North- 
field, Conn. 


for several years was with the General Electric 
Company and with the Arthur D. Little Com- 
pany of Boston. He was professor of steam 
and gas engineering at the University of Wis- 
consin from 1915 to 1920, and from the latter 
date was professor of industrial management 
of the Graduate School of Business Administra- 
tion at Harvard. He took about 70 patents, 
chiefly in connection with steam turbines, and 
was a member of several scientific societies. 

CALLES, PLutTarco ELIAS (?- Vaend 
Mexican public official, born in the State o 
Sonora, and at one time governor of that State. 
He was a close associate of President Obregon, 
who was born in the same State, as was also 
Adolfo de la Huerta. Calles became Secretary 
of the Interior in Obregon’s Cabinet, and had 
the backing of the Labor party. In August, 
1923, when the recognition of Mexico by the 
United States was consummated, Calles resigned 
from the Cabinet in order to conduct his cam- 
paign for the nomination to the presidency. 
During the last week of August, the Labor party 
held its convention and he was nominated. He 
had the support of the administration, and also 
of the Yucatan Socialist party, and the radical 
Agrarian party. A month later the Codperative 
party nominated de la Huerta, and a bitter 
fight began which soon led to revolution (see 
Mexico). The government was finally victori- 
ous, and on Mar. 25, 1924, Calles resigned from 
the army and resumed his candidacy for the 
presidency. He reaffirmed his previous declara- 
tions regarding social problems in Mexico and 
offered to continue the social policies of Presi- 
dent Obregon. He was elected president of 
Mexico in July, 1924. 

CALLOWAY, Arrrep W. (1872- ). An 
American coal operator, born in Manchester, 
England. He came to the United States in 1882 
and was educated in the public schools of Brook- 
lyn, N. Y. He was employed in many important 


He graduated from the Massa-, 
chusetts Institute of Technology in 1896 and. 


CALVIN 


capacities in several railroads and from 1913 
was president of the Davis Coal and Coke Com- 
pany, of Baltimore. From 1917, he was also 
president of the Pittsburgh Terminal Railway 
Company and was director and official in many 
important coal-mining and other corporations. 

CALMETTE, ALBERT (1863- aot 
French bacteriologist and sanitarian, born at 
Nice. He received the deyree of M.D. from the 
University of Paris in 1886 and spent some 
years as surgeon in the French navy. He de- 
voted himself to bacteriological and hygienic 
work and was awarded the task of founding 
and directing a branch Pasteur Institute in 
Saigon (1889). Resigning from the navy, he 
was appointed director of the Pasteur Institute 
at Lille and remained until the death of Metch- 
nikoff, when he succeeded Roux as assistant di- 
rector of the Paris institute. Calmette’s chief 
publications are along such dissimilar lines as 
snake venoms, sewage purification, tuberculosis 
and miners’ anemia. They are as follows: Re- 
cherches sur Vépuration biologique et chimique 
des eaux d’égout, 8 vols. (1905-14) ; Recherches 
expérimentales sur le tuberculose (1907-14) ; 
Les venins, les animaux venimeux et la sero- 
thérapie antivenimeuse (1907; in’ English 
translation, 1908); also with Breton, L’Anky- 
lostomiase (1905); and (with Imbeaux and 
Poitevin) Egouts et vidanges, ordures ména- 
geres, cimitieres. 2 vols. (1911). 

CALVERT, Louis (1859-1923). An Eng- 
lish actor born in Manchester who made his 
first appearance at the Theatre Royal at Dur- 
ban, Natal, in 1878. During 1888-89 he toured 
in America with Mrs. Langtry and in conjunc- 
tion with Martin Harvey and William Haviland 
took out the Lyceum Vacation Company. He 
toured with Miss Fortescue and Ben Greet’s 
company and in 1890 formed his own company 
and produced Shakespearian plays. From 1915 
to 1919 he was in America, where he became 
famous as Matey in Dear Brutus (1918). When 
he returned to Wimbledon in October, 1919, he 
began his part in Daddalums and later toured 
in that play. In 1921, he played Caliban in 
The Tempest and in the next year was best 
known for his presentation of the Baron in He 
Who Gets Slapped. He died July 18, 1923. 
Among his books were An Actor’s Hamlet and 
Problems of the Actor. 

CALVERT, Puitie Powett (1871- 
An American zodlogist born at Philadelphia, Pa. 
He was educated at the University of Pennsyl- 
vania (Ph.D., 1885), and at Berlin and Jena. 
He was assistant instructor in zodlogy at the 
University of Pennsylvania (1892-97), instruc- 
tor (1897-1907), assistant professor (1907-12), 
and professor (1912— ). Professor Calvert 
traveled extensively in Mexico and Central 
America, and his scientific publications were 
mainly studies on the dragon flies of Central 
America. 

CALVIN, Epaar EvcENE (1858- ). An 
American railway official, born in Indianapolis. 
He was educated in the public schools of that 
city and began his railroad career as telegraph 
operator in the Indianapolis, Cincinnati and 
Lafayette Railroad, in 1875. He entered the 
service of the Union Pacific Railway in 1882, 
rising to the office of trainmaster. He served 
as general superintendent and general manager 
in several important railways in the West, and 
in 1916 was appointed president of the Union 
Pacific Railroad. During the War he acted as 


CAMBODIA 


Federal manager for many important roads and 
from 1920 was vice-president of the Union 
Pacific System Lines. 

CAMBODIA. See FRENCH INDO-CHINA. 

CAMBON, JULES MARTIN (1845- ). A 
French diplomat (see Vor. IV). Having been 
French ambassador in Berlin until the outbreak 
of the War, his knowledge of German affairs 
was very valuable to France. He was appointed 
General Secretary for Foreign Affairs during 
M. Briand’s war premiership. He was elected 
to the French Academy in 1918, and received 
into that body the following year. 

CAMBON, Pierre Pavut_ (1843-1924). A 
French diplomat, (see Vout. IV), member of the 
Institut (Académie des Sciences, Morales et 
Politiques). He was largely’ influential in 
frustrating Germany’s efforts to separate France 
and England in 1914. He also did much during 
the peace negotiations to keep France and Great 
Britain on good terms He resigned as French 
Ambassador to England in November, 1920, and 
died at Paris, May 28, 1924. 

CAMBRAI, BattLte or. See 
EuroprE, Western Front. 

CAMBRIDGE. A city of Massachusetts. 
The population rose from 104,839 in 1910 to 
109,694 in 1920 and to 111,444 by estimate of 
the Bureau of the Census for 1923. Contracts 
were let in 1921 for a 14,000,000 gallon water- 
purification plant of the mechanical or rapid- 
filter type, the first of its kind for general pur- 
poses in Massachusetts. The number of indus- 
trial establishments increased from 270, repre- 
senting 243 industries in 1916, capitalized at 
$67,000,000, employing 20,000 persons, and pro- 
ducing goods valued at $60,000,000, to 338, rep- 
resenting 250 different industries in 1923, em- 
ploying 27,000, and producing goods valued at 
$156,430,827. Deposits in savings banks rose 
during the period from $22,500,000 to $30,000,- 
000; bank assets in 1923 were $125,000,000. 

CAMDEN. A city of New Jersey on the 
Delaware River opposite Philadelphia. Its 
population rose from 94,538 in 1910 to 116,309 
in 1920, and to 126,309 by estimate of the 
Bureau of the Census for 1924. The commission 
form of government was adopted in 1923; in 
1924, a city plan was under consideration. 
Work was begun in 1921 on a suspension bridge 
between Camden and Philadelphia (q.v.), to cost 
$28,000,000. The main span was to be 1750 feet 
in length, with an underclearance of 135 feet; 
the whole length was to be 1.82 miles  Broad- 
way was to be opened through to the bridge 
approach. A municipal pier was built, a civic 
centre plan was under way, a community hotel, 
to cost $1,250,000, was begun. In 1924, $6,000,- 
000 was being expended on new city boulevards; 
the same year the Philadelphia and Reading 
Railroad opened a new $3,000,000 terminal with 
14 tracks. 

CAMEROON, BritisH. A British mandate 
territory formerly a part of the German Kam- 
erun (q.v.), on the west coast of Central Africa 
stretching from the sea along the Nigerian fron- 
tier to Lake Chad. Area, 33,700 square miles; 
population, 664,000. While the territory was 
administered from Nigeria, independent accounts 
were maintained. Up to 1923 the developments 
had been slight, and the deficit incurred in ad- 
ministration steadily mounted. In 1921, reve- 
nues were £52,000 and expenditures £102,000. 
The leading exports in 1921 were palm products, 
rubber, ivory, cocoa, and totaled £34,000. Im- 


WaR IN 


. Veillée de Noél; and Poémes Intimes 


242 ' CAMPBELL 
ports totaled £49,000. In 1921, 67 vessels of 


100,000 tons entered Victoria. The mark was 
used until July 1, 1922, and then was replaced 
by British currency. 

CAMEROON, Frencw. A French mandate 
territory on the west coast of Central Africa, 
formerly the German Kamerun (qv.). Area, 
166,489 square miles and population about 2,000,- 
000. By decree of March, 1921, the territory 
was given autonomy and a seat of government 
in 1921 was erected at the inland town of Ya- 
oundé (population: 30,000). Duala, the chief 
port, had about 18,000 inhabitants. The Com- 
missioner of the Cameroon sat on the council of 
the governor of French Equatorial Africa, and 
thus common action was assured. The budget 
for 1922 balanced at 17,292,000 francs. A spe- 
cial railway budget included 3,380,000 francs. 
The leading products were coffee, tobacco, palm 
oil, and ivory, and netted an export value of 
22,498,333 frances in 1921. Imports were 32,581,- 
277 francs. In 1921, 188 vessels, four-fifths of 
them French, entered the port of Duala. The 
territory had 359 miles of railway in 1922, and 
213 miles of roads. A railway from’ Duala to 
Yaoundé was in the course of construction. 

CAMMAERTS, EmMILE- (1878- \e2m 
Belgian poet born at Brussels In 1908, he went 
to England where he continued to live, remain- 
ing a Belgian subject. Among his French works 
are translations of John Ruskin and G. K. Ches- 
terton; two- plays, Les Deux Bossus and La 
(1922) 
He also wrote: Les Bellini—An Essay in Art 
Criticism ; Belgian Poems (1915); New Belgian 
Poems (1917); Through the Iron Bars (1917) ; 
Messines and other Poems (1918); Belgium, 
From the Roman Invasion to the Present Day 
(1920); and The Childhood of Christ as seen by 
the Primitive Masters (1922)  Cammaerts’s 
poems written during the War and his Through 
the Iron Bars, which recounts the sufferings of 
Belgium in that period, won for him a wide 
popularity. 

C.:AMOUFLAGE OF VESSELS. See WAR 
IN EUROPE. 

CAMP, WALTER (1859- ). An American 
authority on athletics (see Vor. IV). He is 
author of the following: Auction Up-to-Date 
(1914); Captain Danny (1914); Danny, the 
Freshman (1915); Keeping Fit All the Way 
(1919); Spalding’s Official Football Guide 
(1920); Football Without a Coach (1920); 
Handbook on Health and How to Use It (1920) ; 
Daily Dozen (1921); Training for Sports 
(1921); and How to Play Football (1922). 

CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA 
(Mrs. Patrick) 1867- ). An English ac- 
tress (see Vout. IV). She came to America in 
1914 and toured in Shaw’s Pygmalion. The 
next year she played The Second Mrs Tanquer- 
ay and Mrs. Blaine in Searchlights. She re- 
turned to London and among her best roles was 
Lady Macbeth (1920), played to James K. Hack- 
ett’s Macbeth. In 1914 she married George F. 
M. Cornwallis-West 

CAMPBELL, Epwarp DE MILLE (1863- My 
An American chemist (see Vot. IV). In 1917, 
he was consulting chemist of the United States 
Ordnance Department at large. He wrote many 
articles on chemical and allied subjects, and 
was a member of many scientific societies. 

CAMPBELL, HENRY Donatp (1862- ). 
An American geologist, born at Lexington, Va. 
He was graduated at Washington and Lee Uni- 


TANNER 


2 er es i ithe Rwy “— 


ne 


CAMPBELL 


versity where he received the degrees of A.M. 
in 1882 and Ph.D., in 1885. He also studied in 


- 1886-87 at Berlin and in 1887-88 at Heidelberg. 


In 1882, he was made an instructor in chemistry 
and geology at Washington and Lee and in 1888 
attained the chair of geology and biology, but 
in 1920 he gave attention to geology only. Dr. 
Campbell served as dean of the academic faculty 
during 1906-08 and in 1908 became dean of 
Washington and Lee University. He is an au- 
thority on the geology of West Virginia and on 
the Mesozoic diabases of the Atlantic border. 

CAMPBELL, Oscar JAMES, JR. (1879- }. 
An American educator, born at Cleveland, Ohio. 
He was professor of English at the University 
of Wisconsin from 1911 to 1921, and in 1921 
became professor of English at the University of 
Michigan. In 1918, the United States govern- 
ment commissioned him to collect information 
about Turkey to be used at the Peace Confer- 
ence. His writings include: The Comedies of 
Holberg (1914); A Book of Narratives (with 
R. A. Rice) (1917); The Position of the Roode 
en Witte Roos in the Saga of Richard III 
(1979). 


CAMPBELL, Mrs. Patrick. See CAmp- 
BELL, BEATRICE STELLA TANNER. 
CAMPBELL, Wr1iAm  (1876- ). An 


English metallurgist, born at Newcastle on Tyne, 
England. He was graduated at the Durham 
College of Science in 1898, where he also re- 
ceived degrees in 1903 and in 1905. After a 
year at the Royal School of Mines in London as 
Research Scholar, he came to New York and 
studied at Columbia, receiving his Ph.D., in 
1903. He lectured on geology and metallurgy 
at Durham, and in 1903, became a lecturer on 
geology at Columbia where in 1917 he became 
full professor of metallurgy. During 1907-11, 
he was metallographer to the United States Geo- 
logical Survey and after 1911 he held a similar 
relation to the Bureau of Mines. After 1913, 
he also lectured on metallurgy to the postgradu- 
ate school of the United States Naval Academy. 
He has given special attention to the micro- 
structure and physical properties of metals and 
alloys and has studied the influence of heat and 
the mechanical treatment on the structure and 
properties of iron and steel and other alloys. 
During the War he served with the National Re- 
search Council on his specialties. 

CAMP FIRE GIRLS. An organization for 
girls founded in 1912 for the purpose of pro- 
moting good health and better citizenship by 
providing a programme of wholesome and pleas- 
ant outdoor activities, and of service. Between 


~ the date of its foundation and 1924 the organiza- 


tion spread into every State and territory of 
the United States, and to 21 foreign countries 
located on every continent. Twenty-five per 
cent of the camp fires were organized as part of 
school systems, and 75 per cent in connection 
with churches. Six and one half per cent of 
the members were of foreign parentage. Six 
hundred thousand girls followed the programme 
in the ten years between 1914 and 1924; the 
membership increased from 35,980 in 1916 to 
160,000 in 1923. In 1923, 100,000 girls camped 
out. The same year 70 training courses for 
leaders were held in universities, colleges, nor- 
mal schools, and camps, and 42 trained local 
executives directing activities in their given lo- 
ealities were paid by their communities. Dur- 
ing the War 90 per cent of the members were 
engaged in War activities. 


243 


CANADA 


CANADA. A British dominion in the north- 
ern half of the North American continent, 
bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean and 
Alaska; on the south by the United States; on 
the east by the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence and Davis Strait; and on the 
north by the Arctic Ocean. The total area of 
Canada is 3,729,665 square miles, consisting of 
3,603,336 square miles of land and 126,329 square 
miles of water. The sixth census of the Domin- 
ion of Canada shows the total population on 
June 1, 1921, as 8,788,483, as compared with 
7,206,643 on June 1, 1911, an increase of 1,581,- 
840, or 21.95 per cent in the decade. From 
1911 to 1921, there occurred in the four western 
provinces an increase of population from 1,720,- 
601 to 2,480,664 or 44.2 per cent, while the five 
eastern provinces increased from 5,471,023 to 
6,295,189, an increase of 824,166 persons, which, 
though absolutely larger than the figure for the 
west, constituted an increase of only 15 per 
cent over the 1911 population. Ontario and 
Quebec still contained the major portion of the 
population; in 1921, 60 per cent as compared 
with 63 per cent in 1911. The density of popu- 
lation in Canada was 2.44 to the square mile. 
In 1921, the ratio of males to females was 515 
males to 485 females per 1000 of population, as 
compared to 530 males to 470 females per 1000 
in 1911. The decline was accounted for by the 
loss of 60,000 Canadian men during the War and 
the checking of immigration. Of Canada’s total 
population, 4,436,041 or 49.52 per cent were 
classed as rural in 1921, as compared with 
3,933,696 in 1911. The urban population num- 
bered 4,352,442 in 1921 and 3,272,947 in 1911. 
In 1921, there were only 83,599 more persons 
in the rural communities than in the urban; in 
1911, the excess was 660,749. The census of 
1921 showed that for the first time Canada pos- 
sessed cities of more than a half million popu- 
lation. These were Montreal and _ Toronto. 
Populations of important cities in 1921, with 
1911 shown in parentheses, were: Montreal, 
618,506 (490,504); Toronto, 521,893 (381,833) ; 
Winnipeg, 179,087 (136,035); Vancouver, 117,- 
217 (100,401); Hamilton, 114,151 (81,969) ; 
Ottawa, 107,843 (87,062); Quebec, 95,193 (78,- 
710); Calgary, 63,305 (43,704); London, 60,- 
959 (46,300) ; Edmonton, 58,821 (31,064) ; Hali- 
fax, 58,372 (46,619). Births in 1921 were 257,- 
728, marriages 69,732, and deaths 101,155. Im- 
migrant arrivals in 1923 totaled 72,887, of whom 
22,007 came from the United States and 34,508 
from the United Kingdom. In 1913, immigrant 
arrivals totaled 402,432; of whom 139,009 came 
from. the United States and 150,542 from the 
United Kingdom. The racial distribution of the 
population was, in percentages: English, (1921) 
28.96 ‘and - (1911). 25.30; Irish, (1921). 12:60 
and (1911) 14.58; Scotch, (1921) 13.36 and 
(1911) 13.85. The total population of the Brit- 
ish races was 54 per cent in 1911 and 55 per cent 
IM sid2d. 

Education. Throughout the Dominion of 
Canada public education was a matter of pro- 
vinecial concern. In Quebec there were two dis- 
tinct systems of education in each of which the 
teaching of religion occupied a prominent posi- 
tion—the Protestant and the Roman Catholic 
systems. In the academic year ended in 1922, 
there were 2,123,618 pupils in attendance at 
educational institutions in Canada, or 24.2 per 
cent of the 1921 population. Of the above, 
1,860,760 were enrolled in ordinary day school 


CANADA 


under public control, the average daily attend- 
ance numbering 1,377,423; in 1911, 1,350,821 
pupils were enrolled, the average attendance 
being 866,956. Pupils attending vocational 
school numbered 80,549 in 1922. There were 
23,929 students in private business colleges, and 
71,504 in other private schools under college 
grade. University students in regular courses 
numbered 18,245 and college students in regular 
courses 5902. Students in classical colleges 
numbered 9502. There were, in 1922, 59,312 
teachers in schools under public control, 10,- 
596 males and 48,716 females; in 1911, there 
were 40,502 teachers. The total expenditures on 
schools under public control was $107,685,069, of 
which governments contributed $13,934,113, and 
local taxation most of the balance. Higher edu- 
eation in Canada was carried on in 23 univer- 
sities and 65 colleges, including 21 classical col- 
leges in Quebec. Of the universities, six were 
state controlled (New Brunswick, Toronto, Man- 
itoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and_ British 
Columbia); four others were undenominational 
(Dalhousie, McGill, Queen’s and Western) ; 
while the remainder were denominational. The 
number of students registered in universities 
during the year 1922 was 10,821 in state con- 
trolled institutions (teaching staff, 1038); 6074 
in other undenominational institutions (staff, 
674); and 14,267 in denominational institutions 
(staff, 1425); making a grand total of 31,792 
with a teaching staff of 3137. 


244 CANADA 


by lower prices applicable to almost every crop. 


The total value of all field crops in 1913 was. 


$552,771,500. Canada’s most important crop 
was wheat, the total yield for the year 1923 be- 
ing finally estimated at 474,199,000 bushels from 
an area of 22,671,864 acres, as compared with 
399,786,400 bushels from 22,422,693 acres in 
1922, and with 231,717,000 bushels in 1913 from 
11,015,000 acres. The wheat crop of 474,199,- 
000 bushels in 1923 was the largest on record 
for Canada, and compared with 399,786,400 bush- 
els, last year’s record crop, and with 393,542,- 
600 bushels, the previous record crop of 1915. 
The average yield per acre for all wheat in 
1923 was 21 bushels, as compared with 17% 
bushels in 1922, 26 bushels in 1915, and 21 
bushels in 1913. Oats yielded in 1923 the total 
of 563,997,500 bushels from 14,387,807 acres, as 
compared with 491,239,000 bushels from 14,- 
541,229 acres in 1922, and with 404,669,000 
bushels from 10,434,000 acres in 1913. The 
average yield per acre was 3914 bushels in 
1923, 33°, bushels in 1922, and 38.78 bushels 
in 1913. The total crop for 1923 was the high- 
est on record, the previous record being 530,- 
709,700 bushels in 1920. Barley yielded the 
total of 76,997,800 bushels from 2,784,571 acres, 
as compared with 71,865,300 bushels from 
2,599,520 in 1922 and with 48,319,000 bushels 
from 1,613,000 acres in 1913. The average yields 
per acre were 27% bushels in 1923, 27% 
bushels in 1922, and 29.96 bushels in 1913. 


1922 
Area Yield 


Area Yield 

Acres Cwt. Acres Cwt. 
683,594 55,745,300 560,942 55,497,000 
224,256 43,973,500 194,512 38,116,500 

Ton Ton 
20,725 190,400 22,450 216,200 
10,001,667 14,488,200 9,725,602 14,844,900 
See ey Sh a Be) boots ton sale toute 1,920,432 4,336,100 
805,933 806,400 891,116 1,028,600 
654,624 5,879,000 659,070 5,320,800 


Area Yield 
Acres Cwt. 
IPOLaAtOCSawepestaveue eliere ticle sis] eve ° 473,500 47,126,400 
Turnips, mangolds, etc ..... ° 186,400 De ae 
on 
Sup arbecksn Mi hes ateciene al tacene 17,000 148,000 
LAV SAT CIMOIOV.CLEL >; lelefoue skaters 8,169,000 10,859,000 
Grainy NAVdae se code os were hie ou eeM MeCN Mas tay Shei! Mw ieelue eles 18 
PANT Alea St. cereus. caheie se sic sitet tstets 93,560 237,770 
Bodder Ucorn | Hae hie eee eet 303,650 2,616,300 
Agriculture. The economic prosperity of 


Canada continued dependent primarily upon ag- 
riculture. Farm products comprised 55 per cent 
of Canadian exports, the most important being 
wheat and flour, pork products and dairy prod- 
ucts. The total area under field crops in 1923 
was 56,569,794 acres, as against 57,189,681 in 
1922, and 35,375,430 in 1913. The total values 
of field crops for 1913, 1922, and 1923 were esti- 
mated as follows: 


1913 1922 1923 

Wheat .... $156,462,000 $339,419,000 $316,934,700 
Odtsrpsiivae: 128,893,000 185,455,000 184,857,400 
Barley 20,144,000 3id800D,000 32,570,700 
Rye: ces oe 1,524,000 18,703,200 11,339,900 
Pease sieeeie. 4,382,000 5,818,200 4,987,400 
Beans, 548% 1,505,000 3,713,800 2,773,000 
Buckwheat. . 5,320,000 8,140,800 8,191,700 
Mixed grains 8,685,000 16,500,700 17,654,800 
Flax seed 17,084,000 8,638,900 12,643,900 
Corn for 

husking 10,784,300 11,509,700 12,466,000 
Potatoes ... 38,418,000 50,320,000 56,397,800 
Turnips, 

mangolds, 

OUCH alot 18,643,000 23,886,000 22,483,100 
ACS ve sy 1) 

clover. 124,696,000 194,950,000 162,882,000 
Alfalfa 2,819,200 10,295,000 11,914,000 
GOAL DAY, dirot! ge 5 cL Oe ieee ee eae sie Ao 15,063,800 
Fodder corn 12,506,000 29,197,600 24,605,000 
Sugar beets 906,000 1,500,000 1,401,000 


The aggregate value of all field crops in 1923 
was $899,166,200, as compared with $962,293,200 
in 1922, a decrease of $63,127,000, caused mainly 


Flaxseed in 1923 yielded 7,139,500 bushels from 
629,938 acres, as compared with 5,008,500 bush- 
els from 565,479 acres in 1922 and with 17,- 
539,000 bushels from 1,522,800 acres in 1913. 
The yield per acre was 11.30 bushels in 1923 
as against 8.85 bushels in 1922 and 11.30 bushels 
in 1913. The total yields of root and fodder 
crops, in 1923, as compared with 1922 and 1913, 
are given in the above table. 

For the year 1923, the estimated quantities 
and values of various fruits produced commer- 
cially in Canada were as follows, the correspond- 
ing figures for 1922 and quantities only for 
1910 being given, if available: apples, (provi- 
sional estimate) 4,063,719 barrels, no estimate of 
value as yet, (5,048,405 barrels, value $24,692,- 
182; 10,618,666 bushels) ; pears 227,335 bush- 
els, value $550,587, (461,227 bushels, value $668,- 
854; 504,171 bushels) ; plums and prunes, 348,- 
482 bushels, value $916,050, (408,438 bushels, 
value $522,393; 508,994 bushels) ; peaches 403,- 
660 bushels, value $916,050 (577,561 bushels, 
$668,854; 646,826 bushels); cherries 203,125 
bushels, value $722,440, (202,740 bushels, $481,- 
850; 238,974 bushels). The gross agricultural 
wealth of Canada for 1923 was estimated to be 
$7,365,013,000, as compared with $6,774,461,000 
in 1922. The total estimated agricultural rev- 
enue of Canada in 1923 was $1,342,132,000, as 
compared with $1,389,289.000 in 1922, $1,383,- 
958,000 in 1921, $2,011,201,000 in 1920, and 
$2,109,291,000 the peak year in 1919. 


tae a iy Sprtte i gga ry EA eae Sn Ph see er agp iaita Tay, yall 2 agg 


re. 


le gl Pallet MBS eee 


CANADA 245 


The numbers of farm live stock for the Do- 
minion were estimated as follows, the corre- 
sponding numbers for 1922 and 1913 (where 
available) being given within parentheses: 
horses, 3,530, 641 (3,648,871; 2,866,008) ; mules, 
8722 (9202); cattle, 9,246,231 (9,719,869; 6,- 
849,433) ; sheep, 2,753,860 (3,263,525; 2,598,- 
470); swine, 4,405,316 (3,915,684; 2,753,964) ; 
poultry, 45,469,292 (42,930,562); rabbits in 
British Columbia 48,359 (51,623). All descrip- 
tions of farm live stock showed a decrease in 
1923, excepting swine and poultry, which in- 
ereased. The total production of farm eggs in 
Canada for the year 1923 was approximately 
202,186,508 dozen, as compared with 194,058,- 
468 dozen in 1922, and 123,071,034 dozen in 
1910, the total estimated value being $48,770,780 
in 1923, as compared with $48,490,578 in 1922. 
The total production of wool in Canada from 2,- 
755,273 sheep and lambs in 1923 was placed at 
15,539,416 pounds, as compared with 18,523.292 
pounds from 3,262,626 sheep and lambs in 1922, 
and 6,933,955 pounds in 1913. 

Forestry. The total land area of Canada is 
approximately 3,600,000 square miles. The area 
covered by existing forests ‘covered anproxi- 
mately 950,000 square miles, some of which was 
agricultural land. The estimated stand of tim- 
ber of merchantable size in Canada in 1922 was 
141 billion cubic feet, of which 102 billion eubie 
feet was softwood and 39 billion hardwood. The 
manufacture of lumber, lath, shingles, and other 
products and by- products of the : sawmill, formed 
the principal industry in Canada depending on 
the forest for its raw materials. The lumber 
cut in 1921 was 2,869,307 thousand feet hoard 
measure, valued at $82,448,585; shingles cut 
2,986,580 thousand feet, value $10,727, 096; lath 
cut 804,449 thousand feet, value $4,188, 121; in 
1913 the lumber cut was 3,816,642 thousand 
feet, value $65,796,438; shingles cut 1,485,279 
thousand feet, value $3,064,641; lath cut 739,678 
thousand feet, value $1,783,283. The total value 
of all classes of forest products in 192] was 
$218,270,769, as compared with $312,683,509 in 
1920, and $177,120,000 in 1913. The pulp and 
paper industry of Canada made rapid progress 
in the last two decades. In 1924, there were in 
existence in Canada about 50 pulp mills, 35 com- 
bined pulp and paper mills, and 40 mills making 
paper only, although not all of these were op- 
erating; in 1901, there were 25 mills all told. 
The industry in Canada included three forms of 
industrial activity, i.e the operations in the 


CANADA 


mills, 1,109,034 cords; exported unmanufactured 
1,035,030 cords. After 1902 the exports of raw 
pulpwood went exclusively to the United States, 
and amounted annually to about 1,0000,000 cords. 
The total pulp production in 1922 was 2,150,- 
251 tons, value $84,947,598; the amount of me- 
chanical pulp produced was 1,241,185 tons, 
value $31,079,429; and the amount of chemical 
fiber, 897,533 tons, valued at $53,615,692. The 
earliest accurate detailed statistics AAS C con- 
cerning the industry were those of 1917, when 
the total pulp production was 1,464,308 tons, 
valued at $65,515,335; in 1913, the total pro- 
duction was 854,624 tons. Canada’s paper pro- 
duction in 1922 was 1,366,815 tons, valued at 
$106,260,078; in 1917, production was 853,689 
tons, valued at $58,750,341 The United States 
market absorbed annually about four-fifths of 
Canada’s pulp and paper shipments, and two- 
thirds of the newsprint paper consumed in the 
United States was either of Canadian manu- 
facture or was made from wood or wood pulp 
imported from Canada. Exports of wood pulp 
to the United States in the year ended Mar 31, 
1923, totaled 12,853,589 cwt., valued at $26,- 
595,387; exports of pulpwood amounted to 
1,096,462 cords, valued at $10,755,655; and ex- 
ports of paper were valued at $70,054,256. Dur- 
ing 1923, a Royal commission was appointed to 
inquire primarily into the pulpwood resources 
of the Dominion and the expediency of pro- 
hibiting export from freehold lands. The com- 
mission held sittings throughout Canada and 
was expected to make its report during the 1924 
session of Parliament 

Fisheries. The total value of the products 
of the Canadian fishing industry in the calendar 
year 1921 was $34,931,935, compared with $49,- 
241,339 for 1920, and with $33,207,748 in 1913. 
This was the lowest since 1914, and $25,000,000 
below the record year of 1918. In 1921, the 
total capital invested in the fisheries was $45, 
669,477. The number of employees engaged in 
the primary operations of fishing was 55,230 in 
1921, and in canning and curing establishments, 
14,104; a total of 69,334. Perhaps 60 per cent 
of the annual capture was an average export, of 
which the United States took approximately one- 
half, and Great Britain one-quarter. In the 
fiscal year 1922-23, total exports amounted to 
$27,557,717, of which $13,057,031 went to the 
United States and $3,675,202 to Great Britain. 

Minerals. The value of the mineral produc. 
tion of Canada for 1923 was (the production in 


woods with pulpwood as a product, the manu- 1922 and 1913 is shown in parentheses) : metal- 
Quantity Value 
1913 1923 1918 1923 

MRA AER occ Goaleic ae kt cra stele atone tons 15,012,178 17,132,536 $37,334,940 $74,269,000 
COT dou eat ca a ES ounce 802.973 1,179,500 16,598,923 24,382,000 
ELEC ET hey, RA lg RMI ae REE Geer oh pound 49,676,772 61,444,000 14,903,032 18,433,000 
CLOUDY Oped oa RO ra me niiner cimer, 5-~ pound 76,976,925 86,312.000 11,753,606 12,515 000 
SEO lon Bag? OS Rn ane ounce 31,845 803 18,312,000 19,040,924 10,944,000 
PERSC EL ERs copra inns. tf ciletenslgs Rens penne. 37,662,703 112,600,000 1,754,705 7.882 000 
EISSN EE SE Barwa loes i t,o a Xo che, ate ton Ge) S 6g epee Uae Nhs auch cuedabatens 3,849,925 7,508,138 
BMPCIR A DSi y te) s nilens «ssh e sere thaesand Teete e OVA IBS 8 Le bees le Strel wens a 3,309 .381 5,875,150 
MESEIGE RMR Ay. ois Soc te aa wc eg poun O28 88 3 sani, were ete e ailen. 605,589 2,103,157 
RISOTTO MUMDT Is tattoo. <2 fais ae ace tons 1,128 967 880,018 16,540 OT Zee ee eee eras oe 
ROTM Harel saiaics, 24%, 9. fo, oho, a hane barrel 8,658,805 7,652,000 11,019,418 14,291,000 


facture of pulp, and the manufacture of paper. 
The total production of pulpwood in 1922 was 
3,923,940 cords, valued at $50,735,361, of which 
2,912,608 cords were used in Canadian pulp mills 
and 1,011,332 cords were exported unmanufac- 
tured. In 1913, total production was 2,144,064 
cords, value $14,313,939; used in Canadian pulp 


lics, $84,187,783 ($62,120,291; $66,361,351) ; 
non-metallics, $92,838,961 ($82,642,210; $79.- 
273,461); structural materials and clay prod- 
ucts, $36,993,088 (1922, $39,534,741). For prin- 
cipal products of the mineral industry in 1923, 
as compared with 1913, see above table 
Manufactures. According to the census of 


CANADA 246 


1921, there were in Canada 41,323 manufacturing 
establishments, as compared with 19,218 in 
1910. In 1921, the total number of employees 
was 517,141, the amount of capital invested 
$3,210,709,288, and the output was valued at 
$2,747,926,675. In 1910, the total number of 
employees was 515,203, capital $1,247,583,609, 
and output $1,165,975,639. The cost of materials 
was $1,446,304,122 in 1921, leaving $1,301,622,- 
553 as the value added by manufacture; in 1910, 
the cost of materials was $601,509,018 and the 
value added by manufacture, $564,466,621. The 
salaries and wages of employees in 1921 was 
$581,402,385, as compared with $283,311,505 in 
1910. 

Commerce. The trade of Canada during the 
fiscal year ending Mar. 31, 1923, showed a 
marked increase in value as well as in volume, 
compared with that for the previous fiscal year, 
1922. The total value of the imports for the 
fiscal year 1923 was $802,465,043; for 1922, 
$747,804,332; and for 1914, $619,193,998; while 
the exports of Canadian produce in 1923 were 
valued at $931,451,448, in 1922 at $740,240,680, 
and in 1914 at $43 1,588 439. Of Canada’s total 
trade, 55 per cent was with the United States 
and 30 per cent with the United Kingdom. In 
1923, the total trade with the United States 
amounted to $909,997,650, imports accounting 
for $540,917,432 of this amount, and exports for 
$369,080,218, while in 1922 the trade totaled 
$808,546,839, imports amounting to $515,958,- 
196 and exports to $292,588,643. In 1914, the 
total trade with the United States was $559,- 
674,963, imports from the United States being 
valued at $396,302,138 and exports to the United 
States at $163,674,963. Imports from the United 
States were greater than in 1914 by $144,615,- 
294 pt exports to the United States by $205,- 
707,38 The trade of Canada with the United 
Kingdom during the year ending Mar. 31, 19238, 
amounted to $520, 355,116; imports amounted to 
$141,287,671, and exports cy $379,067,445. Dur- 
ing, 1922; the total trade was valued at $416,- 
497,018, the imports accounting for $117,135,- 
343 of this amount, and exports for $299,361,- 
675; and during 1914 the total trade was valued 


CANADA 


at $416,497,018, of which imports amounted to 
$117,135, 343 aod exports to $299,361,675. 

Comparing the trade of Canada for 1923 with 
a normal pre-war year—i.e. 1914—it will be 
found that the interchange of merchandise in- 
creased about 70 per cent. ‘The increase in ex- 
ports was considerably in excess of the increase 
in imports. The accompanying table shows a 
comparison of Canadian imports and exports of 
principal commodities in 1923 with 1914. 

During the year ended Mar. 31, 1923, the trade 
balance was favorable to Canada by $142,830,- 
794, as compared with a favorable balance in 
1922 of $6,122,677, and an unfavorable balance 
in 1921 of $29,730,763, and, for the pre-war 
year 1914 of $163,756,774. From 1916 to 1920, 
Canada’s exports exceeded her imports each year 
by a very large amount, due principally to ab- 
normal conditions which existed during the war 
period and the reconstruction period following 
the termination of hostilities. Prior to 1916, 
the trade balance was unfavorable to Canada 
for a number of years. The exports of Canadian 
produce, with portions exported to the British 
Empire and foreign countries for the fiscal years 
1914, 1920, 1921, +1922, and 1923 were: 


Fiscal Years ‘Total Exports To British To Foreign 
Empire Countries 
1914 1 eee $431,588,439 $238,642,517 $192,945.922 
OZ ON eke ete 1,239,492,098 561,791,887 . 677,700.211 
LOZ eee 15189,163;701 403.452,219° 785-711 '482 
LOZ? ae ke "740,240,680 345,835,410 894,405,270 
19232. eee 931,451,443 439,625,892 491,825,551 


Canada vastly improved her position among the 
principal exporting countries of the world after 
1913. In 1913, Canada occupied tenth place as 
an exporting country, but by 1922 she had ad- 
vanced to fifth place, being surpassed by the 
United States, the United Kingdom, France, and 
Germany. With respect to the principal im- 
porting countries, Canada in 1922 occupied ex- 
actly the same position as in 1913, viz., eighth 
place. 

Railways. As Canada is nearly 4000 miles 
wide, railway transportation is a problem of 
vital economic importance. In 1922, there were 


CANADIAN IMPORTS AND EXPORTS 
(Figures in thousands) 


Articles Quantity Value * Quantity Value * 

Imports 
ConlieMrnce erat’... ae AL oe See, eR AP a Pe te ton 18,140 $46,875 14,323 $72,114 
Cor niin: bese bites 50a wate bes ks bushel 7,198 4,692 11.000 7,79! 
CWottonzerra Wile. get kt ho teen «SEN eel Beek oie os pound 76,993 9,752 125,261 28,325 
Cottons md yed cnet cee cr eee Sees eee yard 69,103 6,580 58,496 13,512 
Cottons, PT CY OUR. sic cs MC eit elie ace! we yard 26,943 1,454 13,488 1,493 
Distilled DCVEPALES aes Sieve. bc oeeeeeaie ere ata whe gallon 3,750 5,457 i 20 19,743 
Farm implements IMACHINESLY, 4 cis MMS soca, Sienna ois SN er ees TDA OAL TE eee 8.424 
Machinery 8. 5 ccc ee cane ce) I oe, RAE SPR eee SD ee ee 26,273 VARA ey 24,069 
Petroleum, Scrude eee ee ct eee ee anee. gallon 177,880 5,994 397,604 20,051 
foe I Ae Sri 25 hd ot yeh SA SR. pound 87,628 6,650 40,274 10,357 
ODaACCOM: C - ie Siete Renae IEeE eye gee. see pound 17,598 isyen fa (8) 15,068 7,089 
SUPA. Pa wine cee eee ae ie ite 3 Sc epee pound 694,337 14,764 1,143,456 36,061 
NVOOLS raw: .ocs, een me Ls mean eae et La pound 7,252 1,872 18,273 5,079 

Exports 
PIULOAODIES: | ints OO ela eee o's oe ae number 1 ee a See 3,572 49 27,051 
Bacons ands NAiis 8 Cle cueE we euaireiC ss 6. «6 vacheante hundred-weight 258 4,033 DEOu5 22,536 
Gatile.OVeYr ONG) yCatweal meee ete sc «sae cere number 199 7,655 229 8,738 
(GHICOSD PSY. s abs Sieve t epee ORME RI clic love ce ote tells hundred-weight 1,445 18,869 1,145 20,828 
BONY cached og chee 8 oe cRNA ekki wien. 4 ULL, NC AT foes orl, SW eexeh | SUD ty ere 16,384 
Newsprint paper). ) Vise ce theme we. . oe. k hundred-weight 5,852 11,387 20,130 72,668 
PUR MMU SPS AG bs sinc syeidel LCC aE» RMR ERE Biss alate bushel 34,997 13,380 29,022 14.533 
Pianks- eilaths “and shingles Wa rerreminie oi). ert thousand feet 1,688 21,290 6,024 75,156 
Sueary, crefined!)it (5. Ye VAG reels lens oo. pound’ Wi me pes oy hee eee eee 292,441 19,756 
Wile aihattaeitesnc:s fo bls Tyeletde setae Ree 4 dale bushel 120,427 117,719 215,075 252,146 
WY DEAR eIOUT 1 si ics Pio ats, 6 alse ROR: oites ote & barrel 4,832 20,581 LO 220 60,075 
Wood oa 42 iy oy Pe a ree. Coenen, hundred-weight 6,332 6,365 16,989 42.987 


* Canadian dollars; conversions not made. 


New York. 


During 


1923 the Canadian dollar was 2 per cent below par on 


CANADA 


39,773 miles of steam railways in operation, as 
compared with 29,304 miles in 1913. During 
1922, 495 miles of new line ‘ere opened; 267 
miles were completed but not 0, ened for traffic, 
and 1115 miles were under construction. Of the 
1922 mileage, 22,681 miles were owned by the 
government, as compared with 2734 miles in 
1914. Much of the increase in government- 
owned railways was after 1915 when it became 
necessary for the government to take over and 
operate the National Transcontinental Railway. 
Thereafter the government acquired control of 
the Canadian Northern, Grand Trunk Pacific and 
the Grand Trunk proper, the first and third in 
1918, and the second in 1919. The last step in 
the consolidation of the various railways under 
government operation and control was taken on 
Jan. 30, 1923, when the unification of the Grand 
Trunk and Canadian National Railways was 
provided for, and the act to incorporate the 
Canadian National Railways was brought into 
effect In addition to the above roads, the Cen- 
tral Vermont Railway was a part of the Cana- 
dian National Railway System. Steam-railway 
statistics for 1922, with 1913 figures shown in 
parentheses, were: total train miles, 107,625,- 
144 (113,437,208) ; passengers carried, 44,383,- 
620 (46,185,968); freight, 108,530,518 tons 


CANADA 


31, 1923, a total of 157,980 vessels (19,462 sea- 
going) of 72,200,372 tons register (17,095,883 
sea-going) entered Canadian ports in the sea- 
going, coastwise, and rivers and lakes trades, 
as compared with 140,597 (18,320 sea-going) 
vessels of 72,667,084 tons register (14,982,393) 
for the fiscal year 1914. Clearances in 1923 
totaled 156,045 vessels (19,593 sea-going) reg- 
istered tonnage 71,172,889 (17,182,454 sea-go- 
ing); in 1914, clearances numbered 135,542 ves- 
sels (17,695 sea-going), registered tonnage 66,- 
707,541 tons (14,586,093 sea-going). 

Public Finance. During the fiscal year end- 
ing Mar. 31, 1924, the total revenue of the Do- 
minion was $388,514,567; in 1923, it amounted 
to $384,790,135, and in 1914 to $163,174,395. 
Expenditures, including those chargeable to the 
consolidated fund and to the capital account, 
totaled $314,327,555 for the fiscal year 1923-24, 
$322,069,003 for 1922-23, and $186,241,048 for 
1913-14. The net public debt of Canada on 
Mar. 31, 1924, no credit being taken for non- 
active assets, was $2,409,326,639; on Mar. 31, 
1923, it was $2,430,202,552; and on Mar. 31, 
1914, it was $335,996,850. Details of receipts 
and expenditures for the fiscal years 1913-14, 
1922-23, and 1923-24 are shown in the accom- 
panying table. 


247 


DETAILS OF CANADIAN RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES 


Revenue 


Customs 
FRETS COUCULY 20 Mery chara es raha tas vase fodbiiny tS -cleks Jo aeSne Tus naa oa te 
RATE GMOTU COME EE TO RE Ne cence: cectone cick beceniel onene wie ous, ons 
Public works, including railways and 
War tax revenue— 
EEX CISGIEDA MOS Nia ieeht © ats bees fede Ree Mansis ral cholol« ciwhet sucks cate 
Business profits tax 
Income tax 
Other war tax revenue 
Miscellaneous 


Gere 6 M\Oe ele Gia es @ % © elele 66 fe & & 6 fe © oh ele § le wl 6s “6 (6) /6)'8 


@ 8) @ iW, @ Oh 216) 0) 0 66S 016) 0 6:16, 0 OKO Oe 
tere do ia 6 ole) 6 6 s 6 elu © 69S @°@ s: 6.6 st 0’ 6) 0 0” 6 
ese ee ee er eee eee tee eee 


ose ee ees ees eee ee eeseeereee eee eee eee 


Expenditures 


Interest on public debt 
Agriculture 
Pensions 
Public works consolidated fund 
Post office 
Dominion lands and parks 
Soldiers land settlement 
Soldiers civil re-establishment 
Other expenditure accounts 
EWES oe cd's Sig Ge tg ORES © OME CRES Cees CPD ams RE Chae Rene oes Pee 
Public works. including railways and canals 

RIL WA VIR SUDSIOTCR AGES titnid = cuehs Guede slot et votes: ake ok eter elles 
Provincial subsidies 
Defense 


erercee ere eres eeoeeree ee e028 


see ee ee we we ee eww Ore Fe Fee eee eee see ee & 


ee 
Siehe eo ala © She's wm o ose a's) 8G D6 6) a © 8 1s 670 (a),0, @ © ee 

oa, Pyyey = ebay wh ele! Phe. a) he ale, eheiene © 
£5) 6) Speen eee) Ons ee heres uel Le (6) ein. O61, s 
ee er 


a) v fe fo, ue avate © 5, 'she ce a hie. & 8 0 


sete eer ereere ere ee esr reese eee ener 
6.8 6 @ ©) e #26, 64) Co B B.0 6 © 6 6. ©.6 0 4 6 6 © 0 6 8h 60 ele 6.2, 6 aU 


eee ere eee eee ere sree s eee eee ee 


ans © Mgt a le, TO ie © fe ‘eye je 0 6 ave ta 6: of le) ate) 8 616 6 je 


(106,992,710 tons); gross earnings, $440,687,- 
128 ($256,702,703) ; operating expenses, $393,- 
927,406 ($182,011,690); ratio of expenses to 
receipts, 89.39 per cent (70.90 per cent). Up 
to Dec. 31, 1922, the total value of government 
aid granted to steam railways in Canada, exclu- 
sive of the two government railways, Inter- 
colonial Railways System, and the Prince Ed- 
ward Island Railway, amounted to $722,648,946. 
Of this sum _  $662,843,886 represented aid 
granted by the Dominion government, $43,414,- 
386 that granted by the provincial governments, 
and $16,390,674 that granted by municipalities. 
Similar statistics for 1914 were: financial aid 
granted by Dominion government, $178,834,529 ; 
provincial, $37,023,275: municipalities, $17,914,- 
836; total aid, $233,772.640. 

Shipping. For the fiscal year ended Mar. 


1913-14 1922-23 1923-24 
$104,691.239 $118,275,804 $120,807,085 
21,452,037 35,367,430 37,893,658 
12,954,530 28,043,367 28,212,159 
13,394,317 1,139,338 1,301,096 
102,794,070 119,075,988 
12,574,823 4,708,562 
59,562,176 54,087,516 
1,841,485 1,861,847 
10,682,272: 25,191,642 20,566,656 


$163,174,395 $384,790,135 $388,514,567 


$14,752,117 $132,926,597 $130,473,202 

3,224,780 5,872,946 6,265,369 

311,900 "30,099,446 30,451,061 

19,007,512 8,937,590 10,885,724 

12,822,058 23,342,985 23,805,341 

3,849,084 3,963,431 3,436,418 

1,638,159 1,466,366 

11,706,829 9,181,395 

36,434,452 89,243,577 87,653,229 

4,045,067 335,901 

19,739,861 10,292,376 10,373,549 
19,036,237 
11,280,469 
39,084,657 
6,697,921 


$186 ,241,048 $322,069,003 $314,327,555 

The government’s borrowing operations of 
1923 were the most important since 1919, when 
the last Victory Loan campaign was launched. 
A $200,000,000 bond issue was floated in the 
Canadian market for the purpose of retiring 
$172,000,000 of the Victory Bonds due on Nov. 
1, 1923. This was the first instance in Canada 
of a large national financial transaction being 
carried out on lines similar to the New York and 
London markets 

National Wealth. The national wealth of 
Canada for 1920 was estimated by the Dominion 
statistician at $22,482,841,122. The major 
items were: farm values (land, buildings, imple- 
ments and machinery, and live stock, Census 
1921), $6,592,351,789; forest (estimated value 
of accessible raw materials, pulpwood, and 
capital invested in woods operations), $1,244,- 


CANADA 248 


343,100; steam and electric railways (invest- 
ment in road and equipment, $2,868,000,000) ; 
urban real property, $5,944,000,000; stocks of 
raw materials and manufactured goods, $1,316,- 
000,000; household furnishings, clothing, car- 
riages, motors, etc., $1,144,000,000. These esti- 
mates were based on 1920 when money values 
of commodities reached their peak. The natu- 
ral income of Canada was placed at between 
$4,500,000,000 and $5,000,000,000. 

Foreign Investments. The Financial Post 
of Toronto calculated that foreign investments 
in Canada were worth $4,796.500,000, of which 
$1,425,000,000 was in railways; $1,162,000,000 
in public securities; $691,000,000 in industry; 
$425,000,000 in forests ; $354,000,000 in mining 
$278,000,000 in public services; $175,000,000 in 
land; $150,000,000 in mortgages; $127,000,000 
in banking and insurance; ‘and $9,500,000 in 
fisheries. Foreign investments in 1913 were 
placed at $2,416,723,870 Of the foreign invest- 
ments in Canada, the United States held a total 
of $2,500,000,000 and the United Kingdom 
$2,000,000,000. 

History. Canada’s loyalty in the War was 
unquestioned. Old party strifes were dropped 
and the imperial bonds, which many had seen 
loosened under dominion government, tightened, 
as Canada hastened to proffer aid to the mother 
country. Parliament assembled on August 18, 
passed immediately eight war bills, and appro- 
priated $50,000,000 for war expenditures. Now 
the Canadians sighed for the warships which had 
been refused in 1913; fortunately Canada was 
able to purchase two powerful submarines, just 
completed for Chile, and to offer, with them, 
the Canadian cruisers Niobe and Rainbow. The 
call to the colors was met with generous 
response. - In three weeks there were 32,000 men 
in the Canadian training camp at Valcartier, 
and almost 10,000 others were under arms; 
while 150,000 had volunteered their services and 
were waiting only to be called. It is signif- 
icant that 2400 French-Canadians joined the 
first contingent. The First. Canadian Division 
arrived in England Oct. 14, 1914, and reached 
the war area, Feb. 11, 1915. The Second Divi- 
sion reached France in the fall of 1915; the 
Third and Fourth in 1916; the Canadian Army 
Corps was formed late in 1915. Up to the 
passage of the draft act in August, 1917, 465,- 
984 men had voluntarily enlisted. By the act 
in 1917-18, 83,355 more men were obtained. In 
all services, 595,441 Canadians were under arms 
during the period of the War. Total casualties 
were 211,000, divided as follows: killed in ac- 
tion, 51,670; died of disease, etc., 5000; wounded, 
149,700; prisoners of war, 3730. The more im- 
portant battles in which Canadians were en- 
gaged follow: The Canadian Army Corps, as 
part of the First British Army, saw service at 
the second battle of Ypres (1915), 
of the Somme (1916), the taking of Vimy Ridge, 
Arleux, Fresnoy, and Hill 70 (1917), the battle 
of Amiens, Arras, and Cambrai (1918). Cana- 
dians, too, saw service in Russia, Macedonia, and 
Palestine. To the ships above mentioned, there 
were added in the Canadian fleet a mother-ship 
for the submarines, a mine-Sweeping service, and 
a large number of motor launches. The per- 
sonnel of the navy at the War’s conclusion con- 
sisted of 749 men and officers. To these must 
be added the 4500 volunteers in the reserve who 
were engaged in patrol duty. There were other 
war activities in which Canadians _ partook. 


the battle. 


CANADA 


About 13,000 men were in the Royal Air Force; 
there were Canadians on British ships, and in 
the medical, engineering, forestry, radiotelegraph 
services. Canadian shipyards were employed 
for the turning out of vessels and factories were 
converted into munition plants for the manu- 
facture of shells, shrapnel, and powder. The 
problem of the repatriated soldier was met with 
foresight. In 1916, provision was made for the 
vocational training of disabled soldiers; in 
1918, a department was created for the care 
of veterans and their restoration to peace-time 
activities. Perhaps the most important single 
measure was the Soldier Settlement Act whose 
purpose was to settle the men on the land. 
Aside from the 160 acres they were entitled to 
as civilians, men might make application for an 
additional homestead. Funds were to be appro- 
priated from which loans might be made for the 
purchase of the land, improvements, and live 
stock 

Throughout the War, the Unionist party, 
with Sir Robert Borden as premier, was in con- 
trol of the government. Sir Wilfred Laurier’s 
opposition was consistently stormy. His patri- 
otism, of course, was not to be questioned, and 
his appeals to the French Canadians for the sup- 
port of the War increased in fervor as the years 
progressed, but some of his party were’ more 
than lukewarm in their attitudes. Racial 
animosities brought the language question once 
more to the fore in 1916 and only the outspoken 
condemnation of Borden defeated a measure in 
the Parliament for the support of French schools 
in Ontario. On the eve of the general elections 
of 1917, Sir Robert Borden, regardless of the 
opposition of the Liberals, introduced a measure 
for compulsory military service. The bill was 
hotly opposed, 55 voting against it on its second 
reading, July 8. The vote was still closer in the 
Senate, standing 54 for and 39 against on the 
final reading. Feeling among the French Ca- 
nadians ran high. There were anti-draft riots 
in Montreal in July, and pro-war speakers were 
attacked and newspaper buildings stormed. The 
Winnipeg convention of the western members of 
the Liberal party, held early in August, while 
it subscribed to a whole-hearted prosecution of 
the War, rejected by an overwhelming majority 
the idea of compulsion. Opposition increased 
as the elections drew near. Toward the end of 
August a general strike was called in Montreal, 
and though it failed, on August 29 a mass meet- 
ing of 5000 people was held in the city and the 
police were stoned when they attempted to break 
up processions. In Quebec the French press of 
all parties urged that the enforcement of con- 
scription be deferred until after the polling. On 
October 12, Sir Robert Borden attempted to 
strengthen his government by including five 
Liberals in his cabinet. Another step, political 
in character, was the passage, in the closing 
days of the parliamentary session, of a group 
of laws “purifying” the electorate. The ballot 
was given to the troops in the Canadian Expe- 
ditionary Forces and to the female relations of 
soldiers, while it was taken away from natives 
of enemy countries who had been in Canada less 
than fifteen years, as well as from the pacifistic 
Mennonites and Doukhobors. The elections were 
held on December 17. The returns indicated 
that the balance of power was to be in the hands 
of the Liberal Unionists (i.e. supporters of Sir 
Robert Borden), for the Unionists had gained 
only a total of 108 seats of the 235. The senti- 


)) 
t 
5 
t: 
LS 


CANADA. 


ment in Quebec was clearly mirrored in the fact 
that 62 out of the 65 parliamentary districts 
were won by anti-draft Liberals. The election 
did not succeed in allaying discontent, for in 
January, 1918, the Quebec Pariiament debated 
a secession resolution, while in March and April 
serious rioting took place. In April, police ad- 
ministration in the city was taken over by the 
military with the result that street fighting ac- 
counted for the death of four civilians and the 
wounding of 45 others. The labor elements, 
too, pressed for a hearing and demanded of the 
government, early in 1918, either the nationaliza- 
tion of the railways, or their unification under 
a central war board. Objection was made to the 
use of compulsory farm labor and the employ- 
ment of Chinese and coolie workers. At the be- 
hest of their representatives, the government 
created a bureau for labor research and employ- 
ment. 

The transition to peace conditions after the 
Armistice was not easy. On Apr. 9, 1919, a 
Royal commission representing capital and labor 
was appointed for a consideration of the cost of 
living and the further participation of labor in 
industry. Official gestures were unavailing. In 
spite of the hostility of the Trades and Labor 
Congress, the “One Big Union” movement took 
on impetus and gained many adherents, partic- 
ularly in the west, but also in Toronto. How 
far radical ideas had gone at once became 
manifest when a general strike broke out in 
Winnipeg in June, 1919. <A local dispute be- 
tween the ironworkers and the foundry owners 
over the question of unionization at once at- 
tracted the attention of all workers with the 
result that every union in the city, including 
firemen, police, postal employees, telegraph and 
telephone operators’ organizations, ordered the 
cessation of work. Winnipeg was cut off from 
contact with the rest of the world. The re- 
turned soldiers expressed their sympathy with 
the strikers’ cause and refused to countenance 
the establishment of martial law. The result 
was that the control of the city passed com- 
pletely into the hands of the workers, the gov- 
ernment being under the direction of a_ local 
council. The affair blew over, without blood- 
shed, fortunately, so that the end of the year 
saw the old conditions restored. New leaders, 
too, appeared after the War. Sir Wilfred 
Laurier died Feb. 17, 1919, and in August Mr. 
William Mackenzie King was elected as his suc- 
cessor to head the Liberal party. In July, 
1920, Sir Robert Borden resigned from the pre- 
miership and was succeeded by Mr. Arthur 
Meighen. Mr. Meighen’s cabinet, however, was 
in power only to December, 1921, for in the 
elections of that month the Conservatives went 
down to a disastrous defeat. Besides the Na- 
tional Liberal and Conservative parties, and the 
Liberal party, the National Progressives or 
Farmer’s party and the Laborites also had can- 
didates in the field. The contest was a heated 
one, revolving about the question of a high 
tariff. Interest was added to the campaign by 
the fact that women were to vote for the first 
time. The result, in its decisiveness, was un- 
expected. The Premier and ten members of his 
cabinet lost their seats, while the Liberals suc- 
ceeded in gaining not only all Quebec, but many 
seats in the Maritime Provinces, and in the 
West. In Quebec, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward 
Island, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan not one 
government supporter was elected. More sur- 


249 


CANADA 


prising was the success of the farmers. Their 
party elected 65 members to 51 for the Conserv- 
atives. The Liberals in all had 117 seats and 
the Laborites, 2. Mr. William Mackenzie King 
now became premier. Throughout 1922-24, Lib- 
erals and Progressives, the latter led first by 
Mr. T. A. Crerar and later by Mr. R. Forbe, 
worked for the most part in harmony. The 
more important measures on which there was a 
common sentiment were a low tariff with reci- 
procity between Canada and the United States, 
unified control of all government railways under 
a single board of management, encouragement of 
immigration for the benefit of the rural districts. 
The last question continued to engross almost 
the complete attention of the 1923 Parliament. 
The serious decline in the immigration from the 
United States (only 22,000 Americans had en- 
tered in 1922-23 as compared with 139,000 in 
1913), and the none too rapid development of 
the western provinces, compelled the government 
to apply itself to the formulation of an elab- 
orate programme. Measures were brought up 
for the expenditure of large sums in propaganda 
and the establishment of foreign agencies, for 
the attraction of immigrants from Great Brit- 
ain and Scandinavian countries, and for the re- 
moval of restrictions on the late enemy coun- 
tries. The government’s farmer supporters were 
alienated by the inadequacy of these plans as 
they were, too, by the failure of the finance 
ministry to reduce the existing tariff schedules. 
These considerations, principally, led to the re- 
fusal on the part of the Progressives to join 
Mr. King’s cabinet, with the result that only 
Liberals constituted the government. They suc- 
ceeded, however, in remaining at the head of af- 
fairs into 1924, though through defeats in by- 
elections Mr. King was in a paper minority of 
four. Among the more prominent ministers 
were Sir Lomer Gouin, former premier of 
Quebec, and Mr. W. S. Fielding, one of the 
authors of the reciprocity agreement of 1911. 
(Both quit the cabinet early in 1924.) 

A question of great local interest during and 
after the War was the enactment of prohibition 
laws. Most of the provinces moved toward this 
end by provincial legislation. But the need for 
a more stringent regulation became evident 
when it was ascertained with what ease liquor 
could be smuggled into and out of the in- 
dividual provinces. The result was an increas- 
ing demand for Dominion regulation. In British 
Columbia and Quebee in 1920, requests were 
made for such general control while in Mani- 
toba, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Ontario, and Nova 
Scotia, referenda revealed a similar sentiment. 
(See PROHIBITION. ) . 

It is doubtful whether the War _ brought 
Canada and the Empire closer together. While 
Sir Robert Borden sat at the Imperial War Cab- 
inet and Canadian representatives signed the 
peace treaties and received seats in the League 
of Nations Assembly, the independent temper 
was revealed in the demands made in 1920 for 
the right to amend the Canadian Constitution 
without application to the British Parliament 
as well as for the appointment of a Canadian 
minister to the United States with independent 
status. An interesting sidelight on the earnest- 
ness with which Canadians were increasingly 
pressing the point was shown in the negotiations 
of 1923 with the United States over the signing 
of a convention for the preservation of the 
halibut fisheries in the northern Pacific. The 


CANALS 250 


United States, in reply to the query raised by 
Canada, expressed itself as willing to conclude 
such a convention “between the United States 
and Great Britain.” To the surprise of the 
Americans, the Canadian government replied 
with some tartness that it desired the words 
“Dominion of Canada” substituted for “Great 
Britain” (January 16). This action precipi- 
tated a lively discussion in Canada, where, in 
many quarters, it was regarded as an abortive 
attempt on the part of the ministry to arrogate 
the treaty-making power. Upon the insistence 
of the American Senate, whose purpose it was to 
include within the meaning of the treaty all 
British nationals, the Canadian commissioner 
signed the convention late in 1923 “as the duly 
accredited representative of the King.” Other 
striking expressions of the Canadian. spirit of 
independence were the declaration, by a member 
of the Canadian cabinet in March, 1924, that 
decisions of the Imperial Conference were not 
to be considered binding unless approved by the 
Canadian Parliament, and the refusal of Mac- 
kenzie King to recommend to the Parliament, 
in June, 1924, the ratification of the Lausanne 
Treaty. This last, of course, was merely a ges- 
ture, for the signing of the treaty by the Brit- 
ish government was binding on Canada as. well. 
Another indication of the new sentiment was the 
request made in 1921 by the Canadian Parlia- 
ment, as the result of a universal demand, that 
the Crown desist from conferring hereditary 
titles on Canadian citizens. In the same year, 
too, the Conservative Premier, Mr. Meighen, in- 
dicated how much closer the ties were between 
Canada and the United States than between 
Canada and the Empire, by opposing the re- 
newal of the Anglo-Japanese treaty. Nor was 


progress made in the formation of a naval pro- ° 


gramme. In 1919, Lord Jellicoe visited Canada 
for the purpose of advising the country on a 
possible plan but the government announced the 
next year that the pre-war policy was not to be 
relinquished. Relations with the United States 
continued amicable, though the Conservatives in 
the elections of 1921 made much of the hard- 
ships imposed upon Canadians by the Fordney 
Emergency Tariff. In 1922, great interest was 
centred in the project, originating in the United 
States, for a St. Lawrence-Great Lakes Canal. 
In the same year negotiations were under way 
for the limitation of frontier armaments and 
for the formulation of a new treaty regulating 
the naval strength on the Great Lakes. As re- 
gards the latter, an agreement was reached for 
the replacement of naval vessels with revenue 
cutters. 

Canadian governors-general during the period 
were the Duke of Connaught (1911-16), the 
Duke of Devonshire (1916-21), Lord Byng of 
Vimy (1921- ).0/ In, ./1919, the | Prince ;‘of 
Wales made an extended tour of Canada and 
was very cordially received. See separate ar- 
ticles on the provinces; also BArrin LAND; Ex- 


PLORATION: PoLAR RESEARCII; NAVIES OF THE 
WORLD. 
CANALS. In the period 1914-1924 the con- 


struction of new canals or the canalization of 
rivers was vigorously discussed but compara- 
tively little actual construction of really great 
projects was executed. During the War with 
the great demands for transportation and the 
lack of fuel or its high cost attempts were made 
both in Europe and the United States to use the 
canals to an unprecedented degree. At the same 


CANALS 


time plans were proposed for further construc- 
tion, and in the years following the War were 
under consideration. Those actually put under 
way were of comparatively limited significance. 
The New York State Barge Canal which had 
been completed about 1917, except for terminal 
facilities, was utilized far below its carrying 
capacity, and even during the War when it was 
commandeered by the United States Government 
and operated as a through waterway with spe- 
cial barges, it was run far below its possibilities. 

The United States Government sought to take 
over the Cape Cod Canal, completed in 1914, by 
purchase in 1924, and this waterway became in- 
creasingly used. The United States also ex- 
tended its canal system at Sault Ste. Marie, 
Michigan, on Sept. 18, 1918, and completed the 
fourth lock of the American Canal, which was 
named Sabin Lock in honor of L. C. Sabin, the 
general manager of the canal. 

Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. The 
Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, about 15 miles 
in length, extending from Delaware City on the 
Delaware River to Chesapeake City, Maryland, 
on a stream flowing into Chesapeake Bay, was 
formerly taken over by the Government the 
event being officially celebrated at Delaware 
City on Oct. 11, 1919 This canal was chartered 
in 1799, but was acquired by the National Gov- 
ernment under an appropriation of $2,514,290 
by Congress, and an additional item of $500,- 
000 for deepening and widening. The improve- 
ment involved making this waterway a sea-level 
canal which would require an increased excava- 
tion of 10 feet for a considerable distance at the 
summit level. This did away with the three 
locks constructed in 1850 with a width of 24 
feet and a length of 220 feet which had served 
to restrict navigation. The summit level of 
these locks was 15 feet above mean low tide, 
while the mean ranges of tide at Delaware City 


and Chesapeake City were respectively six feet 


and two feet. The project adopted for the im- 
provement provided for a lockless tide level 
canal 12 feet deep and 90 feet wide on the bot- 
tom, estimated to cost $12,000,000. This canal 
when enlarged will form part of an inland water- 
way from Philadelphia to Norfolk. 

Cape Cod Canal. ‘The Cape Cod Canal which 
had been under construction for a number of 
years was formally opened on Aug. 1, 1914, and 
established direct connection between Buzzard’s 
Bay on the South and Cape Cod Bay on the 
north, shortening the distance between Vine- 
yard Sound and Boston by about 70 miles, and 
eliminating considerable danger due to hidden 
reefs and banks along the coast of the Cape, not 
to mention fogs which are often prevalent in 
this region. The canal is a sea-level canal with- 
out locks and practically a straight line with a 
single curve. It is lighted by electricity at 
night and is crossed by railway and highway 
bridges which give a width of 150 feet in the 
clear between the piers. For the greater part 
of its length the canal has a bottom width of 
100 feet and a depth of 25 feet at mean low 
water. At three points the bottom width is in- 
creased to 250 feet so as to make passing points 
for vessels, while in the approach channels a 
width of 250 to 350 feet is maintained to deep 
water at both ends of the canal. 

A massive breakwater, 3000 feet in length to 
the shore line, protects the entrance to the canal 
from being filled in by the action of the waves. 
in addition to forming a shallow harbor for ship- 


ee eo Se ee a a ee 


ee aa 


CANALS 251 


ping. The excavation of the canal for the most 
part was done by hydraulic dredges. By 1915 
the canal was made passable for large steamers 
and deep draft barges. After the War it was 
proposed that the United States Government 
should acquire the Cape Cod Canal, and in 1921 
Secretaries Weeks, Denby and Hoover made an 
investigation and recommended that the Federal 
Government should acquire the control of the 
canal at a price of $11,500,000, for which sum 
the Boston, Cape Cod and New York Canal 
Company was willing to sell. 

Marseilles-Rhone Canal. A notable Euro- 
pean canal project executed during the War 
period was the Marseilles-Rhone canal, involv- 
ing an artificial waterway 51 miles in length 
and extending from the Rhone River at Arles 
to the Bay of Marseilles. This canal was also 
notable in that it included a tunnel four and a 
half miles in length which pierced the mountain 
ridge north of the city, and affords direct ac- 
cess to the harbor. A typical section of this 
tunnel is square invert 59 feet wide and 15 feet 
deep with an approximately semicircular arch 
of 41 feet radius, affording an excavated sec- 
tion 79 feet wide and 50 feet high. (See Tun- 
NELS.) In addition to the tunnel there was 
involved a breakwater construction between 
Marseilles and Port de Bone, and in the Etang 
de Berre. At Arles where the canal had ac- 
eess to the Rhone a system of locks was. built. 

German Internal Waterways. In Conti- 
nental Europe the various systems of canals 
which had been rather highly developed found 
advantageous use during the War. A notable 
instance was the river Main which was rendered 
navigable for vessels up to 1200 tons, and was 
employed as an internal route for general com- 
merce and war supplies, particularly timber. 
The canalization of this river involved the con- 
struction of dams provided with ship sluices, so 
that it was possible to navigate with larger ves- 
sels than previously. A notable dam of this type 
was built at Mainkur which included a roller 
weir, a power plant and a raft chute 300 meters 
long and 12 meters wide, together with two side 
openings, each 30.6 meters wide, and a ship 
passage 40 meters wide. 

The power plants at this dam were put in 
operation in 1921, but the sluices were com- 
pleted and ready for use in 1917. The canaliza- 
tion of the Main was to extend from Frankfort 
to Werenfeld, and it was proposed to add open 
eanal construction between Werenfeld and 
Schweinfurt, while from Schweinfurt to Bam- 
berg it would be possible to canalize the river. 

There was also set on foot an important 
waterway involving the canalization of the 
Neckar through Baden and Wiirttemberg from 
Mannheim to Plochingen, using the river bed for 
large vessel traffic. The plan involved also spe- 
cial canalization from Plochingen to Ulm and 
from Ulm to Ravensburg and Fredrickshafen in 
order to supply the states of Baden and Wiirt- 
temburg with coal and other facilities. Such 
a canal system naturally involved a large num- 
ber of locks, some of them of considerable height 
and the development of river basins. 

The first portion of this work was to develop 
the canal along the river with a length of 212 
kilometers between Mannheim and Plochingen. 
This involved the construction of 26 sluices, all 
of which, with the single exception of that near 
Heilbroun, in existence before the War, required 
new construction. These sluices and dams per- 


CANCER 


mitted a descent of a grade of 160 meters, and 
as they were movable they could be removed and 
replaced rapidly during the times of flood water 
or rapid increase in level. They were absolutely 
water-tight, so that all unnecessary loss of 
water was obviated, and.power available for 
operating the movable dams as well as for other 
purposes could be developed. It required about 
five minutes’ time to fill each sluice and the 
project in addition to providing navigation also 
aimed at the development of considerable elec- 
tric power. 

As a result of this development the Neckar 
would be made a navigable waterway for all 
seasons of the year, for barges of 1200 tons, 
completely loaded, and the traffic which before 
the War amounted to 400,000 tons per year 


would naturally reach much larger figures with 


the improved waterway, being estimated by some 
at as much, or in excess of 5,000,000 tons. 
The various power plants situated on the banks 
of the river between Mannheim and Plochingen 
before the War represented. an output of 15,000 
horse power, but with the completion of the 
works undertaken would develop some 63,000 
horse power. 

The beginning of these German canal works 
was made during the War but at the close 
of hostilities comparatively little was done 
for a while except to afford labor to the un- 
employed. Work was begun again on a large 
scale during the autumn of 1921, and towards | 
the end of the following year some 81,000,000 
cubic feet of excavation had been accomplished. 
The construction of the bridges and dams also 
was started, but in 1923 the increase of costs led 
to the slowing down of the project. The un- 
dertaking was of unusual significance both in a 
political and in an engineering sense as it in- 
volved the linking up of various German states 
according to the original plan of “Mitteleuropa,” 
while the various locks, movable and other 
dams, sluices, etc., represented in many cases 


novel engineering departures. See PANAMA 
CANAL; SAULT Ste: Marie CaNats; SUEZ 
CANAL. 

CANBY, HENRy SEIDEL (1878-— }t AFAR 


American prefessor and editor (see Vor. IV). 
In 1916, he became advisor in literary composi- 
tion with professorial rank at Yale University. 
He resigned as assistant editor of the Yale Re- 
view in 1920, becoming editor of the Literary 
Review of the New York Evening Post. In 
1918, he was on liaison work in England, Ire- 
land and France for the British Ministry of 
Information. His works include: College Sons 
and College Fathers (1915); Facts, Thought 
and Imagination (in collaboration, 1917) ; Good 
English (in collaboration, 1918); Hducation by 
Violence (1919); Our House (1919); Hveryday 
Americans (1920); Saturday Papers: Essays on 
Literature from the Literary Review (1921); 
and Definitions: Essays in Contemporary OCriti- 
cism (1922). He is ecoeditor of: Selections 
from John Masefield (1917), War Aims and 
Peace Ideals (1919), Anthony and Cleopatra 
(1921), and. editor of Stevenson’s Master of 
Ballantrae (1922). 

CANCER. Despite all organized effort to 
warn the public of the urgent need of early 
recognition and treatment of cancer, the mor- 
tality from the disease during the decade 1914— 
24 was apparently on the increase. The expres- 
sion “apparently” is used because of the ease 
with which statistics can be assailed. There 


CANDLE POWER 


was some evidence to show that cancer was not 
increasing, although none which shows any 
diminution. Granted that the death rate is a 
constant, improvements in diagnosis and increas- 
ing average duration of life, which result from 
modern sanitation, would still convey the il- 
lusion of an annual increase. If every death 
were followed by a skilled autopsy, the number 
of cancer deaths could be made to show an 
increase which would not be due to spread 
of the disease’ The campaign of education 
conducted by the Association for Cancer Con- 
trol cannot prevail against the innate fear 
of an examination, of the fear of an unfa- 
vorable diagnosis and of the fear of opera- 
tion. 

An increasing number of surgeons show pes- 
simism, as in the statement by one that early 
Operation can cure cancer although the diag- 
nosis must be made at a stage in which success- 
ful diagnosis is seldom practicable. The favor- 
able percentages obtained by surgeons of unusual 
attainments and experience operating under ideal 
conditions appear to show that early interven- 
tion can conquer the disease; but the average 
patient will be operated on by the local surgeon 
and under less favorable conditions. Some of 
these local men frankly admit that they have 
never cured a patient radically and some of them 
have finally refused to do operations. This 
statement may also be made concerning sur- 
geons of more than local reputation. 

What has been said of the knife applies with 
the same force to radium and Réntgen therapy. 
Under the most favorable auspices, individual 
operators obtain excellent results, but this does 
not benefit the average cancer victim Hence 
many earnest workers are striving for a method 
of treatment which is applicable to the rank 
and file of cancer patients without the arbi- 
trary selection of cases in which everything 
favors the patient. 

CANDLE POWER. See Etectric Licut- 
ING 

CANFIELD, Dorotuy. 
THY CANFIELD. 

CANNAN, GILBERT (1884- ). An Eng- 
lish novelist and dramatist. He was educated 
at Cambridge, and became a dramatic critic on 
The Star in 1909-10. Among his books are: 
The Anatomy of Society (1919); Time and Eter- 
nity (1920); Pigs and Peacocks (1921); Old 
Maid’s Love (1922), and the play, The Release 
of the Noul (1920) 

CANNING. See BoTULism. 

CANNON. See ARTILLERY; ORDNANCE. 

CANNON, JAmEs, Jr. (1864- ena 
American bishop, born at Salisbury, Md., and 
educated at Randolph-Macon College, Princeton 
University and Princeton Theological Seminary 
Having been ordained to the ministry of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, South, in 1888 he 
was named to different pastorates in Virginia. 
From 1894 to 1911, he was principal of the 
Blackstone Female Institute, and from 1914 to 
1918, principal of the Blackstone College for 
Girls In 1918, he became a bishop of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, South. He was 
connected with numerous commissions and 
boards in connection with church, war and pro- 
hibition questions. 

CANNON, JosePH GURNEY (1836- ys 
An American lawyer and Congressman (see VOL. 
IV). He retired from Congress on Mar. 4, 1923, 
after serving for 46 years, during which he was 


See FISHER, Doro- 


252 CAPEN 


four times Speaker of the House of Representa- 
tives. 

CANNON, WALTER BrRApDFoRD (1871- ). 
An American physiologist, born at Prairie du 
Chien, Wis., and educated at Harvard (A.B., 
1896; M.D., 1900). In 1906 he was made Hig- 
ginson Professor of Physiology. His works in- 
elude: Laboratory Course in Physiology (1911) ; 
Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear, ete. 
(published 1915; a valuable contribution to the 
literature of physiology); Traumatic Shock 
(1923) He was one of the editors of the peri- 
odieal Psychobiology (1919-20). He has made 
many contributions to physiological periodical 
literature and is one of the most vigorous de- 
fenders of the value of animal experimentation 

CANTIGNY. See WAR IN Europe, Western 
Front. 

CANTWELL, JonN JOSEPH (1874- ii 
An American bishop, born in Limerick, Ireland, 
and educated at the colleges of the Sacred Heart 
and Saint Patrick, Ireland. He was ordained 
to the Roman Catholic priesthood in 1899, and 
from that date until 1904 was curate in Berke- 
ley, Cal. For the following 10 years he was 
secretary to the Archbishop of San Francisco, 
and from 1914 to 1917, vicar-general of the 
same diocese. He was made Bishop of Monterey 
and Los Angeles in 1917. 

CAPE COD CANAL. See CANALs 

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, PROVINCE OF THE. 
See SouTm AFRICA, UNION OF. 

CAPEK, Joser (?- ). Czech artist and 
writer. He is joint author with his brother of 
the play The World We Live In, which was one 
of the outstanding plays of the 1922-23 season 
in New York. This play, often called “The In- 
sect Drama,” because all the characters except 
one are insects, is an arraignment of all phases 
of human life, and human characteristics rep- 
resented by these insects are mercilessly satir- 
ized. See CAPEK, KAREL. 

CAPEK, Kare. (1890- ). A Czech 
journalist and playwright. He studied psychol- 
ogy at Prague, Berlin, and Paris, and made his 
début in the theatrical world in Prague. He 
was art director of the national theatre, the 
Golden Temple, in Prague, but he soon estab- 
lished his own theatre, the Vinohradsky. He 
produced the dramas of Shakespeare, Byron, 
Moliére, Ibsen, Strindberg, Goethe, Hauptmann 
and many Czech authors. His first attempt in 
writing drama was The Robber, a lyric comedy 
of love. This was followed by R U. R, a satiric 
melodrama which was played with great success 
by the Theatre Guild in New York City during 
the 1922-23 season. He was also joint author 
with his brother, Josef (q.v.) of the play, The 
World We Live In, played in New York City in 
1922-23. 


CAPEN, Epwarp WARREN (1870- ). An 
American sociologist (see Vor. IV). He was 


again Thompson Lecturer on Missions at the 
Hartford Theological Seminary in 1914, 1917, 
1918 He identified himself with the Kennedy 
School of Missions as secretary, instructor in 
sociology, and associate professor (1914 to 
1917), becoming in 1917 full professor, and in 
1919, dean. He was appointed Assistant Re- 
cording Secretary of the American Board of 
Commissioners for Foreign Missions in 1915. 
In 1919-20, he was chairman of the training 
school section of the Religious Education As- 
sociation, and from 1920 to 1922, chairman of 
the Association of Institutions Engaged in 


ee Te 


4 


iy 


4 


al 
74 


CAPERS 


Missionary Training. He edited Preparation for 
Missionary Work in Japan (1915), and Prepara- 
tion for Presenting Christianity to the Hindus 
(1917). 

CAPERS, WILLIAM THEopotus (1867- yi 
An American bishop, born at Greenville, S. C., 
and educated at South Carolina College, Fur- 
man University and the Theological Seminary 
of Virginia. Having been ordained to the min- 
istry of the Protestant Episcopal Church, he 
was rector in churehes in North and South 
Carolina and in Mississippi from 1895 to 1905, 
From the latter date until 1912 he was dean 
of Christ Church Cathedral, Lexington, Ky. 
From 1913 to 1916, he was bishop coadjutor in 
the diocese of West Texas, at which time he 
was made bishop of that diocese. 

CAPITAL SHIP. See VESSEL, NAvAL. 

CAPPON, JAMES (1854- ). Professor 
Emeritus of English, and dean of the Arts Facul- 
ty at Queen’s University, Canada (see VoL. 
IV). He is the author of various pamphlets, 
especially a series on the War: What the Pres- 
ent War Means, German Politics and British 
Politics, Democracy and Monarchy in the Mod- 
ern State, The Scandinavian Nations and the 
War, Burgeois and Bolshevist, ete. 


CAPORETTO. See Wark IN Evuropsg, Italian 
Front. 
CAPPS, CuHaritrs R._ (1871- ). An 


American railway official, born in Norfolk, Va. 
He was educated at Roanoke College and began 
his railway career with the Seaboard and Roan- 
oke Railway. He acted in important capacities 
with several railroads in the South, and in 1915 
was appointed first vice-president of the 
Seaboard Air Line. He was president of the 
Marion Southern Railway and was director 
and vice-president of many other roads in the 
South. 

CAPPS, Epwarp (1866- ) (See Vor. IV.) 
An American philologist. He has been profes- 
sor of Greek language and literature at the 
universities of Chicago and Princeton and lec- 
turer at Johns Hopkins (1917). He was Amer- 
ican Red Cross Commissioner to Greece, 1918- 
19, and Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- 
potentiary, 1920-21. 

CAPPS, WASHINGTON LEE (1864— eho An 
American naval officer (see Vout. IV). He was 
president of the Navy Compensation Board and 
general manager of the Emergency Fleet Cor- 
poration in 1917. He was awarded the Navy 
Distinguished Service Medal for his work during 
the War. 

CARBINOLS. See CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC. 

CARBOHYDRATES. See CHEMISTRY, OR- 
GANIC, ‘ 

CARBON. See Cnemistry, ORGANIC. 

CARBON COMPOUNDS. See CHEMISTRY, 
ORGANIC 

CARBURETOR. See Motor VEHICLES. 

CARCHEMISH. See ARcHOLOGY. 

CARCO, Francis (1886- ). A French 
author, born at Nouméa, New Caledonia. He is 
a poet, belonging to the Fantaisiste school, a 
novelist, a dramatist, and art critic for L’Homme 
libre and Gil Blas. During the War he became 
aviation pilot at Etampes, after studying at the 
aviation school there. His works are pictur- 
esque, painting as they do Montmartre and _ be- 
ing written in the argot of Paris. He has been 
called the “romancier des apaches.” He is the 
author of: Instincts (1911); Jésus-la-Caille 


(novel, 1914); Les Innocents (1917); Au coin 


253 


CARLSON 


des rues (tales, 1918, 1922); Les Malheurs de 
Fernande (sequel to Jésus-la-Caille 1918); Les 
Mystéres de la Morgue ou les Fiancées du IVe 
arrondissement. Roman gai (1918); L’Equipe 
(1919); La Poésie (1919); Francis Carco, ra- 
conté par lui-meme (1921; in the collection Ceuaw 
dont on parle, directed by Mare Saunier) ; 
Promenades pittoresques @ Montmartre (1922), 
and Vérotchka VEtrangére ou le Gout du mal- 
heur (1923). The last-named novel was sharply 
criticized by the French reviews. The author 
seems out of his element here. His works also 


include: Petits airs (poems), and Maman Pe- 
titdorgt. 
CARIBBEAN POLICY. See UNITED 


STATES, History. 

CARINTHIA. A province of the Republic 
of Austria. Its area in 1910 was 3987 square 
miles; in 1923, 3688 square miles. Its popula- 
tion’ in“1910 was’ 396,200; in 1923; 370,432 
See AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC. 

CARLETON COLLEGE. An institution at 
Northfield, Minn., founded in 1866; under the 
auspices of the Congregational, Baptist and 
Protestant Episcopal churches. The number of 
students increased from 3895 in 1913, of whom 
37 were in the School of Music, to 880 in 1923, 
of whom 48 were music students. The ratio of 
teachers to students rose during the same time 
from approximately 1 to 15 to 1 to 12. Depart- 
ments of art, biography, home economics and 
Spanish, were organized, and the number of in- 
dividual courses increased from 200 to 340. The 
library increased from 25,000 to 70,000 volumes, 
and from 100 periodicals to over 600. The en- 
dowment rose from $659,247 in 1913 to $1,828,- 
900 in 1923, and the annual expenditures from 
$66,990 to $338,395. The following buildings 
were constructed: Musie Building ($53,000), 
Skinner Memorial Chapel ($145,000), Leighton 
Hall of Chemistry ($315,000), four dormito- 
ries for men at a total cost of $377,300, and 
six dormitories for women at a cost of $205, 
700. The value of the college plant was _ in- 
creased from $477,863 to about $2,000,000. 
President, Donald John Cowling, D.D., LL.D., 
Ph.D. 

CARLISLE, ALEXANDRA (Mrs. J. COYNE) 
(1886- ). An actress born in London, Eng- 
land, but well known in the United States from 
her appearances on the New York stage. Her 
first stage appearance was at Lowther Lodge, 
Kensington, in 1903 when she played Audrey in 
As You Inke It with Patrick Kirwan. In 1908, 
she appeared at the Garrick in New York and 
from 1913 to 1920 played in America. Her best 
known characterizations in America include the 
name part in Masefield’s Nan (Boston 1918, 
New York 1920) and Nancy Price in The Coun- 
try Cousin (1917-19). She returned to London 
in 1921 as Marguerite in Daniel and also played 
Stella in Three (1921). 

CARLSON, Jonn Fapsran (1875- ). A 
landscape painter, born in Smaland, Sweden, 
who came to the United States in 1886. He 
studied art at the Art Students’ League in New 
York and in Buffalo, and became head instructor 
of landscape painting at the Art Students’ 
League School, Woodstock, N. Y. Carlson has 
been known particularly for his wonderfully 
toned and richly beautiful winter themes. His 
canvases are distinguished by the quality of 
light which invariably envelops and irradiates 
the scene, integrating all its rich colors in one 
full-toned harmony. In 1911, he was elected an 


CARLTON 


Associate of the National Academy, and in 1923 
he received the Ranger fund purchase prize of 
the National Academy. He is well represented 
in the Corcoran Gallery, Washington, the Mu- 
seums at Toledo, Ohio, Youngstown, Pa., and in 
other public collections. 

CARLTON, NeEwcoms- (1869- ). jap 
American engineer and business man, born at 
Elizabeth, N. J., and educated at Stevens Insti- 
tute. From 1891 to 1919, he practiced as a 
mechanical engineer in Buffalo, N. Y., and was 
subsequently director of works of the Pan- 
American Exposition for three years. He was 
then connected with the Bell Telephone Company 
and the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing 
Company until 1910, when he became vice- 
president of the Western Union Telegraph Com- 
pany. He was made president of this company 
in 1914. 


CARMAN, Witt1Am Buiss_ (1861- di 


An American poet (see Vor. IV). His works 
published since 1913 include: Earth Deities 
(with Mary Perry King, 1914); a _ transla- 


tion of C. A. Debussy’s Album of Six Songs 
(1915) ; Open Letter (1920); Later Poems (with 
an appreciation by R. H. Hathaway, 1921, 
(1922). 

CARNARVON, George EpwArp STANHOPE 
Mortyneux Hersert, Earu or (1866-1923). A 
British peer, and co-discoverer of the tomb of 
Tutankhamen in Egypt. He was born June 26, 
1866, and was educated at Eton and Trinity 
College, Cambridge. His interest in Egyptol- 
ogy was aroused by the collections of illuminat- 
ed books and manuscripts which he had gathered, 
and in 1906 he applied for permission to exca- 
vate at Thebes. As he had obtained the assist- 
ance of Howard Carter, former inspector in the 
service of antiquities at Thebes, the permission 
was granted and the two undertook a series of 
excavations mostly on the northern side of 
Assassif Valley near the Temple of Derel Bahri. 
In 1908, they discovered the tomb of a prince 
of the Eighteenth Dynasty, containing precious 
caskets and a gaming board. In _ succeeding 
years, tombs were systematically discovered and 
cleared. Meanwhile Lord Carnarvon, with his 
family, took up his residence in the Valley of 
the Kings and worked on an account of the ex- 
cavation, which appeared in 1912 under the title 
of Five Years’ Exploration at Thebes. After the 
War he received a concession in the Valley of 
the Kings, and with Mr. Carter undertook to ex- 
cavate down to bedrock. In November, 1922, 
after long labors, they uncovered the wall which 
finally pointed to the tomb of Tutankhamen. 
On Apr. 5, 1923, as the result of an insect bite, 
Lord Carnarvon died at Cairo. See TUTANKH- 
AMEN; ARCH AZOLOGY. 

CARNEGIE CORPORATION OF NEW 
YORK. See Liprary ASSOCIATION, AMERICAN 
and LIBRARY PROGRESS. 

CARNEGIE ENDOWMENT FOR INTER- 
NATIONAL PEACE. See Liprary Associa- 
TION, AMERICAN. 

CARNEGIE GEOPHYSICAL LABORA- 
TORY. See MINERALOGY. 

CARNEGIE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOL- 
OGY. A nonsectarian institution of technical 
education at Schenley Park, Pittsburgh, Pa., 
founded in 1900 by Andrew Carnegie. The stu- 
dent enrollment increased from 3285 in 1914 to 
4282 in the year 1923-24, and 628 in the sum- 
mer session of 1923; the faculty from 202 to 
288 members. The productive funds in 1924 


254 


‘e r 
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION 


were $8,000,000 and the income $1,300,000. The 
$400,000 gymnasium was completed in 1924. 
There were four colleges: College of Engineer- 
ing, College of Industries, College of Fine 
Arts, and the Margaret Morrison College for 


Women. Evening classes were held in the 
Colleges of Engineering, Industries, and Fine 
Arts. President, Thomas  Stockham_ Baker, 
ED. 


CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASH- 
INGTON. An institution established in 1902 
for the purpose of encouraging research and in- 
vestigation, and the application of knowledge to 
the improvement of mankind. The 100-inch re- 
flecting Hooker telescope of the Mt. Wilson Ob- 
servatory was completed in 1916; in 1921 it was 
announced that important new discoveries had 
been made by Dr. A. <A. Michelson that 
furnished a new starting point for further in- 
vestigations concerning the nature of the uni- 
verse. By use of the interferometer the di- 
mensions of Betelgeuse in Orion and many other 
stars were measured, and the way was opened 
for corresponding observations on a group of 
stars theretofore seemingly entirely out of range. 
The large ruling machine, for many years under 
construction, was successfully operated in the 
preparation of diffraction gratings. A new edi- 
tion of Ptolemy’s Almagest, Hipparchus’s great 
catalogue of stellar positions, was issued in 
1916 as a result of the researches of Dr. C. H. 
F. Peters and-Edward B. Knobel, and a new and 
probably final edition of the Catalogue of the 
Stars by Ulugh Beg, the Arabian astronomer of 
the 15th century, was published in the follow- 
ing year. The Mt. Wilson Observatory and the 
California Institute of Technology (q.v.) in 
1922-1923 jointly conducted researches in the 
structure of matter. 3 

The department of terrestrial magnetism was 
engaged throughout the decade in making a mag- 
netic survey of the earth. Its investigations in- 
cluded the phenomena of magnetism, electricity 
and gravitation. The non-magnetic ship Carne- 
gie made a number of voyages in the Atlantic, 
Pacific and Indian Oceans, and in 1916 sailed 
around the Antarctic icepack in 118 days. This 
sea survey, begun in 1909, in which the Carnegie , 
traveled 300,000 miles, was completed in 1921, 
and the regions visited were charted. Land ob- 
servations were continued by the Institution. 
The geophysical laboratory was engaged in a 
study of the atomic structure of minerals, espe: 
cially of the minerals emanating from the in- 
terior of the earth, such as the lavas of the 
Hawaiian Islands and the fumaroles of the 
Katmai region of Alaska (See GEOGRAPHIC So- 
CIETY, NATIONAL). Investigations were also con- 
ducted looking toward the solution of certain 
critical problems in earthquake study, and a 
representative was sent to Chile to study the 
problems arising from the earthquake of Novem- 
ber, 1922. 

As a direct result of archeological investiga- 
tions in Guatemala and Yucatan extending over 
the past decade, agreement was reached with the 
Mexican Government for a ten-year programme 
of investigation at the ancient Maya city of 
Chichen Itza in Yucatan. Along with the spe- 
cifically archeological investigations, the re- 
searches are to include a study of the physical 
characteristics of the Maya race and of the en- 
vironment in which it developed. Through an 
advisory committee of eminent biologists a pre- 
liminary programme for studies on the physical 


ANd 


- Tucson, 


CARNOTITE 


basis of human behavior was adopted in co- 
operation with the Department of Embryology 
and with other agencies. Ecological studies 
concerning environment relations of plants, which 
were undertaken at a number of stations in 
Colorado, Arizona, and other western States, led 
to a new interpretation of the development of 
vegetation. The department of genetics was es- 
tablished in 1920 at Cold Spring Harbor, L. I. 
with a section of experimental evolution, and a 
Eugenics record office. It carried on researches 
in variations in the elements of the cell recog- 
nized as bearers of characters transmitted to 
descendants. In 1921 a laboratory was built for 
the department of botanical research at Carmel, 
Calif., to be devoted to chemical and physical 
research with a view to obtaining additional in- 
formation concerning the basis of plant activi- 
ties. This department with laboratories at 
Arizona and Carmel, California is 
now known as the laboratory for plant phys- 
iology. 

Researches were also carried on in many other 
lines. In 1917 the eighth and last volume of 
Dr. H. Oskar Sommer’s edition of the Vulgate 
Version of the Arthurian Romances was pub- 
lished, concordances to Spencer, Keats, and Hor- 
ace, and a new edition of The Old Yellow Book 
were issued Dr Victor 8. Clark wrote a His- 
tory of Manufactures in the United States 
(1607-1860) and Dr. James Brown Scott edit- 
ed eight volumes of Classics of International 
Law, a project which was assumed by the Carne- 
gie Endowment for International Peace. The 
department of economics and sociology was dis- 
continued in 1916. During the War two-thirds 
of the staff was devoted to work for the govern- 
ment. 

Two hundred and twenty-five volumes were is- 
sued during the ten years between 1914 and 
1924, and about $13,000,000 was received by the 
Institution. A series of lectures on the recent 
researches, initiated in 1921, become an impor- 
tant personal means of interpreting to the sci- 
entific public some of the results of current in- 
vestigations; and such work was supplemented 
by comprehensive exhibits in the Administration 
Building in Washington relative to current prog- 
ress of work. See EXPLoRATION. 

CARNOTITE. See RapruM. 

CAROLINE AND PELEW ISLANDS. 
See Pactric OcEAN ISLANDS. 

CARPENTER, Epwarp Cuitps (1871- 4 
A dramatic author and novelist born at Phila- 
delphia, Pa. His very well known plays include: 
The Dragon-Fly (with J. Luther Long); Cap- 
tain Courtesy; Remembrance; The Order of the 
Rose; The Barber of New Orleans; Bread upon 
the Waters; The Challenge; The Tongues of 
Men; The Cinderella Man (1915); The Pipes 
of Pan (1917); The Three Bears (1917); Bab 
(1920) ; Romeo and Jane (1920); The Girl and 
the Highways (1920); and Pot Luck. Besides 
writing many novels, Mr. Carpenter edited the 
Philadelphia Inquirer. 

CARPENTER, Joun ALDEN (1876- ) 
An American composer, born at Park Ridge, IIL, 
Feb. 28, 1876. Besides taking the regular 
courses at Harvard University, he at the same 
time completed the full course in music under 
Prof. J. K. Paine. In 1906, he studied composi- 
tion with E. Elgar in Rome and later (1908-12) 
pursued the same subject with B. Ziehn in Chi- 
cago. Although he never followed music as a 
profession, his compositions show a thorough 


255 


CARREL 


mastery of all technical means and at the same 
time pronounced impressionistic tendencies. His 
works comprise: The Birthday of the Infanta, 
a ballet-pantomime (Chicago, 1919) ; for orches- 
tra, a symphony, A Sermon in Stones (Norfolk 
Fest., 1917), Adventures in a Perambulator, 
Krazy Kat, A Pilgrim Vision (Mayflower Ter- 
centenary, 1920); a Concertino for piano and 
orchestra; a violin-sonata; a song-cycle Gitan- 
jali and about 30 detached songs. 

CARPENTIER, GEORGES (1894- hs 
French heavyweight boxer, born at Lens, France. 
He has engaged in more than one hundred 
matches, his most important battles having been 
with Jack Dempsey (q.v.), world’s heavyweight 
champion in 1921, Battling Siki in 1922 and 
Tom Gibbons and Gene Tunney in 1924. Car- 
pentier was knocked out by Dempsey in the 
fourth round of a scheduled fifteen-round con- 
test at Boyle’s Thirty Acres in New Jersey, was 
knocked out by Siki at Paris, France, in the 
sixth round, lost on a decision to Gibbons at 
Michigan City, Ind., and was knocked out ‘by 
Tunney at the Polo Grounds, New York City in 
the fifteenth round. 


CARPETS. See TEXTILE MANUFACTURING, 
Wool. 
CARR, GENE (1881- ). American il- 


lustrator and caricaturist born in New York 
and educated at the public schools, who con- 
tributed to New York newspapers after 1894. 
He is best known for his creation of the comic 
series ‘Metropolitan Movies,’ “Reddy and Ca- 
ruso,’ “Dooley,” “Flirting Flora,’ the “Jones 
Boys,” “Bill,” “Stepbrothers,” ‘Willie Wise,” 
“Father,” the “Prodigal Son,” “All the Comforts 
of Home” and “Lady Bountiful.” 

CARR, Harvey (1873- ). An American 
experimental psychologist, born at Morris, Ill. 
He was educated at the universities of Colorado 
and Chicago. After receiving his doctorate, he 
was an instructor of psychology at Pratt In- 
stitute. In 1908, he joined the faculty of the 
University of Chicago, becoming assistant pro- 
fessor in 1916. His professional contribu- 
tions include papers on comparative psychol- 
ogy, visual space perception, and educational 
theory. 

CARR, HERBERT WILDON (1857- ). An 
English philosophical writer. He was educated 
at Oxford, and in his adult life combined the 
vocation of banker with the writing of semi- 
popular works on philosophy. He received the 
honorary degree of D.Litt. (Durham) in 1912, 
and from 1916 to 1918 was president of the 
Aristotelian Society. In 1918, he became profes- 
sor of philosophy at the University of London, 
Kings College, and editor of the Proceedings of 
the Aristotelian Society. 

In his works, Professor Carr shows the influ- 
ence of the philosophy of Bergson and of Croce, 
for both of whom he became a popular torch- 
bearer. His publications include: The Problem 
of Truth (1912); Henri Bergson (1912); The 
Philosophy of Change (1914); The Philosophy 
of Benedetto Oroce (1918); Bergson’s Mind 
Energy (Translation, 1920); The Principle of 
Relativity (1920); Gentile’s Theory of Mind as 
Pure Act (Translation, 1921); and A Theory of 
Monads (1922). 

CARRELL, Atexis (1873- ). An Ameri- 
can biologist (see Vou. IV.) At the outbreak of 
the War, Dr. Carrel returned to France as a 
military surgeon and established a research lab- 
oratory in order to determine the most prac- 


CARREL-DAKIN SOLUTION 


ticable antiseptics and technique for wound 
dressing. In collaboration with Dakin, he 
evolved the so-called Carrel-Dakin solution of 
sodium hyposulphite and this, with the tech- 
nique devised, was used largely as a standard- 
ized method of wound care. In 1917, in col- 
laboration (Carrel and Dehelly) was published 
the handbook Le traitement des plaies infectées, 
which appeared simultaneously in English. In 
collaboration with Professor Tuffier, Carrel also 
conducted researches on surgery of the orifices 
of the heart. In 1919, he returned to the Rocke- 
feller Institute, New York City, to resume his 
original research into the growth and preserva- 
tion of tissue outside the body and the implanta- 
tion and grafting of tissues. 

CARREL-DAKIN SOLUTION. See Car- 
REL, ALEXIS. 

CARRINGTON, Fitzroy (1869- ). An 
American editor (see Vor. IV). He resigned as 
editor of the Print Collector’s Quarterly in 1917, 
but became American editor of the same 
periodical in 1921. He is the author of: 
Engravers and LEtchers (Scammon_ Lectures, 
1921). 

CARROLL, Ear. (?- ). An American 
theatrical producer, and builder of a plastic and 
well appointed playhouse in New York City, the 
Earl Carroll Playhouse. One of his latest im- 
provements in the theatre is a system of build- 
ing raised platforms and steps by means of unit 
building-block construction whereby a long, wide 
flight of stairs can be built in a limited space, 
as well as platforms of any shape. The stairs 
are made in units of two steps each assembled 
on different sized blocks whose corners form in- 
termediate steps) By means of this system 
scenes can be quickly and easily made up by 
four stage hands. 

CARSON, Epwarp Henry Carson, BARroN 
(1854— ). British statesman and lawyer 
(see Vor. IV). When the War began he 
strongly urged Ulstermen to join the British 
army. He became attorney general in June, 
1915, but resigned in October because he felt 
that the policy of Mr. Asquith’s cabinet was to 
desert Serbia. In December, he joined Lloyd 
George’s cabinet as First Lord of the Admiralty, 
in which position he endeavored to make good 
the losses suffered by the work of the German 
submarines. In July, 1916, he resigned from 
the Admiralty and accepted a place in the War 
cabinet without portfolio, but resigned this po- 
sition in 1918. After the War he turned again 
to Irish affairs, and demanded the repeal of the 
Home Rule Act. He supported Lloyd George’s 
proposal for the reform of the Government of 
Ireland by establishing parliaments in both 
Dublin and Belfast, and his efforts to make this 
plan a success were rewarded by the overwhelm- 
ing majority in favor of it in the elections of 
May, 1921. Sir Edward Carson refused a seat 
in the new Parliament, and also declined to 
succeed Mr. Bonar Law as leader in the House 
of Commons. He quitted active politics in 1921, 
and accepted a life peerage as Baron Carson of 
Duneairn. 

CARSON, Harry Rosert (1869- ). An 
American Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Haiti, 
born at Norristown, Pa. He was educated at 
the University of the South. He studied the- 
ology, and was ordained as priest in 1896 by 
Bishop Sessums of Louisiana, in whose diocese 
he served as general missionary until 1898. 
During the Spanish-American War he was chap- 


256 CARTY 


lain of the 2d Louisiana Infantry. After peace 
was declared in 1899, he held pastorates in 
Louisiana, and in 1910 was made Archdeacon of 
Louisiana. He was editor of The Diocese of 
Louisiana, the diocesan paper. He went to the Ca- 
nal Zone as missionary in 1912, and founded the 
Holy Comforter Mission for lepers. At the Gen- 
eral Convention of 1892 he was elected Mis- 
sionary Bishop of Haiti, and was consecrated in 
the Cathedral of St. John the Divine, New York 
City, on Jan. 10, 1923. 

CARSO PLATEAU. See War In Evropr, 
Italian Front. 

CARTELLIERI, G. M. ALEXANDER 
(1867— ). A German writer born at Odessa. 
He studied at the universities of Paris, Tiibingen, 
Leipzig, Berlin, and was professor at Heidelberg 
and Jena. His principal works are: Philip 
II Aug. Konig von Frankreich (1899) ; Regesten 
des Bischoffs von Konstanz (1894-5); Philip II 
Aug. und der Zusammenbruch des angevinischen 
Reiches (19138); Die Schlacht von Bouvines im 
Rahmen der europdischen Politik (1914); Wei- 
mar und Jena (1913); Deutschland und Frank- 
reich in Wandel der Jahrhunderte (1914) ; 
Frankreichs politische Beziehungen zu Deutsch- 
land von Frankfurter Frieden bis zum Ausbruch 
des Weltkriegs (1918); Gobineau (1917); 
and CGrundziige der Weltgeschichte 3878-191} 
(19197" 

CARTER, Howarp (1873- ). An Eng- 
lish archeologist, born at Swatfham, Norfolk. 
He was trained as an artist, and began his work 
as an archeologist in Egypt in 1891 under Pro- 
fessor Flinders Petrie, assisting in the excava- 
tion of Tel-el-Amarna in 1892. He was Govern- 
ment Inspector-in-Chief of Egyptian Antiquities 
in Upper Egypt from 1900 to 1905. He made 
many discoveries, and in 1917 began with Lord 
Carnarvon the work leading to the finding of 
the tomb of Tutankhamen in 1923, which dis- 
closed objects of marvelous design and greatly 
increased the world’s knowledge of ancient 
Egyptian art and life. He visited the United 
States in 1924, and gave a series of illustrated 
lectures in New York City on the finding of the 
tomb of Tutankhamen which were attended by 
very large and enthusiastic audiences. See Tut- 
ANKHAMEN; ARCHAZOLOGY;,; CARNARVON, EARL OF. 

CARTER, WILLIAM HarpiIna (1851- yy 
An American army officer, born at Nashville, 
Tenn. He was educated at the Kentucky Mil- 
itary Institute at Frankfort, and served in the 
Civil War. Jn 1913 he commanded the 2d Divi- 
sion of the United States Army, and of the 
Hawaiian Department in 1914-15, and retired 
in 1915. Upon being recalled to active service 
in 1917-18, he commanded the Central Depart- 
ment at Chicago. He wrote: From Yorktown to 
Santiago with the Sixth Cavalry (1900); Old 
Army Sketches (1906); Giles Carter of Virginia 
(1909); The American Army (1915); Life and 
Services of Lieutenant Chaffee (1917); Horses, 
Saddles and Bridles, 4th ed. (1918). 

CARTHAGE COLLEGE. An institution at 
Carthage, Ill., founded in 1872. The student 
enrollment increased from approximately 80 in 
1914 to 368 in 1923-24 and the endowment in- 
creased from $250,000 to $850,000 The teach- 
ing force was enlarged, rntil there were 35 mem- 
bers of the faculty in 1923-24. A domestic sci- 
ence department was added to the curriculum. 
President, Harvey D. Hoover, Ph.D. 

CARTY, JOHN JOSEPH (1861- ).:° An 
American electrical engineer, born at Cambridge, 


a 
ra 

4& 

wy 


ee, 


a a ee ST ae ee 


ee ee eee ee 


: 
f 
¥ 
5 


* Political Economy 


CARUSO 


Mass. He was educated in the Cambridge Latin 
School, and began his active work in telephony 
in 1879 with the Bell Telephone Company in 
Boston. In 1887, he was called to the charge of 
the cable department of the Western Electric 
Company in New York City and two years later 
became chief engineer of the New York Telephone 
Company. In 1908 he became chief engineer of 
the American Telephone and Telegraph Com- 
pany and in 1919 vice-president of the company. 
As a pioneer in the development of the telephone 
he has invented many improvements, including 
telephone signaling apparatus, various switch- 
board and telephone exchange apparatus, as well 
as the telephone transmitter from secondary 
batteries. Among the important achievements 
accomplished under his direction were the under- 
ground telephone cable between Boston and 
Washington, transcontinental telephone lines, 
and telephoning without wires from Washington 
to Hawaii, and from Washington to Paris. Dur- 
ing the War he was a member of the National 
Research Council and during 1918-19 he served 
in France with the rank of colonel. The Dis- 
tinguished Service Medal of his own country 
and the Japanese orders of the Rising Sun and 
Sacred Treasure were conferred on him, and he 
was made an officer of the Legion of Honor. 
He received the Longstreth medal (1903) 
and the Franklin medal (1916) from the Frank- 
lin Institute, and the Edison medal (1918) of 
the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. 

CARUSO, Enrico (1873-1921). An Italian 
dramatic tenor (see Vou. IV). He died at 
Naples, August 2, 1921. During the last decade 
of his life his position as the greatest living 
dramatic tenor was unchallenged. His last ap- 
pearance was as Eleazar in La Juive at the 
Metropolitan Opera House (Dec. 24, 1920).— 
Consult P. V. R. Key and B. Zirato, Enrico 
Caruso (Boston, 1923). 

CARVER, Tuomas Nixon’ (1865- i 
An American economist (see VoL. IV). Among 
his later writings are: Hssays in Social Justice 
(1915); The Conservation of Human Resources 
(1917); Government Control of the Liquor Bus- 
iness in Great Britain and the United States 
(1917); War -Thrift (1919) ; “Principles: of 
(1919); Principles of Na- 
tional Economy (1921). 

CASE, SHIRLEY JAcKSON (1872- ). An 
American educator and theologian born at Hat- 
field Point, New Brunswick, Canada. He was 
educated at Acadia University (Nova Scotia), 
Yale and the University of Marburg. He in- 
structed in mathematics and Greek, and, 1906- 
08, was professor of the history and philosophy 
of religion at Bates College, Me. In the latter 
year he went to the University of Chicago where 
he subsequently (1917) became professor of 
early church history and New Testament inter- 
pretations. He was editor of the American 
Journal of Theology (1912-20) and published: 
The Historicity of Jesus (1912); The Evolution 
of Early Christianity (1914); The Millennial 


Hope (1918); and The Revelation of John 
(1919). 
CASELLA, ALFREDO (1883- ). An Ital- 


ian composer, one of the leaders of Futurism, 
born at Turin, July °5, 1883. He was taught 
by his mother until 1896, when he entered the 
Paris Conservatoire, studying under L. Diémer 
(piano, first prize, 1899) and G. Fauré (com- 
position). He then made extensive tours of 
Europe as pianist and conductor. From 1912 


257 


CASSIRER 


to 1915 he was professor of advanced piano play- 
ing at the Conservatoire, and then accepted a 
similar position, as Sgamhati'’s successor, at the 
Liceo Musicale di 8S. Cecilia in Rome. In 1921- 
22, he made a tour of the United States, where 
the public acclaimed him as‘an excellent inter- 
preter of the classics, but declined his own 
futuristic works, which include Le Couvent sur 
Veau, a choreographic comedy; two symphonies; 
Italia; Prologue pour une tragédie; Notte di 
maggio (with chorus); Suite in C; Pagine di 
Guerra; Elegia eroica for orchestra; chamber 
music and many songs. He published numerous 
articles making propaganda for Tuturism and 
also a book, The Evolution of Music (Uondon, 
1924). 

CASEMENT, Sire Rocer Davis (1864- 
1916). Irish revolutionist. From 1895 to 
1913, he was in the British consular service, 
distinguishing himself for his efforts to sup- 
press cruelty to the natives in the Congo Free 
State and in Brazil. In 1916, he aided in the 
Sinn Fein revolt. After passing some months in 
Germany, where he was believed to have en- 
gaged in a treasonable plot, he was captured 
in Ireland, Apr. 21, 1916, on landing from a 
German submarine, was convicted of high trea- 
son, June 29, and hanged on August 3. 

CASE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE. 
An engineering college in Cleveland, Ohio, 
founded in 1880. The student enrollment in 
1923 was 538, approximately the same as in 
1913, while the faculty was increased during 
the decade from 45 to 61 members, the library 
from 13,505 to 16,215 volumes, and the endow- 
ment from $2,458,788 to $3,008,439. The school 
received, by gift from Worcester R. Warner and 
Ambrose Swasey, a student observatory equipped 
with an object glass of 10 inches aperture, two 
astronomical transits of 3 and 4 inches aperture, 
a 4-inch zenith telescope, a 2-inch theodolite, and 
two Riefler clocks. Prof. Dayton C. Miller of 
the school devised a method of photographing 
sound waves, a thing never attempted before. 
Through this invention it is possible to make 
a complete analysis up to 30 different components 
of any musical sound, and thus tell exactly 
what tones and overtones any musical instru- 
ment gives out; and to compare any two musical 
sounds, as, for example, the notes of two pianos 
with each other, to determine which is the finer 
instrument. President, Charles Sumner Howe, 
BHD. “Lap: 

CASSEL, Gustav (1866- ). A Swedish 
economist and student of mathematics who stud- 
ied at Stockholm and abroad. Early in his 
career he instructed in national economy at the 
high school in Stockholm, and about the same 
time published Das Recht auf den vollen Ar- 
beitsertrag (1900), and The Nature and Neces- 
sity of Interest (1903). Many times in the pe- 
riod, 1905-21, he was identified with state finan- 
cial matters in Sweden, and in 1921, he was one 
of the Swedish representatives who assembled in 
London for the meeting of the International 
Chamber of Commerce. He published Theoret- 
ische Sozialékonomie in 1919, and his Memo- 
randum on the World’s Monetary Problems was 
published by the League of Nations for the In- 
ternational Financial Conference in Brussels in 
1920. Cassel became a member of Svenska Ve- 
tenskapsakademien and a corresponding member 
of the Royal Economic Society. 

CASSIRER, Ernst (1874- ). A Ger- 
man philosopher of the neo-Kantian school. His 


CASTELLANI 


work has been made available in English 
through the translation of Substane und Funk- 
tion, to which has been added in the same vol- 
ume some chapters on Kinstein’s theory of rela- 
tivity. His more recent works include Freiheit 
und Form (1918), Heinrich von Kleist und die 


Kantische Philosophie (1917), and Zur EHin- 
stein’schen Relativitaetstheorie (1921). The 


English translation of Substanz was published 
in 1923 under the title Substance and Function 
and Einstein’s Theory of Relativity. Professor 
Cassirer edited a new edition of Kant’s works in 
11 volumes, and wrote the concluding bio- 
graphical volume (1912-18). 

CASTELLANI, Atpo- (1875- )iy oAn 
Italo-British physician, authority on tropical 
medicine, born at Florence and educated at the 
University of Florence (M.D., 1899). His 
earlier years of practice were occupied in part 
by the study of tropical diseases, notably Afri- 
can sleeping sickness and yaws. In this re- 
search he represented in part a special com- 
mission from the Royal Society of England. For 
some time he was a professor of tropical medi- 
cine in the Ceylon Medical School. On the out- 
break of the War he at once entered the service 
of his native country and was made a lieutenant- 
colonel of the Royal Italian Medical Service. 
He is best known by his exhaustive work, writ- 
ten in collaboration (Castellani and Chalmers), 
A Manual of Tropical Medicine. This was first 
published in 1910 but was greatly enlarged in 
subsequent editions, the fourth, which appeared 
in 1923, containing nearly 2500 pages. 

CASTELNAU, Epovuarp DE CURIERES DE 
(1851— ). A French general, born at Saint- 
Affrique. He served in the Franco-Prussian 
War, in Cochin-China and Algeria, and the out- 
break of war in 1914 found him in command of 
the French 2d Army. He early distinguished 
himself as the “Savior of Nancy” with the re- 
sult that in December, 1915, he was made chief 
of the general staff. In this capacity he went 
to Greece and helped plan the defenses of Sa- 
loniki. In 1916, he did yeoman work in hold- 
ing Verdun against the German onslaughts. 
Once again he was sent on a mission, this time 
to Russia early in 1917, and on his return he 
was placed in command of the group of armies 
of the East. A remarkable soldier, it was said 
in his favor that only political enmities pre- 
vented his rise to the highest military post 
France had at her disposal. 

CASTLE, Ecrrton (1858-1920). An Eng- 
lish novelist (see Vor. IV). His latest novels, 
written for the most part in collaboration with 
his wife, Agnes Castle, include: The Ways of 
Miss Barbara (1914); The Hope of the House 
(1915); The Black Office (1917); Wolf Lure 
(1917); Minniglen (1918); New Wine (1919) ; 


Little Hours in Great Days (1919); John 
Seneschal’s Margaret (1920). 
CASTRO, MariLpE (1879- ). An Ameri- 


can educator born in Chicago. She was edu- 
cated at the University of Chicago and taught 
philosophy as a member of the faculties of Mount 
Holyoke College, Vassar College, and Rockford 
College. In 1913, she was called to Bryn Mawr. 
She is the author of The Respective Standpoints 
of Psychology and Logic (1912). 
CATALAN MOVEMENT. See Spain, His- 
tory. 
ATALYSIS. See CHEMISTRY; and CHEMIs- 
TRY, PHYSICAL. 


258 


CATT 


CATALYSTS, User or. See 
ORGANIC. 

CATERPILLAR TRACTOR. - See 
TRACTOR. 

CATHER, Witta SrBert (1876- ye Ait 
American author born at Winchester, Va. .She 
was educated at the University of Nebraska, and 
shortly after her graduation went into journal- 
istic work. In 1906-12, she was associate edi- 
tor of McClure’s Magazine. Miss Cather is a 
writer who deals simply and profoundly with 
the problems of life, presenting them in a direct 
style. Among her works are: April Twilight 
(1903), a book of verse; The Troll Garden 
(1905), which attracted considerable attention; 
Alexander’s Bridge (1912); The Bohemian Girl 
(1912); O Pioneers (1913); The Song of the 
Lark (1915); My Antonia (1918); Youth and 
the Bright Medusa (1920; One of Ours (1922) ; 
and The Lost Lady (1923). One of Ours won 
the Pulitzer Prize as the best novel published in 
that year. 

CATHOLIC CHURCH. See RoMAn CatnHo- 
Lic CHURCH. 

CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA. 
An institution of higher learning located at 
Washington, D. C., established in 1887 by the 
Hierarchy of the United States. It included 
the Schools of Theology, Canon Law, Law, Phi- 
losophy, Letters, and Sciences. The affiliated in- 
stitutions were the Catholic Sisters College 
for the training of teachers; Trinity College for 
the higher education of Catholic young women; 
and the houses of study of 16 religious orders. 
The student body increased in numbers from 
1394 in 1914 to 2021 in 1924, the faculty from 
75 to 103, and the library from 89,000 to 200,000: 
volumes. There were 86 scholarships in 1914 
and 102 in 1924. The number of degrees con- 
ferred in the period was 1757. The principal 
advance in the way of organization was the 
establishment (1923) of the School of Canon 
Law; in the way of equipment, the building of 
the Martin Maloney Chemical Laboratory. The 
laboratory was placed at the disposal of the 
government during the War. The university 
also organized a unit of the Students Army 
Training Corps; conducted a school for pay- 
masters of the navy and a rehabilitation school ~ 
for ex-service men; and administered the 
Knights of Columbus scholarships for ex-service 
men A gymnasium was built with a floor space 
of 44,000 square feet, and a stadium was in 
process of construction in 1924. Periodical pub- 
lications of the university were: The Catholic 
Educational Review; The Catholic Historical 
Review; The Catholic Charities Review; and the 
Corpus Scriptorum Orientalium. Rector of the 
University, Rt. Rev. Thomas J. Shahan, D.D. 

CATT, CARRIE CHAPMAN (?- \srapAg 
American suffrage leader (see Vout. IV). In 
1920, she had the pleasure of seeing the work 
of a lifetime crowned with success when the 
women of America went to the presidential polls 
for the first time. In June, 1920, she was 
reélected president of the International Woman 
Suffrage Alliance, and in 1923 she was made 
honorary president on her announcement that 
thereafter all her activities were to be devoted 
to the newly formed Pan-American Union. Her 
extensive travels during the years 1920-24, in 
Europe and South America, influenced greatly 
the progress of woman suffrage. In 1923, she 
was authority for the statement that Mussolini 


CHEMISTRY, 


FARM 


CATTELL 259 


was committed to the extension of the ballot to 
the Italian women. 

CATTELL, JAmMrs McKeen (1860- }. 
Psychologist and educator (see VoL. IV). He 
was dismissed from Columbia University under 
war conditions (1917) but in the course of a 
legal battle with the university was able to 
recover the amount of his pension. In 1919, 
he published a volume attacking the adminis- 
tration of the Carnegie pensions for university 
professors. Retired from active teaching, he 
continued his educational work as editor of The 
Scientific Monthly, School and Society and 
Science and Education. He published his third 
edition of American Men of Science in 1921. He 
was elected president of the American Associa- 
tion on the Advancement of Science. 

CATTLE. See DatrRyING; LIVE 
VETERINARY MEDICINE. 

CAVALRY. See ARMIES AND ARMY ORGANI- 
ZATION; STRATEGY AND TACTICS. 

CAVE, GEorRGE, VISCOUNT (1856-— ). An 
English jurist, born in London. He was edu- 
cated at St. Johns College, Oxford, and began 
the practice of law in 1880. He filled many im- 
portant posts and was standing counsel of Ox- 
ford University from 1913 to 1915. In 1914— 
15, he was attorney-general to the Prince of 
Wales. In 1915-16, he was solicitor-general, 
and from 1916 to 1919, Home Secretary. He 
was chairman of the South Rhodesia Commis- 
sion, 1919-20, and in 1921 was chairman of the 
Munitions Inquiry Tribunal. From 1906 to 
1918 he was a member of Parliament. He was 
created a viscount in 1918. He edited several 
legal treatises. 

CAVELL, Epitu (1865-1915). A_ British 
nurse born at Swardeston, Norfolk, England. 
She was educated in England and Belgium and in 
1895 entered a London hospital as probationer. 
For several years she held various positions as 
superintendent and matron and in 1907 was ap- 
pointed the first matron of the Berkendael 
medical institute at Brussels. In the War, the 
institute became a Red Cross hospital. <Ac- 
cording to the account of the affair sent by the 
American minister, Brand Whitlock, to London, 
and published by the British government, Miss 
Edith Cavell, an English woman who had been 
in charge of a training school in Brussels, was 
accused of utilizing her position as a nurse to 
assist in the escape of British, Belgian, and 
French soldiers from Belgium. She was arrest- 
ed August 5; October 11, she was condemned to 
be executed by a firing squad of German soldiers. 
The carrying out of the execution was done in the 
deepest secrecy; the American minister learn- 
ing of it on the evening of the 10th. Disliking 
to kill a woman in cold blood, the firing squad 
had aimed so inaccurately that Miss Cavell was 
not killed, but only wounded by a single bullet. 
Thereupon—and this was the circumstance that 
particularly infuriated the British press—the 
German, officer in charge of the firing squad 
drew his revolver, put it up to the woman’s ear, 
and pulled the trigger. In England, Miss Cavell 
was henceforth regarded as a martyr. A me- 
morial service at Westminster Abbey, attended by 
Mr. Asquith as well as by representatives of 
the Royal Family, was thronged by a vast mul- 
titude anxious to do her honor. A statue, by 
Sir G. Frampton, was erected to her memory 
opposite the National Portrait Gallery, London. 

CAWTHORN, JosrpH (1869- An 


STOCK ; 


. carry on 


CECIL 


American actor born in New York City. He 
was educated at home by his mother and ap- 
peared on the stage as a child in Robinson’s 
Musie Hall, New York, in 1871, then with 
Haverly’s Minstrels. He was taken to England 
at the age of nine, and was comedian in several 
musical plays. In 1910, he appeared as Oscar 
Spiel in Girlies at the New Amsterdam Theatre, 
New York. This was followed by his appear- 
ance as Louis von Schloppenhauer in The Slhm 
Princess in 1911. He played in Sybil during 
1916-17, in Rambler Rose in 1918, and as Tim- 
othy in The Canary during 1919-20. He also 
took the part of the Hon. Hudson Hobson in 
The Half-Moon in 1920. 

CECIL, Lorp (EpGAR ALGERNON) ROBERT 
(1864— ). English statesman, third son of 
the Marquis of Salisbury. He was educated at 
Eton and University College, Oxford, and read 
for the bar. He devoted himself to the law 
until 1906, when he was elected to Parliament 
as a Conservative member. Like his younger 
brother, Lord Hugh, he became a staunch advo- 
eate of the Conservative doctrine, and while not 
so brilliant in debate, his sound sense and the 
frank honesty with which he held his position, 
earned him at once, too, a respectful attention. 
He fought against disestablishment, social legis- 
lation, and tariff reform, and it was the last 
that brought on his defeat in 1910. He was 
reélected in a by-election in 1912 and sat after 
that for the Hitchin division, Herts. During 
the War he displayed his great abilities in the 
difficult offices of Undersecretary for Foreign 
Affairs (1915-16) and Minister of Blockade 
(1916-18). In 1918, he was called upon to 
the negotiations with the United 
States. His subsequent career took on some- 
thing of the nature of a Crusade. He early be- 
came convinced of the necessity for some such 
instrumentality as the League of Nations to 
preserve international peace and together with 
General Smuts, among the British, threw him- 
self whole-heartedly into the movement. With 
Smuts, he was British representative on the 
League of Nations’ Commission, and it was as 
a result of Smuts’s intercession that South Africa 
tendered him her seat in the League Assembly, 
when Lloyd George passed him over. He con- 
tinued on the Assembly for South Africa into 
1923. In April, 1923, he came to the United 
States in the interests of the League. His recep- 
tion was cordial, Americans in particular being 
taken with his honesty and nobility, but it is 
unlikely that his plea carried much weight at 
the time. As the head of the League of Na- 
tions Union, he worked untiringly in the interest 
of universal peace to the neglect of his political 
career, in this instance resembling the conduct 
of the Frenchman Bourgeois and the American 
Clarke. In 1923, he entered the short-lived 
Baldwin Cabinet with the portfolio of Lord 
Privy Seal. ; 

CECIL, Lorp Huan RicHArRD HEATHCOTE 
(1869-— ). An English politician, fifth son 
of the Marquis of Salisbury. He received his 
education at Eton and University College, Ox- 
ford, and for a time was a Fellow of Hertford. 
He entered .politics in 1895 as a Conservative 
and served in Parliament continuously to 1906. 
He was among the young Conservatives to take 
a stand against Chamberlain’s tariff programme, 
and as such, gained an excellent reputation. 
He was defeated in 1906 and not returned 


CELESTIAL MECHANICS 


again until he was sent up by Oxford in 1910. 
Possibly too much of.a scholar, and a political 
philosopher rather than a politician, his sub- 
sequent career was marked by a growing inac- 
tivity. He served in the War for a time; de- 
fended conscientious objectors in 1917; and in 
1921 followed his brother, Lord Robert, (q.v.) 
in the break from Lloyd George. His book Con- 
servatism was the best expression of the philo- 
sophical implications of the doctrine in his 
generation. Like the other Conservative, Dis- 
raeli, he finds the only sound position is a 
reversion to Burke. 

CELESTIAL MECHANICS. See ASTRON- 
OMY. 

CELLULOSE. See CHEMISTRY, 
EXPLOSIVES; SILK, ARTIFICIAL. 

CEMENT. An important development of 
the decade 1914-24 was the larger use of con- 
crete for many forms of construction of widely 
different types. This naturally led to an in- 
creased demand for cement, and with it came 
various improvements in the scientific propor- 
tioning of the constituents and control over the 
manufacturing processes so as to obtain a uni- 
form and standard material of carefully speci- 
fied characteristics. In the United States, Port- 
land cement made up the bulk of the cement out- 


ORGANIC;: 


260 


CEMENT 


throughout the country. The most important 
area of production is Eastern Pennsylvania, in 
the Lehigh district, where is found a valuable 
raw material known as cement rock. This re- 
gion is not only the greatest producer but has 
the largest number of plants, and is followed 
in order of importance by California and a dis- 
trict comprising Illinois, Indiana, and Michi- 
gan. The general tendency in cement manufac- 
turing was to install large plant units and to 
exercise greater care in the process of manufac- 
ture. Notwithstanding the increased production 
the number of plants in 1922 was 118 as com- 
pared with 133 in 1914 and 135 in 1909. More 
economical utilization of waste steam reduced 
production costs in many plants. The Portland 
cement industry grew steadily, as shown in the 
tables) It appears that consumption in 1923 
was 1.21 barrels per capita, as compared with 
17 barrel per capita in 1914. Cement was in- 
creasingly employed for general construction, 
particularly on account of its fire resisting quali- 
ties, and for the manufacture of durable high- 
ways. More cement was consumed than was 
produced in the United States in 1922. Con- 
sumption grew considerably during the War, ex- 
cept for 1918 and 1919, when it was checked by 
lack of construction. 


put. It is manufactured by calcining to inci- Production and consumption rose again in 
PRODUCTION 
Principal hydraulic cements produced in the United States, 1918-1923 
Masonry (natural) 
Year and puzzolan Portland cement Total 
cements 
Barrels Value Barrels Value Barrels Value 
MOLS CY. ve stcecleks ereiere tiene crepes) olepe 432,966 $401,341 71,081,663 $113,730,661 71,514,629 $114,132,002 
BOLO Sire cistere. c sike bere. olcie) sake sheen 528,589 583,554 80,777,935 138,130,269 81,306,524 138,713,823 
ODO Seis She at oo ePetale iol © ese. ote roamelte 767,481 1,150 890 100,023,245 202,046,955 100,790,726 203,197,845 
TO Those. saab oy ols tehene Oclletevs te cele A 539,402 897,025 98,842,049 186.811,473 99,381,451 187,708,498 
TOD Dit ic ce poeete egetenetaieds «ciate ke keloaene 889,428 1,293,598 114,789,984 202,030,872 115,679,412 203,323,970 
Oe Os saree - Nolte, etstratekote iets MOT GTA) 1947. 352." 13 AGU OC me ces cere cl eie te 138,731,912 Bo ale.w.etehete 
SUPPLY 
Supplies of Portland cement in the United States, 1918-1923 
Year Domestic shipments Imports Exports Apparent consumption * 
Barrels Value Barrels Value Barrels Value Barrels Value 
MOUSSA Res yclete 6 70,915,508 $113,316,275 3805 $1,200 2,252,446 $5,912,166 68,663,367 $107,405,309 
IOS Giaaiteere & avistayere 85,612,899 146,734,844 8,931 52,636 2,463,573 7,513,389 83,158,257 139,274,091 
SAQA cies sere 96,311,719 194,439 025 524,604 1,254,729 2,985,807 10,045,369 93,850,516 185,648.385 
TOS) Aa eles 95,507,147 180.778,415 122,322 388,842 1,181,014 4,276,986 94,448,455 176,890,271 
NO 22 ea i Benes 117,701,216 207,170,430 323.823 628,846 1,127,845 3,206,201 116,897,194 204,593,075 
TOD Bre. as Sule 135,912,118 257,684,424 1,678,636 2,964,098 1,001,688 2,944,174 136,589,066 257,704,348 


* Domestic shipments plus imports minus exports. 


nn nn ee UE een nmnnEnEN nnn nner EE 


pient vitrifaction a mixture of limestone and 
clay marl, or blast furnace slag in the approxi- 
mate proportions of one part of clay or shale to 
three of limestone. In the United States 125 
plants were engaged in the production of cement 
in 1921, according to the census of manufactures 
for that year. The industry gave employment 
to only 30,891, for machinery is extensively used 
in the preparation, handling, and packing of the 
material. The consumption of fuel and power is 
unusually heavy; and the production of 114,789,- 
984 barrels in 1922 required 8,500,000 tons of 
coal, 4,400,000 barrels of fuel oil, and 3,400,000,- 
000 cubic feet of gas. In 1919 the industry 
employed 488,808 primary horse power and was 
exceeded by only 9 manufacturing. industries 
in power demand. 

The value of Portland cement produced in 1923 
in the United States was $257,684,424. About 
one-half of this value was added to the raw 
materials in the course of manufacture. The 
average factory price per barrel in 1923 was 
$1.90. The cement industry is well distributed 


1920; conditions were more stable, and the de- 
mand increased consistently with the greater 
demand for building. As illustrating the use 
and distribution of cement in 1922 in the United 
States the following tabulation of the consump- 
tion of Portland cement by use was made by en- 
gineers of the Portland Cement Association from 
statistics covering the year 1922: 


Barrels Per 

cent 

Public and commercial buildings .. 29,000,000 24.9 

Dwellings deagl: 4.4) eG eee eae 11,000,000 9.5 

Sidewalks and private driveways 8,000,000 6.9 

Miscellaneous farm uses ........ 24,000,000 20.6 
Concrete pipe for water, sewers, 

Irrigations and culverts ..... 5,000,000 4.3 
Paving and highways ......... 28,000,000 24.0 
Railways anette ares clk 0 ithe 8 irae 6,000,000 Layee | 
Bridges, river and harbor work, 

dams and water power projects, 

storage tanks, and reservoirs .. 3,500,000 3.0 
Miscellaneous Uses) armies cise. 2,000,000 n bere 
Estimated consumption in 1922, in 

barrels. « i i.A.cpecaeee ies Sie tehe iene 116,500,000 100 


- largely 


CENSUS 


Cement manufacturing in Europe was nat- 
urally interfered with by the War but was 
gradually resumed as the reconstruction pro- 
gressed, France in particular soon placed this 
industry on a prosperous basis and by 1922 had 
a production of some 4,633,150 tons. Not only 
was France using considerable amounts of 
cement in reconstruction work, but she also was 
able to restore the other countries. In Bel- 
gium the annual pre-war output of 1,500,000 
barrels was gradually approached again as con- 
ditions returned to normality. In England the 
industry suffered considerably after the War 
on account of high coal and labor costs and the 
large amount of foreign imports. In Germany 
activity was restricted after the War, and the 
loss of coal fields and the consequent necessity 
of importing fuel restricted production, though 
in Westphalia pre-war conditions had _ been 
reached by 1922. Subsequent to the War was 
the establishment of a cement industry in 
China; Japan was already productive. 

Besides Portland cement higher aluminium 
cements were developed in France and latterly 
in the United States. These cements, while 
they do not set more rapidly, show a greater 
strength after 24 hours than that of Portland 
cement after 28 days. A greater resistance to 
the chemical attacks of sea water and sulphate- 
bearing ground waters was also claimed for 
them. Aluminium cement was more costly, as 
high grade aluminium ore, such as bauxite, was 
required in the manufacture. The 
chemical composition of aluminium cement man- 
ufactured in the United States in 1924 was as 
follows: 


Silica magnesium, insoluble, loss, ete. 5 per cent 
minmininm SCA Lie Os) ieosrs - Waakelal deen dk 4 Je se 
mee (CHO) Peo. Sion. cds ioteyl a evckaous, 6 one AD aes ee 
EOTUMEORIC OS eNotes test seats ous ge vor cre topay.o te BS" wey if 


The method of using aluminium cement is 
much the same as that for Portland cement, ex- 
cept that wetter mixtures are used, and it must 
be used alone, not mixed with Portland cement. 
The cement, though not quick in setting, so 
that ample time must be afforded for mixing, 
setting, transporting and placing, nevertheless 
develops very rapidly, after setting, the high 
strength which is its principal advantage. 
During the War aluminium cement was used 
by the French Army in the construction of con- 
crete foundations for big guns which were ready 
for operation within 24 hours. To offset its 
higher cost, aluminium cement possesses or was 
thought to possess many superior properties. 

CENSUS. June 30, 1924, marked the close 
of a 10-year period during which were published 
returns of two decennial censuses covering the 
subjects of population, including the blind and 
the deaf; manufactures; forest products; min- 
ing; agriculture; mortgages on farms and 
homes; irrigation; and drainage. These two in- 
vestigations were taken as of Apr. 15, 1910, and 
Jan. 1, 1920, respectively. Although the final 
reports for censuses of such scope are not 
usually available until the third or fourth year 
after the date of enumeration, statistics were 
given to the public piecemeal in press release 
and preliminary bulletin form almost daily, 
commencing within a few months from each 
date. 

The decennial censuses although of great mag- 
nitude, involving the employment of approxi- 


261 


CENTRAL AMERICAN UNION 


mately 100,000 clerks, supervisors, enumerators, 
and agents, are only a part of the many ac- 
tivities of the Bureau. The Bureau operates at 
full speed at all times. During the 10 years 
statistics were collected and published yearly 
concerning births and deaths; financial statistics 
of States and cities; marriage and divorcee (de- 
cennially until 1922); and forest products, in- 
cluding the production of lumber, lath, shingles, 
wood pulp, and the consumption of pulpwood. 
Quinguennially the Bureau takes a census of 
electrical industries, including electric railways, 
telegraphs, telephones, and central electric light 
and power stations. Commencing with 1925, a 
census of agriculture was to be taken quin- 
quennially also. Decennially, but not always 
during the three-year regular decennial census 
periods, the Bureau publishes life tables; in- 
formation relating to institutional population, 
that is, prisoners and juvenile delinquents, in- 
sane in hospitals, feeble-minded and epileptics, 
paupers in almshouses; religious bodies; trans- 
Falta by water; and wealth, debt, and taxa- 
ion. 

During the latter three years the Bureau is- 
sued a Monthly Survey of Current Business con- 
taining important current statistics on domestic, 
industrial, and commercial movements. The 
Bureau collected and published also, either semi- 
monthly, monthly, quarterly, or semi-annually, 
statistics of production, stocks, and consump- 
tion, covering various key commodities, such as 
cotton; hides, skins, and leather; boots and 
shoes; clothing; hosiery; wool consumption and 
stocks; tobacco; sugar; ete. For the use of va- 
rious interested organizations, it made estimates 
from time to time, between the decennial an- 
nouncements, of the population of States, 
counties, and cities, by color, sex, age, groups, 
and marital condition, for use during intercensal 
years. At two-year intervals the Bureau issued 
an Official Register or directory of persons in 
the service of the United States, exclusive of 
the army and navy. Commencing in 1921 and 
biennially thereafter the Fourteenth Census Act 
provided for a census of manufactures. Such 
a census had previously been taken at five-year 
intervals. 

CENSUS OF AGRICULTURE. See Acnri- 
CULTURE. 

CENTRAL AMERICAN UNION. In 1917, 
Salvador, as the Central American Court of 
Justice established by the treaty of 1907 drew 
near its end, called for a conference of Central 
American. republics to renew the court and con- 
sider a scheme for lasting coéperation, but the 
conference was never held because of Nicara- 
gua’s refusal to codperate. In 1920, Salvador 
once more issued her invitation. Representa- 
tives of the five countries met at San José, 
Costa Rica, and on Jan. 19, 1921, a treaty of 
union was ready which all but Nicaragua 
signed. ‘The Costa Rican National Assembly re- 
fused to ratify the pact with the result that only 
three countries, Salvador, Honduras, and Gua- 
temala, remained. The treaty of union con- 
tained the following provisions: establishment 
of a federal republic in which the constituent 
states were to have local autonomy; the crea- 
tion of a federal council as executive, a bicam- 
eral house, and a judiciary system; a common 
army and a single federal code, budget, cus- 
toms’ tariff, monetary system, and communica- 
tions’ system. Free trade was to exist among 
the states; existing treaties with foreign powers 


CENTRAL AMERICAN UNION 262 


were to be observed; foreign loans made by the 
states were to have the approval first of the 
federal government; the states were to continue 
their individual debt services. The temporary 
federal council, representing the three states 
which had ratified the pact, began meeting on 
Oct. 10, 1921, at Tegucigalpa, Honduras, and it 
thus seemed that Central American aspirations 
toward union would at last be satisfied, after 
more than 80 years of disunion. However, 
Pres:dent Herrera of Guatemala, who had con- 
sistently championed the Union, was overthrown 
by a military coup on Dec. 5, 1921, and 
General Orellana, who succeeded to the pres- 
idency, announced that Guatemala had de- 
cided to withdraw from the federation. It 
meant the end of the Union and on Jan. 29, 
1922, three days before the Union was to have 
become permanently effective, the provisional 
federal council declared the federation dissolved 

This failure of the countries concerned to 
come to an understanding among themselves 
led to an attempt on the part of the United 
States to effect an arrangement. On the pro- 
posal of the President of Nicaragua, who was 
known to be under the influence of the Wash- 
ington government, a conference of the presi- 
dents and cabinets of Nicaragua, Honduras and 
Salvador, with the United States ministers to 
those republics, was held on board the United 
States cruiser J'acoma, in Fonseca Bay. The 
three states agreed to suppress revolutionary 
agreements directed against each other, to keep 
alien revolutionary leaders under surveillance 
and deport them if requested by the imperiled 
government, and to call a further conference 
for the discussion of additional measures of uni- 
fication. Thus were renewed some of the fea- 
tures of the treaty which Central American 
states had made in 1907 under Secretary Root’s 
guidance, and which had been practically de- 
molished, or at any rate disregarded, by Nicara- 
gua’s refusal, with the support of Washington, 
to accept the decree of the Central American 
Court relative to the dispute over Fonseca Bay 
(see: SALvADoR and Nicaracua). When Gua- 
temala and Costa Rica were invited to adhere 
to the Tacoma agreement, they declined, on the 
ground that they considered the treaty of 1907 
still in force. Nevertheless, Secretary Hughes 
in October, 1922, called a conference of the five 
republics to meet in Washington for the pur- 
pose of reinforcing the 1907 pact, limiting arma- 
ments, and other matters. The sittings com- 
menced on Dee. 4, 1922, and terminated on 
Feb. 7, 1923. Possibly the most important plan 
proposed—that of a Central American Union— 
was voted down by Guatemala, Nicaragua, and 
Costa Rica. Positive achievements were the 
signing of 14 conventions and one treaty which 
included: the treaty of peace and amity to 
supplement the treaty of 1907; a convention for 
the establishment of an international Central 
American tribunal on which 15 American citi- 
zens were to serve; a convention for the estab- 
lishment of international commissions of in- 
quiry; a convention for the limitation of arma- 
ments; a convention for the establishment of 
free trade (from which Costa Rica dissented). 
Each nation promised to limit its standing 
army, for five years, to 16,400 men, to pro- 
hibit the export of arms to other states, to 
acquire no warships, and not more than 10 war 
airplanes. Unfortunately the treaty contained 
no guarantees against war and by Central 


CEYLON 


Americans was hardly considered an adequate 
substitute for a federal union. After the con- 
ference Secretary Hughes announced it as his 
intention to negotiate a treaty with Costa 
Rica for the recognition of her rights in the 
disputed question of the use of the San Juan 
River in the Nicaraguan canal project. See 
NICARAGUA. 

CENTRAL STATIONS. See LELeEcrTRIc 
POWER STATIONS AND GENERATING APPARATUS; 
STEAM ENGINES AND TURBINES. 

CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF KEN- 
TUCKY. See CENTRE COLLEGE. 

CENTRE COLLEGE. An institution at 
Danville, Ky., founded in 1819. The student 
enrollment increased from 107 in 1914 to 308 
in 1923-24, the endowment increased from $380,- 
000 to $917,000, and the total assets from $801,- 
241 to $1,435,887. There were 18 professors on 
the faculty and 30,000 volumes in the library 
in 1923. In 1918, the name of the institution 
was changed from Central University of Ken- 
tucky, which it had been called since 1901, to 
its original name, Centre College. A stadium 
seating 8500 people was completed in September, 


1923. President, R. Ames Montgomery, D.D., 
LL.D. 
CESPEDES, Cartos MANUEL DE (1871- ke 


A Cuban diplomat, born in New York City, and 
educated in the United States and in Europe. 
In 1895, he became governor of the Province of 
Santiago de Cuba, and from that time on was 
active in the military and political affairs of 
Cuba. From 1902 to 1908, he sat in the House 
of Representatives. From 1909 until 1914, he 
represented Cuba in Italy, Greece and Argen- 
tina, successively. In 1914, he was named En- 
voy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoteniary 
from Cuba to the United States. 

CEYLON. An island and British crown 
colony situated in the Indian Ocean off the 
coast of Hindustan. In 1921, its resident popu- 
lation was 4,497,854, an increase of 9.6 per cent 
over the last decennial census. Of these, the 
Europeans totaled 8099 (8524 in 1911); Burgh- 
ers 29,403 (26,673 in 1911); Singhalese 3,- 
015,970; Tamilis 1,119,699; “Moors” 284,848, 
others 26,440. The nonresident population, i.e. 
military, shipping, ete., was 6695. The princi- 
pal towns had the following populations in 
1921: Colombo, 244,000 (213,396 in 1911); 
Galle, 39,100 (40,187 in 1911); Jaffna, 42,400; 
Kandy, 32,000. Agriculture continued as the 
leading activity, 3,337,000 acres out of the total 
16,213,000 acres being under cultivation in 
1922. In 1922, the distribution was as follows: 
paddy, 850,400 acres; other grain, 56,000 acres; 
cacao, 29,500 acres; cinnamon, 26,000 acres; 
tea 413,000 acres; coconuts, 820,000 acres; rub- 
ber, 390,000 acres (215,000 in 1911). In 1922, 
export of tea totaled 171,808,000 pounds |(186,- 
594,000 pounds in 1911); the export of rubber, 
37,779,000 pounds of which 25,690,000 pounds 
went to the United States. The commercial rec- 
ord showed a continual improvement, in 1922 the 
imports being worth Rupees (Rs.) 281,741,000 
and the exports (including reéxports) Rs. 306,- 
615,000 as against Rs. 181,999,991 and Rs. 198, 
954,902 for 1912. Principal exports in 1922 were: 
copra, Rs. 28,804,000; coconut oil, Rs. 14,925,- 
000; tea, Rs. 146,037,000 (Rs. 84,900,300 in 
1911); coconuts, Rs. 21,984,000 (Rs. 38,086,242 
in 1911 for total coconut products); rubber, 
Rs. 59,537,000 (Rs. 36,427,290 in 1911). The 
principal imports included cotton goods, rice, 


Ae Pe, oe 


Fp an 


as 


_ 


CHAFFEE 


coal and coke, and sugar. In 1921, total ton- 
nage entered and cleared was 13,329,000 tons 
(14,926,764 in 1911) of which 9,069,000 tons 
were British (9,571,159 in 1911). In the same 
year, 731 miles of railway were open which was 
an increase of about 100 miles over the 10 
years. For 1920-21, the budget contained the 
charges: for revenue, Rs. 70,619,000; for expen- 
ditures, Rs. 91,768,000. In 1911, these had been 
Rs. 47,264,222 and Rs. 48,643,687. The public 
debt at the end of 1922 amounted to £12,800,000. 
By an Order in Council of August, 1920, cer- 
tain changes in Ceylon’s administrative ma- 
chinery were effected. The size of the legisla- 
tive council was increased, the unofficial mem- 
bers being placed in the majority; but there was 
no advance toward a scheme of more popular 
government for which a large section of the 
native population had long agitated. 

CHAFFEE, ZeEcuAriaAun, JR. (1885- jv 
American law professor, born at Providence, 
R. I. He was educated at Brown © University 
and the Harvard Law School and for a time 
engaged in the private practice of law. In 1916, 
he went to the Harvard Law School where he 
was made a professor in 1919. He was among 
the first to protest against the violation of the 
constitutional liberties of American citizens in 
the years following the War, being, in particu- 
lar, a severe critic of the practices of the De- 
partment of Justice under A. Mitchell Palmer. 
In company with Dean Pound and Felix Frank- 
furter of the Harvard Law faculty, among 
others, he helped evolve a sociological point of 
view toward the law. He wrote: Cases on 
Negotiable Instruments; Freedom of Speech. 

CHALIAPINE. French transliteration for 
SHALIAPIN (q.v.). 

CHAMBERLAIN, Ciark WELLS (1870- a 
An American physicist, born at Litchfield, 
Ohio. He was graduated at Denison in 1894 
and then studied as a fellow at Chicago, and 
at Columbia. In 1900-01, he was_ professor 
of physics and astronomy at Colby, then held 
the chair of physics at Denison (1901-08), and 
a similar chair at Vassar (1908-13). He was 
then called to the presidency of Denison. His 
original investigations have included studies on 
the radius of molecular attraction, achromatiza- 
tion of interference, and the relative motion of 
the earth and ether; he devised a compound 
interferometer, a diffractometer, and a spectro- 
scope of high resolving power. 

CHAMBERLAIN, Georce EARLE (1854-___). 
An American senator (see Vou. V). He was 
reélected senator for the term of 1915-21, and 
became a member of the United States Shipping 
Board for the term 1921-25. He was the author 
of the Chamberlain Military Preparedness Bill 
of 1918. 


CHAMBERLAIN, Houston STEWART 
(1855-— ). A German writer (see Vou. V). 
Since 1914, his works include: Lebenswege 
meines Denkens (1919); Mensch und Gott; 


Betrachtungen iiber Religion und Christentum 
(1921). 

CHAMBERLAIN, Joun Loomis (1858- Ms 
An American army officer, born in New York. 
He was graduated at the United States 
Military Academy in 1880, entered the army 
as second lieutenant in the First Artillery, 
and continued in the military service until his 
retirement in 1921 as a major-general. He 
served in the Spanish-American War of 1898-— 
99 as chief ordnance officer with the rank of 


263 CHAMBERS 


major of volunteers; in the campaign against 
the Sioux Indians in 1900-01; in the campaign 
against the Moros in the Philippines in 1908; 
and after his transfer to the Inspector-General’s 
Department continued in that service until his 
appointment in 1921 as Inspector-General in 
which capacity he served during the War, in- 
specting the American Expeditionary Forces in 
France in 1918. For “exceptional meritorious 
service” he received the Distinguished Service 
Medal. General Chamberlain was a graduate 
of the Artillery School in 1890 and of the Army 
War College in 1913, and was military attaché 
to Austria in 1897-98. 

CHAMBERLAIN, ( JOSEPH ) AUSTEN 
(1863 ). A British statesman (see VoL. V), 
son of Joseph Chamberlain. In the Coalition 
government after the outbreak of the War, he 
was Secretary of State for India. Because of 
criticism of the lack of medical preparation for 
the advance on Bagdad, he resigned, although 
he knew nothing about the matter until too late 
for it to be remedied. He again took office in 
1918 under Lloyd George as minister without 
portfolio, and later was appointed for the second 
time Chancellor of the Exchequer. The budget 
he introduced in 1919 reduced by one-sixth the 
duties on articles from the colonies, thus mak- 
ing the principle of Imperial Preference, which 
had been in his father’s programme fifteen years 
before, a regular part of the British financial 
system. Later in the year he issued the Vic- 
tory Loan. By increasing the excess profits 
duty to 60 per cent, and introducing a corpora- 
tion tax, he was able to balance the budget in 
his second year and to make a large payment 
on the national debt. On account of commercial 
depression, this debt payment was criticized. 
When Mr. Bonar Law resigned the Unionist 
leadership on Mar. 17, 1921, Mr. Chamberlain 
was unanimously chosen leader of the party. 
He became leader of the House of Commons and 
was given the office of Lord Privy Seal, Sir 
Robert Horne succeeding him as Chancellor of 
the Exchequer. 


CHAMBERLIN, THOMAS CROWDER 
(1843- ). An American geologist (see VOL. 


V). From 1898 to 1914, he was president of the 
Chicago Academy of Sciences. His later books 
include The Origin of the Earth, 1916. He was 
for many years editor of the Journal of Geology. 

CHAMBER MUSIC. See Music, Chamber 
Music. 

CHAMBERS, Epwarp (1859), an American 
railway official, born in Waukegan, Ill. He be- 
gan his railway service with the Atchison, To- 
peka and Santa Fé Railroad in 1878. He 
served in many important capacities with that 
road. He was assistant freight traffic manager 
for the coast lines and vice-president of the 
road from 1905 to 1917, when he resigned to be- 
come director of transportation of the United 
States Food Administration and the United 
States Grain Corporation. He was director of 
the Division of Traffic for the Federal Railway 
Administration from 1918 to 1920, and was also 
a member of the War Industries Board. He 
was appointed vice-president in charge of traffic 
for the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Rail- 
road in 1920. 

CHAMBERS, Ernest JoHn (1862- dee 
A Canadian journalist and author (see Vor. V). 
In 1914, he was appointed censor at military 
headquarters in Ottawa, and the following year 
became Chief Press Censor for Canada. In the 


CHAMBERS 


latter year he was also made a lieutenant- 
colonel in the Canadian Army. 

CHAMBERS, Rosert WILLIAM (1865- 7s 
An American author (see VoL. V). His later 
books include: The Dark Star (1915); The 
Restless Sex (1917); In Secret (1918); The 
Crimson Tide (1919); Slayer of Souls (1920) ; 
Little Red Foot (1921); America (1921). He 
was a member of the National Institute of Arts 
and Letters. 

CHAMBERS, Witt Grant (1867- bh 
An American psychologist born in Westmoreland 
Co., Pa. He was educated at Lafayette, Clark, 
and Chicago Universities. After his gradua- 
tion, he was professor of mathematics in the 
State normal schools of Pennsylvania and Min- 
nesota. In 1909, he became professor of educa- 
tion at the University of Pittsburgh, and in 
1910, dean of the School of Education at that 
institution. His professional contributions in- 
cluded papers on genetic psychology, the evolu- 
tion of ideas, memory types, individual differ- 
ences, and correlation of character traits. 

CHANDLER, WILLIAM HENRY (1878- ifs 
An American pomologist, born at Butler, Mo. 
He was graduated from the University of Mis- 
souri in 1905 and took postgraduate courses 
in that institution. Until 1910, he was assist- 
ant horticulturist at the University of Missouri, 
instructor in 1910-11, and assistant professor 
from 1911 to 1913. In the latter year he be- 
eame professor of pomology at Cornell Uni- 
versity, and in 1920, vice-director of research. 
Professor Chandler wrote on plant tissues and 
temperature, fruit and fertilizers, pruning, etc. 

CHANLER, AMELIE RiIvES (See RIVES, 
AMELIE). 

CHANNEL ISLANDS. See GREAT BRITAIN. 

CHANNEL TUNNEL. See TUNNELS. 

CHANTEPLEURE, Guy (MApAME EDGAR 
Dussap, née JEANNE VIOLET) (1875- ). A 
French author, born in Paris. Three of her 
works have been crowned by the French Acad- 
emy. She is the author of: Ma Conscience en 
robe rose (crowned by the Academy; published 
in 1895, and subsequently) ; Le Chateau de la 
Viaillesse (1900, and subsequently); Fiancée 
d’Avril (crowned by the Academy, 1900); Mon 
Ami Voiseau bleu (1900); Les Ruines en Fleurs 
(1901, etc.) ; Ames feminines (1902) ; Le Sphing 
blane (1903); Le Théatre de la Primevére 
(1904); L’Aventure d@Huguette (1904); Le 
Baiser au clair de lune (1908); La Folle his- 
toire de Fridoline (1908); Malencontre (1910) ; 
La Passagére (1911); Le Hasard et VAmour 
(1911); and La Ville assiégée. Janina, octobre, 
1912—mars, 1913 (crowned by the Academy, 
1913). 

CHAPLIN, CHARLES SPENCER (1889- i 
Leading comedian on the motion picture stage. 
He was born in London, England, and after 
varied experience in the theatre. made his début 
as a film performer in the United States in 
1914, where he soon became the most familiar 
figure in screen productions. He starred in 
many pieces of his own creation, including The 
Kid (1920-21), which was highly popular with 
all classes. In 1921, he visited Europe, where 
he received a popular welcome almost without 
precedent. He established a motion-picture 
plant at Hollywood, Cal. 

CHAPMAN, CHARLES EpwARp (1880- ys 
An American historian, born at Franklin, 
N. H., and educated at Princeton University, 
Tufts College, Harvard University, and at the 


264 


CHARITIES 


Universities of California and Seville (Spain). 
He was admitted to the bar in 1906, and there- 
after was connected with the United Railways 
Company, San Francisco, and with the Western 
Electric Company, until 1909, when he became 


_a teacher of history, first in the Riverside (Cal.) 


High School and afterwards in the University 
of California. In 1919, he was made associate 
professor of history in the University of Cali- 


fornia. His works include: The Founding of 
Spanish California (1916); A Californian in 
South America (1917); A History of Spain 


(1918); A Catalogue of Materials in the “Ar- 
chivo general de Indias” for the History of the 
Pacific Coast and the American Southwest 
(1919) ; and A History of California; the Span- 
ish Period (1921). 

CHAPMAN, CHARLES SHEPARD (1879-— be 
An American artist born at Morristown, N. Y., 
who studied with Chase and W. Appleton Clark. 
He was elected Associate Member of the Na- 
tional Academy in 1919. Among his awards 
were the Saltus gold medal from the National 
Academy in 1917 and the Carnegie prize from 
the Academy in 1921. Chapman’s work as a 
painter and illustrator has been on exhibition 
in various parts of the country and one of his 
best known canvases, “In the Deep Woods,” is 
in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. 

CHAPMAN, Herman Haupt (1874- i 
An American forester, born at Cambridge, Mass, 
He graduated from the University of Minnesota 
in 1896 and took postgraduate courses at the 
Yale Forest School. From 1898 to 1903 he was 
superintendent of the United States Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station at Grand Rapids, 
‘Minn., and after a year in the United States 
Forest Service was, from 1906 to 1911, instruc- . 
tor and assistant professor at the Yale Forestry 
School. From the latter date he was Harriman 
professor of forest management at Yale. From 
1913 to 1924, Professor Chapman was a member 
of the State Park and Forest Commission of 
Connecticut. He wrote Forest Valuation (1914), 
and Forest Mensuration (1921). 

CHAPMAN, Joun Jay (1862- ) see ready 
American author (see Vou. V). He is the au- 
thor of: Homeric Scenes (verse, 1914); Mem- 
ories and Milestones (1915); Deutschland iiber 
Alles (1915); Notes on Religion (1915); Greek 
Genius and Other Essays (1915); The Letters 
of Victor Chapman, with Memoirs (1917); 
Songs and Poems (1919); William Lloyd Gar- 
rison (2d ed., revised and enlarged, 1921); and 
Glance toward Shakespeare (1922). 

CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN. See PsycHoLoey, 


ABNORMAL. 
CHARDONNE, Jacques (pseudonym of 
Boutelleau) (1884— ). A French novelist. 


In his novel L’Epithalame, he tries to get away 
from the subjectivism, the “moi,” of many of 
the psychological novels of the twentieth cen- 
tury, by describing the psychological reactions 
of a couple. His novel shows some influence of 
George Eliot’s Middlemarch and of Tolstoi’s 
Anna Karenina. 

CHARITIES. During the decade under re- 
view (1914-24) was evidenced a decided change 
in the form, purpose, and organization of pub- 
lic relief. Up to the beginning of this period 
hundreds of societies, organizations, churches, 
etc., scattered throughout the various States 
and cities were doing their best to aid unfortu- 
nates. This resulted, in many cases, in con- 
fusion, duplication of effort, friction, and an 


CHARLES 265 


extremely high ratio between the cost of ad- 
ministration and the relief afforded. With the 
War came a concentration of effort in the dis- 
tribution of charities. The various govern- 
ments, national, State and local, adopted a pa- 
ternalistic attitude in this field of endeavor just 
as that attitude was taken in such war enter- 
prises as shipbuilding, munitions manufactur- 
ing, food control, daylight saving, fuel conserva- 
tion, railway administration, etc. Bureaus 
were rapidly organized to carry on in a cen- 
tralized and more efficient manner the work 
previously done by the many unrelated char- 
itable organizations. The undoubted increase 
in efficiency, in results obtained, and in ad- 
ministration, caused the continuance and rapid 
growth of government aid after the war period 
ended. Generally speaking, it may be said that 
public relief was carried on by three distinct 
agencies, governmental and private organiza- 
tions, and foundations. The first mentioned, 
as stated above, was becoming more and more 
important For the various phases of organized 
public relief, in which the idea of “charity” had 
been supplanted by a theory of community pro- 
tection, see CHILD WELFARE, MOTIIERS’ PEN- 
SIONS, JUVENILE CourTs, PENOLOGY, WORKMEN'S 
CoMPENSATION, SociAL INSURANCE, OLD AGE 
PENSIONS, MINIMUM Wace, Housinc, WOMEN 
In INpustTrRy, ete. It should be mentioned that 
many cities throughout the United States added 
charities bureaus to their governmental agencies, 
which supervised and correlated all the relief 
work carried on in the community. Huge 
foundations, privately endowed or supported, 
such as the Rockefeller Foundation, the Amer- 
ican Society for the Control of Cancer, and the 
National Tuberculosis Society, continued to per- 
form an important work in the advancement of 
public welfare. The subject of charities in its 
broadest sense cannot be closed without a ref- 
erence to the activities of private organizations, 
depending on public contributions for existence, 
such as the Salvation Army, Y. M. C. A,, 
Y. W. C. A., Red Cross, Knights of Columbus 
(q.v ). Receiving a tremendous impetus during 
the War, they continued to function on a much 
larger scale in the post-war period than before 
1914. 


CHARLES, Ropert HENRY (1855- yEeaAs 


British divine and author (see Vou. V). In 
1919, he was made Archdeacon. In the same 
year, he was Warburton Lecturer in Lincoln’s 
Inn Chapel, and Schweich Lecturer in 1919-20. 
His more recent works include: Religious De- 
velopment Between the Old and New Testaments 
(1914); The Chronicle of John of Nikin, trans- 
lated from the Ethiopic (1916); Sermons 
Preached in Westminster Abbey (1917); The 
Apocalypse, edited with Text, Translation, and 
Commentary (2 vols., 1920); The Teaching of 
the New Testament on Divorce (1921); Lectures 
on the Apocalypse (Schweich Lectures, 1919, 
1922). 

CHARLES I, EMPEROR oF AUSTRIA AND 
Kine or Hunaary (1887-1922). The last of 
the Habsburg rulers, successor of the Kmperor 
Francis Joseph, was born Aug. 17, 1887, the 
eldest son of the Archduke Otto. He was little 
known until after his marriage with Princess 
Zita of Parma, in 1911. It is said that his 
parents endeavored to keep him away from 
harmful court influences and therefore sent him 
first to one of the large Viennese boys’ schools. 
His military life had been spent not in the 


CHARTERS 


capital but in distant garrison towns of the 
empire until the War, in which nominally he 
commanded the army that invaded Rumania. 
On the death of the Emperor Francis Joseph 
on Nov. 21, 1916, Charles proclaimed him- 
self supreme war lord, and he and his con- 
sort were crowned King and Queen of Hungary 
in Budapest, December 30. During the War, he 
addressed a letter to his brother-in-law, Prince 
Sixte of. Bourbon-Parma, which was published 
in April, 1918, and caused a great sensation. 
In it he asked the Prince to inform the French 
president secretly that Charles would support 
by all means the just claims of France on 
Alsace-Lorraine. The letter also proposed the 
restoration of both Belgium and Serbia. Before 
its publication its purport had been made known 
to the Berlin authorities, who naturally took 
great offense, and Charles publicly disavowed it. 
Count Czernin asserted that the text had been 
falsified. Among the Allies generally it was 
believed to be genuine. After the political and 
military collapse of Austria-Hungary on Nov. 
11, 1918, Charles in a manifesto declared that 
he relinquished all part in the administration 
of Austria and recognized the decision of Ger- 
man Austria to form henceforth a_ separate 
state. Two days later he gave up the throne 
of Hungary. In March, 1919, he left Austria 
under British protection and took up his abode 
in Switzerland) The Austrian Parliament for- 
mally deposed him in April, 1919, and annulled 
all the sovereign rights and other prerogatives 
of the House of Habsburg in Austria. Charles 
made no attempt to regain the Austrian throne 
but was drawn into movements for the recovery 
of his Hungarian kingdom, where a_ strong 
Habsburg party remained. In March, 1921, 
he suddenly reappeared in Budapest; he was 
coldly received and he soon returned to Switzer- 
land. Though carefully watched by the Swiss 
authorities, he succeeded in escaping by air- 
plane in the autumn of 1921 for another adven- 
ture in Hungary. At this time the movement 
had arisen in the Burgenland owing to dissatis- 
faction over, the transfer of that region to 
Austria. A fragmentary army gathered about 
him but again the attempt completely failed. 
These attempts made it evident that Switzer- 
land was no longer a safe place for him and, 
with his wife, he was put on board a British 
warship on the Danube and taken to Madeira, 
where he arrived Nov 19, 1921. He died at 
‘Funchal on the island of Madeira, Apr. 1, 1922. 

CHARNWOOD, Goprrry RAtTIBONE BEN- 
SON, first BARON (1864-— ). An Enelish his- 
torian, educated at Balliol College, Oxford. He 
was a member of Parliament from 1892 to 1895 
and Mayor of Litchfield from 1909 to 1911. In 
1916 he published a biography of Abraham 
Lineoln which was very favorably received in 
the United States and was considered an impor- 
tant addition to Lincoln literature. In 1923 he 
published an interpretative biography of Theo- 
dore Roosevelt. 

CHARTERS FOR CITIES. 
PAL GOVERNMENT. 

CHARTERS, Werrett WALLACE (1875- ys 
An American educator, born at Hartford, Ont., 
Canada. He graduated from McMaster Uni- 
versity, Toronto, in 1898, and took postgraduate 
courses at Columbia University and at the Uni- 
versity of Chicago. After teaching for several 
years in Canada, he joined the faculty of the 
State Normal School at Winona, Minn. From 


See MuNICcT- 


CHATTERTON 


1907 to 1917, he was professor of the theory of 
teaching at the University of Missouri, and 
was dean of the School of Education at that 
university from 1910 to 1917. He was _ profes- 
sor of education at the University of Illinois 
from 1917 to 1919, and from the latter date was 
professor of education and director of the re- 
search bureau for retail training at the Car- 
negie Institute of Technology. From 1920, he 
was also research director at Stephens College. 
He was the author of Methods of Teaching 
(1910), Teaching the Common Branches (1913), 
and also contributed numerous bulletins and ar- 
ticles to educational journals. He edited many 
series of educational books. 

CHATTERTON, Epwarp KEBLE (1878- __). 
An English author and journalist (see Vou. V). 
He entered the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve 
as Temporary Lieutenant in 1914, and was pro- 
moted to the rank of Acting Lieutenant-Com- 
mander in 1918. He was in the Auxiliary 
Patrol Service in command of various ships 
(1914-17), and was on the staff of the histor- 
ical section of the Committee for Imperial De- 
fense (1917-21). His works during the decade 
include: The Old East Indiamen (1914); The 
. Romance of Piracy -(1914); Q-Ships and their 


Story (1922); and Fore and Aft Craft and 
their Story (1922). 
CHATTERTON, RutH_ (1893- )a(An 


American actress born in New York City. phe 

made her stage début in Washington, D. C,, 
1909, as Polly Trippett in Merely Mary Gan 
She came to New York, in 1911 and three years 
later first played Judy Abbott in Daddy Long 
Legs a part which made her famous throughout 
the United States. Other of her well known 
characterizations include: Olivia Dangerfield 
in Come Out of the Kitchen (1916); Mrs. Cal- 
thorpe in Perkins (1918); Comtesse de Candale 
with Henry Miller in A Marriage of Conven- 
ience; Judith Baldwin in Moonlight and Honey- 
suckle (1919); Mary Rose in the play of that 
name (1920). 

CHATEAU-THIERRY. See 
Evurorr, Western Front. 

CHAUTAUQUA INSTITUTION. An or- 
ganization founded in 1874 at Chautauqua, N. 
Y., conducting an annual series of lectures and 
entertainments called the general assembly, a six 
weeks’ summer school and home reading circle. 
A campaign in 1919-20 to clear the Institution 
of debt raised $400,000. A golf clubhouse was 
built in 1921. By an arrangement made in 
1923 the department of education of the summer 
school was carried on by New York University 
and credit given in the University to all stu- 
dents successfully completing the work. From 
50,000 to 60,000 persons attended the general 
assembly each year throughout the decade 1914— 
24; about 3500 attended the summer school, 
which had 18 departments offering 225 courses; 
and 12,000 subscribed to the home reading 
courses. The jubilee year 1924 witnessed the 
construction and dedication of a new Hall of 
Missions, a new dormitory for the summer school 
students, and the A. M. Smith-Wilkes Memorial 
Lecture Hall. 

CHEESE. See DAIRYING. 

CHELMSFORD, Freperic JOHN NAPIER 
THESIGER, Viscount (1868- je, AP British 
public official. He was educated at Oxford. 
He became a member of the London County 
Council, 1904-05. He was governor of Queens- 


WAR IN 


land from 1905 to 1909, and of New South Wales 


266 


CHEMICAL WARFARE 


from 1909 to 1913. In 1916, he was made 
Viceroy of India, retiring from that office in 
1921. He was a Conservative in polities, and 
much surprise was felt when he was asked to 
take the place of First Lord of the Admiralty 
in Ramsay MacDonald’s Labor cabinet early in 
1924. He accepted the post, however, as he 
found himself in accord with the new premier’s 
policies. 

CHEMICAL AFFINITY. See CHEmistTry, 
PHYSICAL. 

CHEMICAL WARFARE. The active be- 
ginning of the use of toxic gas in the World 
War dated from Apr. 22, 1915, when chlorine 
was released by the Germans in an attack 
against the French and British lines in the 
northeastern portion of the upper Ypres salient 
(see WAR IN Europe). This was indeed a mo- 
mentous step for the Germans, as it introduced 
into civilized warfare a new weapon which led 
to new tactics of offense and defense. 

The importance of the use of toxic gas in 
modern warfare is shown by the fact that dur- 
ing the year 1918, from 20 to 30 per cent of all 
the American battle casualties were due to it, 
but there was the compensating feature that 
where armies were supplied with masks and 
other defensive equipment only about 3 or 4 
per cent of the gas casualties were fatal as com- 
pared with 20 to 25 per cent for those wounded 
by high explosive shells, shrapnel, bullets, etc. 
By far the greater part of the gas casualties 
resulted from the gas projectiles fired by field 
artillery, which in the British Army reached 
the great total of 170,000. In fact it was esti- 
mated that 90 per cent of the total gas casualties 
could be thus accounted for, notwithstanding the 
heavy losses at the first attacks in 1915 among 
troops quite unprepared when cloud gas was re- 
leased from cylinders. But trusting to air cur- 
rents to carry the gas was not satisfactory, and 
it was charged into projectiles’ which could be 
fired from guns, howitzers or mortars. 

The use of lethal shells began in 1916 and 
these projectiles charged with deadly gases were 
used in addition to the lachrymatory gases. 
The three main killing gases used in chemical 
warfare were phosgene, diphosgene, and chlor- 
picrin. Their use made improved masks or 
respirators essential, and it was a constant con- 
test between developing new toxic gases and 
finding adequate protection against them. 

Chlorine was the first gas to be used and 
after it had been allowed to escape from cylin- 
ders, -it was found that in its liquid form it 
could be filled into shells, which, discharged 
from regular field pieces, would be detonated in 
the usual way by a fuse and booster charge 
and small bursting charge of high explosive. 
Chlorine is a greenish yellow gas of strong suf- 
focating odor which commercially is used for 
bleaching and purification of water supplies. 
By cold and pressure it is liquefied for storage 
and transport. At Ypres the Germans permitted 
this gas to float out but they were insufficiently 
supplied with it, and also with means of pro- 
tecting themselves so that they were afraid to 
advance through it. 

Phosgene, a gas formed by the combination 
of chlorine and carbon monoxide in the presence 
of a catalyzer, is a colorless gas that liquefies at 
8° C. It was one of the deadliest gases used 
during the war and was employed not merely to 
annoy or to compel the wearing of masks but to 
kill as many as possible. It was often used in 


CHEMICAL WARFARE 


an attack as it did not persist long in the air 
or on the ground after the explosion of the shell, 
and as a result it would clear away by the time 
that the oncoming troops reached the place of 
gas concentration. 

Chlorpicrin, a gas that is an active poison 
and in addition a lachrymator or tear producer, 
is made by the reaction between picric acid or 
ealcium picrate and chlorine. It is a colorless 
liquid that boils at a temperature of approxi- 
mately 112° C, and the gas while not so poison- 
ous as some of the toxic gases nevertheless was 
quite efficient. This after chlorine was the first 
war gas to be made on a large scale in the 
United States. 

Mustard Gas, Dichlorethyl Sulphide, was 
introduced by the Germans in July, 1917, at 
Ypres and immediately became a most effec- 
tive agent in gas warfare. It also proved a 
boomerang for the Germans, as they never were 
able to improve their original facilities for 
manufacture which could not produce more than 
6 tons per day at the end of the war. At that 
time France and England had improved methods 
and quantity production, while the United States 
had 10 times the German capacity at the time 
of the Armistice. This gas, it is interesting to 
note, was prepared by the Germans by the 
method originally described by Victor Meyer 
and later developed in Emil Fischer’s lab- 
oratory. Mustard gas is a colorless, slightly 
oily liquid boiling at 220° C. with some decom- 
position’ and freezing at 14° C. or below, the 
former temperature applying to the pure liquid. 
Mustard Gas was not necessarily fatal except in 
sufficient amounts and it acted on the skin like 
a deep burn. It attacked the lungs, the eyes, 
the skin and even the intestines. It blistered 
the skin and produced nausea thus requiring the 
removal of the mask. It had a delayed action 
and often a man might be gassed even fatally 
before he was aware of it, and then he was be- 
yond the reach of treatment. Ground soaked 
with mustard gas remains impregnated for days 
continually giving off the vapor. 

Diphosgene, or Superpalite, Perchlormethyl 
formate, was extensively employed by the Ger- 
mans as was Diphenylchlorarsine, their blue 
cross gas, which produced sneezing and a 
disagreeable temporary sickness. The latter 
gas was not considered by the Allies very 
efficient though made by the Germans in large 
amounts. Diphenylcyanarsine and Ethyl 
Dichlorarsine were also employed by the Ger- 
mans. 

Lachrymatory or tear gases were extensively 
used during the World War by both sides in 
order to annoy and cut down the efficiency of 
the enemy and most of all to compel him to 
keep masked continually. This form of gassing 
was cheaper than the use of poison gas and 
even a trace of tear gas in the air would blind 
a man temporarily. In fact a single tear gas 
shell could distribute its charge so widely as to 
require the wearing of masks over an area so 
wide that from 500 to 1000 phosgene shells 
would be needed for the same effect. The tear 
gas was irritating to the membranes of the eye, 
and so far as it alone was concerned goggles 
might suffice for protection, but the usual prac- 
tice was to mix it with deadlier gases. Most 
tear gases had bromine as a base, the bromine 
being derived from subterranean brines, and the 
gas could be used alone, but such combinations 
as brombenzyl cyanide were made, the one speci- 


267 


CHEMICAL WARFARE 


fied being extensively produced in the United 
States. 

In addition to the gases mentioned others 
were employed and new toxic materials were 
developed during the war by organie and 
physiological chemists. Much was accomplished 
that was never revealed, and had the war con- 
tinued another year the annihilation of the 
Central Powers by the discharge from aircraft 
of deadly gases produced in the United States 
and elsewhere was predicted. 

Gas Masks. Naturally the use of gas im- 
mediately resulted in defensive measures. After 
the first attack by the Germans in 1915, extem- 
porized masks and impregnated fabric helmets 
were rapidly developed in England and hurried 
to the Continent consisting merely of gauze pads 
soaked with neutralizing chemicals. Then came 
masks or helmets of a box respirator type first 
introduced by the British in August, 1916, where 
absorbing and neutralizing chemicals purified 
the air before it was inhaled by the wearer. An 
essential element of these respirators was the 
charcoal which had to be prepared with great 
care. Gradually the British and the Americans 
developed double protection masks which were 
efficient under all conditions. There were also 
protective suits and gloves to resist mustard 
gas. 

Tactical Use of Gas. By 1917 the extensive 
and effective use of gas led to the development 
of special tactics both for attack and defense. 
Shells filled with gas and appropriately painted 
or striped to indicate the charge were issued 
along with shrapnel and high explosive. The 
kind of gas selected was determined by the 
nature of the plan or the military objective, 
all carefully considered especially with regard 
to the target and terrain. For example, in case 
of an advance, a gas that would disperse readily 
would be employed, or it might be that lanes 
would be left for the troops going up to seize 
or contest an objective. It must be remembered 
that while an ordinary high explosive or shrapnel 
shell exerts its effect immediately after the 
burst, that of a chemical shell has just begun 
and may even persist in the case of some of the 
chemical charges for a week or ten days. 
Furthermore, a bomb-proof shelter, safe against 
flying fragments, is no protection against a chemi- 
cal shell whose fumes can pass around corners 
or sink into the ground. 

The artillery during the War made a distine- 
tion between “lethal” and “‘neutralizing” projec- 
tiles and fire and this was the basis of the mark- 
ing of the shell. The lethal shell is used to 
produce casualties and was employed against 
occupied positions for surprise effect, the ob- 
ject being to concentrate the greatest possible 
number of shell on the target in the smallest 
time, which should not exceed two or three 
minutes, as in that time gas masks can be ad- 
justed and no further casualties should develop. 
In attacks of this kind phosgene is employed. 
With neutralizing shell or those filled with 
chemicals which are persistent and vaporize 
slowly, a slow searching fire is maintained 
scattered over the area to be neutralized. In 
other words the aim is to develop an atmosphere 
intolerable for unprotected troops, so that the 
artillerist seeks to find lines of communication, 
camps, rest billets, trench systems, cross roads, 
battery positions, and in short any point where 
troops are likely to be concentrated. The aim is 
to make them wear respirators, thus cutting 


CHEMISTRY 


down their efficiency in using field or machine 
guns, in construction or supply work or the bring- 
ing up of transport. See CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC; 
STRATEGY AND TACTICS. 

CHEMISTRY. Chemistry by the year 1924 
had become a very different science from what 
it was ten years previously. It was realized 
that matter and energy no longer could be con- 


sidered indestructible entities but are inter- 
changeable. All matter is now regarded as of 


electrical nature and the atoms as more or less 
complex systems of electrons attached to very 
asymmetric associations of proton or helium ion. 
The various atoms with the same number of 
planetary electrons constitute a group which we 
know as a chemical element. These elements 
show varying chemical characteristics as they 
lie near or far, in atomic number, from a noble 
gas. Chemical theory, instead of being limited 
to the explanation of salts, acids and bases, is 
now widened to include the nonpolar compounds 
of electropositive elements with electropositive 
elements and of electronegative elements with 
electronegative elements. These are recognized 
as approaching the more absolute nonpolar 
characteristics of the compounds of the central 
elements, carbon, silicon, etc. The theory and 
use of catalysts and solvents was greatly ex- 
tended and the existence of the enormous num- 
ber of addition compounds in chemical reactions 
was recognized. Chemistry, instead of being a 
simple science of simple atoms and molecules 
is now recognized as a very complex science of 
very complex atoms and molecules, in which 
fields of force and radiation phenomena play a 
decisive part. 

Matter and Energy. The great exponents 
of natural science in the nineteenth century at- 
tempted to work out the sciences of chemistry 
and physics in two separate compartments, 
chemistry as the science of matter and its trans- 
formations, physics as the science of energy and 
its transformations. This division was _ epit- 
omized in the two great conservation laws, that 
of the conservation of matter and that of the 
conservation of energy. It was the task of the 
decade 1914-24 to disprove this supposed con- 
servation of separate entities, and to show that 
matter and energy are not separate but inter- 
changeable, that energy can be converted into 
mass and mass into energy. It was estimated 
by Aston that energy liberated by the change 
of the hydrogen in a glass gf water into helium 
with consequent loss of mass would be sufficient 
to supply energy enough to run all the steam 
engines now in existence for 100 years. 

The Difference in Energy, in Matter and 
Free State. The essential characteristic of 
matter is its mass. This is usually determined 
by its weight, or the attraction of the earth for 
a given substance compared with its attraction 
for an arbitrary unit of mass. It was shown by 
Kauffmann that the mass of an electron is 
purely its electrical mass, on account of the 
inertia of its electrical field. The same was 
shown true of the mass of a positive ion, the 
helium ion, as far as measurements can at pres- 
ent go, As all matter is made up of positive 
nuclei and electrons, the mass of a substance 
ean therefore be taken as solely the summation 
of the electrical inertias of the electrical fields 
of its electrons and positive nuclei. 

Electrical Constitution of Matter. The 
nineteenth century had attempted to explain 
’ the material phenomena of the visible universe 


268 


CHEMISTRY 


by an application of the laws of classical 
mechanics, founded on the spatial geometry of 
Euclid. More and more, this proved unsatis- 
factory. Particularly in radiation phenomena 
and the domain of chemical reaction, the mech- 
anistic explanation was extremely unsatisfac- 
tory. Hence it was the task of science in the 
decade 1914-24 to rewrite the explanation of 
natural phenomena in terms of electrical con- 
cepts instead of those of mechanistic concepts. 
The reason for this change of basic concept of 
material science was twofold. First, the older 
mechanistic theory was shown to be inadequate 
in many important aspects; secondly, the elec- 
trical theory accounted for all the phenomena 
for which the mechanistic theory held good and 
in many cases where it failed. Not that the 
electrical theory did not bring with it problems 
of its own; to elucidate these will be the prob- 
lem of the rest of the twentieth century.. 

Atoms and Molecules. Chemistry was the 
first of the sciences to discuss its subject matter 
as discontinuous. For many years the only 
supporting evidence as to the existence of dis- 
continuous molecules was the kinetie theory of 
gases. But this kinetic theory was unable to 
account for the rapid increase in reaction veloc- 
ity with increase of temperature. Hence in the 
first decade of the twentieth century arose a 
wave of skepticism as to the atomic theory. 
Evidence as to the existence of discrete mole- 
cules in gases and of atoms in liquids and solids 
arose rapidly from a number of various sources, 
so that we can now count and measure with a 
high degree of accuracy the atoms in the sim- 
pler compounds. Laué, Bragg and others demon- 
strated how the light waves of very short wave 
length and quite high frequency (X-rays) can 
be used to show the position of atoms in the 
spatial structure of a crystal and in pure 
liquids. Their work proved that chemical com- 
pounds have a definite spatial arrangement of 
the atoms, so that chemical combinations are 
primarily spatial arrangements of electrical 
fields of force. 

Two Types of Chemical Compounds. The 
work of the decade under review emphasized the 
marked contrast between two types of chemical 
compounds, the polar and the nonpolar com- 
pounds. The polar compounds are those in 
which atoms of markedly different electrical 
characteristics are present. Each of these com- 
pounds at some temperature is a conductor of 
electricity. The nonpolar compounds are those 
of atoms of no great electrical dissimilarity and 
show extremely high resistance to the passage 
of an electrical current. 

The Periodic System. It was early realized 
that the various elements distinguished by the 
analytical chemist had groups of marked sim- 
ilarities and dissimilarities. This led to many 
attempts to place the known elements into a 
consistent table or system which would sat- 
isfactorily arrange and contrast these varying 
characteristics. This whole endeavor was 
summed up by the periodic system of Men- 
deléev, and his dictum that the properties of the 
elements are periodic functions of their atomic 
weights. But this periodicity is no simple 
function of the atomic weight, for successive 
elements of very nearly the same atomic 
weights, such as potassium 39.1, argon 39.88, 
calcium 40.07, show enormous differences chem- 
ically and physically, whereas other elements 
of quite different atomic weights, such as 


CHEMISTRY 


praseodymium 140.9, and neodymium 144.3, are 
so- nearly alike in all their chemical properties 
as to be of incredible difficulty in separation. 
Then again, in several instances, such as argon 
and potassium, nickel and cobalt, iodine and 
tellurium, the atomic weight arrangement is 
definitely wrong. 

It began to be realized, therefore, that the 
position of the element in the periodic system 
is more important than its atomic weight. In 
1913, Moseley, an English physicist, discovered 
that the various elements when struck by an 
electron with great velocity gave off two series 
of X-rays of high intensity. Each of these series 
has definite wave lengths such that certain 
whole numbers are inversely proportional to 
the square roots of these wave lengths. As- 
signing aluminium the number 12, the other 
elements all possess whole numbers correspond- 
ing to their position in the periodic table, with 
the weight anomalies connected. This number 
is therefore called the atomic number and is a 
more important property of elements than the 
atomic weight. 

Isotopes. Prout, 100 years ago, attempted 
to account for the elements as polymers of 
hydrogen. But the irregularities in the atomic 
weights of a number of the elements seemed to 
disprove this theory. After it had been dis- 
covered that lead from two radioactive sub- 
stances had a different atomic weight from that 
of ordinary lead, though it was of identical 
chemical and physical properties, Aston set to 
work to measure accurately the mass of in- 
dividual atoms or ions. A number of charged 
atoms or ions moving at the same rate were 
subjected to magnetic and electrical fields, and 
then allowed to strike a photographic plate. 
If one element be taken as standard, say oxy- 
gen, the other charged atoms will strike the 
plate from short distances away in direct pro- 
portion to their masses. In this way it was 
discovered that the elements which support the 
Prout hypothesis, having atomic weights very 
nearly whole numbers, carbon, oxygen, nitro- 
gen, all have atoms of only one atomic weight. 

But the elements whose analytical atomic 
weights deviate markedly from a whole num- 
ber are all mixtures of atoms of whole number 
atomic weights. The true atomic weights are 
therefore all whole numbers referred to proton 
as 1. Thus ehlorine (35.46) is a mixture of 
-three different chlorines of atomic weights 35, 
37 and 39. These three chlorines have identical 
chemical properties and are therefore called 
isotopes, meaning “in the same place in the 
periodic system.” Thus is confirmed what was 
indicated by Moseley, that the atomic weight 
of an element is a minor and variable factor in 
the chemical properties of an element, and that 
the atomic number is the true criterion of its 
properties. 

Transformation of Elements. Aston’s 
work showed that all atoms have atomic weights 
which are multiples of the weight of a proton 
or hydrogen ion The conclusion to be drawn, 
that the elements are polymers of proton or hy- 
drogen ion, was tested by Rutherford. He 
bombarded the elements with charged bodies 
moving at extremely high speeds, the alpha 
particles of radium C. The mass of the prod- 
ucts of this impact can be measured by known 
methods. Rutherford has shown that the el- 
ements whose atomic weight is (3+"x4) or 
(24”x4) all give hydrogen ions as products 


269 


CHEMISTRY 


of the disintegration of the atom. Hence it is 
definitely shown that some of the elements at 
least contain hydrogen ion in their positive nu- 
cleus. The others appear to contain an isotope 
of the helium ion with atomic weight of three. 

Shape of the Positive Nucleus of the 
Atoms. From the ratio of the number of im 
pacts which disrupt atoms to the number of 
alpha particles used, Rutherford showed that 
the positive nucleus must be a very thin disk, 
not a round sphere. The atoms are therefore 
quite asymmetrical, not at all the spherical, 
symmetrical, inert particles postulated in the 
kinetic theory. This extreme lack of symmetry 
in the atom probably accounts for many of the 
discrepancies between the kinetic theory and 
actual fact. 

The Electronic Theory of the Atom. Two 
theories based on the above data have attracted 
great attention as possible explanations of the 
electronic structures of the atom. One was 
proposed by Bohr, a pupil of Rutherford, the 
other by the American chemists Lewis and Lang- 
muir. In the Bohr theory the electrons are 
whirling about the positive nucleus, as the 
earth and the planets circle in ellipses about 
the sun. These electrons, contrary to classical 
mechanics, emit no energy in their elliptical 
orbits. But when the system absorbs or emits 
energy, it does so by an electron jumping at 
once to a new elliptical orbit, and in so doing 
emitting or absorbing a definite unit or quan- 
tum of energy. ; 

In the Lewis-Langmuir theory, the electrons 
are taken as approximating some position away 
from the nucleus and not encircling it. They 
are held away from the nucleus by a repulsive 
force. These attending electrons, for some un- 
known reason, show a great tendency to assume 
a cubical character by borrowing or losing one 
or more electrons. The electrons can be re- 
ceived in two ways; first, by taking them 
wholly into the cubical system of the electro- 
negative atom, so as to give the electronegative 
atom a negative charge; and correspondingly, by 
loss from an electropositive element to leave a 
cubical electronic structure with a _ positive 
charge. In this way the polar compounds orig- 
inate by the union of the electropositive and 
electronegative ions thus formed. Secondly, 
two electrons can be shared by two atomic 
cubes, so that these pairs of electrons are inte- 
gral parts of two atoms at the same time. In 
this way the nonpolar chemical compounds are 
formed. 

Both of these theories of atomic structure 
have their successes and their failures in inter- 
preting the complete phenomena of matter. 
The Bohr theory has worked almost entirely on 
the separate atoms of pure elements at high 
temperatures and has been a success mainly with 
the simpler elements, hydrogen and helium. The 
Lewis-Langmuir theory has been worked out 
mostly with chemical compounds at ordinary 
temperatures. It is probable that both theories 
are more or less correct in their own special 
fields. Angarde has called attention to the fact 
that electrons moving rapidly in extreme ellipti- 
eal orbits around a nucleus at one focus will 
act in many ways as if they were stationary at 
the other focus of the ellipse. 

Polar and Nonpolar Compounds. If the 
visible universe were made up of uncombined 
elements, it would be a very simple and easily 
analyzable order of natural phenomena, In- 


CHEMISTRY 


stead, an almost infinitesimal part of the world 
consists of simple elements; the rest is made up 
of compounds, which, as was said, fall into two 
general types, the polar and the nonpolar com- 
pounds. The polar compounds are_ primarily 
those of elements lying near the noble gases but 
on opposite sides of these gases in the periodic 
system. Whe nonpolar compounds are primarily 
of the elements: which, lying midway between 
the noble gases, are therefore neither highly 
electronegative nor highly electropositive. The 
most important of these central elements are 
earbon and silicon. Carbon compounds are the 
skeleton on which the chemistry of life is built. 
(See OrGANIC CHEMISTRY.) Silicon complexes 
are the basis of geology and will be discussed 
under that heading. The chemistry of the other 
central elements, such as titanium, is too little 
known to warrant discussion. The compounds 
made up of elements of like electrical character 
as well as those of the central elements are also 
probably nonpolar in character. 

The Compounds of Electropositive Ele- 
ments with Electropositive Elements. These 
include the intermetallic compounds or the 
alloys. These compounds have been enormously 
developed for special purposes in the last 
ten years. The success of the automobile is 
mainly due to the increased efficiency and 
consequent cheapening of automobile parts by 
the use of special alloys. Magnesium alloys, 
lighter than wood, are used for pistons; 
aluminum-bronze alloys replace steel in count- 
less ways with saving of weight and increase 
in strength. The aéroplane engine has increased 
its efficiency mainly by increasing the ratio of 
horse power to engine weight by the use of spe- 
cial alloys. See AERONAUTICS. 

The War gave great impetus to the use of 
special alloys. The enormous production of war 
material would have been impossible without 
the use of high temperature steels, most of 
whose improved formulas have been developed 
in the last decade. Noncorroding alloys are the 
basis of the electrical heating apparatus in- 
dustry. 

The Compounds of Electropositive Ele- 
ments with Hlectronegative Elements. 
These compounds form the main corpus of in- 
organic chemistry. They comprise the acids, 
the salts and the bases. The work of Laué, 
Bragg, and others during this decade has dem- 
onstrated the spatial configurations of these 
compounds when crystalline. The results in 
general confirm the postulates deduced from 
chemical reactions. Every solid crystal or frag- 
ment of a crystal is a single molecule made up 
‘of repetition of the type-molecule or crystal cell. 
The position of the atoms in many of the sim- 
pler compounds is now quite accurately known 
through X-ray measurements. 

Many improvements in the preparation of this 
polar type of compound were worked out during 
the decade by the application of improved scien- 
tific methods, such as the phase rule, to indus- 
try. The utilization of steel mill slag for the 
production of high-grade cement is a character- 
istic example of the utilization of by-products, 
hitherto useless, for the preparation of a val- 
uable new product. The use of thorium oxide 
on the filament of a radio tube is an instance 
of the utilization of the newly discovered prop- 
erties of a well known compound. 

Compounds of Electronegative Elements 
with Electronegative Elements. It is said 


270 


CHEMISTRY 7 


that the German authorities were unwill- 
ing to risk a major war until Haber had 
demonstrated that nitrogen oxide compounds 
could be successfully produced in large quan- 
tities within the confines of the German Em- 
pire, from the nitrogen of the air. This so- 
called fixation of nitrogen has proceeded along 
two lines, the formation of nitrogen oxide and 
the formation of ammonia. The enormous de- 
velopment of the water power of the Tennessee 
River at Muscle Shoals, Ala., was to be devoted 
largely to the production of nitrogen compounds 
for use as soil fertilizer for the American 
farmer. Twenty years ago Crookes uttered his 
warning that the world’s food was being se- 
riously threatened by the shortage of nitrogen 
compounds. Developments of the decade 1914- 
24 definitely removed forever this possibility 
of a nitrogen famine. 

The rival cyanide process by which calcium 
carbide is allowed to absorb pure nitrogen held 
promise mainly in the development of cyanide 
products and similar compounds of carbon and 
nitrogen. It was developed largely in America, 
at Niagara Falls. 

The oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur 
trioxide by atmospheric oxygen in the presence 
of a platinum catalyst has been one of the 
triumphs of catalytic chemistry. During the 
last decade this process almost entirely super- 
seded the old chamber acid process. 

Solution and Catalysis. An enormous de- 
velopment of the use of catalysts was brought 
about. The most important catalyst is still 
water. It has been shown that the removal of 
the last traces of water after years of patient 
dehydration materially changes the _ physical 
properties of many well known substances. ‘The 
formation of most polar compounds is inhibited 
by the absence of water. But the formation of 
nonpolar compounds is generally promoted by 
the absence of water. Thus water is both a 
catalyst and an anticatalyst. Both in water- 
present and water-absent systems, many new 
catalysts have been found which promote the 
reaction desired. For instance, secondary pro- 
pyl alcohol, formerly a laboratory curiosity, is 
now being produced in ton lots by the action of 
sulphuric acid on the gas propene from the 
cracking of crude petroleum, in the manufacture 
of gasoline by pressure distillation. 

Poisoning of Catalysts. The greatest ob- 
stacle to the effective use of catalysts is the 
ease with which they are poisoned or rendered 
ineffective. Much research was done in the 
mechanism and prevention of poisoning. Lang- 
muir showed that a layer of oxygen one mole- 
cule deep is absorbed on the surface of a metal 
so firmly that it remains even when the metal 
is heated red hot. Poisoning thus probably con- 
sists of the absorption of molecules on the sur- 
face of the catalyst too firmly to be removed, 
with consequent decreasing in the effective sur- 
face of the catalyst. By finding out and re- 
moving beforehand the poisoning substances, 
the life of a catalyst can be indefinitely pro- 
longed. 

Compound Formation with Catalysts and 
Solvents. The mechanism of compound forma- 
tion in the presence of catalysts and solvents en- 
gaged the attention of many investigators. In 
many cases the formation of compounds be- 
tween the reacting substances and the catalyst 
or solvent can be demonstrated, but whether 
these be essential or detrimental to the desired 


CHEMISTRY 271 


reaction ‘was not settled. Much was done in 
determining the energy threshold of reactions 
and its relation to absorbed radiation, but the 
many questions are not settled as yet. 

The Radio-active Elements. If the ele- 
ments are structures of associated proton and 
planetary electrons, each group being of in- 
creasing complexity as atomic number increases, 
it would be expected that the point would soon 
be reached where the atomic structure would 
be unstable and would slowly or rapidly break 
down. That this is a fact with regard to the 
most complex element, uranium, was discovered 
by Becequerel and Rutherford Mme. Curie dis- 
covered the element radium and its emanation. 
Soddy, Rutherford and others have explored this 
field until the path of the degeneration of 
atoms by the loss of electrons or helium ions 
from uranium or thorium to lead was accurate- 
ly known. See RADIUM AND RaADIO-ACTIVITY. 

The Inert Gases. Production of Helium. 
The production of helium by liquefaction of 
natural gas has now assumed commercial pro- 
portions, since some natural gas, as from the 
Texas field, contains as much as 2 per cent of 
helium. One volume of helium will prevent the 
ignition of over five volumes of hydrogen, so 
that a mixture of 85 per cent hydrogen and 15 
per cent helium is noninflammable. The new 
American dirigible Shenandoah has proved un- 
der trying conditions the reliability of this 
balloon gas. (See AERONAUTICS. ) 

Neon. Neon is now used in the preparation 
of display lighting tubes. These lamps give a 
very brilliant crimson colored light and are used 
extensively in theatre advertising, etc. Astor 
recently examined the last fractions from the 
distillation of 800,000 pounds of liquid air for 
possible new inert gases. By means of his “mass 
spectrograph” he determined that any new inert 
gas cannot be present in the atmosphere to an ex- 
tent greater than 1 part in 2,000,000.000,000,000. 

The Alkali Metals. Hydrogen. An _ im- 
mense amount of work has been done on _ hy- 
drogen in connection with the electronic struc- 
ture theories of Rutherford, Bohr, Lewis, and 
Langmuir. The kinetic theory of Bohr is very 
successful in many ways with the hydrogen atom 
but does rather poorly with the hydrogen mole- 
cule. 

Activated Hydrogen. Hydrogen prepared by 
the decomposition of a metallic hydride, such as 
sodium hydride, appears to be in an activated 
condition, as it combines directly with nitrogen 
to form ammonia and with cold sulphur to 
form hydrogen sulphide, reactions which do not 
occur with ordinary hydrogen gas. This un- 
usually reactive type of hydrogen opens up pos- 
sibilities of more direct syntheses of these im- 
portant hydrogen compounds, such as ammonia. 

Hydrogen Anion. Bardwell succecded in elec- 
trolyzing a solution of calcium hydride in a 
molten eutectic mixture of lithium chloride and 
potassium chloride. He proved that the hydro- 
gen was obtained at the anion. In these hy- 
drides hydrogen is thus a negatively charged 
ion, the first member of the seventh group rather 
than the first. X-ray diffraction photographs 
show that crystals of lithium hydride contain 
lithium cathions and hydrogen anions. Such 
erystals are completely analogous to sodium 
chloride. Thus the capacity of hydrogen to act 
as a member of the chlorine group has been 
completely demonstrated. 

Potassium Salts, The world needs a con- 

10 


children play. 


CHEMISTRY 


tinuous supply of these salts for the main- 
tenance of soil fertility. Heretofore the supply 
of these salts has been mainly derived from the 
enormous deposits in Alsace. In 1922 no less 
than 1,326,727 tons of potash were produced 
from them. A serious competitor of the Al- 
satian fields has been developed in the leucite 
industry in Southern Italy. This material is a 
large constituent of the lava from Italian vol- 
canoes and contains 21.5 per cent of potash. It 
is estimated that these Italian deposits contain 
no less than 8,786,000,000 long tons of potash; 
this makes them the greatest accumulation of 
potassium silicates known. 

The Alkali Earth Metals. Calcium Phos- 
phate ‘The second requirement for maintenance 
of soil fertility is an abundant supply of phos- 
phoric acid and to a lesser extent of calcium 
salts. In the United States large deposits are 
being worked in the southern States, especially 
in Florida. In the Pacific Ocean a number of the 
South Sea islands have been found to contain 
large deposits of this valuable material. These 
are being worked by both Australian and 
Japanese interests. (See PHOSPHATE. ) 

Lithopone This mixed pigment of zine sul- 
phite and barium sulphate is being used in 
enormous quantities in the paint and other in- 
dustries. Microscopic examination has shown 
that the particle of this material is not mixed 
crystals but rather crystalline agelomerates. 
Their most typical form is a thin diametrical 
cross similar to that of the “jacks” with which 
(See ZINc.) 

Magnesium in Industry. The use of cast mag- 
nesium is spreading rapidly in industries where 
lightness is an important factor. For instance, 
cast magnesium piston-rods are an accepted 
practice in automotive gasoline engines. 

Calcium Deficiency in Disease. It is being 
realized more and more that many diseases, par- 
ticularly of the rickets type, are traceable in 
large part to a calcium deficiency in the body. 
Yet the administration of calcium salts, such as 
calcium lactate, is useless unless at the same 
time the skin of the whole body is exposed to 
the full action of the sun’s rays. Then and 
then only is the calcium assimilated. 

The Trivalent Elements. The use of 
boron compounds as mild antisepties has spread 
largely, particularly in the form of the perbor- 
ates. These have been shown to contain linkages 
quite analogous to hydrogen peroxide. 

Aluminum Alloys. The use of aluminum al- 
loys is an important factor in the automobile 
industry. The use of cast or open aluminum for 
household and kitchen utensils has spread 
widely in the 10 years from 1914 to 1924. 
The use of light aluminum-magnesium alloys is 
of great promise in the aéroplane field. They 
have not so far realized the high hopes raised 
for them, but continued research will obviate in 
time their drawbacks and intensify their strong 


points. Many of these alloys are lighter than 
water. See AERONAUTICS and ALUMINIUM. 


Aluminum Salts The clarification of water 
is now almost universally accomplished by the 
precipitation of aluminum hydroxide by the ad- 
dition of a calculated amount of aluminum sul- 
phate. Much work has been done in aluminum 
hydroxide, and the hydrogen concentration most 
favorable to complete precipitation has been 
carefully studied. It has also been shown that 
there are probably many aluminum hydroxides. 
These vary considerably both in physical and 


CHEMISTRY 272 


chemical characteristics according to _ their 
method of preparation. The salt, ammonium 
aluminate, has been prepared. This salt, of a 
very weak base and a very weak acid, would be 
expected to be hydrolyzed almost completely in 
water solution. Instead it is surprising to 
note that Heyrovsky found it quite stable in 
solution. 

The Quadrivalent Elements. The develop- 
ment of carbon compounds is discussed else- 
where. See CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC. 

Silica Gels. The finely divided silica gels 
have shown wide usefulness in industry. Traces 
of ether, alcohol, and sulphur dioxide will be 
completely absorbed by this reactive colloid. It 
is also being used in the purification of gasoline 
from the cracking processes and in the removal 
of sulphur from petroleum products. 

Titania in Glass. Much work has been done 
recently on the use of titanium oxide in glass 
It makes a glass superior to either the lime or 
the magnesia glasses. At the same time it gives 
a high thermal endurance, and consequently it is 
being used largely in the production of heat- 
resisting glasses. 

Diffusion of Gases through Fused Silica. R. 
C. Burt, J. Johnsen, G. A. Williams, and others 
have recently studied the diffusion of gases 
through transparent silica. Hydrogen diffuses 
through fused silica even at room temperature 
at high vacuum. At 500° C. the diffusion of 
helium through fused silica is 22 times that of 
hydrogen 


The Quinquivalent Elements. Ammonia. 


About 1910 the most serious problem before the’ 


world was the rapid exhaustion of the mundane 
supply of combined nitrogen. The work of the 
last 10 years has solved this problem. The 
names of Haber and Nernst will always be 
linked with this effective attack on an important 
problem by advanced thermodynamic investiga- 
tions. Schulback and Ballauf (Berichte, vol. 
iv, 1921) have prepared free ammonium, N Hy, 
in about 50 per cent yield by the addition of a 
1.8 per cent solution of potassium in liquid am- 
monia to a 1 per cent solution of ammonium 
chloride in liquid ammonia at —70° C. Much 
work has been done on the selection of the 
proper catalyst for the oxidation of ammonia 
to nitric acid. Manganese, platinum, iridium, 
etc., have been chiefly used as catalysts, giving 
efficiency well over 90 per cent., Hydrogen phos- 
phide is a serious poison for the platinum cat- 
alyst. As little as 0.00002 per cent will reduce 
the oxidation 30 per cent and is very difficult 
to remove. 

Phosphorus. Much attention has been given 
to the fine grinding of phosphatic slags for 
fertilizer purposes. It is realized more and 
more that the more surface is exposed to the 
action of soil agents, the more available will 
the slag constituents be, so that even a very 
low phosphate slag can be made available if 
ground sufficiently fine. 

The Oxygen Group. Pure Hydrogen Peroz- 
ide . Maass and Hatcher (Journal of the Amer- 
ican Chemical Society, vol. xlii), have prepared 
chemically pure hydrogen peroxide. When free 
from water it is quite a stable substance. Elec- 
trolytes dissolve in it quite readily and ionize 
to approximately the same degree. It is much 
more diamagrietic than water and hence does 
not contain the molecular linking characteristics 
of molecular oxygen. 

Ozone. Liquid ozone is only partly unstable 


CHEMISTRY 


with liquid oxygen and can be separeted from 
it by fractional distillation. The pure ozone so 
obtained does not appear to contain any other 
polymer of oxygen. Ozone oxidizes nitrogen 
tetroxide instantly to the pentoxide, the end of 
this reaction being indicated sharply by the dis- 
appearance of color, so that a true titration of 
one gas by another can be performed. Ionized 
air is now being exclusively used in many in- 
dustries; for instance, it is being used to kill 
molds and yeasts in the preservation of food 
stuffs. It is also being used in the manufacture 
of linoxyn for linoleum from linseed oil. 

Sulphur. The use of molecular sulphur as 
an insecticide has increased of late years. When 
the soil is inoculated with a bacterium which 
can oxidize sulphur, the addition of sulphur is 
effective in controlling a number of plant dis- 
eases. 

Vulcanization of Rubber. The vulcanization 
of rubber by heating it with molecular sulphur 
is still being studied with the greatest dili- 
gence. The evolution of “accelerators” which 
markedly hasten vulcanization has transformed 
the whole rubber industry. Twiss has studied 
the effect of various forms of molecular sulphur 
and finds they all vuleanize rubber equally weil. 
Molecular selenium has been tried as a vulcan- 
izing agent and acts rather poorly. 

Selenium Oxychloride. This remarkable com- 
pound is a solvent for the most diverse types 
of material. Most of the metals are attracted 
by it with the formation of the corresponding 
metal chloride. The solution of molybdenum 
trioxide in selenium oxychloride shows a strik- 
ing photochemical reaction. On exposure to 
bright light it rapidly becomes blue. On re- 
moving the light the solution regains its orig- 
inal pale yellow color in a few hours. Selen- 
ium oxychloride activates retorted carbon, 
markedly increasing its absorptive power. 

Halogen Group. Chlorine. Liquid chlorine 
is now used in enormous quantities in the 
sterilization of water supplies. No other 
method has been found so reliable and certain. 
To-day the water supply of practically every 
large city is chlorinated before delivery to the 
user. 

Iodine. The abundant fresh water of the 
Great Lakes District of the United States has 
succeeded in removing practically all the iodine 
from this territory. Hence it was found that 
practically whole communities in Wisconsin, 
Michigan, etc., were afflicted with goitre. This 
has been obviated by adding small amounts of 
iodine salts to the drinking water supply, to the 
salt sold in such districts, etc. In this way an 
alarming situation has been remedied. See 
CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC; CHEMISTRY, PHYSICAL. 

CHEMISTRY, OrcGAnic. Organic chemistry 
is that part of the science dealing with the chem- 
ical constituents of living matter and its prod- 
ucts, actual or potential. As far as can be 
known, life processes always depend on _ the 
presence of a carbon skeleton. Just as the 
chemistry of geology is largely the chemistry of 
the symmetrical element silicon, so life chemis- 
try is the chemistry of the symmetrical element 
carbon. The organic chemist has been separated 
from his inorganic confrére by two characteristic 
convictions: first, that the molecules he dealt 
with had a definite discoverable spatial arrange- 
ment of the constituent atoms, and secondly, that 
his reactions were the interaction of molecules, 
not, apparently, of charged ions. 


CHEMISTRY 


The recent work in many separate branches of 
natural science has shown that the organic 
chemist’s convictions were justified. The work 
of Langmuir on thin films of organic substances 
and of Laué, Bragg, and others on crystal struc- 
ture have shown that there is ample first hand 
evidence for the spatial chemistry of carbon 
eompounds. The work of the physicists on the 
resonance potentials of molecules has shown 
that there are all types of activation of atoms 
between the charged ion and the inert state of 
molecules. Hence there is no reason to limit 
chemical interactions solely to this extreme state 
of the charged ion. 

But even in this less definite activation of 
organic complexes, the physical chemical laws 
deduced from ionic systems seem to hold to a 
large degree. Nelson and Conant both have 
found that oxidation and reduction potentials 
are just as definite in organic equilibria as in 
inorganic. In the same way, the phase rule, the 
law of mass action and other generalizations of 
physical chemistry (q.v.) have been shown to 
hold largely in organic equilibria. But it should 
be remembered that conditions which obtain in 
water systems do not necessarily dominate like- 
wise in organic equilibria. For instance, it has 
been shown by the work of Reed, Norris, and 
others that in the esterification of organic acids, 
the carboxylic acid acts definitely as a base, 
losing hydroxyl rather than hydrogen. The 
same reversal of electrical character is to be 
noted even with so strong an acid as sulphuric 
acid in the sulphonation of benzene. Thus it 
is demonstrated that no chemical compound is 
exclusively an acid or a base; all are ampho- 
teric, and the basie or acidie character depends 
on the system surrounding the molecule in 
question. 

Then again it is seen very strikingly that the 
capacity of an atomic complex to become a 
stably charged ion depends on the degree to 
which the charged atom is loaded with heavy 
substituting groups. Thus NH,+ is a very in- 
stable and sensitive ion, whereas the corre- 
sponding tetramethyl ammonium ion (CH;),N+ 
is quite stable. NH,OH is a very instable com- 
pound and a comparatively weak base. 
(CH,),NOH is a stable compound and as strong 
a base as potassium hydroxide itself. The same 
phenomenon is seen in the ion triphenylmethyl. 
The ion CH,+ is so instable as to be undetect- 
able, whereas the substituted ion (C,H,;),C+ is 
quite stable as ions go. The same phenomenon 
has been discovered in other heavily substituted 
complexes, such as (C,H;);N and (C,H;)5P. 

Purely organic research can thus throw light 
on the mechanism of ion formations and the 
vexed question of strong electrolytes. It was in 
carbon complexes that the celebrated quantum 
theory of Planck received its first notable con- 
firmation. Tinstein, the author of the cele- 
brated relativity theory, showed that the specific 
heat curve of carbon agreed remarkably well 
with the relationship predicted by the quantum 
relationship _ K—SL—hv. It was found’ that 
this agreement was limited to carbon and a few 
other elements; for most of the elements the 
more complicated emendations of Lindemann and 
others were in better agreement with experi- 
mental data. It is for this reason that carbon, 
ete., are known as Hinstein (heat) bodies. 

It follows from the agreement of carbon with 
the simpler quantum expression that its energy 
relationships must be comparatively simple. 


273 


CHEMISTRY 


And this has been borne out by experimental 
work on many of the physical properties of 
carbon compounds: the specific rotation, the 
specific heats, the magnetic susceptibility, ete. 
In many of these properties the numerical value 
ean be predicted by a summation of the atomic 
values. It follows that the molecular effects are 
in many carbon structures merely the summa- 
tion of the atomic effects. 

If the Einstein expression for the specific heat 
be solved for average temperature, it will be 
found that only one atom in 96 is emitting heat 
energy. The other 95 are not emitting heat 
energy. This would explain the simplicity of 
the energy relations of carbon compounds 
Only one per cent of the carbon atoms are dis- 
torting their electrical fields of force by emis- 
sion of an electromagnetic pulse; hence the 
electrical stresses surrounding the other 99 per 
cent are comparatively at rest; therefore the 
spatial equilibrium is simple and stable. 

The Quantum Explanation of the Stabil- 
ity of Carbon Compounds. The stability of 
carbon structures on the quantum hypothesis 
would therefore be explained by the symmetrical 
electron structure of the carbon skeleton and 
hence the minimizing of asymmetrical sub- 
molecular stresses in the molecular fields of 
force; the lack of disturbance of the atomic 
fields of force, since 99 per cent of the carbon 
atoms are absolutely quiescent, from an energy 
emission standpoint, and the small cascade of 
energy involved in carbon rearrangements be- 
cause of this symmetry and inertness. Since 
the carbon atoms are quite symmetrical electroni- 
eally and practically quiescent as to energy 
emission, it is immaterial how they are arrang- 
ed. It is found by experiment that most of the 
usual types of organic reactions show very little 
energy change. It follows that the equilibria 
are never very far to the right or the left and 
that many simultaneous reactions can be ex- 
pected to occur alongside of each other. When 
water trickles down a very slightly tipped plane 
it tends to run a great many ways at once. So 
it is with organic reactions. 

Contrast between the Polar Reactions of 
the Asymmetrical Atoms. Thus is seen the 
marked contrast: between the formation of polar 
compounds of the ions of the non-central ele- 
ments, the salts, acids and bases of inorganic 
chemistry and the nonpolar compounds of or- 
ganic chemistry. G. H. Lewis and others have 
called attention to the importance of the mag- 
netic field in nonpolar molecular compounds. 
Bragg found that the crystal cells of organic 
compounds were built up of two or more or- 
ganic molecules, as opposed to the simpler ion 
structure of the polar cells, and furthermore 
that the crystal cell of even-numbered carbon 
compounds is, as far as investigation has shown, 
quite different from the crystal cell of odd- 
numbered carbon compounds. This would em- 
phasize the importance of the magnetic fields 
of nonpolar compounds. 

The Cubical Atom in Organic Compounds. 
The Lewis-Langmuir cubical atom has found its 
most successful application in carbon molecules. 
Andrade has called attention to the fact that 
in a very eccentric elliptical orbit, an electron 
can for many energy expressions be regarded 
as at rest at the second focus of the ellipse. 
Lewis has called attention to the fact that in 
the cubical atom the term “electron” is taken to 
include the electrical electron and its orbit. 


CHEMISTRY 


It is probable that the work on stable carbon 
structures will in the future bring about the 
synthesis of these two views of atomic structure. 

Synthetic Work in Organic Chemistry. 
The Use of Catalysts. The work of the famous 
French organic chemists Sabatier and Senderens 
called attention to the immense possibilities of 
catalysts in organic preparations. To-day the 
most important commercial applications of or- 
ganic processes are bound up with the use of 
catalysts; the hardening of fats, the cracking 
of petroleum, preparation of dyes, and hundreds 
of other processes are intimately linked with 
the use of the proper catalysts. Molinari, Mor- 
gan, and others have worked on the influence 
of energy catalysts, such as the electromagnetic 
pulsations which we know as light, in the re- 
arrangement of organic compounds. 

Photosynthesis. The most important chemi- 
cal in the whole world is chlorophyll. Without 
it, the existence of the ordinary vegetable or 
animal life on this planet would be impossible. 
Willstiitter and other investigators have made 
available some knowledge of the constitution of 
chlorophyll. Mainly, it appears to be an ag- 
gregation of substituted pyrroles linked very 
stably with magnesium. Much work regarding 
the synthetic action of chlorophyll on carbon 
dioxide has recently been done. Other catalysts 
such as an uranium sol have been shown to 
bring about the same type of photosynthesis by 
the aid of sunlight. See Botany. 

Hemoglobin. Much work has been done on 
the blood pigment hemoglobin by Willstiitter 
and others. It has been shown to be closely 
allied to chlorophyll in its constitution, except 
that the pyrrole nuclei are linked up with iron 
instead of magnesium. 

Organo-metallic Compounds. The whole sub- 
ject of the metallic compounds of carbon com- 
plexes has assumed great importance. The 
alkyl metallo-halides, such as the magnesium 
and zine compounds, have been of the greatest 
importance in synthetic work. Nelson and his 
pupils have shown that this type of compound 
is polar rather than of the usual nonpolar 
type. The aluminium complexes present in the 
Friedel-Krafft reaction have also been shown to 
be polar. In fact, from a complex of aluminium 
chloride with benzene, metallic aluminium can 
be deposited by the passing of an electrical 
current through the benzene solution. 

The nonpolar metallo-organic compounds have 
also shown great interest. Every one is familiar 
with the arsenic carbon compounds used by 
Ehrlich under the names of salvarsan and neo- 
salvarsan. Other metallo-organic compounds 
showed promise in chemotherapy, such as silver 
salvarsan and copper salvarsan. Metallo- 
organic complex ions, such as the bismutlio- 
tartrate, have shown surprising efficiency in at- 
tacking bacterial invasions of the blood stream. 

Tetraethyl lead has a surprising effect as an 
“anti-knock” material in gasoline engines. One 
' part in 200,000 is quite effective in preventing 
knocking. See Moror VEHICLES. 

Carbon Compounds. The effect of a carbon 
compound on living matter is quite frequently 
localized to one small part of the carbon struc- 
ture. The synthetic chemist has therefore been 
busy in eliminating that part of the molecular 
structure which is unimportant and increasing 
the physiological action of the remainder by ap- 
propriate mutations. Thus ethylene, which con- 
tains the carbon skeleton of ethyl alcohol and 


274 


CHEMISTRY 


ethyl ether, has been shown to be quite an 
efficient anesthetic and to minimize the unfor- 
tunate after effects of etherization. From the 
complicated alkaloids have been evolved simpler 
structures which do the work wanted without un- 
pleasant concurrent effects. For instance, from 
the habit-forming local anesthetic cocaine has 
been developed the far more effective novocaine 
with no habit-forming properties, 

Dyes. Innumerable new dyes were prepared. 
Many of these new dyes have other interesting 
properties. One, kryptocyanine, is the most 
powerful sensitizer known for rendering photo- 
graphic silver emulsions sensitive to red and 
green light. Other dyes have been shown to be 
powerful bactericidal agents. For instance, 
trythan red is an excellent tryphanocide and is 
used in combating the dreadful sleeping sick- 
ness of Middle Africa. Acriflavine and fluore- 
sein have proved excellent agents in aborting in- 
fections of the uretliral passages. : 

Carbohydrates. Much work has been carried 
out on the polysaccharides, and fields that were 
formerly unknown have been successfully ex- 
plored. Fischer showed that the natural tan- 
nins are the glucose esters of the tannic acids. 
Taylor has shown that the starches naturally 
occurring are characterized by the presence of 
various fatty acid esters of the glucose complex. 
The work on fibre silk from cellulose has neces- 
sitated an intense exploration of the cellulose 
and hydrocellulose field. 

Stereo-chemistry. Progress was made in the 
study and synthesis of stereo-isomers. The im- 
portance of stereo configuration in biochemistry 
is now realized. Emil Fischer, Abderhalden, and 
their students did a great deal of work in the 
syntheses of the polypeptides, approximating the 
natural proteins. Chains that contain over a 
hundred atoms have been prepared, and such 
compounds have been shown to give practically 
all the characteristic reactions of the simpler 
proteins. There seems no structure of carbon 
complexes, short of the living cell, that the or- 
ganic chemist cannot attempt to duplicate with 
some reasonable hope of success. 

The Disintegration of Organic Compounds. 
Carbon compounds are important not only for 
their own characteristics, but also for the power, 
heat, etc., that can be generated by their dis- 
integration. Thus the main importance of the 
paraffin and polymethylene compounds to-day is 
their fuel value, regrettable though this may 
be. In the same way the great coal and peat 
deposits are utilized mainly as fuel; only the 
by-products are conserved for chemical utiliza- 
tion. 

Explosives. The necessities of the War de- 
veloped greatly the technique of explosives. 
These are mainly nitrates of carbohydrate com- 
pounds. The Americans and the Allies were to 
a great extent quite unprepared for the large 
scale production of high power explosives, but 
the clemical industries rose to the needs of the 
nations. At the end of the War, the Allies were 
in a much better position as to high power am- 
munition than the Germanic nations. See Ex- 
PLOSIVES. 

Chemical Warfare. A closely allied field in 
organic chemistry was the development of mili- 
tary attack by means of chemicals. This new 
branch of warfare took advantage of the marked 
effect on human beings of many organic com- 
pounds. Poison gases, tear gases, “sneezing” 
gases, all were developed in number. The most 


CHEMISTRY 


successful and important of these was “mus- 
tard gas.” This material, made by the action 
of sulphur chloride on ethylene chlorhydrine 
became one of the most important agents in ag- 
gressive warfare. In peace time, the use of 
the tear gases has continued in the dispersion 
of dangerous mobs and the capture of reckless 
criminals at bay. See CHEMICAL WARFARE. 

Combustion of Carbon Compounds. All ear- 
bon compounds, in the presence of an excess of 
oxygen at high enough temperature, are turned 
to carbon dioxide; water and the oxygen com- 
pounds of other elements are present. This is 
the standard method for the ultimate analysis 
of carbon compounds. The material is converted 
in a combustion furnace to carbon dioxide and 
water and these two substances collected sepa- 
rately and weighed. H. L. Fisher and others 
have brought these ultimate analyses to a high 
degree of accuracy, through the proper control 
of the methods used. 

Production of Energy and Heat by Combus- 
tion. To-day most of our artificial heat, and 
to a large extent, our greatest power, comes 
from the oxidation of such carbon compounds 
as paraffin, coal, ete. 

Prevention of Combustion. Experience has 
shown that the most inert carbon compounds, 
without any exception, can be made to explode 
if in fine enough a powder. It has been realized, 
particularly of late years, that all processes pro- 
ducing dust should be controlled by the use of 
dust collectors, forced draft and the like, so 
as to minimize the accumulation of dust. The 
modern chemical plant rivals the kitchen of a 
famous chef in its scrupulous cleanliness and 
absence of dirt and dust. 

The Coking of Coal. The War brought the 
distillation products of coal to the front. These 
products had been greatly neglected in the 
United States and ignored in the United King- 
dom because of the abundant standardized sup- 
ply of these materials from German sources. 
The War changed this abruptly. It is now well 
realized that the older method of the carboniza- 
tion of coal without the recovery of ammonia, 
benzine, and other by-products, is a criminal 
waste of national resources. See COKE. 

It has been gradually realized that the most 
useful method of carbonizing coal is that at a 
high temperature. <A high gas yield is obtained 
at the same time as a high yield of liquid prod- 
ucts. The maximum yield of ammonia is ob- 
tained, as well as a hard dense coke of the qual- 
ity most desirable in blast furnace operations. 
More and more the coal resources of the world 
will have to be conserved by scientific coking 
at the mine and the distribution of the products 
to appropriate industries. More and more the 
use of coal for industrial power will revert 
to the electrical generation of power at the coal 
mine, combined with the water power that is 
available in the vicinity. 

Petroleum and Natural Gas. The motor in- 
dustries are wasting one of the most valuable 
natural resources in the generation of power by 
the combustion of petroleum products in auto- 
motive engines on land and sea. The logical 
fuel for such purposes is ethyl alcohol from 
plant carbohydrates. The plant world every 
year makes many millions of tons of carbo- 
hydrates which are allowed to be distintegrated 
into carbon-dioxide by the actions of molds and 
yeasts. This material ought to be converted 
to the intermediate carbinol, ethyl alcohol, and 


275 


CHEMISTRY 


this used for the fuel needs of the automotive 
industry. Ultimately, when the world has ex- 
hausted most of its petroleum resources, it will 
be forced to turn to this easily replenishable 
source of energy. But in the meantime, the 
valuable reservoirs of paraffin and polymethy- 
lene derivations in the petroleum resources of 
the world will have been dissipated and _ lost. 

Already agitation has begun to save the 
natural gas resources for their proper utiliza- 
tion in industry. The only mundane source 
for any large supply of the valuable gas helium 
lies in our natural gas wells. The valuable 
chemicals methyl chloride, carbon tetrachloride, 
etc., can be made from natural gas. Soon our 
supplies of methyl alcohol, formaldehyde and 
the like will come from this same source. To- 
day we are wasting them as a mere cheap fuel 
source. 

Shale Oil. The world’s oil resources in oil 
shales are enormously larger than its supply of 
petroleum oil. McKee has shown that these oil 
shales are to a great extent the calcium salts 
of complex oily acids. On distillation these salts 
break down with an absorption of about 160 
British thermal units per pound of shale. Fur- 
ther heating causes dry distillation of the com- 
pound found with the production of shale oil. 
One field alone has been shown capable of pro- 
ducing 80 times more oil than all the petro- 
leum wells of America have yielded in the whole 
history of petroleum production. 

Cracking of Petroleum. The urgent demand 
produced by the increased use in automobile 
vehicles has compelled the petroleum industry 
to convert, as far as possible, its crude material 
into the lighter, more volatile hydrocarbons. 
The first process which proved successful on a 
large scale was the Burton process. This con- 
sisted of the direct firing of petroleum stills un- 
der greatly increased pressure. In this way the 
yield of the lower fraction is much increased. 
Other methods such as the Ellis, Cross, and 
Dubbs processes have more or less superseded 
the Burton process. They are directed toward 
the maintenance of the liquid state during the 
“eracking”’ period. The carbon necessarily 
formed in the decomposition is removed in 
special settling chambers. 

The liquid-phase cracking processes possess 
many advantages over the older vapor-phase 
processes. They can deal with much heavier 
petroleums, such as the California and Mexican 
erudes. They produce much smaller propor- 
tions of uncondensible gas. The lighter frac- 
tion is of much better quality and more easily 
refined. 

Transformation of Natural Organic Prod- 
ucts. The immense amount of technical work 
on cellulose and artificial silk has steadily in- 
creased the quality of these textiles. In 1922, 
75,000,000 pounds of artificial silk was pro- 
duced, and even this quantity was insufficient 
for the demand. At first the artificial silk fila- 
ments were poor in strength and were not resist- 
ant to wetting, etc. By improvement in technical 
methods, such as the proper aging of the solu- 
tions at low temperatures, the properties of ar- 
tificial silk have been much improved. It has 
also been possible to make much finer filaments 
than before, by elimination of minute gas 
bubbles in the threads, etc. See Sm~k, ARTIFI- 
CIAL. 

Constitution of Cellulose. J. C. Irvin and 
EK. L. Hirst have at last been able to obtain 


CHEMISTRY 


definite evidence pointing to the probable con- 
stitution of cellulose. Their formula is a tri- 
anhydro-glucose of the butylene oxide type 
Their formula will account for all the known 
reactions of cellulose, whereas the older sug- 
gestions have all failed in one respect or an- 
other. (Transactions of the Chemical Society, 
vol. exxili, 1923, pp. 123, 518.) 

Relation of Cotton Cellulose to Wood Cellu- 
lose. L. E. Wise (Industrial Engineering Chem- 
istry, vol. xv, 1923, p. 711) has investigated the 
relationship of cotton cellulose to wood cellu- 
lose. He finds that the balance of evidence is 
in favor of a more variable complexity for wood 
cellulose as compared with cotton cellulose. 
The most resistant part of wood cellulose. is al- 
most identical with cotton cellulose, but the 
wood cellulose complex as a whole is different 
from cotton cellulose in containing other and 
less stable groupings. 

Paper. The most notable innovation in the 
paper field has been the introduction of rubber 
latex papers, in which rubber latex is added to 
the paper pulp. These papers are noticeably 
tough and resistant when properly made. So 
far the main difficulty has been the prevention 
of the perishing of the rubber due to its ex- 
truded surface and the consequent deleterious 
action on it of oxygen from the air. 

Lignin. Extensive work has been carried out 
on this important constituent of the natural 
woods, straw, and other fibres. The evidence 
has accumulated that it is somewhat the oxy- 
gen analogue of chlorophyll, being built up of 
furane ring condensations as chlorophyll is of 
pyrrole aggregations. It also contains alde- 
hydic linkages and phenol radicals more or less 
methylated. These methopy groups are the 
source of the methyl alcohol obtained in this 
dry distillation of wood. 

Simpler Carbohydrates. The starches are 
the typical storage carbohydrates of plant life. 
As energy-giving substances they are one of the 
principal constituents of food for both animals 
and human beings. In the preparation of pure 
starch from vegetable grains, the proteolytic 
power of enzymes has been recently utilized. 
Pepsin or trypsin is used to render soluble and 
remove the insoluble nitrogen constituents of 
the crude starch. The starch granules are then 
centrifugated out. 

Dextrin and Vegetable Gums. These are in- 
variably prepared by the partial hydrolysis of 
the natural starches. The methods used are 
mostly empirical and have been developed by 
haphazard experiments. Kunz-Krause has iso- 
lated a cyclic ester of myristic acid from dex- 
trin, which is the source of its characteristic 
odor. 

Sugars. An immense amount of work on the 
monose, biose, and triose sugars has demonstra- 
ted more completely each year the soundness of 
the Fischer theories and methods of attack. 
The various sugars have been shown to have in- 
teresting properties. Thus lactose has been 
shown to have the power of killing off the tryp- 
tophan attacking bacteria of the upper intestine. 
If this sugar could only be produced cheaply 
enough, it would be a great aid to the health of 
human _ beings. 

Sucrose. The most important of all sugars 
is the biose sucrose. 
duction of this material both from sugar beets 
and from sugar cane has been carefully studied 
year by year. From sugar cane, as high as 


276 


The technique of the pro-. 


CHEMISTRY 


99.42 per cent of the sucrose in the crude cane 
las been recovered in commercial operations. 

Bleaching and Olarifying. The extracted su- 
crose is accompanied by collodial gummy mat- 
ter and by coloring substances. The first is 
removed by liming and the second by treatment 
with a decolorizing carbon. C. Miiller and M. 
Bird have shown that much of the colloidal 
matter is a complex silica compound from the 
sheath of the sugar cane and can be removed 
by superheating. 

High Power Decoloring Carbons. The intro- 
duction of high power decoloring carbons such 
as norit or carbrox has had an important effect 
on the sugar industry. The tendency appears 
to be to remove, as far as possible, the colloidal 
impurities by preliminary treatment and then 
to rely on a small quantity of high-power bleach 
to remove the color. As little as 12 ounces of 
high-power bleach will decolorize the juice from 
one ton of sugar cane. 

Carbinols. Glycerol. The production of 
glycerol from sucrose has been brought about 
by means of a special yeast acting in the pres- 
ence of sodium sulphite. The sulphite removes 
the aldehyde formed and thus allows the con- 
centration of glycerol to increase. During the 
War considerable glycerol for war purposes was 
made by this method. 

Isopropyl Alcohol. This, the simplest of the 
secondary alcohols, was long a laboratory cu- 
riosity. Now it is produced and sold in car- 
load lots under the name of “‘petrohol.” It is 
a by-product of the cracking of petroleum. The 
gas propense is found, and this is led into 
cooled sulphuric acid. The acid sulphate found 
is diluted and distilled, with the production of 
isopropyl alcohol. 

Thus is seen the progress of chemical work 
on the carbohydrates from the most complex 
cellulose to the simplest carbinols. In the same 
way similar advances have been recorded in the 
proteins, the tannins, the caoutchoucs, the 
hydrocarbons, the vegetable oil fields. Slowly 
and surely the organic chemist is linking up 
the most complicated products observed in na- 
ture to the simplest products of organic labora- 
tory preparations. See CHEMISTRY. 

CHEMISTRY, PuysicaL. Physical chemis- 
try is not a separate science but a group of 
methods whereby the conditions preceding and 
succeeding chemical reactions can be studied. 
It should be remembered that chemistry and 
physics are inseparable. All the operations 
surrounding chemical reactions are physical in 
nature, while all the manifestations of force 
occur in the electrical field surrounding elec- 
trons and proton or the groupings of these two 
types of electricity which we call ordinary sub- 
stances. Hence the application of well tested 
physical methods to chemical investigation has 
been of immense aid to the chemist. In the 
same way much chemical work has been of aid 
in investigating physical phenomena. 

The Simple Functions for Chemical Phe- 
nomena. The physicist is often able to express 
the relations of cause and effect in physical 
phenomena by means of comparatively simple 
mathematical expressions. Thus the relation- 
ship of volume, pressure and temperature of 
most gases can be shown to a surprising degree 
of accuracy by the simple relationship, called 
the gas law, PV=RT, when P is the pressure, 
V the volume of the gas (in molar volumes), 
T the absolute temperature and R the gas con- 


CHEMISTRY 


stant. Hence physical chemists have been at- 
tempting to find simple expressions that would 
in like manner satisfactorily account for the 
operations of chemical reactions. Many of 
these expressions show high promise. The im- 
portant law of mass action of Gulberg and 
Waage has been applied to a number of chem- 
ical phenomena with surprisingly good results. 
But increasing accumulation of more accurate 
data has in nearly every case shown that this 
agreement is only approximate and that in gen- 
eral the simpler the expression, the more limited 
is agreement with data of increasing accuracy. 

To minimize the discrepancy between actual 
fact and simple mathematical theory, the phys- 
ical chemist has been driven to the creation of 
ideal substances, imaginary liquids, gases and 
solids, whose characteristics would correspond 
exactly to those indicated by simple mathemat- 
ical functions. The discrepancies between act- 
ual experimental results and the theory adopted 
are then discussed as mere departures from an 
ideal state. 

This procedure is excellent as a method of 
teaching, but it is dangerous as a view of nat- 
ural phenomena. There is no distinction be- 
tween the normal and the abnormal in nature. 
Conditions in a few selected systems may be 
somewhat simpler than in others, but rarely 
are the relationships so simple as to be ex- 
pressible over a wide area by a function con- 
taining only one constant. 

Conditions of Chemical and Physical Ex- 
periment. It should be remembered that phy- 
sical experimentation to-day can generally be 
disentangled from interfering phenomena much 
more easily than the usual type of chemical 
experimentation. Take as an example the fa- 
miliar physical experiment of the pendulum. 
Here the physicist can easily do away with the 
friction of the air by conducting the experiment 
in a vacuum. He can use as support a quartz 
filament so fine as to be seen only through a 
microscope. He can make very accurate correc- 
tions for temperature differences. The investi- 
gator of chemical phenomena is not so fortunate. 
To illustrate the complexity of most chemical 
experiments we may imagine the physicist at- 
tempting to study the action of an iron pendu- 
lum suspended by a stiff spring and swinging 
in a bath of cold molasses while subjected to a 
varying magnetic field. This imaginary com- 
parison will help show why physical chemists 
have had such poor success in gaining accurate 
agreement between experimental data and the 
simple mathematical relationships we call laws. 
The attempt is being made to express a com- 
plex system by means of a simple mathematical 
expression. The more complex the situation, 
the more striking become the discrepancies as 
the data available becomes more accurate and 
more abundant. 

We ordinarily write our chemical equilibria 
as if we were observing the interaction of a few 
molecules or atoms with each other. But the 
actual fact is that even the simplest chemical 
experiment involves trillions and quadrillions 
and quintillions of atoms and molecules, with 
electric potentials and charges, the formation 
of complex aggregates, the segregation into col- 
loidal dispersates, and other effects to increase 
the complexity. To say nothing of energy dif- 
ferences, threshold values, and various activa- 
tion phenomena that have their effect on the 
system. Hence it is surprising, not that the 


277 


CHEMISTRY 


simpler generalizations of physical chemistry 
show many discrepancies as more abundant 
and more accurate data becomes available, but 
that the agreement is as good as it is. 

Take, for instance, the extremely important 
Moseley experiment on the characteristic X-ray 
radiations of elements. Further and more ac- 
curate measurements show that the Moseley 
relationship is not quite valid but is rather in 
the nature of a good approximation. But no 
one doubts that the theory of atomic numbers 
is true. It is only realized that the conditions 
existing around the nucleus and the innermost 
ring of electrons are not as simple as Moseley 
imagined they were when he formulated the 
simple mathematical expression or law known 
by his name. 

X-Ray Study of Pure Crystals and Liq- 
uids. The X-ray method of studying the 
structure of pure chemical compounds has 
yielded an immense amount of valuable informa- 
tion regarding the spatial structure of such 
compounds. With solid solutions, for instance, 
it has been shown that the atoms of the two 
metals simply substitute in each other’s lattice 
with only slight disarrangement of the lattice, 
instead of having two interlacing lattices. Of 
most of the simpler molecular structures we 
can now give accurate dimensions and spatial 
arrangement. 

The Phase Rule. This important generali- 
zation by an American scientist, Willard Gibbs, 
has been of the greatest aid in studying the re- 
actions in metallography and the like. During 
the War it was used to study the characteristics 
of explosives and so prevent the premature ex- 
plosion of high power ballistics. The extrac- 
tion of potash salts on the Pacific Coast was 
worked out by means of this same phase rule. 
This rule states that for N components and R 
phases the degree of freedom, or possible va- 
riation in the conditions, is N—-R+2. 

Catalysis. When a system, or mixture of 
substances, is heterogeneous (not all of a kind), 
one component is very apt to influence chemical 
reactions in the other. This property of in- 
fluencing a chemical reaction without apparent 
change is called catalysis. Thus many chemical 
changes that occur exceedingly slow can _ be 
brought to equilibrium quickly by the addition 
of a catalyst. In the same way reactions may 
be slowed down or stopped by means of other 
substances called anticatalysts. Modern chem- 
ical work is therefore greatly concerned with 
catalysts and anticatalysts, to see that the type 
desired is present and the detrimental type 
eliminated. The work done by the immense 
water power development at Muscle Shoals in 
the South will be intimately linked up with 
catalysis. 

Adsorption. The atoms in the surface of a 
solid have their electrical fields only partially 
satisfied. Thus they are able to attract and 
hold the atoms of many other substances, liquid 
or gaseous. In fact, nearly all solids have ad- 
sorbed onto them layers or films of other sub- 
stances. In such layers chemical reactions go 
on quite differently from what they do in or- 
dinary mixtures. This is thought to be the 
reason for the capacity of catalysts to influence 
a chemical reaction. Not only solids but also 
liquids possess this power of attracting and 
holding others. This attraction is called the 
interfacial tension. Nearly all ordinary sub- 
stances have a film of water on them which in- 


CHEMISTRY 278 


fluences greatly their chemical characteristics. 
More and more it has been found how markedly 
these small matters influence chemical action. 

Colloidal Dispersion. This interfacial ten- 
sion is not noticed in ordinary solids, but when 
a material is very finely subdivided its surface 
greatly increases. Thus a little button of silver 
as big as a shoe button has a very small surface, 
but if reduced to a fine enough powder it will 
have a total surface as great as a city lot. In 
this condition, called the colloidal state, silver 
has a great power to kill germs and is so used 
in many infections of the throat and other 
passages. 

It has been shown that a great many of the 
simple salts are really very fine solid particles 
floating in water and can be filtered out by 
a very efficient filter. In this way the yellow 
solution of potassium dichromate can be com- 
pletely removed from a water solution ‘and ink 
can be filtered water-white. 

Removal of Smoke and Fumes from Air. 
The fumes accompanying many chemical opera- 
tions, such as the burning of carbon or coal 
with insufficient air, are colloidal dispersions of 
tiny solid particles in a gas, in this case the 
ordinary atmosphere. Like most colloidal dis- 
persions, these tiny solid fragments have on 
them an electrical charge which keeps them 
apart by making the particles repel each other. 

It has been found that an electrode charged 
at 10,000 volts or more will attract these tiny 
charged particles out of the gas and so prevent 
their being earried into the outer air. In this 
way fumes from smelters have been prevented 
from polluting the air and the material so 
saved becomes a profit instead of a nuisance. 
This recovery of solids from gas dispersions has 
found many applications in industry, as, for 
example, in the manufacture of the pigment 
carbon black from the partial combustion of 
natural gas. <A recent development has been 
the use of a quartz mercury lamp to ionize 
more effectively the dispersed particles. Sim- 
ilar tiny charged particles in a liquid are called 
sols. It has been found more and more that 
a great many of the systems we have regarded 
as molecular solutions are in reality sols. This 
has radically affected much of our thinking 
about solutions. 

Dr. H. 8. Hele-Shaw has devised a very ef- 
fective new filtering apparatus. This- consists 
of a large number of sheets of hardened paper 
perforated with holes and pressed together un- 
der an adjustable pressure so that the holes in 
register form tubes. Half the tubes are inlet 
tubes; half, outlet tubes. On pumping the 
liquids to be filtered into the inlet tubes, the 
liquid in continuous phase passes between the 
paper layers and out into the outlet tubes, leav- 
ing the discontinuous phase behind. By suit- 
able pressure any degree of separation can be 
obtained. Even such strong electrolytes as 
potassium bichromate and sodium sulphate can 
be removed from solution by this streamline 
filter. It is also excellent for clarifying liquids 
difficult to filter, such as glues and varnishes. 

When sols, such as have been referred to, cool 
or are treated with a coagulating agent they 
set to a jelly-like mass or “coagulate into a 
gel.” These relationships ,of sols and gels are 
most important to human beings, as life, as far 
as we know, occurs only in sols and gels. 
Hence an immense amount of work has been 
done in biological chemistry, with the accumula- 


CHEMISTRY 


tion of information of increasing complexity. 
Particular progress has been made in research 
on the action of certain sols on gels. Donnan, 
in his work on membrane equilibrium, has 
shown the results that will occur when one part 
of a sol can diffuse or wander into a gel and 
another part cannot. By his investigations the 
technique of whole industries, such as the tan: 
ning of leather, has been radically changed. 


Loeb has likewise shown how one condition, 
such 


as the hydrogen-ion concentration, can 
radically affect the characteristics of a sol. 

Enzyme Actions. Certain complex organic 
substances seem to have a remarkable catalytic 
action in sols and gels. These are called en- 
zymes. In many cases their action extends into 
the solutions of complex substances that border 
on the colloid dispersals, such as sugar solu- 
tions. Here the work of Sorensen, Nelson and 
others has accumulated an immense amount of 
data which will help us understand the com- 
plexities of chemical change in these important 
systems. The action of bacteria, yeasts, molds, 
and the like organic substances is mainly 
through enzymes, and these too seem closely 
bound up with physical chemical laws. 

Liquids. Langmuir has shown that liquids 
ean be spread into a film one molecule thick. 
In such thin films the volume of the individual 
molecule is always the same, no matter what 
the interface. He has therefore suggested that 
a liquid is really like a crumpled piece of paper 
which can be smoothed out to a definite thin- 
ness as a limiting value or be wadded up. into 
any shape desired. In liquids many investiga- 
tors have shown that compounds exist. First 
of all the liquid may be combined with itself. 
Then it is called an associated liquid. The non- 
associated liquids are few in number and com- 
prise the more inert organic compounds such 
as the paraffins, the ethers, etc. 

Compound Formation in Liquids. If a 
liquid can form stable compounds with itself, 
it is probable that it can form stable com- 
pounds with other substances. For instance, 
water, which is highly associated in its liquid 
state, enters into combination with a large num- 
ber of substances; many of these compounds are 
crystalline. Such crystals in the past were 
thought of as containing “water of crystalliza- 
tion.” But such compounds with water are not 
a whit different in kind from the material 
formed by the action of water on SO; to make 
sulphuric acid. In liquid systems compounds 
are also found. By observing the abrupt 
changes in physical characteristics during a 
continuous variation of constituents, the ex- 
istence of numerous compounds has been dem- 
onstrated in such systems. 

Ionization. Kendall has called attention to 
the fact that such compound formation al- 
ways appears to precede ionization. Other in- 
vestigators appear to regard the formation of 
charged ions in a solution as merely the action 
of the solvent on the solute. The ionization of 
weak electrolytes has been shown to follow the 
law of mass action by Ostwald and other work- 
ers. Recent work has cast increasing doubt on 
the value of conductivity measurement of ionic 
concentrations, and the Ostwald dilution law is 
regarded as approximate rather than as a rigor- 
ous expression of fact. Strong electrolytes do 
not follow this law. Many physical chemists, 
such as Noyes, Ghosh, Lewis, and others, have 
come to regard strong electrolytes as wholly 


¥ 


CHEMISTRY 


ionized, so that the molecular species has en- 
tirely disappeared. So far the controversey has 
not been settled. The simple ionic theory that 
Arrhenius thought would solve all our difficul- 
ties in the field of solutions is thus seen to have 
given rise to more and more complications. An 
American physical chemist, Kraus, has shown 
that ordinary metallic conduction by the move- 
ment of unattached electrons and electrolytic 
conduction by the movement of charged ions 
may occur simultaneously Such conditions do 
exist, for instance, in solutions of metallic so- 
dium in liquid ammonia. 

Electrolytic Solution. Pressure. In_ the 
phenomena of oxidation and reduction, Ostwald 
has shown definitely that there is the same elec- 
tronic transfer as in the deposition of one equiv- 
alent of a metal on a cathode. He formulated 
a very interesting theory of the electrical re- 
lations between metals and their ions, called 
the electrical solution pressure theory. He and 
other investigators have shown that very def- 
inite electrical potentials exist between metals 
and the concentrations of their ions. Likewise 
definite potentials exist between oxidized and 
reduced forms of the same ion in solutions. 
Conant and others have shown that in the same 
way quite definite potentials exist between ox- 
idized and reduced forms of organic compounds, 
and that these potentials follow physical chem- 
ical laws even though the phenomena of ioniza- 
tion seem to be absent or exceedingly slight. 
Sanford has called in question the whole elec- 
trolytic solution pressure theory. He shows 
that the pressures calculated ought to make 
many metals explode in the presence of a trace 
of water, whereas they do not. Sanford also 
showed that the potential between a metal and 
a solution appears to be a function of the di 
electric constant. Substances which raise the 
dielectric constant, such’ as alcohol, increase the 
electromotive force, whereas substances which 
decrease it, like urea, decrease the electromotive 
force. 

Importance of Hydrogen-ion Concentra- 
tion. One fact seems to tower above all this 
work on solutions of the years 1914-24; this is 
the importance in all such chemical reactions 
of the concentration of hydrogen-ion present. 
This has become apparent in the most diverse 
systems, from the purification of water to the 
suppression of malignant bacteria in the small 
intestine. Gas reactions, as the simplest sys- 
tems available for chemical study, have re- 
ceived much attention from physical chemists. 
The results have been strikingly good. 

Ionization, and Resonance Potentials. As 
chemical reactions bring about the exchange of 
rearrangement of electrons, the necessary force 
to remove an electron from an atom, to either 
a short distance or a great, becomes of high 
importance in the study of gas reactions. Many 
of these potentials have been studied attentively. 
For the hydrogen molecule. no less than eight 
such potentials have been observed and can be 
explained. Other molecules show even greater 
complexity. 

Radiation Theory of Reaction Velocity. 
The kinetic theory failed lamentably to ex- 
plain the enormous change of reaction rate with 
change of temperature. The attempt has been 
made by Lewis,. Langmuir, Dushmann, and 
others to show that S in the relativity equation 


K=SL-—% ean be taken as a radiation fre- 


quency. Dushmann and Lewis have worked out 


279 


CHEMISTRY 


radiation equations for gaseous reactions which 
agree fairly well with experimental data. This 
would bring chemical changes into line with 
the general reasoning of the important rela- 
tivity theory. 

The Principle of Le Chatelier. This is one 
of the most important generalizations in nat- 
ural science. It depends on the Second Law of 
Thermodynamics and so is universal in its ap- 
plication. It may be stated thus: when a 
factor determining the equilibrium of a system 
is altered, the system readjusts itself to oppose 
and annul the alteration in the factor. For 
example, consider the case of a gas occupying a 
certain volume at a given pressure and tempera- 
ture. Suppose the pressure is increased. The 
volume is therefore decreased. By Le Chat- 
elier’s principle, the system should do something 
to oppose this volume decrease. It does so by 
rising in temperature, for a rise in temperature 
tends to increase the volume, that is, to oppose 
the decrease in volume, This principle governs, 
therefore, the reactions of all sorts of systems 
to a change in equilibrium. i 

The Van’t Hoff Isochore. This is simply 
the application of the Le Chatelier principle to 
the change of equilibrium constant with the 
temperature. It states that the rate of change 
of this constant in relation to the change in the 
temperature is the decrease in total energy di- 
vided by the gas constant multiplied by the 
square of the temperature. This equation is 
of fundamental importance in studying the 
equilibrium conditions at widely differing tem- 
peratures. 

Nernst’s Distribution Law. This law gov- 
erns the distribution of a substance between two 
immiscible solvents. It states that the ratios 
of the concentrations in the two solvents will 
always be the same. That is, if a greater or 
smaller amount of solute be added, it will al- 
ways distribute itself between the two phases, 
so that the constant ratio be maintained. This 
refers only to the molecular species, as ioniza- 
tion of most substances occurs markedly only in 
the water phase. In this way, the molecular 
and ionized species of electrolytes can be dis- 
tinguished. 

Chemical Affinity. This is measured by the 
maximum external work done by the system in 
passing from the first uncombined state to the 
final combined state. Van’t Hoff has shown 
this to be equal to the logarithm of the equilib- 
rium constant multiplied by the absolute tem- 
perature by the gas constant. This mathemat- 
ical expression enables us to calculate the af- 
finity of anhydrous salts for water of crystalliza- 
tion, the affinity of oxygen for metals, or the 
affinity of carbon dioxide for lime. 

Nernst’s Heat Theorem. This important 
generalization has come to be called the third 
law of thermodynamics. In time it will come 
to have as important a bearing on chemical 
equilibrium as the first and second laws. 
Nernst made the assumption that at the abso- 
lute zero and for short distances above it, the 
change in free energy, dA, is equal to the change 
in heat evolved, dU. If this be true, Nernst 
showed that the following equation was true: 


A=U.—B T2 5 TS). 


A ig the free energy of the reaction, U, is the 
heat evolved when the reaction occurs at ab- 
solute zero, and T is the absolute temperature. 
B, y. ete., are appropriate constants varying for 


CHEMIN DES DAMES 


each. system. This can be generally condensed 
to the simplest form: A=U,—f§ T2.. This 
equation can be used to caleulate the transition 
temperatures of allotropic elements, the tem- 
peratures of fusion of single substances, ete. 
Haber made extensive use of it in his study of 
the reactions between molecular hydrogen and 
molecular nitrogen to form ammonia. Thus we 
see the marriage of the most abstruse mathemat- 
ical reasoning with the fundamental expe- 
riments in chemical syntheses which has become 
more and more the symbol of modern scientific 
research. 


CHEMIN DES DAMES. See WAgz IN 
EUROPE, Western Front. 
CHENEY, SuHELDoN WARREN (1886 ie 


An American author born at Berkeley, Cal., 
who founded the Theatre Arts Magazine in 1916 
and edited it. until 1921. He was associated 
with the Equity Players, 1922-23. His most 
important recent books on the theatre include 
The New Movement in the Theatre (1914), The 
Art Theatre (1917), The Open Air Theatre 
(1918), Modern Art and the Theatre (1921, and 
A Primer of Modern Art (1923). 

CHENOWETH, CATHERINE RICHARDSON 
(2 ). An American philanthropical work- 
er, born in New York. She was privately ed- 
ucated in France and for many years traveled 
in Europe, studying its history and_ people. 
She founded the Society of the Daughters of 
Holland Dames, and was a member of the Red 
Cross Society and a delegate to many inter- 
national meetings and conferences. She was a 
member of the Commission on Training Camp 
Activities of the War and Navy Departments 
in 1917, and was a delegate to the Eugenic 
Congress in 1921. 

CHERAU, Gaston (1872- ). A French 
writer, born at Niort (Deux-Sévres), France. 
He is the author of realistic novels in the man- 
ner of Flaubert, but his treatment, while char- 
acterized by the same minute observation, is 
less convincing than that of his model. His 
works have the atmosphere of Vendée. In 
Champi-Tortu (1906), he attempted a novel of 
childhood, but succeeded less. well than some of 
his contemporaries in creating a type. His 
works include: Les Grandes époques de M. Thé- 
bault, Essai de _ wpsychologie bourgeoise I 
(1902); La Saison balnéaire de M. Thébault, 
Essai de psychologie bourgeoise II (1902, 1919) ; 
Monseigneur voyage (1903, 1910); Le Part du 
few (1909); La Prison de verre (1911, 1912); 
Le Monstre (1913); L’Oiseau de proie (1913) ; 
Le Remous (sequel to the preceding novel, 
1914). 

CHERRY, CHARLES (1874- )i-~ Ag actor 
born in Greenwich, Kent, England. He made 
his début at 18 and played for several years in 
England with John Hare, then in the United 
States with Henrietta Crosman, Elsie de Wolfe 
and Mary Mannering and for five years with 
Maxine Elliott. He starred in: The Bachelor; 
The Spitfire; The Seven Sisters; Thy Neigh- 
bor’s Wife; Scandal (1920-21); The Tyranny 
of Love (1921). 

CHESAPEAKE AND DELAWARE CA- 
NAL. See CANALS. 

CHESS. See Sports. 

CHESTER, CoLtspy MITCHELL (1844- 3 
An American naval officer (see Vout. V). In 
1917, he became professor of naval science at 
Yale University, and was superintendent of the 
naval units of Yale and Brown Universities un- 


280 


CHESTER CONCESSION 


til April, 1919. He was president of the Inter- 
Ocean Engineering Company and_ negotiated 
concessions for the construction of railroads and 
the development of mines and oil wells in Tur 
key. See CInESTER CONCESSION. 

CHESTER, GrorGeE RANDOLPH (1869-1924). 
An American writer (see Vor. V). In col- 
laboration with his wife, Lillian De Rimo 
Chester, he wrote: The Ball of Fire (1914); 
Cordelia Blossom (1914); Runaway June 
(1915); The Enemy (1915); and a dramatiza- 
tion of Cordelia Blossom (1914). He was a fre- 
quent contributor to the Saturday Evening Post. 

CHESTER CONCESSION. A _ concession 
for the construction of 2800 miles of railways; 
and for the exploitation of mineral resources in 
Anatolia, granted to an American syndicate, 
the Ottoman-American Development Company, 
headed by Rear-Admiral Colby M. Chester (re- 
tired) (q.v.) on Apr. 10, 1923, by the Angora 
(Turkish) government. The railroad grant ap- 
plied to an extension of the old Anatolian Rail- 
way from Angora to Sivas, with a branch to the 
port of Samsun on the Black Sea; a line from 
Sivas to Erzerum and thence on to the Persian 
and Russian frontiers, with branches to the 
Black Sea ports of Tireboli and Trebizond; a 
line from Oulu Kishla on the Bagdad Railway 
to Sivas via Kaisarieh; a trans-Armenian rail- 
way from Sivas to Kharput and thence to Mo- 
sul with branches to Bitlis and Van; and a 
railway from Kharput to Youmourtalik, a port 
on the Gulf of Alexandretta. As an induce- 
ment toward the carrying out of the work, the 
American promoters were granted the right to 
exploit all the mineral resources, including oil, 
lying within a 20-kilometer zone on each side of 
the railway lines, as well as the privilege of 
carrying on such subsidiary activities as the 
laying of pipe lines, the utilization of water 
power for construction, and the building of 
port and terminal facilities on the Black Sea 
and the Gulf of Alexandretta. The Company 
might utilize the resources of the public lands, 
including sand pits, gravel pits, quarries, and 
timber, without compensation and was granted 
exemption from taxation. Economically, | the 
concession meant the right to exploit some of 
the richest oil fields in the world—those of 
Erzerum, Bitlis, Van, and Mosul—and the de- 
velopment of the mineral resources of Armenia. 
It was an award of the first importance and 
marked the introduction of American capital 
for the first time on a large scale into the 
Near East. Whether it was to have political 
implications, as did the Bagdad Railway conces- 
sion (q.v.), it was too early to say, though it 
is significant that the French Foreign Office, on 
behalf of its nationals with whose claims the 
Chester grant conflicted, despatched a note to 
the Angora government in which it characterized 
the whole procedure as being deliberately un- 
friendly. Moreover, the oil-exploitation rights 
in the Mosul district granted to the Chester 
concern conflicted ‘with the claims of the 
British-controlled Turkish Petroleum Company. 
In 1923, the Angora Assembly abruptly de- 
clared that the concession had lapsed, owing to 
failure of the concessionaires to fulfill in the 
allotted time certain conditions of the grant; 
but Mr. Clayton Kennedy, as the representative 
of the syndicate, went to Angora in person and, 
it was reported in 1924, succeeded in reopen- 
ing the question. It was estimated by pro- 
moters that $300,000,000 would be needed to 


CHESTERTON 281 


carry the plan through, and, while it might 
involve some risks for the capital invested, the 
returns, directly and indirectly, would be im- 
measurable. 

CHESTERTON, Girsert Keitn (1874- i). 
An English author (see Vor. V). He made a 
lecture tour of the United States in 1921. His 
works since 1914 include: The Flying Inn 
(1914); The Wisdom of Father Brown (1914, 
1921); Poems (1915); The Orimes of England 
(1915); A Shilling for My Thoughts (1916) ; 
A Short History of England (1917); Irish Im- 
pressions (1919); The Superstition of Divorce 
(1920); The New Jerusalem (1920); The Uses 
of Diversity (1921); The Hvils of Eugenics 
(1922); What I Saw in America (1922): The 
Ballad of St. Barbara, and Other Verses (1922); 
The Man Who Knew too Much, and Other 
Stories (1922). 

CHESTNUT BLIGHT. See PLANTS, Dis- 
EASES OF. 

CHEVALIER, Apert (1861- ). An 
actor and dramatic author (See Vor. V). 
In 1916, in London, Mr. Chevalier played Ec- 
eles in Caste. His best recent characterization 
was Joe Brown in My Old Dutch, a production 
which he wrote with Arthur Shirley in 1916 
and with which he toured repeatedly, from 1916 
to 1920. He also wrote a book of reminiscences, 
Before I Forget. 

CHEVRILLON, <Awnpre_ (1864- oA 
French writer, a nephew of Taine, who chose 
England and the Orient as objects of study. 
He was born at Ruelle (Charente), and edu- 

-eated at the University College School (Lon- 
don), the Ecole Alsacienne (Paris), the Lycée 
Louis-le-Grand, and the University of Paris. 
He was professor of English at the Ecole Navale 
of Brest in 1887-88, and from 1889 to 1894 was 


maitre de conférences at the Faculty of Letters: 


of the University of Lille. He was with the 
British army at the front during the War, and 
afterward (1921) was received in the French 
Academy. His writings fall into two distinct 
classes: impressions of travel, and critical es- 
says on England and English literature. Be- 
sides many articles in the Revue de Paris and 
the Revue des deux mondes his works include: 
Dans VInde (1891; English translation, Roman- 
tic India); Sydney Smith et la renaissance des 
idées libérales en Angleterre au 19e siécle 
(thesis, 1894); TYerres mortes (1897); Etudes 
anglaises (1901) ; Un Crépuscule d@’Islam (1906) ; 
Nouvelles études anglaises (1910); L’Angle- 
terre et la guerre (1917; English translation, 
Britain and the War, with a preface by Rud- 
yard Kipling); Prés des combattants (1919) ; 
Marrakech dans les palmes (1920); Les Améri- 
cains a@ Brest (1920); Trois études de littéra- 
ture anglaise (Kipling, Shakespeare, Gals- 
worthy) (1921; English translation, 1923). 

CHICAGO. The second city of the United 
States and the railroad centre of the West. 
The population rose from 2,189,520 in 1910 to 
2,701,705 in 1920, an increase of approximately 
23 per cent. The negro population of the city 
increased 155 per cent, from 44,103 in 1910 to 
112,536 in 1920. The total population accord- 
ing to the estimate of the Bureau of the Census 
for 1923 was 2,886,121. 

The process of developing the city according to 
the plan laid out at the beginning of the cen- 
tury continued. In the ten years between 1909 
and 1920 twelve major city planning improve- 
ments were got under way. The estimated cost 


CHICAGO 


of the improvements totaled $230,000,000 includ- 
ing bonds voted to the amount of $61.500,000, 
and $8,000,000 of special assessments on prop- 
erty directly benefited and $162,000,000 to be 
provided by the railroads for electrification and 
the improvement of the terminals. The Roose- 
velt Road improvement was completed from Ash- 
land Avenue to Michigan Avenue; the street 
was widened for two miles of its length from 
66 to 108 feet, at a total cost of $4,500,000. 
Michigan Avenue, which was 130 feet wide 
from Roosevelt Road to Randolph Street, was 
widened to 130 feet its entire length to the 
river, and carried on in a straight line via 
a new drawbridge supplanting the narrow Rush 
Street bridge, into Lake Shore Drive, north 
of the river. The Bridge and approaches were 
built on two levels. The cost of this improve- 
ment was $13,115,558, of which amount about 
$8,000,000 was for the bridge. The south shore 
lake front development was rapidly approaching 
completion in 1924. It comprised the widening 
of several south side streets and their extension 
northward to connect with a projected outer 
boulevard; and the construction of an enclosed 


lagoon extending from Grant to Jackson Parks, . | 


and an athletic stadium seating 65,000 south of 
the Field Museum. South Water Street, the 
traditional food and produce market along the 
river front, was in process of condemnation and 
vacation, to be converted into a _ cross-town 
boulevard from the new Michigan Avenue bridge 
westward, to be called Wacker Drive in honor of 
the chairman of the Plan Commission, Charles 
E. Wacker. Union Station was built in 1923-4 
at a cost of $65,000,000. The rooms actually 
used for the trains were surmounted by a large 
office building. The Illinois Central station was 
under construction in 1924. In 1921 a zoning 
commission was appointed, headed by the city 
commissioner of buildings. Two years later 
the city adopted four classes of use and five 
of volume districts; the latter type was a com- 
bination of the more usual height and area dis- 
tricts. The commission attempted in 1923 to 
arrange to plan the whole metropolitan area 
about Chicago, including a number of smaller 
cities in Illinois and Indiana. A municipal pier 
was completed in 1916 with a total length of 
3000 feet, width of 292 feet, and 8500 feet dock- 
age. At the shore end of the pier is the head 
house containing the administrative offices. 
Railroad tracks and warehouses for convenience 
of shipping, and trolley tracks extended the 
length of the pier to a large pavilion on the 
outer end. This building, which is for free pub- 
lic use, contains a dance hall, refectory, chil- 
dren’s amusement rooms, lavatories and rest 
rooms. A great festival hall covers nearly the 
whole width of the pier. From the pavilion 
concrete terraces lead down to an open plaza 
extending to the end of the pier. The year 
following the completion of the dock it was 
found to be necessary to protect it from heavy 
weather on the lake. The city accordingly built 
a rock-filled pile breakwater 2350 feet long to 
the south of the pier, and extended the govern- 
ment breakwater that partially sheltered it on 
the north and east. These jetties net only 
served to protect the pier, but were so built that 
they could be used as the dock walls of other 
piers, and could be extended as required when 
additional commerce made such action necessary. 

The city parks also were extended, increasing 
from 40 in 1914 to 195 in 1920 and 200 in 1924, 


' time before the accident. 


CHICAGO CIVIC OPERA 


Over 200 acres were added to Lincoln Park on 
the north, made by filling in the Lake Michi- 
gan shore. The project cost $1,875,000, but the 
land so made was estimated to be worth fifteen 
million dollars. It embraced a yacht harbor, 
lagoon, bathing beaches, picnic grounds, play- 
grounds and a golf course. In Grant park at 
the southern end, the Field Natural History 
Museum was built as the first step in the de- 
velopment of this space as an educational centre. 
It was built of marble on made land, covered 
an area 700 by 350 feet, and cost $6,000,000. 
The Chicago Zodlogical Park was being organ- 
ized in 1923 on a 300 acre tract given by Mrs. 
Edith Rockefeller McCormick, but the voters in 
1923 rejected a referendum on a special tax 
therefor. 

In 1920 the city voted to increase the number 
of city wards from 35 to 50, but to reduce ward 
representation on the city council from two to 
one, thus cutting the council membership from 
70 to 50, 

The foundering of the excursion steamer 
Eastland in 1915 in the Chieago River cost 812 
lives. The vessel had been declared unsafe some 
She lacked stability, 
and, being overloaded and unevenly ballasted, 
she snapped the hawsers that held her to the 
dock and turned over. Most of those killed were 
imprisoned within the hull. 

Rioting that lasted seven days broke out in 
1919 between whites and negroes on one of the 
bathing beaches where the negro section of the 
city joined the white. Thirty-eight persons 
were killed, of whom 15 were white and 23 
negroes; 537 were injured, of whom 178 were 
white and 359 negroes. Many houses were 
burned and a thousand negroes made homeless. 
See City PLANNING; RAPID TRANSIT. 

CHICAGO CIVIC OPERA COMPANY. 
See Music, Opera. 

CHICAGO FIELD MUSEUM. See ExXPLo- 
RATION. 

CHICAGO OPERA ASSOCIATION. See 
Music, Opera. 

CHICAGO SANITARY DISTRICT. See 
SEWAGE AND SEWAGE TREATMENT. 

CHICAGO SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA. 
See Music, Orchestras. 

CHICAGO, University or. A coeducational 
institution at Chicago, Ill., founded in 1891 
largely through gifts of John D. Rockefeller, al- 
though additional millions of contributions to its 
resources had been made after the last of his 
gifts were received. The enrollment of students 
began with 744 in the year 1892-93 and in- 
creased to 7781 in the year 1914-15. The en- 
rollment for 1922-23 was 12,748. The fore- 
going enrollment is exclusive of the students in 
the correspondence study department (6658 in 
1921-22), and exclusive also of the. pupils en- 
rolled in the laboratory schools of the School of 
Education. The number of members in the 
several faculties increased from 274 in 1914-15 
to 401 in 1922-23, this number including mem- 
bers of the teaching staff of rank above assist- 
ant. The bound volumes in the university 
libraries increased in number from 458,616 in 
1914-15 to 670,749 in 1922-23; in addition, it 
was estimated that there were available 250,000 
pamphlets. The productive funds increased, be- 
tween the years 1914-15 and 1922-23, from 
$18,598,275 to $32,268,885; and the annual in- 
come from $1,693,814 to $3,317,762. Mr. Rocke- 
feller’s total gifts to the university amounted to 


‘assistant professor 


282 CHILD LABOR 


$34,873,360.90, including that for $10,000,000 
which he designated as his “final gift.” Other 
contributions in buildings and funds for en- 
dowment brought the total assets of the univer- 
sity in 1924 to more than $60,000,000. The 
trustees had designated $1,500,000 for the erec- 
tion of a chapel in accordance with the donor’s 
wishes, but this work was delayed by the War 
and excessive building costs. The Divinity 
School received an anonymous gift of $200,000 
in 1916 for buildings, an amount subsequently 
augmented by $150,000, the several gifts to be 
used for a theology building and a chapel. Va- 
rious medical institutions in Chicago, including 
two hospitals and organizations intended for 
medical research, were affiliated with the uni- 
versity after funds to the extent of $5,300,000 
had been secured for enlarging the medical 
schools of the university. Of this $5,300,000, 
$1,000,000 was contributed to found the Albert 
Merritt Billings Hospital, for which plans were 
prepared, as also were plans for the university 
chapel. In 1918, Mr. LaVerne Noyes deeded 
property to the university estimated to be worth 
a million and a half, to constitute the LaVerne 
Noyes Foundation. The income from this 
foundation was to be used to pay tuition fees 
for deserving students who served in the army 
or navy of the United States in the War, or 
their descendants. Ernest DeWitt Burton suc- 
ceeded Harry Pratt Judson as president in 1923. 

CHILD, CHARLES MANNING (1869- ij 
An American zoélogist born at Ypsilanti, Mich. 
He was educated at Wesleyan University 
(Ph.B. 1890, M. S. 1892), and eat the Univer- 
sity of Leipzig (Ph.D. 1894). He was as- 
sistant in biology at Wesleyan University 
(1890-92) ; and assistant in zodlogy (1895-96), 
associate (1896-98), instructor (1898-1905), 
(1905-09), .associate pro- 
fessor (1909-16), professor (1916— ) at the 
University of Chicago. Besides numerous ar- 
tictes in zodlogical journals he published Sen- 
escence and Rejuvenescence (1915); Individual- 
ity in Organisms (1915); Origin and Develop- 
ment of the Nervous System (1921). 

CHILD, RicHarp WASHBURN (188]- ie 
An American author and diplomat, born at 
Worcester, Mass., and educated at Harvard 
University. He was engaged in the practice of 
law during the period 1906-17. In 1917-18, he 
was employed in the United States Treasury 
on problems of war finance. In 1919, he be- 
came editor of Collier’s Weekly. In 1921, he 
became American Ambassador Extraordinary 
and Plenipotentiary to Italy. He wrote the fol- 
lowing books: Jim Hands (1910); The Man in 
the Shadow (1911); The Blue Wall (1912); 
Potential Russia (1916); Vanishing Man 
(1919); Velvet Black (1920); The Hands of 
Nara (1921). 

CHILD LABOR. The most prominent fea- 
tures of the child labor situation in the United 
States from 1914 to 1924 were the temporary 
but marked increase in the number of child 
workers, which reached its peak in 1918, and, 
the persistent but unsuccessful efforts to bring 
the matter under Federal control. During the 
War, the attraction of high wages and the pinch 
of the high cost of living caused many children 
to seek employment; at the same time the 
scarcity of labor and the urgent need of workers 
had a tendency to weaken the enforcement of 
restrictive laws. In Connecticut, New Hamp- 
shire, and Vermont, for example, provision was 


CHILD LABOR ~ 


made for the suspension of any labor law, should 
the need arise; New York and California pro- 
vided for the shortening of the compulsory 
school years; in Dallas, Tex., the compulsory 
clause of the education law was suspended for a 
time. As a result of the generally weakened 
restriction and enforcement, irregularity in 
school attendance was marked, an unusual num- 
ber of work permits were issued, a tendency to 
leave school at an earlier age than usual was no- 
ticed, and in industry a conspicuous trend back- 
ward to the 9-, 10- and 11-hour day was mani- 
fested. Although not without its advances in 
child labor legislation, the period was marked 
mainly by efforts to prevent suspension of exist- 
ing laws and to bring the problem under Fed- 
eral jurisdiction. The economic depression which 
followed the War gave impetus to a movement 
back to the schools in the late summer of 1920, 
and this, together with a systematic propa- 
ganda as to the advantages of education, went 
a long way toward restoring pre-war conditions. 
In 1922, with the return of better times, 
and, doubtless in some measure because of the 
quashing of the Federal Child Labor Tax Law, 
the number of children taking out their first 
work permits began to mount again, and strik- 
ingly large increases were reported in the first 
six months of 1923. 

Statistics. According to the census figures, 
there was a considerable decrease between 1910 
and 1920, the first in 40 years, not only in the 
total number of children at work, but also in 
the numbers employed in each of the principal 
general occupational groups. As compared with 
an increase of 15.5 per cent in the child popu- 
lation 10 to 15 years of age, inclusive, the num- 
ber of children gainfully employed decreased 
almost half, or 46.7 per cent from 1,990,225 
in 1910 to 1,060,858 in 1920. In the propor- 
tion, also, of all children of these ages who are 
gainfully employed, a corresponding decrease 
was shown, from 18.4 per cent in 1910 to,8.5 
per cent in 1920. The decline in both actual 
numbers and proportion employed is most 
striking in connection with agricultural pur- 
suits, in which the numbers decreased 54.8 per 
cent (1,432,428 to 647,309), or from 72 per cent 
to 61 per cent of the total number of children 
gainfully employed. Marked decreases are 
shown also for the mining occupations (60.2 per 
cent, 18,090 to 7191), domestic service (519 per 
cent—112,157 to 54,006), and manufacturing and 
mechanical industries (29 per cent, 260,944 to 
185,337). In clerical occupations the number 
employed increased from 71,001 to 80,140 or 12.9 
per cent. 

According to the interpretation of the Census 
Bureau, the decrease in the number and pro- 
portion of children employed between the two 
census periods is at least in part due to differ- 
ences in the time or the method of enumeration. 
The principal factor in this reduction of child 
labor reported in 1920 is believed to be the 
change in census date from spring, April 15 in 
1910, to midwinter, January 1 in 1920, which 
undoubtedly resulted in a smaller number of 
children being returned by the census enumera- 
tors as engaged in farm work and perhaps other 
seasonal occupations than would have been re- 
turned if the census had been taken in April 
as in 1910. The statistics of employment in the 
nonagricultural occupations are not, however, 
influenced by this factor. The decrease of 26 
per cent in the number of child workers in these 


283 


CHILD LABOR 


occupational groups as contrasted with a 20 
per cent increase in the total number of persons 
so employed may therefore safely be attributed 
to conditions affecting directly and especially 
the labor of children, chief among which are the 
enactment or strengthening of legal regulations. 

It should be remembered that the census did 
not report the number of child laborers under 
10 years of age, of whom many were known to 
be at work in agricultural pursuits, street 
trades, tenement homework, domestic service, 
and canneries, and that no account is taken of 
child laborers who do not miss more than half 
of their school attendance or of those employed 
only during the summer vacation. Considering 
these facts and also that the Federal Child 
Labor Revenue Act, which was in effect in 1920, 
was afterward annulled, the figure for 1920 was 
considered as representing an underestimate of 
the extent of child labor in 1924. It is worth 
noting that more than one-third of the 1,060,858 
child workers in 1920 were under 14, the legal 
age for factory employment in 45 States. The 
failure of the State child labor laws to prevent 
this widespread employment of children was at- 
tributed not altogether to low standards but in 
great part to the numerous exemptions _per- 
mitted by many of the State laws and to inade- 
quate enforcement of their provisions. 

Federal Legislation. A strong argument in 
favor of Federal restriction of child labor was 
the need for uniformity of legislation. The dis- 
advantage in industrial competition suffered by 
those States having restrictive laws was no en- 
couragement to legislation in other States. 
From 1914 to 1924, efforts to establish Federal 
control] were continuous, if unsuccessful. A bill 
to this effect introduced in 1914, after passing 
the House early in 1915, was prevented by the 
filibuster of the Senator from North Carolina 
from passing the Senate before adjournment. 
Early in 1916 the Keating-Owen bill succeeded 
in passing both houses and became effective 
Sept. 1, 1917. This law, enacted under the 
interstate commerce clause, prohibited the ship- 
ment in interstate commerce, within 30 days 
after production, of any goods produced by 
children under ages specified for certain indus- 
tries or by children working longer hours than 
were specified. Its constitutionality was _ at- 
tacked almost immediately in North Carolina, 
and on appeal to the Supreme Court of the 
United States it was declared invalid in June, 
1918, on the ground that it interfered with the 
powers reserved to States under the 10th amend- 
ment and transcended the power of Congress 
over interstate commerce. Almost at once an- 
other act was passed by Congress, receiving the 
presidential signature in February, 1919. In an 
attempt to meet the situation, the law was 
shifted from the interstate commerce clause te 
the broad field of taxation, and a 10 per cent 
tax was imposed on the net profits of any mine 
or industry in which child labor was employed. 
It was short-lived in its effect. Before the end 
of 1919 it had been declared unconstitutional 
in the courts of North Carolina; in 1922 it was 
condemned by the Supreme Court of the United 
States. According to the unanimous opinion 
of the Supreme Court, the law was invalid, since 
it attempted to regulate through the taxing 
power of Congress a matter entirely within the 
jurisdiction of the various States; and the de- 
cision attacked the idea of taxing as a penalty 
instead of as a means of revenue. In the latter 


CHILD LABOR 


part of 1923, following memorials to Congress 
from a number of States, a constitutional amend- 
ment was introduced, to permit Federal child 
labor legislation. The resolution provided for 
an amendment granting Congress power to limit, 
regulate and prohibit the labor of persons un- 
der 18 years of age; the power of the several 
States would thus remain unimpaired except that 
the operation of State laws was to be suspended 
to the extent necessary to give effect to legisla- 
tion enacted by Congress. It passed the House 
in April, 1924, and the Senate on June 2, 1924. 
It was then sent to the several States for rati- 
fication. Notwithstanding the delay in securing 
effective Federal control, the period was marked 
by progress in the centralization and standardiza- 
tion of efforts toward child labor regulation. 
The National Child Labor Committee, largely 
through whose efforts the United States Chil- 
dren’s Bureau was established in 1912, did much 
by its investigations and publicity campaigns 
to ereate and encourage public sentiment in 
favor of restriction; and by its aid to various 
State commissions in drafting bills, and in con- 
structive measures, made for some uniformity. 

State Legislation. Meanwhile, through the 
legislation of the States, the movement made 
gradual, though uneven, progress. Child labor 
legislation in 1914 stood thus: Every State 
but New Mexico had passed laws relating to 
child labor or compulsory school attendance; 
34 States and the District of Columbia had 14 
year age limits for children in factories; 32 
States and the District of Columbia prohibited 
night work for children under 16; 16 States and 
the District of Columbia limited the working 
day of children under 16 to 8 hours; night mes- 
senger service was regulated by special laws in 
17 States; 7 closed it to persons under 18, while 
California prohibited all night employment for 
persons under 18; 26 States had strengthened 
the requirements concerning work permits so 
that there was reasonable assurance that a child 
under legal age would not receive one; inspec- 
tion of child labor had been established and 
made more efficient in every State but six; cer- 
tain forms of child labor previously unregulated 
were recognized as harmful and included in 
child labor laws, New York laws including 
tenement home work by children under 14; the 
age of children in street trades was regulated in 
12 States and 8 cities, besides the District of 
Columbia. 

By 1924, 18 of the 48 States had equalled or 
surpassed the moderate requirements of the Fed- 
eral Child Labor Tax Law. The National Child 
Labor Committee thus outlined the general sit- 
uation in that year: limitation of child labor 
by requiring an educational qualification was in 
force in 38 States, although only 30 required 
the completion of a specified grade, and only 12 
required the completion of the 8th grade. In 
46 States the minimum working age for boys and 
girls in factories, also in stores and canneries 
in many cases, was 14 years or higher; 1 State 
fixed the limit at 12 for boys and at 14 for 
girls; 1 State had no age minimum. Night 
work for children was prohibited under the age 
of 16 in 38 States; 5 States had a similar 
law, but with exemptions for certain industries; 
1 State prohibited night work for children un- 
der 14144; 4 States had no prohibition of night 
work for children under 16. The maximum 
working day for children under 16 was limited 
to 8 hours in 30 States; in 17 States such 


284 CHILD LABOR 


minors were permitted to work 9, 10, or 11 
hours daily; 1 State did not regulate the work- 
ing day in any way. Working in mines and 
quarries was forbidden for children under 16 
in 26 States; in 7 States such minors were 
prohibited from working in mines but not in 
quarries. In only 10 States were there State- 
wide laws for street work, although some re- 
striction on street trades was in force in 8 
other States. A certain physical requirement 
for the issuance of regular employment certif- 
icates was fixed by law in 30 States, in 22 
of which an examination by a physician was 
compulsory. A new method to discourage eva- 
sion of the law was found in providing for 
double compensation allowances, under the 
Workmen’s Compensation Act, to illegally em- 
ployed minors when injured. Practically all 
direct restriction of child labor, however, ap- 
plied only to factories, stores, and mines. Com- 
pulsory school attendance laws were the only 
means of keeping children’ out of other wage- 
earning activities. In 1922, every State had 
some kind of compulsory attendance law; 2 
States required full-time schooling up to 16 for 
all children; 26 required attendance up to 16 
and in some cases to 17 or 18, although usually 
exempting those over 14 to go to work; and 26 
States required employed children, in some 
States up to 18 years of age, to attend ’'part- 
time continuation schools. (See EpucAaTIoN IN 
THE UNITED STATES.) 

The employment of children in agricultural 
occupations was not given much serious consid- 
eration until 1918; most State child labor laws, 
in fact, specifically exempted such work, and 
usually domestic service also, from their provi- 
sions. Investigations carried on after that year, 
by the National Child Labor Committee, in cot- 
ton picking, sugar ‘beet growing, and other 
forms of commercialized agriculture, revealed 
that some regulation of age and hours was 
needed, not only to check loss of schooling but 
to safeguard children from the heavier kinds 
of farm work. Nebraska, recognizing this neces- 
sity, specifically provided in its child labor law 
for children working in the beet fields. An- 
other difficulty in the rural situation which was 
being given serious consideration was the case 
of children of migratory farm laborers. Such 
children were beyond the reach of compulsory 
education laws, either in their home locality or 
the district where they went to work. Cali- 
fornia made an attempt to solve the problem in 
1921 with a law making it the duty of the 
State superintendent of education to organize 
and maintain special classes for the education 
of children of migratory laborers in rural dis- 
tricts; and in 1924 a survey of the migratory 
labor situation was in progress in that State. 
Industrial homework was another phase against 
which little effective legislation had been di- 
rected. In New York in 1923, in 2169 families, 
535 children between 10 and 16 were regular 
workers, 79 per cent of them under 14 and 
35 per cent under 10. In the opinion of some, 
much was to be accomplished by making the em- 
ployer responsible for such illegal employment 
of children; others held that the only remedy 
was complete prohibition of industrial home- 
work. 

Other Countries. 
the War on child labor were far greater than in 
the United States. Great Britain, to meet the 
situation, passed the Fisher Education Act in 


In Europe the effects of 


‘ae * 


he 


> 
' 


CHILDREN’S BUREAU 


1918, regulating for the first time the employ- 
ment of children in all gainful occupations, in- 
cluding agriculture and domestic service; pro- 
hibiting employment of children under 12; re- 
quiring compulsory full-time school attendance 
up to 14; and compulsory continuation school at- 
tendance up to 16. Similar measures were 
found necessary in the other European countries, 
where practically all restraints on child labor 
had been cast aside during the War. Belgium, 
in 1919, prohibited employment under the age 
of 13, and under 14 without certificate; fixed 
a 12-hour day with rest periods; and instituted 
an advanced programme of medical examina- 
tions for industrial workers at least once a year 
until 18. Russia adopted a 16-year limit for 
entrance to full-time employment and was de- 
veloping a complementary educational plan. Po- 
land set a minimum school attendance of seven 
years. Switzerland placed the minimum age of 
employment at 14 years and fixed the maximum 
of daily educational and occupational activity 
for those under 16 at 10 hours. Various draft 
conventions adopted at the International Labor 
Conferences under the League of Nations in 
1919, 1920, and 1921 affected children employed 
in industry, night work for children, children 
on vessels, and children in agriculture. The 
convention fixing a minimum age of 14 had been 
ratified, in 1924 by Czecho-Slovakia, Esthonia, 
Sweden, and Japan. See INTERNATIONAL LABOR 
OFFICE; LABoR LEGISLATION; LAW, PROGRESS 
oF, Police Power; Hours or LApor. 

CHILDREN’S BUREAU. See LABor OR- 
GANIZATION, INTERNATIONAL. 

CHILD WELFARE. In the decade closing 
with 1924, public interest in the problems of 
child welfare in the United States was not 
only increasingly active; it took on an increas- 
ingly scientific turn. Only one State had dealt 
with the health of children through a special 
bureau in 1912; in 1923 there were child health 
bureaus in 46 States. The practice of physical 
and dental examination in the public schools 
Was rapidly spreading. Special bureaus dealing 
With dependent, neglected, and delinquent chil- 
dren (see JUVENILE Courts), had been organ- 
ized in more than half the States by 1923; and 
about the same number of States had at that 
time created commissions to make comprehen- 
sive inquiries into all aspects of child welfare 
with a view to recodifying existing laws and 
determining what improvements were needed to 
bring the publie care of children up to standard. 
There was a steady growth in such efforts to 
provide wholesome recreation as the playground 
movement. The need for special education for 
the deaf and blind and for the physically and 
mentally handicapped was coming into general 
recognition. For dependent children, efforts 
were widened to obviate neglect and avoid the in- 
stitutional atmosphere by the creation of sys- 
tems of mothers’ pensions (q.v.), by placing 
children in private homes under supervision, 
and in some instances by building institutions 
on the cottage plan. Characteristic of the gen- 
eral tendency to strike through to the root of 
social evils with preventive measures was the 
increased attention given to children of preschool 
years Baby clinics and day nurseries to care 
for the children of working mothers increased in 
number; finally the preventive theory brought 
about the establishment of prenatal clinics to 
decrease infant mortality. (See MATERNITY 
Protection.) An outstanding development of 


285 


. CHILE 


the period was the growing realization that it 
was a duty of the State to protect the interests 
of children born out of wedlock. The movement 
advocated confidential records of birth, private 
proceedings to establish paternity, compulsory 
financial provision by the father, according to 
his economic condition; licensing and_ super- 
vision of child-placing and child-care institu- 
tions, assistance to unmarried mothers, making 
desertion of an illegitimate child an offense, and 
establishing legal right to the father’s name and 
the right of inheritance after an adjudication or 
acknowledgment of paternity. By 1924 the 
majority of the States had given to the child of 
illegitimate birth practically the status of a 
child of legitimate birth, with respect to the 
mother. The full legal relation of father to 
child had been established only in North Da- 
kota. A uniform State law on illegitimacy, de- 
signed, for one thing, to facilitate extradition 
for offenses of this sort, had been accepted by 
several States. 

In this period was done most of the work of 
the Children’s Bureau of the Department of 
Labor, which was founded in 1912 and was the 
first national organization of its kind in any 
country. It began with an inquiry into the sub- 
ject of infant mortality, and published reports 
on its findings and popular bulletins on proper 
infant and maternal care. Subsequently it car- 
ried on research and published much material 
on such subjects as child labor, juvenile delin- 
quency, and juvenile courts, illegitimacy as a 
problem in child welfare, and the so-called 
mothers’ pension laws. It also investigated the 
methods of child care in New Zealand, which 
had the lowest infant mortality rate of any 
country. The Bureau was given the adminis- 
tration of the first child labor act, which was in 
effect nine months before it was declared un- 
constitutional, and of the maternity and in- 
fancy act. (See MATERNITY PROTECTION.) 
From its foundation, it did much work in 
codperation with the national women’s organiza- 
tions. In 1916, through the General Federa- 
tion of Women’s Clubs, it inaugurated the Na- 
tional Baby Week campaigns, which expanded 
in 1918 under the stimulus of the War into the 
Children’s Year. All but two of the States 
eventually participated in the programme, which 
reached more than 16,500 cities, towns and vil- 
lages. A campaign for birth registration was 
also carried on by the Bureau and the Federa- 
tion, and by June, 1923, the birth-registration 
area included 30 States and the District of 
Columbia and affected 72.2 per cent of the 
population. See Cnizp Lagsor and EDUCATION 
IN THE UNITED STATES. 

CHILE. A South American republic extend- 
ing along the western or Pacific coast from 
Peru to the southern extremity of the continent. 
Its area is 292,414 square miles, and its popu- 
lation, by the census of Jan. 1, 1920, 3,754,723. 
This was a gain of 505,444 over the last official 
census, that of 1907, or an annual increase of 
1.2 per cent. The populations of the principal 
towns (1920 census) were Santiago, the capital, 
507,296; Valparaiso, 182,422; Concepcion, 64,- 
074; Iquique, 37,421; Talcahuano, 36,079; Chil- 
lan, 30,881; Antofagasta, 51,531. The move- 
ment of population continued toward the cities 
in 1920; 46.6. per cent was urban as compared 
with 38.6 per cent in 1895 and 43.3 per cent in 
1907. 


Agriculture. In 1922 the divisions of agri- 


CHILE 


cultural land comprised land capable of culti- 
vation or suitable for grazing, 51.1 per cent, 
outside of the Territory of Magallanes; natural 
forests, 23.9 per cent; waste land, 13 per cent; 
land capable of irrigation, 5 per cent; natural 
pastures in the Territory of Magallanes, 7 per 
cent. Cereal culture and the vine continued to 
engage the greatest attention. The following 


286. 


CHILE 


producing association were features of this trade. ° 
More than 3,000,000 tons accumulated with no 
buyers. The ensuing depression affected the 
whole country because of Chile’s dependence on 
its nitrate trade. Chilean pesos dropped from 
3 to the dollar to 11; more than four-fifths of the 
nitrate plants closed, and hard times were uni- 
versal, so that the government was compelled 


table indicates the tendency of the period. The to resort to unemployment doles. The market 

Principal Crops Area in Production in Metric Tons Exports in 

Acres Metric Tons 
1922-23 1913 1921 1922 1922 
When tild..calis@) io een ec. x 1,285,233 641,604 631,131 643,279 1,901 
Alfatia (1920) Oeil a a5 eo 2'9 be /s 134,303 332,492 SEZ BAA bx Diva heeoret nade sitet aadeees 
UE EN EAE. Ty Cite Ree 109,478 42,200 46,110 46,977 10,172 
PPOLAL OES ie see yas Pea tte wie tee 80,252 238,224 311,174 315,362 85 
Oats VSP OT Sth, fie beets ee 75.133 64,489 45,800 45,995 13,967 
Core Carbine ecto ayteivs & baht 70,315 41,835 42,799 45,134 438 


production of wine was 1,647,503 hectoliters in 
1921 as compared with 1,345,979 in 1911. The 
possibility of reaching the American market 
during the winter for fruits and vegetables led 
to a growing interest in horticulture and gar- 
dening after the War. The trend toward in- 
tensive agriculture manifested itself in the in- 
crease in dairy farming, though production by 
1923 did not yet suffice for local wants. In 
1919 livestock included 391,718 horses, 36,489 
asses, 51,411 mules, 2,163,141 cattle, 4,500,190 
sheep, 459.606 goats, and 292,431 pigs. These 
showed little change from the figures of 1912. 
The wool clip in 1919 amounted to 16,937 metric 
tons, and in 1921-22 it was 10,000 metric tons. 
The two subsequent years showed a recovery. 

Mining. In spite of the importance of agri- 
culture, mining is the greatest source of the 
country’s economic wealth. The copper industry 
increased in recent years, Chile advancing to the 
place of the world’s second largest producer. 
Iron ore deposits, placed at 1,000,000,000 tons, 
‘were found in the departments of Atacama and 


did not recover until the producers yielded to 
necessity in 1922-23, and cut prices materially. 
The year ending June 30, 1923, saw the sale 
of 2,000,000 tons of nitrate, and the year 1923- 
24, according to early forecasts, showed even 
larger sales. In the calendar year 1922, total 
mineral products exported were valued at $103,- 
052,760 dollars, a decline of $21,000,000 from 
the 1911 figures. . 
Manufacturing. In 1920 Chile had 2975 
manufacturing establishments using raw mate- 
rials to the value of 589,823,090 paper pesos; 
72,713 workmen were employed. Goods valued 
at 993,220,108 paper pesos were produced. 
Leading manufactured products were food sup- 
plies, gas and electric power, textiles, leather, 
furs, clothing, chemicals, paper, metal goods, al- 
cohol, lumber, and tobacco. In 1920-21 German 
capital was active once more, and German ship- 
ping became important, woolen mills, flour mills, 
and railway shops and other industrial estab- 
lishments increasing in the southern districts 
around Concepcion, Penco and Valdivia. 


IMPORTS EXPORTS 
Country 1913 1922 1913 1922 

United states® TR AME. ERR eR $20,089,159 $23,194,885 $30,413,385 $45,027,410 
Beleiumyey ser Ons Ware poker dee eee Genin: 5,671,426 2,776,706 5,674,669 2,372,770 
Germany ey Are taae | aoe apr e OR IU a es 29,578,138 12,079,429 30,772,742 7,994,210 
Greate britain! 7 Ara tae uc ., a cereds eam verona eer a ke 36,109,210 20,825,212 55,548,341 14,264,860 
Wranee?. (hes. See ane FTES Nees lee ee, a ot. ts 6,623,260 |. 4,333,130 8,847,885 4,296,770 
Othersp Hisense vere ah We aes et seers. cif 22,202,808 23,361,913 11,144,575 47,081.480 

ROL As 3: ero Se ae hart os LS COMIN ees ROTC Cee $120,274,001 $86,571,275 $142,801,577 $121,037,500 
Coquimbo. Besides, there were mines for gold, Commerce. Up to 1920, Chilean commerce 


silver, cobalt, manganese, coal, salt, borax, sul- 
phur, and other minerals. Nitrate of soda with 
its by-product, iodine, remained the most im- 
portant single mineral product and the chief 
article of commerce; its production steadily 
absorbed large blocks of capital. The follow- 
ing table indicates the production and export of 
nitrate for certain years. 


Year Production in Export in 

Metric Tons Metric 

Tons 
ORO S Beets Ieee a Se ee 2.465,415 2,335,941 
ISS WG 2S ba aed Be ee ep <1 1,755.291 2,023,294 
SDAA Oy ee 128 SN ll Re a 2,859.303 2,919,177 
VEL ESE pe aa ORES 6 8 1.703,240 803,961 
Sd RS § No Ree Seve bbs ea 1,311,036 1,193,062 
A epee ila). 2 ccf ett 1.903,527 2,257,158 


A break in the nitrate market followed in 
1921 and 1922 as a result of the fall of the 
farmers’ purchasing power the world over . The 
manipulations of a European buyers’ pool and a 


showed steady advancement except in 1915 and 
1916, but the depression that set in with 1920 
brought the trade record for 1922 below the pre- 
war level. Imports for 1913, 1920, and 1922 
were worth $120,274,001, $166,103,810, and $86,- 
571,275; exports for the same years were $142,- 
801,577, $284,293,108, and $121,037,500. The 
distribution of leading exports in 1922 as com- 
pared with 1913 was nitrate, 51 per cent and 
77 per cent; and copper, 29 per cent and 2 per 
cent. Frozen meat, wool, iodine, and truck 
produce represented from 14% to 3 per cent of 
the outgoing shipments in 1922. Textiles ac- 
counted for 18.6 per cent of 1922 imports as 
against 16.7 per cent in 1913; machinery 11.3 
per cent as against 7.4 per cent; petroleum, 6.6 
per cent as against 5.4 per cent in 1913. Im- 
ports which showed a heavy drop from 1913 to 
1922 were coal, lumber, automobiles, and ce- 


ment. The accompanying table indicates the dis- 


tribution of the trade by countries for 1913 
and: 1922, 


CHILE 


. The United States steadily forged to the 
front in Chilean trade during the War and was 
able to maintain its leading position afterward. 
In 1918 Chilean exports. to the United States 
equalled the combined values of all other coun- 
tries, while imports from the United States into 
Chile accounted for 46.6 per cent of the total. 
In 1922 American imports into Chile were 26 
per cent of the total, as compared with 16 per 
cent in 1913. Exports to the United States 
were 36.6 per cent in 1922 and 21.3 per cent in 
1913. Thus Great Britain was completely sup- 
planted. The maintenance of cordial commer- 
cial relations between Chile and the United 
States was due to the expansion of shipping 
facilities, the local establishment of American 
banks and credit information companies, invest- 
ments in Chilean mines and industries, and the 
completion of direct cable service. Shipping in 
1922 was far below the pre-war level but im- 
proved materially in 1923. Foreign vessels and 
tonnage entering Chilean ports in 1911 were 
14,698 vessels, of 26,164,068 tons, and in 1922, 
14,679 vessels, of 14,525,761 tons. By the law 
of 1922, coastwise trade was confined to ships 
of Chilean registry. In 1912, six American 
ships of 9000 tons entered Chilean ports; by 
1921 the figure was 455 ships of 1,250,000 tons. 

Communications. In 1922 there were 5288 
miles of railway, 2837 of them state owned, as 
compared with 2740 in 1911, with 1418 state 
owned. In 1921 work was begun on electrifica- 
tion of the line between Santiago and Val- 
paraiso and that between Llay-Llay and Los 
Andes, 233 miles in all; this was to be com- 
pleted in 1924. Though agitation was carried 
on for construction of the Chilean section of the 
Antofagasta (Chile)-Salta (Argentina) rail- 
road, no headway was made; this was due to a 
feeling prevalent in Chile that Argentina would 
receive most of the benefit from the line. The 
projected railway is 350 miles, 200 miles of 
which lhe in Chile. A railway loan of £5,000,- 
000 was floated in New York in 1921, and of 
the money spent, at least 90 per cent went to 
American manufacturers. 

Finance. 
the collection of 82,487,000 gold pesos and 319,- 
209,781 paper pesos in revenue. The 1912 fig- 
ures were 101,050,000 gold pesos and 189,200,- 
000 paper pesos. Expenditures in the 1924 
budget totaled 72,305,161 gold pesos and 366,- 
193,673 paper pesos; in 1912, expenditures ac- 
cording to the budget were 81,070,966 gold and 
280,894,118 paper pesos. In June, 1924, Pres- 
ident Alessandri declared that budget deficits 
carried since 1920 totaled 160,000,000 pesos. 
The public debt on Dec. 31, 1922, included an 
internal debt of 154,714,000 gold pesos and 250,- 
841,691 paper pesos; external debt made up of 
£28 ,672,352 sterling and guarantees amounting 
to £5,797,154, $33,141,694 and guarantees of 
$26,338,306, and guarantees amounting to 35,- 
378,000 paper pesos. The paper peso in 1914 
was worth, on an average, 5.50 to the dollar, 
and in 1918, 3.47; but in. 1921 the industrial 
depression lowered it to 8.29; in 1922 it was 
8.41; and the average for 1923 was 8.22, not- 
withstanding improved economic conditions. 

Education. Primary education was made 
compulsory in 1920, but. the figures for 1923 
show no great change from 1911. In the later 
year primary schools numbered 3099 (2896 in 
1911); enrolled pupils 369,423 in July, 1923 
(375,274 in 1911); and teachers, 9162 in 1920 


The budget for 1922 provided for - 


CHILE 


(4829 in 1911). Im 1921, 52,880 pupils were 
in secondary schools (20,329 in 1911). Two 
new universities were opened in 1920, the In- 
dustrial University at Valparaiso and the Uni- 
versity of Concepcion. Agricultural and voca- 
tional education received increasing attention. 

History. The known sympathies of a con- 
siderable element of the Chilean population for 
Germany in the War, through family, intellect- 
ual, and commercial ties, did not interfere with 
the neutrality which it maintained throughout. 
The falling off of trade immediately following 
the outbreak of the War caused serious unrest, 
but affairs improved when Chile began to play 
a prominent part in furnishing the Allies with 
war materials. In 1918 this intercourse reached 
its peak, with wide-spread prosperity. In 
1919, exports fell to half their former volume 
but were completely restored in 1920. Not un- 
til the world-wide depression of the next year 
did trade once more languish, to the accom- 
paniment of labor troubles and disorders. 

The end of the administration of Juan Luis 
Sanfuentes (1915-20), Conservative coalition 
leader, marked an election campaign which re- 
vealed how widely liberal tendencies had spread. 
The campaign was fought between Arturo Ales- 
sandri, candidate of the Liberal Alliance, a bloc 
of middle-class and working men’s parties, and 
Luis Barros-Borgono, the representative of the 
governing bureaucracy. The returns gave Ales- 
sandri 179 electoral votes to Barros-Borgoiio’s 
175, but as a result of several contests, the elec- 
tion was thrown into the Congress. Because 
of the excited state of public opinion it was de- 
cided to constitute a Court of Honor, which af- 
ter months of deliberation found for Alessan- 
dri on Oct. 4, 1920, an electoral vote of 
177 to 176. Congress accepted the decision and 
declared Alessandri president. He was com- 
mitted to a reform programme that included 
administrative decentralization, qualified woman 
suffrage, separation of church and state, an in- 
come tax, a labor code, and state control of the 
nitrate industry. President Alessandri, never 
in sympathy with the groups controlling the 
Congress, came into open conflict with the Con- 
servative Senate late in 1923. His legislative 
programme had aroused dissent to such a degree 
that funds were denied the government, with 
the result that the cabinet had to resign. A 
new cabinet, constituted on Jan. 3, 1924, fared 
no better than its predecessor, and to still the 
political bickering which threatened political 
turmoil, President Alessandri dissolved the Con- 
gress on Jan. 7. The character of the constitu- — 
tion succeeded in bridging over a bad situation, 
for by the Commission of Safety, empowered by 
the fundamental law, to sit during the adjourn- 
ments of Congress, a compromise was effected 
which brought the two parties together again. 
President Alessandri, on his side, accepted a 
limitation of his power to suspend Congress, 
while the Senate consented to incorporate the 
president’s demands for reform in the constitu- 
tion as amendments. Chilean politicians and 
publicists hailed the settlement of the crisis 
as containing the elements of a pacific revolu- 
tion. On February 9 the Senate passed the 
President’s programme. It contained laws for 
an income tax, for the right to expend sums 
based on the previous year’s budget in the event 
of the Congress’s failure to pass a budget for 
the year, and for the restriction of votes of con- 
fidence to the lower house. Congressional elec- 


CHINA 


tions in March, 1924, upheld the president’s lib- 
eral policies, so that the Congress, assembled on 
June 1, held government majorities in both 
houses for the first time in the President’s ad- 
ministration. 

Chile’s role in South American affairs during 
1914-24 was stormy. The dispute over the 
Tacna-Arica provinces (q.v.) with Peru, which 
in 1913 was in abeyance, flared up once more 
in 1919. The secret attempt of Chile to gain 
the sympathies of Bolivia by offering her an 
outlet to the sea, which was divulged in 1919, 
once more set at work the hatreds that had 
been smoldering since the making of the treaty 
of Ancon in 1884. The impasse in which ne- 
gotiations of 1920 and 1921 ended resulted in 
an attempt, first, to have the Assembly of the 
League of Nations adjudicate the matter, and 
then the President of the United States. The 
point involved was the holding of a plebiscite 
in the two obscure provinces of Tacna and 
Arica, which have no economic importance with 
their area of only 26,036 square miles and pop- 
ulation of 39,000. Finally, on July 15, 1922, 
as a result of the intercession of the United 
States, both governments consented to accept 
the American president as arbitrator. On Nov. 
30, 1922, after a stormy debate in which the 
Chilean lower house by a two-thirds majority 
was compelled to override the veto of the upper 
house, the protocol of July 15 was ratified. 
Chilean representatives were appointed in No- 
vember, 1923. Thus after a lapse of 38 years 
it appeared that friendly relations between Peru 


and Chile were once again to be reéstablished. 


(See Tacna-ArtcaA Dispute.) The failure of 
the 1923 Pan-American Conference (q.v.) to 
cope with the problem of disarmament caused 
much disquietude in the country, for Chile was 
spending on an average 22 per cent of her 
budget on defense, and even such large sums 
fell below the costs of the Argentine and Bra- 
zilian military and naval establishments. As 
for international affairs, it should be recorded 
that Chile assumed an honorable part. In 
1919, at the request of the Council, she joined 
the League of Nations and had the pleasure of 
seeing Augustin Edwards, Chilean minister to 
London, elected president of the third League 
Assembly in 1922. See also NAVIES OF THE 
WORLD. 

CHINA. China proper consists of the 18 
provinces, about 2,000,000 square miles in area, 
Chihli, Shansi, Shantung, Kansu, Shensi, Ho- 
nan, Anhwei, Kiangsu, Chekiang, Kiangsi, 
Hupeh, Szechwan, Kweichow, Hunan, Fukien, 
Kwantung, Kwangsi, and Yunnan; and the de- 
pendencies of Manchuria, Mongolia, Sinkiang 
(Chinese Turkestan), and Tibet (q.v.)—a total 
area of 4,278,352 square miles. The _ exact 
population was unknown; estimates varied from 
325,000,000 to 430,000,000. China, therefore, 
had a density of population of from 80 to 100 
per square mile and about 175 for China proper; 
Shantung had 528 to the square mile, and 
Kansu 40. Six-sevenths of China’s population, 
however, lived on one-third of its area and was 
concentrated generally along the coasts and in 
the huge delta plains of the three great rivers, 
the Yellow in the north, the Yangtze in the cen- 
tre and the West River in the south. 

Agriculture. No statistics of production in 
China were available. The only reliable clue 
to production was the surplus exported and 
regularly recorded by the Maritime Customs, 


288 


.tonseed, 43,291,066 pounds 


CHINA 


under foreign control. The following estimates 
of China’s production of chief crops was based 
on observation by reliable authorities: silk, 
100,000,000 pounds; rice, 600,000,000 bushels; 
wheat, 200,000,000 bushels; soya beans, 150,- 
000,000 bushels, 70 per cent Manchurian; Han 
cotton, 2,200,000 bales; Kaohang corn, 200,000,- 
000 bushels; maize, 100,000,000 bushels; millet, 
100,000,000 bushels; peanuts, 200,000 tons. 
Soya beans and raw cotton showed remarkable 
increases following 1913. Other crops remained 
the same. 

Exports. Silk. In 1922 China exported 44,- 
997,064 pounds of silk, a decline from 46,917,- 
864 pounds in 1913, due to inexpert reeling of 
raw white silk not adapted to United States 
machines; 12,440,000 pounds of waste silk 
against 15,581,333 pounds in 1913, due to dis- 
eased worms; 11,214,666 pounds of filature silk, 
an increase over 9,112,266 pounds in 1913; 
5,023,600 bushels of refuse cocoons compared 
with 3,473,200 in 1913; 4,276,933 pounds of co- 
coons against 3,395,866 pounds in 1913; 3,165,- 
466 pounds of wild silk compared with 3,954,- 
933 pounds in 1913; 2,709,733 pounds of yellow 
silk, a slight increase over 2,510,933 pounds in 
1913; 2,356,800 pounds of pongees against 
2,233,200 pounds in 1913; 2,040,533 pounds of 
raw white silk, a serious decline from 4,289,- 
333 pounds in 1913; and 1,769,333 pounds of silk 
piece goods, a decrease from 2,366,800 pounds 
in 1918. More than half the white silk in 1922 
went to Hongkong, where it was transshipped 
to Europe and America; one-sixth to France, 
one-sixth to the United States and one-twentieth 
to Great Britain. In 1914 one-half went to 
Hongkong, one-fourth to United States, one- 
sixth to France and one-thirtieth to Great 
Britain. Over half the raw yellow silk went to 
India in 1922 against two-thirds in 1913, 
France taking one-fourth in 1922 and one-tenth 
in 1913. Japan took over half the raw wild 
silk in 1922 and one-fourth in 1913, and the 
United States one-fourth in 1922, the same as 
1913. 


Beans, Oils, and Seeds. In 1922 China ex- 


‘ported 33,071,471 bushels of yellow and other 


soya beans, 33 per cent more than in 1921] and 
50 per cent more than the 22,946,566 bushels of 
1913. 178,199,466 pounds of peanuts were sent 
abroad in 1922, which was 14 per cent less than 
in 1921 but 17 per cent more than the 153,798,- 
000 pounds of 1913. Other 1922 exports of oil 
seeds included sesamum, 167,702,133 pounds 
(1913, 271,286,000 pounds); rape seed, 81,703,- 
133 pounds (1913, 82,236,000 pounds) ; linseed, 
74,657,600 pounds (1913, none recorded) ; cot- 
(1913, 24,332,000 
pounds). In addition to these, China exported 
197,359,486 pounds of bean oil, three times the 
1913 exports; 99,408,666 pounds of wood oil 
from the fruit of the Aleurtes tree; and 51,135,- 
100 pounds of peanut oil. 

Foodstuffs. In 1922 China exported only 
2,557,809 bushels of wheat, less than one-quarter 
the 1921 shipments against 4,106,800 bushels in 
1913; 5,851,723 bushels of bran, two and one-half 
times 1913 exports of 2,283,000 bushels; 403, 
575 barrels of wheat flour, one-third of 1921 ex- 
ports (none recorded ‘in 1913); 57,641,866 
pounds of egg albumen and yolk, about the 
same as 1921 and nearly three times 1913 ex- 
ports of 20,796,400 pounds; 98,498,334, dozen 
fresh and preserved eggs, about same as 1921 
and three times the 1913 exports of 30,266,833 


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CHINA 


dozen; 36,812,933 pounds of frozen eggs, three 
times the 1921 exports (none reeorded‘in 1913) ; 
26,640,800 pounds of fresh and frozen meats, 
one-quarter less than 1921 and slightly more 
than 1913 exports of 24,431,466 pounds; 1,798,- 


_ 133 pounds of preserved and prepared meats, 


one-quarter less than 1921 and considerably less 
than 1913 exports of 14,603,066 pounds; 1,999,- 
200 pounds of poultry and game, one-fifth great- 
er than 1921 and two-thirds the 1913 exports 
of 3,265,066 pounds; 23,350,533 pounds of fresh 
fruits and nuts, one-fifth less than 1921 com- 
pared with the 73,173,733 pounds for 1913; 13,- 
368,533 pounds of dried fruits and nuts, one- 
quarter less than 1921 and one-third the 1913 
exports of 30,034,400 pounds; 31,609 tons of 


_ sugar, one-third less than 1921 and four times 


the 1913 exports of 8400 tons; 37,731,733 pounds 
of green tea, 5 per cent greater than 1921 but 
only 2 per cent greater than 1913 exports of 
36,979,066 pounds; 35,605,200 pounds of black 
tea, double the 1921 shipments and half the 
1913 exports of 73,027,733 pounds; 2,666,933 
pounds of black brick tea, 50 per cent greater 
than 1921 but greatly less than the 1913 ex- 
ports of 57,442,533 pounds, on account of the 
loss of the Russian market; 228,533 pounds of 
green brick tea, only one-seventh the 1921 fig- 
ures and a tremendous decline from the 1913 
export of 23,360,133 pounds, for the same rea- 
son; 348,256 pounds of tea dust and tea tablets, 


~14 times the 1921 figures but less than a quar- 


ter of the 1913 exports of 1,471,733 pounds; 
12,552, tons of fish and fishery products, slight- 
ly greater than 1921 and a little less than the 
14,058 tons exported in 1913; 3,742,552 poultry, 
slightly less than 1921 (2,779,543 in 1913). 
Fibres. In 1922 China shipped abroad 112,- 
268,000 pounds of raw cotton, over one-third 
more than 1921 (1913, 98,505,300 pounds) ; 
8,621,866 pounds of nankeens or cotton cloth, 
one-fifth less than 1921 (6,407,466 pounds in 
1913) ; 5,168,000 pounds of cotton yarn, 50 per 
cent greater than 1921 (none recorded in 1913) ; 
8,077,500 pounds of camel’s wool, twice the 
1921 figure and half the 1913 exports of 4,400,- 
933 pounds; 2,070,400 pounds of goat’s wool, 
one-fifth less than 1921 and one-third more than 
1913 exports of 1,557,866 pounds; 67,679,500 
pounds of sheep’s wool, 10 per cent greater than 
1921 and nearly twice 1913 exports of 37,368,- 
266 pounds; 17,418,666 pounds of hemp (for 
1913, 10,788,400 pounds) ; 24,970,666 pounds of 
ramie, 22,816,800 pounds in 1913; 5,714,666 
pounds of jute, 50 per cent greater than 1921 
and one-third 1913 exports of 14,053,866 pounds; 
9,045,466 pounds of bristles, nearly twice the 
1921 exports (1913, 7,028,667 pounds) ; 11,615,- 
733 pounds of fowl feathers, 50 per cent greater 
than 1921 and one-fifth, 1913 exports of 54,530,- 
000 pounds; 4,878,000 pounds of grass cloth, 
one-quarter greater than 1921; and one-half 
1913 exports of 2,073,333 pounds; 5,590,666 
pounds of hair of all kinds, one-fifth greater 
than 1921 slightly less than 1913 exports of 
6,421,067 pounds; 231,354 rolls of matting, two 
and one-half times the 1921 exports and slightly 
more than 1913 exports of 266,231 rolls; 24,- 
907,007 mats, 50 per cent greater than 1921 
and a little more than 1913 exports of 21,839,- 
088; 10,607,600 pounds of strawbraid, one-half 
greater than 1921 and less than the 1913 
ports of 13,471,600 pounds; and 10,209,241 
hats, twice the 1921 figure compa dW 
6,305,180 in 1913. 


289 


CHINA 


Minerals. In 1922 China exported 2,377,443 
tons of coal, one-third greater than 1921 and 
50 per cent more than 1913 exports of 1,489,182 
tons; 741,314 tons of iron ore, one-third greater 
than 1921 and double 1913 exports of 302,010 


‘tons; 224,169 tons of pig iron, one-third greater 


than 1921, three times 1913 exports of 71,420 | 
tons; 37,600 pounds of quicksilver, one-eighth 

the 1921 figures (for 1913, 4667 pounds) ; 15,- 
170 tons of regulus and crude antimony, 10 per 
cent less than 1921 and a little over 1913 ex- 
ports of 14,360 tons; 10,111 tons of tin, in 
slabs, one-half greater than 1921 against 1913 
exports of 9246 tons; 5621 tons of lead ore, 
one-fifth less than 1921, compared with, 1913 
exports of 448] tons. In 1913 China exported 
10,524 tons of zinc ore, but by 1922 the export 
was negligible. 

Hides and Skins. China exported in 1922 
32,099,200 pounds of buffalo and cow hides; 
one-seventh greater than 1921 and one-half 1913 
exports of 66,405,066 pounds; 9,308,136 un- 
tanned goat skins, one-third greater than 1921 
and greater than 1913 exports of 7,153,693; 
1,340,535 pounds of horse, ass, and mule hides, 
one-third less than 1921 and a little less than 
1913 exports of 1,517,866 pounds; 111,794 
sheepskins, three times the 1921 figures and one- 
fifth the 1913 exports of 552,425; 937,533 
tanned dressed goat skins, twice 1921 and one- 
third greater than 639,992 exported in 1913; 
730,784 dressed lamb skins, one-fifth greater 
than 1921 and 50 per cent more than 1913 ex- 
ports of 587,151; 557,650 dog skins made up as 
clothing, mats, or rugs, twice the 1921 figure 
and the same as 1913 exports of 591,118; 456,- 
076 goat skins made up as clothing, mats, or 
rugs, three times the 1921 number and a little 
more than 1913 exports of 329,298; 143,551 
kidskins made up as clothing, 50 per cent great- 
er than 1921 and two-thirds greater than 1913 
exports of 93,483; 68,533 lambskins made up as 
clothing, double 1921 and same as 1913; 42,633 
sheepskins made up as clothing, mats, or rugs, 
eight times 1921 and same as 1913; 2,288,022 
marmot skins, dressed and undressed, twice 
1921 and ten times 1913 exports of 279,264; 
814,539 weasel skins, one-fifth less than 1921 
(1,033,582 in 1913); 77,947 fox skins, three- 
quarters larger than 1921 (107,069 in 1913); 
77,603 raccoon skins, eight times 1921 exports 
and one-third 1913 exports of 226,787; 2,343,066 
pounds of leather, one-third the 1921 output, 
compared with 2,468,533 pounds in 1913. 

Miscellaneous. Other leading exports from 
China in 1922 were 342,947 cattle, sheep, goats 
and pigs, one-fifth less than 1921 but greater 


than 1913 exports of 318,681; 112,331,253 
square feet of softwood, one-quarter greater 
than 1921 (1913 not specified) ; 548,143 cubic 


feet of hardwood, slightly more than 1921 (1913 
not specified) ; 38,070,933 pounds of paper, 
slightly less than 1921 but more than the 33,- 
263,333 pounds exported in 1913; 3,435,733 
pounds of animal tallow, one-third the 1921 
amount and one-fifth the 1913 exports of 16,370,- 
800 pounds; 8,540,800 pounds of vegetable tal- 
low, same as 1921 but less than one-third the 
1913 exports of 29,466,400 pounds; 33,645,233 
pounds of leaf and prepared tobacco, 10 per 
cent less than 1921, 66 per cent greater than 
1913 exports of 20,268,533 pounds; 8,103,600 
pounds of cigarettes, one-fifth less than 1921 
but nine times 1913 exports of 992,933 pounds; 
2,370,266 pounds of varnish, slightly less than 


CHINA 


1921 but 50 per cent more than 1913 exports of 
1,790,933 pounds; 34,964 ounces of musk, 10 
per cent greater than 1921 and 30 per cent 
greater than 1913 exports of 28,800 ounces; 
$2,459,698 in chinaware, 33 per cent less than 
1921 (1913 not specified) ; $3,016,167 in fire- 
erackers and fireworks, 10 per cent over 1921 
30 per cent more than 1913 exports of $2,332,- 
766; 9,315,600 pounds of gall nuts, three times 
1921 exports and one-quarter more than 1913 
exports of 7,419,333 pounds; 12,600,800 pounds 
of ginger, one-third greater than 1921 and 50 
per cent greater than 1913 exports of 8,469,733 
pounds; 1,693,733 pounds of glass bangles, same 
as 1921, compared with 1,752,533 pounds in 
1913. 

Foreign Trade. Total exports for 1913 were 
$299,051,963; 1922, $536,814,917; 26 per cent 
to Hongkong (for transshipment), 24 per cent 
to Japan, 15 per cent to the United States, 6 
per cent to France, 6 per cent to Russia, 6 per 
cent to Great Britain; 2 per cent to Singapore 
(for transshipment), 2 per cent to India; and 
the rest to the Dutch East Indies, Germany, 
Italy, Netherlands, and other less important 
countries. 

Total imports for 1913 were valued at $422,- 
775,535; 1922, $799,235,520; 25 per cent from 
Hongkong, 24 per cent from Japan, 17 per cent 
from. the United States, 14 per cent from the 
United Kingdom, 4 per cent from India, 3 per 
cent from Germany, 1 per cent each from Russia, 
Dutch East Indies, Belgium, Macao, Netherlands 
and Singapore, and less amounts from other 
countries. 

Chief Imports, 19138 and 1922. Raw 
cotton, 237,514,733 pounds in 1922—17,767,333 
pounds 1913; notwithstanding rapid increase 
of China’s cotton crop to approximately 2,200,- 
000 bales in 1922 the spinning industry has in- 
creased even more rapidly; cotton yarn, 162,- 
597,833 pounds, 1922—358,048,299 pounds 1913 
due to rapid increase in Chinese spindles, 3,055,- 
999 in 1922; gray shirtings, 3,276,425 pieces in 
1922 and 5,209,441 pieces in 1913; white shirt- 
ings, 3,580,977 pieces in 1922 and 4,537,900 
pieces 1913; plain fast black Italians, Ventians 
and Lastings, 1,410,830 pieces in 1922, none in 
1913; colored ditto, 2,983,775 pieces in 1922 
none in 1913; figured ditto, 639,455 pieces in 
1922, none in 1913; 2,490,088 pieces jeans, in 
1922 and 1,720,868 pieces in 1913; 2,121,431 
pieces plain prints in, 1922, none in 1913; 1,- 
356,699 pieces sheeting in 1922 and 5,209,041 
pieces in 1913. Machinery and fittings, $40,- 
512,380 in 1922 and $5,136,000 in 1913; 61,923 
tons iron bars in 1922 and 39,524 tons in 1913; 
48,965 tons rails in 1922 and 19,524 tons in 
1913; 20,989 tons galvanized sheets in 1922 and 
15,043 tons in 1913; 25,720 tons nails and 
rivets in 1922 and 21,955 tons in 1913; 33,790 
tons sheets and plates in 1922 and 23,852 tons in 
1913; 14,726 tons pipes and tubes in 1922 and 
4,257 tons in 1913; 40,469 tons of plate cuttings 
in 1922 and 23,984 tons in 1913; $7,592,054 rail- 
way and street cars in 1922 and $870,297 in 
1913; $3,611,763 locomotives and tenders in 
1922 and $560.330 in 1913; $630,412 sewing 
machines in 1922 and $644,638 in 1913; 22,725 
tons of cobbles and wire shorts, 5944 tons of 
hoops, 8223 tons of nail rods, and 8228 tons of 
pig and Kentledge imports in 1913; these com- 
modities show no imports for 1922, due to the 
operation of Chinese steel mills supplying these 
demands, American kerosene, 175,823,711 gallons 


290 


‘as compared with 93,334,830. tons 


line, 


CHINA 


in 1922 and 112,459,925 gallons in 1913; Bor- © 
neo kerosene, 4,242,242 gallons in 1922 and 23,- 
603,943 gallons in 1913; Sumatra kerosene 18,- 
763,408 gallons in 1922 and 41,915,648 gallons 
in 1913, all other kerosene 10,363,317 gallons in 
1922 and 6,004,536 gallons in 1913; gasoline 
4,818,271 gallons in 1922 and 465,577 gallons in 
1913. Rice and paddy, 1,277,079 tons in 1922 
and 360,993 tons in 1913; brown sugar, 238,- 
700,800 pounds in 1922 and 303,679,067 pounds 
in 1913; white sugar, 225,778,666 pounds in 1922 
and 257,742,267 pounds in 1913; refined sugar, 
519,796,533 pounds in 1922 and 350,387,600 
pounds in 1913; confectioners’ sugar, 37,698,533 
pounds in 1922 and 36,421,467 pounds in 1913; 
condensed milk, 73,116 dozen in 1922 and 483,- 
720 dozen in 1913; flour, 2,449,636 barrels in 
1922 and 1,766,500 barrels in 1913; fish and fish- 
ery products $13,855,284 in 1922 and $9,458,440 
in 1913;dried fruits, $1,154,697 in 1922 and 
$555,635 in 1913; beans and peas 420,093 bushels 
in 1922 and 820,757 bushels in 1913; butter, 
1,421,466 pounds in 1922 and 1,635,467 pounds 
in 1913; confectionery, $342,298 in 1922 and 
$241,714 in 1913. Aniline dyes, $5,614,049 in 
1922 and $3,937,927 in 1913; paints and paint 
oil, $1,721,542 in 1922 and $628,935 in 1913; all 
other dyes, $13,004,048 in 1922 and $7,501,424 in 
1913; chemical products, $2,509,968 in 1922 and 
$426, 313 in 1913; match-making materials, $2,- 
342,245 in 1922 and $1,158,541 in 1913; medi- 
cines $5,508,346 in 1922 and $2,935,591 in 1913; 
opium, 7280 pounds in 1922 and 2,418,345 
pounds in 1913 (due to opium embargo on 
China) ; perfumery and cosmetics, $2,104,385 in 
1922 and $325,392 in 1913; photographic mate- 
rial, $668,917 in 1922 and $229,437 in 1913; 
soap and soap materials, $2,101,243; in 1922 
and $1,990,565 in 1913; soda, 61,550 tons in 1922 
and 32,555 tons in 1913. Cigarettes, 9,837,127 
thousand in 1922 and 6,209,037 thousand in 
1913; tobacco, 33,871,060 pounds in 1922 and 
19,057,466 pounds in 1913; cigars, 32,242 thou- 
sand in 1922 and 38,565 thousand in 1913. 
Leather, 17,890,800 pounds in 1922; and 14,- 
572,666 pounds in 1913; imitation leather, 
$194,725 in 1922 and $143,873 in 1913; leather 
manufactures, $97,890 in 1922 and $277,094 in 
1913; belting, $967,803 in 1922 and $195,301 
in (1913. 

Shipping. 114,619,544 tons of shipping en- 
tered and cleared from China’s ports in 1921, 
in 1913. 
Thirty-six per cent of this 1921 tonnage was 
British; 27 per cent Japanese and 27 per cent 
Chinese; 4 per cent American; 1 per cent Dutch; 
1 per cent French, and the remainder of 4 per 
cent variously distributed. Forty-one per cent of 
this trade moved through Shanghai; 11 per cent 
through Dairen; 9 per,.cent through Tientsin; 
8 per cent through Canton; 5 per cent through 
Kowloon; 4 per cent through Hankow, 3 per cent 
through Tsingtao, 2 per cent through Swatow, 
and the rest through the remaining 42 treaty 
ports, in lesser quantities. 

Railroads. China had only 6740 miles of 


railroads to cover an area of 4,500,000 square 
-miles. 


There was practically no new construc- 
tion after 1913. The 23 different railroad lines 
form two north and south trunk lines, one from 
Changsha below the Yangtze to Peking and one 
extending from. Shanghai to Tientsin and on 
up-to Harbin. There is one east and west trunk 
hich, when completed, will extend from 
Lanchow, in Kansu, to Haichow, on the sea- 


} 


CHINA 


coast of Shantung. There were various con- 
necting and disconnected short lines. 

National Debt. On Oct. 21, 1921, China’s 
national debt was reliably estimated at $1,- 
814,002,511.88 silver ($1 silver—about $.50 
gold). In addition there was at least $86,000,- 
000 (silver) contracted in concealed debt, 
treasury notes, and unpaid salaries of officials, 
or a total of $1,900,002,511.88. The detail of 
this debt, which was about $500 (silver) per 
capita is as follows: secured on Maritime Cus- 
toms and Salt Revenue: general foreign loans, 
$267 979,252.34; foreign railway loans, $334,802.,- 
631; foreign indemnities, $482,841,744; internal 
long term loans, $275,226,738; internal short 
term loans, $69,101,978.54; treasury notes, $18,- 
640,000: total secured, $1,449,592 ,343 88; unse- 
eured: foreign obligations, $217,047,073; native 
obligations, $41,412,078; concealed debt, $65,- 
000,000; advances on salt, $40,951,017; addition- 
al concealed debt, $40,000,000; treasury notes, 
$14,000,000; salt bonds, $10,000,000; Dragon 
Boat Festival notes, $2,000,000; unpaid salaries, 
$20,000,000; total unsecured, $450,410,168 

Revenue. The principal sources of revenue 
for the central government in 1922 were collec- 
tions from the Maritime Customs, $96,104,000 
silver (1913, $66,970,003 silver) and from the 
salt tax, $85,789,000 silver (1913, $77,401,265 sil- 
ver. Of the latter sum, approximately one-third 
was retained by local military leaders and 
never reached Peking. These revenues were 
entirely designed to take care of the secured in- 
debtedness. Thus it became necessary for the 
central government to use for administrative 
purposes what revenue reached it from the wine 
and tobacco monopoly tax, the mining tax, 
stamp tax, postal and telegraph surplus, and 
income tax, all collected by the provinces. 
About $2,700,000 silver a year reached the cen- 
tral government from all these sources in 1922. 
In 1913 the government collected from all sources 
$557,031,167 silver. The annual expenses of the 
central government according to the 1922 budget 
were about $110,400,000 silver, which through 
rigid economy could be reduced not lower than 
$48,000,000 silver, leaving an annual deficit of at 
least $45,000,000 silver, which had to be met by 
annual borrowing or failure to pay salaries 
of school teachers, police, and officials in the 
central government at Peking. Various expedi- 
ents such as the issuance of Treasury notes met 
with such popular disapproval that other 
methods had to be resorted to in order to meet 
this chronic annual deficit. In 1913 the ex- 
penditures were estimated as $632,236,876 silver, 
a deficit of $75,205,709 silver. In 1914 this 
deficit was reduced by a balance of $25,477,283 
silver, and the budgets for 1916 and 1917 bal- 
anced. Extensive borrowing in 1918 brought on 
the almost hopeless conditions of the 1920’s. 

Local Budgets. The 18 provinces, only one 
of which, Chihli, could be identified with the 
central government, all had independent meth- 
ods of collecting revenue, and their expendi- 
tures. were made without any reference to 
Peking. Sources of revenue differed greatly in 
the various provinces. In some, opium grow- 
ing was openly encouraged, and the farmers 
were heavily taxed by the military leaders on 
their sales of the product. In most provinces 
likin, or barrier taxes, were levied indiscrim- 
‘inately by Jocal authorities; the movement of 
goods along recognized routes was so heavily 
taxed that trade was seriously interfered with. 


2gI 


CHINA 


Some military leaders confiscated revenues from 
government railways and sent receipts for their 
military expenses to Peking in lieu of the cash. 
Disarmament Conference and China. In 
order to remedy the worst phases of this situ- 
ation the Nine Power Customs Treaty was 
signed at Washington early in 1922. It pro- 
vided for a Special Customs Conference at — 
Peking three months after ratification by all 
Nine Powers. At this conference China was to 
be allowed to increase the import tariff from 
a 5 per cent to a 7 per cent ad valorem rate, 
to be levied in such manner and for such pur- 
poses as the conference should decide. The 
conference had not met up to 1924, because 
France had not ratified the treaty. Consider- 
able divergence of opinion existed as to the 
use that should be made of the increased rev- 
enue, which at most cauld not exceed $50,000,- 
000 silver a year. If funded at reasonable in- 
terest, this increased revenue would not pay 
China’s outstanding unsecured indebtedness of 
$450,000,000 silver. Considerable scaling down 
might have to be done on all obligations on the 
basis of the actual .use made of the original 
loan or advance, and in the case of much of 
the native and some of the foreign indebtedness 
this would be extremely difficult. Some of the 
loans, particularly those of native bankers, 
were at extremely high interest rates, ranging 
from 12 per cent to 24 per cent, and some were 
issued as low as 40 per cent of face value. It 
seemed obviously unfair that such loans should 
be funded at face value or that their amounts 
should be increased because of a low funding 
rate of interest. The Nine Power Open Door 
Treaty asserted in treaty form the principles 
and policies of the Powers concerning China 
which had been observed since 1900, when Sec- 
retary Hay sent his famous circular note to all 
the Powers and received their assurances that 
they aimed at no encroachment on China’s sov- 
ereignty. The Shantung Treaty between China 
and Japan provided for the return to China 
of the leased territory of Kiaochow, taken by 
Japan from Germany. Several resolutions 
adopted at the conference dealt with the aboli- 
tion of foreign post offices in China; for the 
investigation of the question of abolishing ex- 
traterritoriality; and for. other means of con- 
trolling and eliminating international conflict 
in China. See NAvIES oF THE Wor~p. 
Government. The new constitution promul- 
gated Oct. 10, 1923, provided that the President 
be elected by an electoral college composed of 
the two houses of the National Assembly. He 
was to promulgate laws enacted by the National 
Assembly and supervise their enforcement. With 
the exception of the premier, whose appoint- 
ment must be ratified by the House of Repre- 
sentatives, and the Chief Justice, ratified by 
the Senate, all officials were to be appointed 
and removed directly by the President. He 
might declare war and conclude treaties of 
peace only with the concurrence of the Assem- 
bly. The President, with the consent of the 
Senate, could dissolve the House of Representa- 
tives, provided a newly elected House convened 
within five months. A Premier and nine Min- 
isters were to head the usual executive depart- 
ments. The adoption of the constitution was 
no indication of approaching political stability 
but merely an attempt of a dominant military 
clique to impose some semblance of permanence 
on its tenure of office. The National Assembly 


CHINA 


was to be made up of a Senate of 264 members 
and a House of Representatives of 596 members. 
It was to exercise the legislative power. The 
Senate was to be elected for six years by the 
highest local assemblies of the various prov- 
inces. The House of Representatives was to be 
elected for three years by the electors in vari- 
ous elective districts divided on a basis of pop- 
ulation. But it was plain that military force 
and bribery were to continue dominating Par- 
liament in the future as in the past. The su- 
preme court was to consist of a chief justice 
and a number of associates, five of whom, sit- 
ting together, would constitute a court. Under 
it were to be district courts, one in each dis- 
trict or Asien, and higher courts, one in each 
province. The Supreme court was to have both 
appellate and original jurisdiction. 

Provincial government varied greatly through- 
out China. Some were out-and-out military des- 
potisms. Others had a semblance of constitu- 
tional government with provincial assemblies, 
etc., but some strong leader in each province 
always collected the taxes and acknowledged 
little or no allegiance to the central govern- 
ment. Thus in the three eastern provinces of 
Manchuria, General Chang Tso Lin was dicta- 
tor; in Mongolia there was an independent goy- 
ernment under the domination of Soviet Rus- 
sia; Tibet and Sinkiang (Chinese Turkestan) 
gave only a shadow of allegiance to Peking; 
Sun Yat Sen dominated Kwantung province in 
the south; Tang Chiyao dominated Yunnan 
province; Lu Yung-hsiang ruled Chekiang. By 
all of these military satraps, mandates and or- 
ders from Peking were openly disregarded. 
For. the other provinces their effectiveness was 
regulated by the proximity and earnestness of 
the military forces of the Chihli province group 
dominating Peking. Actually, Peking, or the 
recognized government of China, exercised real 
control only over the city of Peking and its 
immediate environs. Wu Pei Fu, military dic- 
tator of Chihli province, supported the Peking 
government in 1924, and his support intimi- 
dated neighboring provincial military leaders 
into merely passive resistance and effective con- 
fiscation of revenue. Because Peking was dom- 
inated by one of the military cliques, any proc- 
ess of unification of. China had necessarily to 
proceed along military rather than constitu- 
tional lines. As the independence of these 
provincial leaders continued to grow, their ob- 
servance of rights guaranteed to foreigners in 
their provinces by treaties with foreign powers 
made by the Peking government inevitably be- 
came more lax. The foreign powers possessed 
no recourse against these provincial leaders, who 
exercised the real power, for violation of their 
treaty rights, but were compelled to protest to 
Peking, whose power over the provinces was 
nil. Foreign treaty rights were therefore sub- 
ject to constantly greater violation without the 
possibility of any recourse by the Powers. The 
Powers, who, at the Washington Conference, 
offered China every opportunity to achieve ab- 
solute autonomy in respect to all of the func- 
tions exercised by foreign governments over 
their nationals in China, including taxation, 
criminal and civil authority, etc., were faced 
with the disagreeable task of either interven- 
ing in the domestic affairs of China or witness- 
ing a complete disavowal of all of the treaty 
rights of foreigners in carrying on their peace- 
ful and legalized pursuits. 


292 CHINA 


History. At the beginning of 1914, Yuan 
Shih-K’ai was carefully proceeding in the exe- 
cution of his plans for the reconstruction of the 
old autocratic government and of the central- 
ization of power. Step by step he emasculated 
the innovations of western democracy and par- 
liamentarianism. Outside of the circles of 
Young China these measures produced little re- 
action, for the mass of people were not greatly 
interested in the western innovations which ran 
counter to their instincts and customs, and, 
after all, they were tired of being looted in the 
name of liberty. It was only when the Presi- 
dent decided to perform henceforth the Winter 
Solstice sacrifice at the Temple of Heaven that 
the people began to take notice, because by per- 
forming this ceremony, the symbol of the old 


emperors’ function in the state, he practically 


proclaimed himself an autocratic ruler. This 
policy of Yuan Shih-k’ai was strikingly demon- 
strated by the presidential mandates, especially 
the Presidential Election Law of December, 
1914, whereby the President’s term of office was 
lengthened to 10 years. Deftly Yuan Shih- 
k’ai’s astute statesmanship restored the au- 
thority of the central government, at the head 
of which he ruled as undisputed dictator. 

If the restoration of the monarchy and the 
realization of Yuan Shih-k’ai’s designs on the 
throne had been merely matters of internal pol- 
itics, they would probably have succeeded. But 
questions of foreign policy intervened to frus- 
trate Yuan’s schemes. After the capture of 
Kiaochow the Japanese government presented 
on Jan. 18, 1915, a protocol embodying the no- 
torious Twenty-one Demands, the fulfilment of 
which would have meant the grossest infringe- 
ment of Chinese sovereignty that had occurred 
thus far. (See JAPAN and SHANTUNG.) Aft- 
er four months of negotiations, in which Yuan 
Shih-k’ai took the stand that acceptance of the 
demands would tend to impair China’s sover- 
eignty and the treaty rights of other Powers, 
the Chinese Foreign Office was compelled by a 
48-hour ultimatum to accept most of the Japa- 
nese demands, in slightly modified form. As 
criginally presented, the Twenty-one Demands 
were grouped in five sections. The first section 
required the Chinese government’s full assent, 
in advance, to whatever settlement Japan and 
Germany might make regarding the disposition 
of German rights in Shantung, and the opening 
of additional commercial ports in Shantung and 
the construction of a branch from the Shantung 
railway to Chefoo or Lungkow. These stipula- 
tions were accepted with very little alteration 
and embodied in a treaty and several notes 
signed on May 25, 1915. 
agreed to return the leased territory of Kiao- 
chow Bay to China, after the War, if certain 
conditions were fulfilled (see PEACE CoNFER- 
ENCES and SHANTUNG). Section II, likewise 
accepted and embodied in a treaty with several 
supplementary exchanges of notes, strength- 
ened Japan’s grip on southern Manchuria and 
eastern inner Mongolia, by extending the Japa- 
nese lease of Port Arthur, Dalny, the South 
Manchurian Railway, and the Antung-Mukden 
Railway to 99 years, by granting Japanese sub- 
jects the right of leasing or owning land and 
engaging in any kind of business, by handing 
the Kirin-Changchun railway over to Japanese 
administration, and by assuring to Japan an 
option on the development of mines, financing 
of railways, and nomination of foreign advisers 


In return, Japan | 


CHINA 


in these provinces. Section III proposed to 
convert the Hanyehping Company, the great 
Chinese coal, iron, and steel concern located at 
Hankow on the Yangtze, in the British sphere 
of influence, into a joint Sino-Japanese enter- 
prise with monopolistic control of future mine 
development in the neighborhood. To this ex- 
traordinary demand, China assented in an ex- 
change of notes, but the clause relative to fu- 
ture mining operations was omitted. Section 
IV embodied a blanket pledge on the part of 
China “not to cede or lease to a third power 
any harbor, bay, or island along the coast of 
China”; this pledge China refused to incor- 
porate in any treaty or note, as such a declara- 
tion would have implied a Japanese protector- 
ate. 

Finally, Section V, or “Group Five” as 
it was more commonly called, contained provi- 
sions that would have meant the firm estab- 
lishment of a Japanese protectorate over Chi- 
na; China was to employ “influential Japanese 
as advisers in political, financial, and military 
affairs”; Japan was to have a share in the 
police administration “of the important places 
in China”; China was to purchase “say 50 per 
cent” of her war munitions from Japan, either 
directly or through a Sino-Japanese arsenal. 
Furthermore, Japanese were to be allowed to 
propagate religious doctrines, i.e. Buddhism, in 
China; Japanese hospitals, churches and schools 
were to be given the right of owning land; 
Japan was to build certain railways in the 
Yangtze valley, again infringing on the British 
sphere of influence; and Japan was to have an 
option on supplying capital for mines, railways, 
harbors, and dockyards in Fukien province. To 
Group Five the Peking government resolutely 
refused assent; the most that could be con- 
ceded was an exchange of notes stating that 
China had not given any foreign nation per- 
mission to construct military or naval works 
on the Fukien coast; there had been rumors 
of an agreement for such construction by the 
Bethlehem Steel Company. 

Although the other items in Group Five were 
temporarily dropped, the Japanese government 
merely postponed them “for future discussion” ; 
and they may be regarded as significantly ex- 
pressive of the imperialist aims of the Japa- 
nese government in 1915. The net result of 
China’s partial acquiescence in the Twenty-one 
Demands of 1915 was to fortify Japan’s privi- 
leged position in her spheres of influence— 
South Manchuria, eastern Mongolia, Shantung, 
and Fukien—and to open the heart of the rich 
Yangtze valley to Japanese economic penetra- 
tion. The attitude of the United States gov- 
ernment toward the Japanese manceuvre was 
set forth in identical notes to China and Japan, 
May 9, stating that the United States could 
not recognize any agreements impairing treaty 
rights, the integrity of China, or the Open 
Door; and as Secretary Bryan had already is- 
sued a statement to the press on May 6, ex- 
pressing his hope that the agreements might be 
mutually “satisfactory” and contribute to the 
“prosperity” and “cordial relationship” of 
“these great Oriental empires,” it was obvious 
that the United States, while formally support- 
ing Chinese integrity, was not disposed to offer 
any determined opposition to Japanese aggres- 
sion. 

These events served to make it clear that in 
any fundamental change in the Chinese govern- 


293 CHINA 


ment, such as the restoration of the monarchy, 
Japanese intervention would have to be reck- 
oned with. When, therefore, the State Coun- 
cil referred the question of the monarchy to a 
vote of the provinces, in October, 1915, the 
Japanese Minister in Peking, supported by his 
British and Russian colleagues, “offered friend- 
ly advice’’ on behalf of his government against 
the restoration of the monarchy. This  inter- 
vention of the Powers, especially of Japan, 
sealed the fate of Yuan’s aspirations to the 
throne. Although the provinces registered a 
unanimous vote in favor of his accession on 
Nov. 5, 1915, the proclamation of the monarchy 
on December 12 was followed almost immedi- 
ately by an insurrection, which rapidly accum- 
ulated speed and became universal. The south- 
ern leaders set up a provisional government at 
Canton and hailed as president the former Vice- 
president, Li Yuan-hung. After many and pro- 
longed manceuvres to save his face, Yuan Shih- 
k’ai died on June 5, 1916, of a broken heart, 
as it was said. Li Yuan-hung became Presi- 
dent of the Chinese republic, and Tuan Chi- 
jui, Premier. If Yuan’s death was universally 
regarded as a temporary solution of China’s 
great internal problem, it proved almost at 
once to be quite the opposite. 

After Yuan’s death, conditions in China be- 
came rapidly more chaotic. The new Peking 
government made a show at parliamentary gov- 
ernment by convening the Parliament of 1913 
for Aug. 1, 1916. Its measures, however, did 
not tend to produce any coéperation from the 
southern or Canton government. The essential 
difference between the two camps was that 
Peking was dominated by the military party, 
a combination of military governors and shrewd 
politicians, in which the former used the latter 
for their purposes, whereas Canton represented 
the Kuo Min-tang party and Young China with 
their exuberant enthusiasm for ‘western democ- 
racy. During the remainder of 1919 the political 
situation grew more disorganized. At the same 
time the financial situation went from bad to 
worse. Inthe spring of 1917 China’s entrance in- 
to the War on the Allies’ side offered a tempo- 
rary way out of the difficulties besetting the 
country. After numerous political intrigues and ° 
wrangles, after coaxing and veiled threats from 
the Allies, and especially after persuasion by the 
United States, the Peking government finally 
severed relations with Germany on Mar. 14, 
1917. It was clearly a matter of German in- 
trigues having been outmatched by Allied in- 
trigues. The declaration of war, however, was 
not to take place without a three months’ strug- 
gle among the various opposing internal fac- 
tions. The first phase involved a conflict be- 
tween the protagonists of drastic action, Pre- 
mier Tuan Chi-jui and the military party on the 
one side, and President Li, the Kuo Min-tang, 
and the Canton chieftains, who favored a dec- 
laration of war by parliamentary procedure, 
on the other. An entangled situation devel- 
oped, President Li was compelled to dissolve 
Parliament unconstitutionally. He dismissed 
Premier Tuan on May 23, 1917, whereon the 
latter in conjunction with the military gov- 
ernors set up a _ provisional government at 
Tientsin. The internal strife was further ac- 
centuated by the American note of June 6, de- 
ploring the growth of internal dissensions and 
intimating that internal unity was more im- 
portant than a declaration of war. This ethi- 


CHINA 


cally justifiable move on the part of the United 
States was resented by Japan, as Tuan Chi-jui 
was generally regarded as a Japanese tool and 
had carried on a policy in accordance with 
Japan’s wishes. A solution of the difficulties 
seemed to be provided by the “mediation” of 
General Chang Hsiin of Shantung, who on June 
12 arrived before Peking with an army. Chang 
Hsiin’s real intention, however, was the restora- 
tion of the Manchus and not the solution of the 
war issue. After 18 days of seemingly satis- 
factory mediation in Peking, which was only a 
face-saving mancuvre, Chang Hsiin struck his 
coup d’état on July 1, 1917, and restored the 
Manchu Emperor to the throne. But the rule 
of the young Son of Heaven lasted only 12 days. 
Tuan Chi-jui emerged from Tientsin and at 
the head of an army composed of the troops of 
the military governors and of the republican 
South ejected Chang Hsiin and his Manchu Em- 
peror and reéstablished the Republic. The ac- 
tion of Tuan and the Tuchuns (military gov- 
ernors), who were all known to be monarchists, 
was due to the fact that the blunt and energetic 
Chang Hsiin had stolen a march on them, much 
to their chagrin. . 

The farcical coup d’état and restoration of 
the Republic resulted in the resumption by 
Tuan of the premiership and the replacement 
of Li Yuan-hung as president by Vice President 
Feng Kuo-chang on July 18. The most impor- 
tant result was, however, the final declaration 
of war on Germany on Aug. 14, 1917. This in- 
volved the sequestration of German property 
and above all the systematic uprooting of Ger- 
many’s financial and commercial interests in 
China. As a reward for joining the Allies, 
China received, by an agreement between the 
Consortium banks, a loan of 10,000,000 yen, se- 
cured against the salt gabelle revenues, as well 
as a suspension of the Boxer indemnities. The 
new government wielded relatively strong au- 
thority, especially in view of its submission, 
not to say subservience, to Japanese wishes. 
Its position, however, was seriously weakened 
by the opposition of the South. The southern 
faction had regarded a declaration of war with- 
out approval by Parliament as unconstitution- 
al and: had also protested against the exclu- 
sively militarist character of the Peking gov- 
ernment. In June, 1917, after the dissolution 
of Parliament, the situation came to a _ head. 
The southern provinces revolted, and a new 
government, headed by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, was 
set up in Canton. Dissension developed there- 
upon among the Peking leaders about the meth- 
ods to be adopted against the rebellious South. 
President Feng favored conciliatory methods, 
while Premier Tuan wished to use strong mili- 
tary measures. A hopeless tangle ensued, with 
war between the North and South, some prov- 
inces remaining neutral; a conflict between the 
heads of the Peking government; and independ- 
ent action on the part of the northern Tuchuns. 
Premier Tuan finally had his way, and as a re- 
sult the war against the southern secessionists 
was carried on with fluctuating success during 
the remainder of 1917 and the first half of 1918. 
To preserve a semblance of constitutionality, 
Tuan convened an assembly for a revision of 
the electoral law. On the promulgation of this 
law on Feb. 17, 1918, a new parliament was 
elected, which on September 4 chose a new pres- 
ident. Feng Kuo-Chang, who had proved un- 
satisfactory to the Anfu Club was replaced by 


294 CHINA 


Hsiti Shih-chang. The new president made a 
sincere effort to end the civil war between the 
North and the South, and accordingly on Nov. 
16, 1918, he ordered the northern commanders 
to suspend hostilities and withdraw from south- 
ern territories. This armistice was eventually 
followed by a peace conference in the spring of 
1919 at Shanghai, which dragged out intermi- 
nably and ended in failure. Actuated by selfish 
motives, neither faction showed an earnest de- 
sire to come to an agreement. 

Under Tuan Chi-jui and the Anfu party, 
China became powerless in the hands of the 
Japanese, since the Allies were too preoccupied 
with the war in Europe to interfere. In March, 
1918, the Peking government concluded military 
and naval agreements with Japan whereby the 
Japanese, under the pretext of action against a 
Bolshevist danger, obtained a complete hold on 
northern China, including control of the Chi- 
nese Eastern Railway and northern Manchuria. 
At the Peace Conference, Japan’s actions with 
regard to China during the War received the 
official endorsement of the Allied Powers when 
Lloyd George and Clémenceau, in accordance 
with secret pledges given to Japan in 1917, and 
President Wilson, in order to save the League 
of Nations, accorded Japan all the former Ger- 
man “rights, title, and privileges in the prov- 
ince of Shantung.” (See PEACE CONFERENCES. ) 
The Chinese delegates, supported by Chinese 
public opinion, pleaded their case with ardor 
and ability and refused to sign the Versailles 
Treaty, which contained the article relating 
to Shantung. The decision of the conference 
aroused vehement indignation in China, which 
Young China successfully employed to launch 
an anti-Japanese movement. The general dis- 
appointment and resentment of the Chinese peo- 
ple, who derived some comfort from the fact 
that the United States refused to ratify the 
Treaty, were directed primarily against the rul- 
ing Anfu party, whose pro-Japanese policy was 
blamed for the national misfortune. Although 
in the great excitement the guilt of that polit- 
ical clique was greatly exaggerated for reasons 
of internal policy, there was nevertheless much 
cause for such feeling, since the position of the 
Chinese delegation at the conference had been 
seriously injured when it became known that 
the Tuan government had concluded in the fall 
of 1918 a secret agreement whereby Chinese 
rights with regard to Shantung had been prac- 
tically surrendered. In the summer of 1920 the 
anti-Japanese movement, under the influence of 
the agitation of the students, drove Tuan Chi- 
jui and the Anfu Club from the government. 
The Anfu leaders took refuge in the Japanese 
Legation, and some of them fled subsequently 
to Japan to escape popular wrath. 

Japan worked hard to consolidate her posi- 
tion in China, but after the Peace Conference 
the Powers were once more able to devote their 
attention to Far Eastern affairs, and subsequent 
events brought about a partial modification of 
the Japanese policy in China. The new Peking 
governments were less subservient to Japan 
than the Anfu leaders and strove to recover 
some of the ground lost during the War. Re- 
peated attempts on the part of Japan in 1920 
and 1921 to come to an agreement with China 
regarding Shantung by offering to restore 
the territory provided certain concessions were 
granted her, failed because of Peking’s stead- 
fast refusal to consider anything short of al- 


A 
i 
r 
} 
} 
. 
’ 


—— ee. ee ee lr le 


CHINA 


most unconditional evacuation. At the Wash- 
ington Conference (q.v.) at the end of 1921, the 
Chinese delegation insisted on bringing the 
Shantung question before the Conference, The 
Japanese, on the other hand, wanted to nego- 
tiate with the Chinese directly, for this would 
have confirmed the tacit Japanese contention, 
contained also in the Lansing-Ishii Agreement, 
that China was in fact an informal Japanese 
protectorate. The Conference decided on a com- 
promise by conceding the Japanese demand but 
providing for Anglo-American mediation in case 
of deadlock. When the deadlock actually took 
place the English and American mediators, in- 
fluenced by. public opinion at home, brought 
pressure to bear on the Japanese to give way. 
The Shantung Treaty which was signed by Ja- 
pan and China early in 1922 provided for the 
restoration to China of the former German 
Leased Territory of Kiaochow and all public 
properties therein, together with the Tsingtao- 
Tsinanfu Railway and its branches, the value 
of the railway properties being reimbursed to 
Japan by China. The conference reached, in 
addition, numerous other agreements of prima- 
ry importance to China. (See SHANTUNG and 
WASHINGTON CONFERENCE.) ‘The lapsing of the 
Anglo-Japanese Alliance (q.v.), as a result of 
the conclusion of the Four Power Treaty, 
should affect China greatly in the future, inas- 
much as Great Britain in consequence thereof 
will be inclined in the future to codperate with 
the United States rather than with Japan in 
regard to Chinese affairs. The surrender by 
the Japanese of Kiaochow Bay induced the Brit- 
ish to promise to relinquish the Leased Ter- 
ritory of Wei-hai-wei. Provisions were also 
made for a revision of the customs schedule and 
for the abolition of the foreign post offices in 
China. The conclusion of the Nine Power 
Treaty reaffirming the Open Door an1 the in- 
tegrity of China brought with it also the ab- 
rogation of the Lansing-Ishii Agreement. 

In general the Washington Conference resuit- 
ed in a material improvement of the Chinese 
situation with reference to the Powers. Wheth- 
er it was due to pressure from the Powers or 
to a voluntary new orientation of Japanese pol- 
icy, Japan seemed to modify thereafter her 
policy of encroachment on Chinese territory 
and sovereignty. By far the most important 
result of the Washington Conference with re- 
gard to China was, however, the adoption of 
the Open Door policy, which in substance 
amounts to a concerted exploitation of China 
by the Powers as over against competitive ex- 
ploitation based on spheres of influence in the 
past. This development is to be ascribed di- 
rectly to the efforts of the United States. The 
Chinese Loan Consortium and its workings were 
part and parcel of this policy. An agreement 
had been arrived at in October, 1920, whereby 
combined financial supervision over China had 
been provided through the establishment of a 


_ Four Power Consortium to represent banking 


interests in the United States, Great Britain, 
France, and Japan. The chief points in the ar- 
rangement were the establishment of an inter- 
national board for the abolition of special 
spheres of influence, insistence on the disband- 
ing of troops, and the combining of all railway 
concessions into a large Chinese railway -system 
financed and supervised by the Consortium. 
After the fall of Tuan Chi-jui and the Anfu 
Club from power the government passed into 


295 


CHINA 


the hands of the Chihli faction, which was led 
by the two powerful Tuchuns, Tsao Kun and 
Chang Tso-lin. This event meant the substitu- 
tion of one military faction for another, High 
hopes for an improvement in internal condi- 
tions did not materialize. General Wu Pei-fu, 
who had been an important factor in the defeat 
of the Anfu Club, and who had come to the 
fore with the proposal for a National Conven- 
tion, was deftly pushed aside. The ruling poli- 
ticians of the Chihli faction began anew and on 
a greater scale the old struggle for spoils. The 
concentration of power in the hands of a few 
powerful super-Tuchuns who could more effec- 
tively deal with the Peking politicians than a 
larger number of lesser chieftains reduced the 
authority of the central government to a mere 
shadow. The President and the members of the 
cabinet became figureheads who governed with- 
out Parliament, obeyed the command of the 
Tuchuns, and were removed by the latter at 
will. Thus in 1921 Tsao Kun and Chang Tso- 
lin caused the fall of two cabinets because they 
were displeased with the policy of Peking. In 
the South the situation was no different. The 
Canton government had become disrupted, and 
intermittent fighting took place between Sun 
Yat-sen, his former lieutenant Chen Chiung- 
ming, and other factional leaders. New hope 
for the early cessation of the internal strife was 
derived from the struggle of the super-Tuchuns 
for supremacy in 1922. Wu Pei-fu, lord of the 
Yangtze, opposed Liang Shih-yi who was a 
creature of Chang Tso-lin, lord of Manchuria. 
An armed struggle took place between Wu and 
Chang in the course of which the latter was 
defeated and driven back to Manchuria. By 
virtue of his victory over the powerful Chang, 
General Wu found himself in the position of 
dictator. He forced President Hsii Shih-chang 
and the Cabinet to resign and recalled former 
President Li Yuan-hung and the twice-dissolved 
Parliament of 1917. In view of Li’s reputation 
as a defender of parliamentary rule and of 
General Wu’s supposed liberal tendencies, these 
developments gave rise to hopes for the estab- 
lishment of orderly and constitutional govern- 
ment. 

These hopes were sadly disappointed, for 
neither President Li, nor Parliament, nor the 
Cabinet, which was composed of leaders of 
Young China, were able to cope with the situa- 
tion, and General Wu’s good intentions had 
been grossly exaggerated. The Tuchun rule re- 
mained essentially the same as before, with 
each of the three powerful leaders, Wu Pei-fu, 
Tsao Kun, and Chang Tso-lin, striving for su- 
premacy. Likewise the relations between the 
North and the South did not undergo a change. 


During 1922 and 1923 General Wu repeatedly 


prepared to invade the South for a final combat 
with the Canton government but in each case 
was prevented from doing so by the rivalry of 
the other Tuchuns. Sun Yat-sen also was too 
occupied with fighting his rivals in the South 


to carry out his threat to move against Peking. 


Slowly, however, two large hostile camps 
evolved, the northern group under Wu Pei-fu 
and Tsao Kun, with Chen Chiung-ming in the 
South as collaborator, and the southern group, 
led by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, who counted on the 
aid of Marshals Chang Tso-lin and Tuan Chi- 
jui in the North. Open hostilities did not de- 
velop for some time ‘because the leaders on 
either side were too busy fighting their rivals 


CHINA 


and pursuing their own petty schemes. New 
political squabbles and intrigues took place at 
Peking during the first half of 1923, in the 
course of which President Li Yuan-hung clashed 
with the militarists and was forced to seek ref- 
uge in Tientsin. When compelled by the gover- 
nor of Chihli, a follower of Tsao Kun, to re- 
nounce all claims to the Presidency, he fled to 
Shanghai, where he attempted unsuccessfully, 
in conjunction with 200 members of Parliament, 
to form a provisional government. Li subse- 
quently found an asylum in Japan, and this 
eliminated him for the time being from the 
Chinese political arena. The election of a new 
president was delayed for some time, because 
the absence of some 200 members in Shanghai 
left Parliament short of the three-fourths ma- 
jority required for a presidential election. 

After several months of deadlock, Marshal 
Tsao Kun, who was very eager to become presi- 
dent, bribed a sufficient number of the recalci- 
trant members to return and was duly elected 
in October, 1923, by 420 votes, for each of 
which he payed $5000. He thus emerged as the 
most powerful factor in the North. His repu- 
tation as a veteran military leader, his great 
military and financial resources, and his alli- 
ance with Marshal Wu Pei-fu aroused hope that 
in the end he would be the man to unite the 
many factions and bring order out of chaos. 
On the whole Tsao Kun used his new authority 
well, inasmuch as he installed a cabinet which 
enjoyed public confidence and immediately on 
his inauguration had Parliament adopt a new 
constitution which superseded the old provision- 
al constitution and which provided for far- 
reaching provincial decentralization. Moreover 
he faithfully supported Wu Pei-fu in his cam- 
paign against the South, which assumed a new 
and more promising aspect during the first half 
of 1924. In the spring of that year General 
Wu finally succeeded in conquering a large por- 
tion of Southwestern China and thereby ob- 
tained a strategic position for the final attack 
on the Canton government. While the military 
situation thus changed in favor of the Peking 
government, there still remained in the extreme 
North the powerful Chang Tso-lin, who with 
Japanese support successfully challenged the 
authority of Peking from his stronghold in 
Manchuria. General -Wu’s victories in the 
South materially increased his power and gave 
him additional influence on the internal affairs 
of the Peking government. As long as Wu Pei- 
fu and Tsao Kun remain allied and sink their 
personal rivalries and ambitions into effective 
coéperation toward the unification of China, 
there seems reason to hope that this end will 
finally be attained. Meanwhile the confused 
situation in the South continued without 
change. Sun Yat-sen carried on desultory war- 
fare against his southern rivals. Having ex- 
hausted all means of obtaining the necessary 
financial support, Dr. Sun started several times 
during 1923 and the early part of 1924 to seize 
the customs revenues in Canton which had been 
pledged against foreign loans. These moves in- 
volved him in difficulties with the Powers and 
brought foreign warships to the scene. 

Perhaps the most serious difficulties besetting 
China during the last few years of the decade 
were financial disorders and the bandit problem, 
which were direct results of internal strife and 
Tuchun rule. The Peking government found it 
increasingly difficult to collect revenues for car- 


296 


CHINA 


rying on the administration and for paying out- 
standing foreign obligations. The military gov- 
ernors in the interior withheld the taxes and 
used them for their own selfish purposes while 
certain lucrative revenues, such as the customs 
duties and the income from the salt gabelle, 
were pledged as securities for foreign loans. At 
the same time the financial supervision of the 
Consortium struck a snag because the Chinese 
government refused to give the guarantees 
which were regarded by the international bank- 
ers as absolutely necessary for the stabilization 
of Chinese finances. The bandit problem was 
no less vexing. Endless civil war and Tuchun 
rule had resulted in a tremendous increase of 
the mercenary soldiery fighting for one or the 
other of the many factions. On the failure of 
the chieftains to pay their undisciplined hosts, 
or on their disbanding, these soldiers resorted 
with arms in hand to open banditry. For lack 
of authority the central government was either 
unable or unwilling to cope with this situation. 
Consequently murder, rape, and robbery were 
almost daily occurrences. Many cases of kid- 
napping of foreigners, particularly of mission- 
aries, took place during 1923 and the early part 
of 1924. The most flagrant incident was the 
derailing of the Shanghai-Peking Express on 
May 6, 1923, which resulted in the abduction 
of some 300 passengers, including 20 foreigners. 
This affair elicited sharp protests from the 
Powers. After dilatory tactics on the part of 
the Peking government, the foreign prisoners 
were released some months afterward and re- 
medial measures were taken in the fall of the 
year, but no actual alleviation of the bandit 
evil was effected. In fact, certain occurrences 
seemed to invite the conclusion that the bandits 
operated with the connivance of some of the 
military governors and that the Peking govern- 
ment was afraid or unwilling to. take strong 
measures against them. 

Of late years some improvement took place in 
China’s relations with foreign countries. As a 
result of the Washington Conference and from 
other causes, Japan’s attitude toward China 
underwent a slight modification. In accordance 
with the Treaty concluded at Washington, 
Tsingtao was returned to China on Dec. 10, 
1922, against the payment of 14,000,000 gold 
yen, and the Tsingtao Railroad was restored 
on Jan. 1, 1923, on China’s promise to compen- 
sate Japan in due time by the payment of 53,- 
000,000 gold marks. A Chinese note of Mar. 
10, 1923, requesting the abrogation of the Sino- 
Japanese Treaties and Agreements concluded in 
the spring of 1915, was met by Japan with a 
blunt refusal. (See JAPAN.) Japan maintained 
her hold on Inner Mongolia and Manchuria, and 
in the latter province she encouraged Chang 
Tso-lin in his open defiance of the Peking gov- 
ernment. (See MoncortiIaA and MANCHURIA.) 
The restoration of Wei-hai-wei by Great Pritain 
and of Kwang-chow-wan by France, in accord- 
ance with the agreement concluded at the 
Washington Conference (q.v.), had not been ef-’ 
fected by the summer of 1924. The delay in re- 
gard to Wei-hai-wei was due to the failure of 
Great Britain and China to agree on the terms 
of surrender, while the refusal of the French to 
return Kwang-chow-wan at this time must, no 
doubt, be ascribed to the difficulties between 
France and China over the Boxer Indemnity in- 
stallments. The Chinese insisted on paying 
these installments in the depreciated French pa- 


J 


’ kins. 


CHINA 


per currency instead of in gold francs as the 
French demanded. The protracted wrangles 
over this question were also responsible for 
the failure of the French to ratify the Wash- 
ington Treaty which provided for a 2% per 


‘cent increase in the Chinese Tariff (see WASH- 


INGTON CONFERENCE) and thus brought about 
indefinite delay in the application of this 
very important financial agreement. Of out- 
standing importance were the agreements con- 
cluded between China and Soviet Russia duy- 
ing the spring and summer of 1924. These 
should greatly affect China’s relations with 
the Powers. Since the consolidation of Soviet 
rule in Siberia, Russia adopted a _ definite 
Chinese policy and began to make overtures to 
China. This policy resulted after many pre- 
liminary negotiations in the conclusion of a 
treaty between China and Soviet Russia on May 
31, 1924, whereby Russia obtained full and un- 
conditional recognition from China and control 
over the Chinese Eastern Railway, while she 
pledged in return to withdraw her troops from 
Outer Mongolia. (See Monaorta.) In sub- 
stance this meant the entrance of Soviet Russia 
into the Chinese arena in opposition tq the 
western Powers. In the light of the rearrange- 
ment of Far Eastern policies at and since the 
Washington Conference and the reported Russo- 
Japanese rapprochement, this development 
should be of far-reaching significance for China 
and might well foreshadow a Russo-Japanese 
understanding wita regard to China. Protests 
against the agreement were entered by the Unit- 
ed States, France and Japan, on the ground 
that their financial interests in the Chinese 
Eastern Railway were not adequately protected. 

CHINA, ANCIENT CIVILIZATION oF. See 
ETHNOGRAPHY. “ 

CHINARD, GILBerT (1881- jen, Ash rench 
philologist. He was born in Chatellerault, and 
studied at Poitiers and the Sorbonne. He was 
professor of French language at the College of 
the City of New York in 1908, then for four 
years at Brown University, and from 1912-19 
at the University of California, teaching during 
the summer sessions at Columbia University. 
Since 1919, he has been professor at Johns Hop- 
He has published among other works: 
Lvexotisme américain dans la littérature fran- 
caise au XVIéme siccle (1911); L’Amérique et 
le réve exotique (1913); L’exotisme américain 
dans Voeuvre de Chateaubriand (1918); Cha- 
teaubriand, Les Natchez (1919); and La doc- 
trine de VAméricanisme (1919). 

CHIROL, Sir VALENTINE (1852- ).. An 
English journalist and writer on the Orient 
(see VoL. V). His later works include: Cecil 
Spring-Rice: In Memoriam (1919); The Egyp- 
tian Problem (1920); and India Old and New 
(1921). 

CHIROPRACTIC. A system of preventing 
and healing disease by manipulation which fol- 
lowed the success of osteopathy but which its 
practitioners assert to be of independent origin 
and derived by its originator, D. M. Palmer, 
from discoveries made accidentally during so- 
called magnetic healing. At first a practitioner 
of the latter and conductor of a school of mag- 
netic healing, D. M. Palmer, then of Davenport, 
Iowa, changed his methods to what he designat- 
ed as chiropractic. He soon established his cult 
in Oklahoma, where he opened a college. This 
period, from the accidental discovery until the 
establishment of the school, covered the decade 


297 


CHRISTEN 


1895-1905. Palmer later removed to California 
and continued his practice there until his death 
at San Diego in 1913. Disputes arose as to the 
legitimate successor of Palmer and also as to 
the essential features of chiropractic. In the 
absence of harmony among the leaders it is 
exceedingly difficult to present a satisfactory 
sketch of the movement. E. D. Palmer, son of 
the founder, opened a school of Chiropractic at 
Davenport which turned out thousands of grad- 
uates practicing the so-called Palmer method. 
On the other hand, Wilfred Carver, originally 
a practicing attorney who acted in a_profes- 
sional capacity for D. M. Palmer, became in- 
terested in the method, and in 1909 he pub- 
lished the first work’on the subject. He was at 
the head of the Carver School of Chiropractic 
in New York in 1924. He also drew the bills 
for legitimizing the practice of chiropractic in 
Oklahoma in 1907 and in the District of Colum- 
bia in the following year. In the meantime the 
practice had been legalized in several States, 
while bills were pending in others. By 1924 the 
cult claimed many thousand practitioners and 
millions of adherents. It seemed to have out- . 
stripped for the time the older cult of osteop- 
athy, which had progressively elevated its 
standards and eliminated the opportunities for 
practice by the unqualified. 

It was admitted by the legitimate chiroprac- 
tors that many bogus graduates and unqualified 
practitioners were usurping the name and func- 
tions of chiropractic, and they asserted that 
universal legalization of the practice would be 
necessary to eliminate this fraudulent element. 
Owing to the highly technical character of the 
manipulations of chiropractic, as well as the 
different conceptions of the art by its own prac- 
titioners, and the resemblances between chiro- 
practic and osteopathy, no attempt will be made 
to describe them here. The late Dr. A. Abrams 
of San Francisco attempted in 1910 to incor- 
porate the teachings of both osteopathists and 
chiropractors in a highly technical work called 
Spondylotherapy, which in a few years passed 
through five editions. This book is not regard- 
ed as authentic by the cults mentioned, both of 
which issue their own textbooks and _ propa- 
ganda; but it is of much interest as a document 
seeking to establish manipulation of the verte- 
bre on a scientific basis. 

CHITTENDEN, Russet Henry (1856- ie 
An American physiological chemist (see VoL. 
V). During the War, Chittenden was a mem- 
ber of the Advisory Committee on Food Utiliza- 
tion and also a member of the Executive Com- 
mittee of the National Research Council. He 
edited the United States Report of the Inter- 
Allied Scientific Commission. 

CHLORINE. See Cnremistry. 

CHODAT, Roeert (1866- ). A Swiss 
botanist (see Vor. V). In 1914, he was made 
a member of the Lennean Society and in 1908 
became director of l’Herbier Boissier. He pub- 
lished another volume of Principles of Botany 


in 1920, and Vegetation of Paraguay (1916, 
1921). 

CHOSEN. See Korea. 

CHRISTEN, JOSEPHINE (1869- oa 


Austrian sculptor and feminist. She was born 
in Bohemia of Czech and French parentage. 
She studied music and for 13 years was on the 
operatic stage under the direction of the fa- 
mous manager Angelo Neumann. Then _ she 
studied art in Prague and later in Paris, and 


CHRISTIAN X 


in 1908 settled in Vienna. From 1915 to 1917, 
she was with the Austrian army as _ official 
sculptor, and in 1918 exhibited her war work. 
Since then she has become absorbed in political 
life, and is the founder and president of the 
Austrian women voters’ association. Her prin- 
cipal works are “Cain,” “Salome” and “The 
Consoling Muse.” She has also done many pri- 
vate monuments and has exhibited in Paris, 
Vienna, Turin, etc. Her unusual versatility is 
proved by the fact that she has also published 
musical compositions, among them a mass. 
CHRISTIAN XX, Caru FREDERIK ALBERT 
ALEXANDER VILHELM (1870- Legh thea Ol 
Denmark (see Vot. V). By his personal pop- 
ularity and tact he was able during the War to 
keep Denmark to a strict neutrality. The great 
event of his reign was the plebiscite which 
brought back North Schleswig to Denmark. 
During his reign more than 2500 square miles 
of useless land were reclaimed to agriculture; 
a merchant marine was developed; world-wide 
commercial enterprise launched, such as_ the 
Great Northern Telegraph Company and the 
East Asiatic Company; and a number of impor- 
tant scientific discoveries were made. 
CHRISTIAN CHURCH. During the decade 
1914-24 the Christian Church changed the name 
of its administrative body from the American 
Christian Convention to the General Conven- 
tion of the Christian Church. According to the 
Federal census there were, in 1916, 1213 minis- 
ters; 1265 churches, including 111 colored; 
118,737 members, including 10,120 colored; and 
1115 Sunday schools, with 91,853 members. 
These compared with the statistics reported to 


the denomination in 1923 as follows: 1002 
ordained ministers, including 204 colored; 
1179 unordained, including 177 colored; 1134 


churches, including 169 colored; 103,091 mem- 
bers, including 10,258 colored; 851 Sunday 
schools with 82,614 members; and 301 Chris- 
tian Endeavor societies with 7141 members. 
It was estimated by the secretary that mem- 
prep was 10,000 more than that reported in 

923. 

The foreign mission work was extended in 
the 10 years by the addition of two single 
workers and one family in Japan, and one sin- 
gle worker and two families in Porto Rico. 
There was a corresponding gain in the number 
of national workers in each field, and new 
types of work were added, including kindergar- 
tens, a night school, newspaper evangelism and 
a lending library of religious books, and a 
large amount of interdenominational codépera- 
tive work. A church, a parsonage, and a mis- 
sion home were added to the equipment in Por- 
to Rico; and three chapels, three combination 
chapel-kindergarten-parsonages, and one kinder- 
garten building were added in Japan, and a 
good deal of rebuilding was done following the 
earthquake. New stations were added in both 
fields. The total membership of churches in 
Porto Rico inereased from 200 in 1914 to 300 
in 1924, and in Japan from 819 to 1694. 

The departments of Sunday school, Christian 
Endeavor and education were merged into the 
department of Christian education, a depart- 
ment of evangelism and life recruits was added, 
and stewardship was being pushed by a secre- 
tary. The home mission department more than 
trebled its income and its foree of workers, 
added work among Indians, new Americans and 
mountaineers, and developed a church exten- 


298 


CHRISTIAN SCIENCE 


sion work. The denomination conducted six 
colleges, one divinity school, and a college for 
cclored people at Franklinton. The college 
buildings at Elon College, N. C., which were 
totally destroyed by fire in 1923, were replaced 
by larger and wholly modern buildings. Books, 
tracts and several magazines were published by 
the denomination. 

CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR, Unirep Society 
OF. Founded in 1881. This is an interdenom- 
inational society of young people whose pur- 
pose is the training of converts for church mem- 
bership and church work. Its activities are di- 
vided into four classes: junior, intermediate, 
and senior societies, and alumni councils. The 
number of societies throughout the world in- 
creased from 75,000 in 1914 to 79,157 in 1923. 
From 1917 to 1928, when the world increase 
was from 78,039 to 79,157, the number of so- 
cieties in the United States decreased from 52,- 
462 to 46,560; the number in Canada decreased 
by four, from 4094 to 4090, and the number in 
foreign countries increased from 21,483 to 28,- 
507. The Comrades of the Quiet Hour, who 
devoted themselves to a definite period of med- 
itation and prayer each day, increased in mem- 
bership from 168,779 in 1918 to 225,277 in 
1923; the Tenth Legion, whose members gave 
one tenth of their incomes to religious work, 
increased in membership from 51,302 to 66,901; 
and the Life Work Recruits, young people who 
were ready to give themselves to full-time 
church service, increased from 4668 to 7217. 
In 1919 an alumni department was established. 
The degree of Christian Endeavor Expert was 
given to 39,864 young people who passed 
a definite examination in Christian Endeavor 
method. 

CHRISTIANS. See CurisTIAN CHURCH. 

CHRISTIAN SCIENCE. The number of 
Christian Science organizations increased from 
1551 in 1915 to 2117 in 1924; the number of 
lectures given, from 1530 to 3084, the esti- 
mated attendance being 1,200,000 and 2,389,677 
respectively. The trustees under the will of 
Mary Baker Eddy announced in 1914 that they 
would use the income of the trust to contrib- 
ute toward the expense of distributing author- 
ized literature throughout the world, to the 
expense of lectures given outside the United 
States, Canada, and Great Britain, and to as- 
sist so far as possible in building church edi- 
fices. During the year ending June 1, 1924, 
the number admitted to membership in the 
Mother Church was greater than at any time 
during the history of the movement. Reports 
from branch churches throughout the world al- 
so indicated a substantial growth in member- 
ship and regular attendance. The sale and dis- 
tribution of authorized Christian Science liter- 
ature, including the circulation of the Chris- 
tian Science Monitor, showed a marked in- 
crease. In 1917 Mrs. Eddy’s major work, Sci- 
ence and Health with Key to the Scriptures, 
was published in French, and the French Heé- 
raut de Christian Science, a monthly periodical, 
was established. Pamphlets on Christian Sci- 
ence were published in practically every lan- 
guage known to civilization. 

During the War the denomination maintained 
relief work among the soldiers and sailors of 
the various countries, which, together with its 
healing work, was the subject of favorable com- 
ment by men high in government, military, and 
medical authority. Christian Science chaplains 


a 


CHRISTIE 


for both the army and navy were appointed. 
Through one of these relief work was carried 
on in the Near East. The prompt and gener- 
ous aid furnished by the Mother Church and 


-its branches to the earthquake sufferers in 


Japan was officially recognized by the Japanese 
government. Prominent among the important 
changes of 1914-24 favorably affecting the legal 
status of Christian Science as a purely spirit- 
ual system of healing was the incorporation of 
an amendment in the Federal Maternity and 
Infancy Bill (see MATERNITY PROTECTION), giv- 
ing to parents or guardians the right to de- 
termine the form of treatment to be adminis- 
tered to a child. As a result of legislative en- 
actment Christian Science became an author- 
ized mode of healing in the United States and 
practically all foreign countries. A _ sanatori- 
um was opened in 1920 at Brookline, Mass., 
for the purpose of healing the sick and caring 
for some of those who had been associated with 
Mrs. Eddy in establishing the Christian Science 
Church and who were in need of provision for 
their peace and comfort during their mature 
years. In 1919 the trustees of the Christian 
Science Publishing Society brought suit against 
the Christian Science Board of Directors of the 
First Church of Christ, Scientist, in Boston, 
called the Mother Church, to determine whether 
the trustees or the Board of Directors had con- 
trol over the policies of the publications. The 
Supreme Court of Massachusetts handed down 
a decision in favor of the Board of Directors 
in 1921. A memorial to Mrs. Eddy in Mt. Au- 
hurn Cemetery, Cambridge, Mass., was com- 
pleted in 1917 at a cost of $150,000, raised by 
voluntary contributions from beneficiaries of 
Christian Science. 

CHRISTIE, Gerorce Irvine (188l- ji 
An American educator, born at Winchester, 
Ont., Canada. He graduated from Iowa Agri- 
cultural College in 1903 and from that year to 
1905 was assistant in agronomy in the lowa 
State College. From 1905, he was connected 
with the agricultural department of Purdue 
University as superintendent of agricultural 
extension, director of the Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, and director of the Summer 
School for Teachers. From 1917 to 1919 he 
was State Food Director for Indiana, and was 
assistant secretary of agriculture in 1918-19. 
He was also a member of several important 


boards relating to agriculture during the War, 


and in 1919 was a member of the National 
Commission for the Employment of Soldiers 
and Sailors. 

CHRISTY, Howarp CHANDLER (1873- x 
An American painter (see VoL. V). He re- 
turned to portrait painting in 1920 and painted 
portraits of Will. H. Hays, George Harvey, 
Post Wheeler and others. He also painted the 
picture of the late President Warren G. Harding 
for the U. S. S. Leviathan. 

CHROMOSOMES. See Zod Loey. 

CHUBB, PeErcivat (1860- ). An Ameri- 
can educator (see VoL. V). He was president 
of the Drama League of America from 1915 
to 1917 and from 1918 to 1920. 

CHURCHES OF CHRIST IN AMERICA, 
FepERAL Counci, or. See FEDERAL CoUNCIL 
OF CHURCHES OF CHRIST IN AMERICA. 

CHURCHILL, Cuartes Simon (1856- he 
An American railway official, born in New 
Britain, Conn. He graduated from the Shef- 
field Scientific School in 1878 and from 1879 


299 


CILICIA 


to 1881 was engaged in surveys and railroad 


construction in Connecticut and Pennsylvania. 


He served as superintendent of construction 
and as engineer of many important railroads 
in the Middle West and from 1918 was vice- 
president of the Norfolk and Western Railroad. 
He was chairman of commissions representing 
the Southern group of railways on Federal val- 
uation, in 1913. He was an authority in the 
ventilation of railway tunnels and on the test- 
ing of materials. He was a frequent contribu- 
tor of technical articles to engineering publi- 
cations and was a member of several scientific 
societies. 


CHURCHILL, Winston (1871- ). ‘An 
American author (see Vout. V). His most re- 
cent works include: A Far Country (1915); 


The Dwelling Place of Light (1917); A Tra- 
veller in War-Time, with an Essay on the 
American Contribution to the Democratic Idea 
(1918); Dr. Jonathan, three-act play, (1919) ; 
and The Crisis (1921). 

CHURCHILL, Rr. Hon. Winston Leonarp 
SPENCER (1874- ). An English statesman 
(see Vor. V). At the outbreak of the War 
he was First Lord of the Admiralty but was 
forced to resign in 1915, and was then ap- 
pointed Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. 
He entered the army in 1916 and went to 
France as major in the Grenadier Guards, but 
retired in the same year. In 1917-18, he was 
Minister of Munitions. He was blamed for the 
Dardanelles disaster of 1917, but nevertheless 
was appointed Secretary of State for War and 
for Air in 1918. He held this office until 1921, 
when he became Secretary of State for the 
Colonies. In 1914, he was Rector of Aberdeen 
University. 

CHURCH OF ENGLAND. See ENGLAND, 
CHURCH OF. 

CHURCH OF GOD. See ADVENTISTs. 

CHURCH OF THE NEW JERUSALEM. 
See NEw JERUSALEM, CHURCH OF. 

CILICIA. This region in southeastern Asia 
Minor was the centre, after the War, of Ar- 
menian nationalistic aspirations and later of 
French imperialistic schemes. It was occupied 
by the British-French forces in their trium- 
phant march north in 1918; its control fell to 
the French in 1919 in accordance with the 
terms of the secret Sykes-Picot agreement of 
May, 1916. The later discredited Sevres Treaty 
of 1920 put the stamp of approval on the occu- 
pation by assigning a portion of Cilicia to the 
French mandate territory of Syria. A_ secret 
treaty, signed at the same time by France, 
Great Britain, and Italy, protected France in 
her rights in the rest of the territory by means 
of a zone of influence. Armenians flocked there 
in the hope of gaining asylum as well as pos- 
sible French support in operations against the 
Turkish Nationalists who late in 1920 were 
moving against their compatriots in the East. 
The French policy had veered about, however. 
Rather than manifest an interest in Armenians, 
the French bent all their energies to conciliat- 
ing the Turks. Armenians, who complained 
bitterly of Turkish massacres in the Taurus, 
were informed by French officials that they 
must either accept Turkish rule or be prepared 
to quit the country. The Turks, strangely 
enough, were unyielding, and French attempts 
at the pacification of Cilicia were stubbornly 
resisted in 1920-21. The policy proved waste- 
ful and ill-advised, and from March, 1921, the 


CINCINNATI 


French tried to withdraw as gracefully as they 
might. In that month, Briand met with a 
Turkish Nationalist at London to effect an 
understanding, but the French concessions were 
not deemed adequate by the Turkish National 
Assembly. Finally, on Oct. 20, 1921, France 
and the Angora government signed a _ treaty 
which provided for the evacuation of Cilicia. 
(See TurKEy.) A subsequent agreement pro- 
vided for the protection of the Christian popu- 
lations, the postponement of military conscrip- 
tions, and the creation of a Franco-Turkish 
commission with Cilician representation for 
the safeguarding of property. By Great Bri- 
tain the step was regarded with hostility, for 
it meant a further repudiation of the Entente 
as well as the endangering of British interests 
in the Near East. The boundary between Syria 
and Turkey, as fixed by the treaty of Oct. 20, 
1921, was written into the Treaty of Lausanne 
of July 24, 1923. Cilicia thus once more re- 
verted to Turkey. 

CINCINNATI. The second city of Ohio. 
The population increased from 384,745 in 1910 
to 401,247 in 1920, and to 406,312, by estimate 
of the Bureau of the Census, in 1923. A new 
home rule charter was adopted in 1918 by popu- 
lar vote and the ballot thereafter was _ short- 
ened, as the city treasurer and city solicitor 
were to be appointed by the mayor instead of 
being elected by the public. A city planning 
commission was created and given extensive 
powers, and a zoning ordinance was enacted in 
1924. A rapid transit system was under con- 
struction, a portion of which utilized the right 
of way of the abandoned Miami and Erie Canal, 
which was turned over by the State to the city 
for the purpose. Eleven miles of the system, 
which was to be 1614 miles long, were finished 
in 1923. The completed work was to include 
2.45 miles of subway, 9 miles of open track- 
age, 0.2 miles of tunnel, 3.4 miles of concrete 
trestle, and 1.4 miles of concrete elevated struc- 
ture. A double deck terminal for interurban 
electric cars was finished the same year at a 
total cost of approximately $11,000,000. The 
work of locking and damming the Ohio River 
with a view to establishing a 9-foot stage the 
year round was practically completed in 1924 
and was expected to prove of especial benefit to 
Cincinnati in the shipment of coal from the 
Kentucky, Tennessee. and West Virginia fields. 
As a result of the War the city became a most 
important machine tool and metal working cen- 
tre. See CINCINNATI, UNIVERSITY OF. 

CINCINNATI, University or. <A coeduca- 
tional municipal institution at Cincinnati, Ohio, 
founded in 1871. The student body increased 
more than 150 per cent, from 1866 in 1914 to 
4756 in 1924 and 323 in the summer of 1923; 
the faculty from 186 to 323 members; and the 
library from 96,000 bound volumes and 79,000 
pamphlets, to 129,371 volumes. The produc- 
tive funds rose from $1.500,000 to $4,291,244, 
and the income from $299,000 to $1.068,933. 
College of Commerce was fused with the College 
of Engineering, which was known thereafter as 
the College of Engineering and Commerce; the 
Cincinnati Hospital Training School for Nurses 
became a department in the College of Medicine 
in 1916; the Cincinnati Law School became the 
College of Law of the university in 1918; the 
School of Household Arts, organized in 1914, 
was made the department of home economics in 
the College of Education; a new department 


300 


The . 


CITY PLANNING 


of hygiene and physical education was organized 
in 1916; and a department of leather research 
and a professorship of surgical anatomy were 
created in 1921. In 1922 the School of Ap- 
plied Arts was opened under the direction of ° 
the dean of the College of Engineering and 
Commerce. A chemistry building and a wom- 
en’s building were completed in 1916 and a 
dormitory for men in 1923; the Alphonso Taft 
College of Law building was under construction 
at a cost of $250,000 in 1924; the Tanners’ 
Council of America was building a $100,000 re- 
search laboratory in connection with the College 
of Engineering and Commerce. Francis Bald- 
win gave the university $600,000 in 1916 and 
the Carnegie Corporation and the Rockefeller 
Foundation $200,000 each in 1920; the Gradu- 
ate School and classical department received a 
gift of $275,000 in 1923. Frederick Charles 
Hicks succeeded Charles William Dabney, Ph.D., 
LL.D., as president in 1920. 

CINCINNATI SYMPHONY ORCHES- 
TRA. See Music, Orchestras. 

CITIES. See MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT. 

CITRUS CANKER. See PLANTS, DISEASES — 


F', 

CITY MANAGER. See MUNICIPAL GOVERN- 
MENT. 

CITY PLANNING. Although the War 
brought city planning and replanning projects 
in Europe to a sudden stop and put a gradual 
stoppage to such work in the United States and 
Canada, yet in the long run it did much to 
stimulate such planning in all the warring 
countries. This arose, first of all, through the 
planning of industrial war towns, either new 
ones or additions to old settlements, which, un- 
der various new social stimuli, made use of 
the new art of city and town planning to in- 
crease the amenities of urban industrial life. 
The reconstruction of devastated areas in Eu- 
rope also gave rise to much careful city plan- 
ning for immediate or early execution. In the 
United States there was much planning de- 
spite the War, especially before America joined 
the Allies. In addition to all this, 1915 and 
1916 saw the beginning in the United States 
of the great city zoning movement which gained 
impetus by 1920 and has since swept over the 
country. The fact that zoning requires no con- 
struction outlay and comparatively little oper- 
ating expense and that it prepares the way for 
the more orderly, more economical and more 
efficient construction of several kinds of muni- 
cipal works facilitated zoning at a time when 
many other municipal activities were almost at 
a standstill. Although not known by that 
name at the time, zoning in America was be- 
gun as early as 1904 by Boston, following State 
enabling legislation of 1898 and 1904 which 
empowered Boston to limit the height of build- 
ing near the public library on Copley Square. 
In 1909, Los Angeles instituted zoning in a 
limited way. In 1915 zoning was adopted by 
Neenah, Wis. What gave it its real start in 
America was the exhaustive study of the sub- 
ject made in New York City, followed by the 
adoption of a remarkably complete zoning ordi- 
nance in 1916, under a State enabling act. 
passed two years earlier. A second city adopted 
zoning in 1916 and three States in 1917. Eight. 
joined the ranks in 1918, 14 in 1919, 28 in 1921, 
79. in 1922, and 81;in 1923..'QOn Jani.1, 1924, 
zoning had been adopted by 221 American cities 
in 27 States; 35 States and the District of 


CITY PLANNING 


Columbia had authorized zoning, and in two 
States zoning had been adopted, by one city in 
each case, without State authorization. 

The distribution of the 221 zoned municipal- 
ities and the character of the zoning are shown 
by the: table on page 303 made up for use 
here from a list of zoned cities compiled by the 
Division of Building and Housing of the United 
States Department of Commerce. The original 
list cites the dates and character of the zoning 
enabling acts passed by 35 of the 48 States 
of the Union, some giving broad powers to all 
municipalities and others restricting the scope 
of the work and the cities permitted to under- 
take it. Zoning is effected by a city ordinance. 
When comprehensive it prescribes the percent- 
age of the area of lots which may be covered 
with buildings or sets a minimum limit on the 
depths of front and rear and the widths of side 
lots; the heights to which buildings may be 
carried, either specifically or in relation to 
street widths, but generally with provisions 
for towers and for carrying other limited parts 
of a building above the main cornice line by 
means of one or more setbacks; and the classes 
of buildings that may be erected, as, for in- 
stance, residence, business or industrial. Gen- 
erally there are two or more subdivisions in 
each main class. For instance, there may be 
single-family, two-family, and apartment-house 
residence districts, or even many more subdi- 
visions in this class. The Chicago zoning ordi- 
nance, adopted by the unanimous vote of the 
city council on Apr. 5, 1923, provides for four 
classes of use and five classes of volume dis- 
tricts, with control by the city building commis- 
sioner. According to approved practice, there 
is a board of appeals. The ordinance was 
framed by a commission of 22 city officials, 
business men, engineers and architects. The 
use districts are private residence, apartment, 
commercial, and manufacturing. The volume 
districts are for the regulation of heights of 
buildings and percentage of lots built on and 
are thus combinations of the more usual height 
and area districts. The volume classification 
for private residences, two-story flats, and sim- 
ilar buildings is 33 feet to the roof line, and 
a considerable allowance for yard space; for 
three-story apartments, 66 feet; taller apart- 
ment houses, 132 feet; warehouse and office 
buildings, near the central district, 198 feet; 
downtown, 264 feet. These heights may be ex- 
ceeded at certain distances back from the cor- 
nice and by spires and other projections. 

Constitutionality of Zoning. The legal ba- 
sis of zoning is the police power. Reliance 
should not be placed on the general grant of 
police powers by the State to the city but 
rather in specific State zoning legislation, pref- 
erably but not necessarily applicable to all the 
municipalities of the State. Since there was 
no such thing as zoning when many of the 
State constitutions were adopted, it has been 
considered necessary or advisable to secure con- 
stitutional amendments authorizing zoning in 
some States. A considerable body of court de- 
cisions in support of zoning has been built up; 
some of these have emanated from the United 
States Supreme Court. Broadly, the power to 
authorize zoning rests with each State legisla- 
ture, subject only to inhibitions, generally im- 
plied if construed as existing. A standard or 
model State zoning enabling act was drawn in 
1922 and revised as of Jan. 1, 1923, by a com- 


301 


CITY PLANNING 


mittee of experts appointed by Secretary of 
Commerce Hoover; this was obtainable from 
the United States Department of Commerce. 
Acts modeled wholly or partly on this standard 
had been passed by 11 States and were being 
considered by the Legislatures of four others 
early in 1924. 

State court decisions up to 1924 were in some 
cases strongly adverse to zoning and in others 
equally strong in support of its legality under 
the State constitution. Thus in 1923 there 
were two adverse decisions in the New Jersey 
Supreme Court and one in the Missouri Su- 
preme Court, while the Louisiana and Wiscon- 
sin courts upheld local zoning ordinances. The 
two adverse decisions in New Jersey were lim- 
ited in application compared with those in the 
three other States and are subject to appeal. 
The Missouri decision, in the highest State 
court, was sweepingly against zoning as out- 
side the police power and confiscatory, while 
the Louisiana and Wisconsin decisions, also in 
the highest State courts, were as uncondition- 
ally sweeping in the opposite direction. The 
New Jersey decisions were still under appeal 
in May, 1924. The Missouri decision, four to 
three, held that the St. Louis zoning ordinance 
“provides for the taking of property for a pub- 
lic use without compensation and without a ju- 
dicial hearing,” is outside the police power, and 
would result in “confiscation pure and simple.” 
The New Orleans zoning ordinance, sustained 
by the Louisiana Supreme Court in reversal of 
a lower court, rests on this authorization of 
zoning in the Louisiana constitution of 1921: 
, Pat aeRe ; = 
“All municipalities are authorized to zone their 
territory to create residential, commercial and 
industrial districts and to prohibit the estab- 
lishment of places of business in residential 
districts.” The court held that the New Or- 
leans ordinance “is a valid exercise of the police 
power” and not in violation of the Federal con- 
stitution. The Louisiana court even went so 
far as to declare that esthetic considerations, 
as affecting “the comfort and happiness of the 
residents” of a district and sustaining “in a 
general way the value of property in a neigh- 
borhood,” may be protected by a zoning ordi- 
nance. It also said: “An eyesore in a neigh- 
borhood of residences might be as much of a 
public nuisance, and as ruinous to property val- 
ues in the neighborhood generally, as a disa- 
greeable noise, odor, or menace to safety or 
health.” 

In the Milwaukee decision, given by the State 
Supreme Court of Wisconsin on Dec. 11, 1923, 
the court said in part: 

“Tf in the prosecution of governmental functions it 
becomes necessary to take private property, compensa- 
tion must be made, but incidental damage to property 
resulting from governmental activities or laws passed 
in the promotion of the public welfare is not considered 
a taking of the property for which compensation must 
be made. ; 

“This is no new idea, although it has but recently 
taken the form of legislation. Every one who has ob- 
served the haphazard development of cities, the deteri- 
oration in the desirability of certain residential sections 
by the encroachment of business and industrial estab- 
lishments on and into such sections, resulting in the 
consequent destruction of property values and in the 
ultimate abandonment of such _ sections for residential 
purposes, has appreciated the desirability of regulating 
the growth and development of our urban communities. 

“Fresh air and sunshine add to the happiness of the 
home and have a direct effect on the well being of the 
occupants. It cannot be denied that a city systemat- 
ically developed offers greater attractiveness to the 
house seeker than a city developed in a haphazard way. 


The one compares to the other as a well ordered de- 
partment store compares to a junk shop.’’ 


CITY PLANNING 


By a unanimous decision of the Kansas 
State Supreme Court in a Wichita case, the 
validity of excluding a commercial building 
from a residence district was established. In- 
cluded in the decision were these sentences: 
“There is an esthetic and cultural side of mu- 
nicipal development which may be fostered with- 
in reasonable limitations. Such legislation is 
merely a liberalized application of the general 
welfare purposes of the State and Federal con- 
stitutions.” (See National Municipal Review, 
June 1923, for synopsis of case and decision. ) 

The Missouri decision is not locally construed 
as wholly invalidating the St. Louis zoning or- 
dinance. The City Counsellor of St. Louis hav- 
ing ruled that the height regulations were still 
in force, an ordinance was approved by the 
mayor on Mar. 11, 1924, repealing the old 
height limits, which varied from 150 feet in 
the business districts to 45 feet in outlying sec- 
tions, with 10 per cent additional in some cases, 
and providing that buildings in any part of 
the city may be carried to a height equal to 
two and a half times the width of the street, 
buildings of first class construction to go as 
high as 206 feet, and if fronting on these 
streets, to 250 feet. This opens residence 
districts to high houses and makes additional 
high buildings possible in the downtown dis- 
rict. 

In both the United States and Canada, city 
planning is controlled by the several States 
and provinces, and activities of the general gov- 
ernment in that field are confined to advice, 
research and the collection and dissemination 
of information. State activities in America 
have been confined to legislation, except that 
up to May, 1923, State departments or divisions 
of city planning had been created in Massachu- 
setts, New York, Pennsylvania and California. 
In 1917, Canada, through its Department of 
Conservation and Development, engaged as 
town planning adviser Thomas Adams, who had 
been an inspector of the British Local Govern- 
ment Board since the passage of the Housing 
and Town Planning Act of 1909. In 1917 also 
the commission just named put out a model 
town planning act for the benefit of such of the 
provincial Legislatures as might wish to pass 
acts dealing with the subject. 

In 1919, the British Town Planning Act of 
1909 was amended. An important change was 
a clause making town planning compulsory in- 
stead of permissive, the compulsory feature go- 
ing into effect Jan. 1, 1923, in all places which 
by the Census of 1921 had a population of 20,- 
000 or more. By Jan. 21, 1926, these places 
must submit town planning schemes to the Min- 
istry of Health, successor of the Local Govern- 
ment Board. France passed its first. general 
city planning law in 1919. This is somewhat 
broader than the British act of the same year. 
Within three years of its promulgation, the 
French act provided that planning schemes 
must be in force in every city of 10,000 popula- 
tion or over, all communities in the Department 
of the Seine, all places of 5000 to 10,000 popu- 
lation that show a growth of more than 10 per 
cent between two successive quinquennial cen- 
suses, and settlements, regardless of size, hav- 
ing a picturesque, artistic or historic charac- 
ter. (See The New International Year Book, 
1919, for further details.) 

Regional planning received increasing atten- 


tion since papers on the subject were presented | 


302 


CITY PLANNING 


to the National Conference on City Planning 
at its meeting in 1919 (see Proceedings of the 
Conference). Up to 1924 the subject had not 
gone beyond the study and report stage. By 
far the most notable undertaking of this kind, 
under the name, “Plan of New York and Its 
Environs,” was begun early in 1921 and first 
publicly announced in May, 1922, at a largely 
attended meeting of engineers, architects, city 
planners, publicists, and civic workers held in 
New York City at the call of the Russell Sage 
Foundation, the chief backer of the project. 
The plan included the entire metropolitan dis- 
trict of New York and New Jersey and all of 
Long Island and took in territory as far as 
Bridgeport, Conn.; West Point, N. Y.; Prince- 
ton, N. J., and a large part of the New Jersey 
seacoast. The regional survey embraces some 
5528 square miles with a resident population 
of some 9,000,000, living in nearly 400 com- 
munities. The work was in charge of a com- 
mittee having Frederic A. Delano as chairman, 
with Thomas Adams as general director of 
plans and surveys. The detail into which it 
was going is illustrated by a 50-page report 
issued by the committee early in 1924, on The 
Chemical Industry in New York and Its En- 
virons; Present Trends and Probable Future 
Developments, the first of a series of economic 
monographs. 

Los Angeles Regional Planning Conferences 
were held in 1922 and 1923. The Committee 
on Municipal and Metropolitan Affairs of the 
Boston Chamber of Commerce made a report 
in 1922 on Metropolitan Planning and Develop- 
ment in Boston and Its Environs. In 1923 
was formed within the Metropolitan District 
Commission of Massachusetts a Division of 
Metropolitan Planning to investigate the trans- 
portation service and its codrdination with 
roads, bridges, waterways, railroads, street rail- 
ways, and other arteries of traffic. In Janu- 
ary, 1924, a Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan 
Planning Committee was organized to serve an 
area of 25-mile radius. This movement had 
been started by the Northwestern Section of 
the American Society of Civil Engineers. Dur- 
ing 1923 the Regional Planning Association of 
America was formed, with Clarence 8. Stein of 
New York City as secretary. 

Construction work to carry out city replan- 
ning improvements included large expenditures 
at Chicago for various purposes and consider- 
able outlays on major street plans or impor- 
tant street widenings and extensions at St. 
Louis, Detroit, Philadelphia, Boston, and else- 
where; civie centre groups at Cleveland, Den- 
ver, San Francisco, and smaller places, and the 
two municipal buildings and the tower between 
them at Springfield, Mass. A pamphlet review 
of Progress in the Chicago City Plan during 
the Ten Years 1909-19 showed that in that 
period 12 major street improvements had been 
put under way at a total cost of $230,000,000, 
of which $61,500,000 had been raised by bonds 
voted by the people and $162,000,000 fell on 
various railway companies. Besides these im- 
provements, much was done and much more 
was projected to improve city transit facilities, 
and attention was given to the relief of street 
traffic conjestion by automobiles, parking, ete. 
(See articles by Herbert S. Swan in Hngineer- 
ing News-Record, Feb. 22, and Mar. 1, 1923, on 
Automobile Traffic, City Planning and Traffic 
Regulations and Speeding Up Traffic at Street 


> 


CIVIC FEDERATION 


Intersections, each accompanied by diagrams 
and tables.) 

Bibliography. Among the many books on 
city planning and allied subjects published 
since 1913 are Koester, Modern City Planning 
and Maintenance (New York); Nolen, City 
Planning (New York); Lewis, The Planning 
of the Modern City, followed by new edition in 
1922 (New York); Adams Rural Planning and 
Development (Ottawa, Canada); Garden Cities 
and Back to the Land (London); Moore, Daniel 
Burnham, Planner of Cities (Boston); Wil- 
liams, The Law of City Planning and Zoning 
(New York), on world-wide legislation and 
American court decisions; Kimball, Manual of 
Information on .City Planning and Zoning 
(Cambridge, Mass.); Hughes and _ Lanborn, 
Towns and Town Planning, Ancient and Mod- 
ern (London); Adshead, Town Planning and 
Town Development (London). Consult also 
annual reports of National City Planning Con- 
ference (New York) and Town Planning Re- 
view, a British quarterly. 


CIVIC FEDERATION, Nationa. Seth 


393 


CIVIC FEDERATION 


and the growth of welfare work during the past 
thirty years, and uniformity of legislation and 
court procedure. Seth Low, president, who died 
during the year, was succeeded by V. Everit 
Macy. In 1917 the annual meeting was held in 
New York City in January. The programme 
covered regulation of industrial corporations, 
compulsory health insurance, infringement of 
personal liberty, health of United States troops 
at the Mexican border, parallelism between set- 
tlement of international and industrial disputes, 
woman labor, and war problems. During the 
year, the Federation planned and undertook a 
great campaign for cooperation between employ- 
ers and employees to help win the war. The con- 
vention of 1918 was also held in New York City. 
The main subject discussed was the programme 
of the British labor party. The Federation was 
active during the year in securing compensation 
for enlisted men, industrial training for the 
war emergency, proper housing for war workers, 
etc. During 1919 the Federation was especially 
active in spreading propaganda against Bolshe- 
vism through its official organ, ‘The National 


STATUS OF ZONING IN THE UNITED STATES, JAN. 


1, 1924, FROM INFORMATION COLLECTED AND 


COMPILED BY THE DIVISION OF BUILDING AND HOUSING, UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


Com Use Use Height Not 
State prehen Use and and Height and given Total 
sive Height area area 
ISG SIRE re re He a5 rae 
ales ae tye ty le ees 5 16 2 AF: Ae 1 24 
MUO peste «ahs hefile <devatex Ju 1 z a ts 1 
CL re eee Sve sila A ane wt ea 
Ir es cis < oe atiste sie 2 ae Ae tes cc 
10), (Obes 1, eS ee 1 at, : ah we 1 
HlOTid amet: fetches ae 1 3 SP Leg il. 
Col. A ae 1 itis ‘ “ye “A 1 
181, 2), an eee 23 melee A 2 dee 25 
ee, ee 5 nae A . A a 5 
SUR Vx tetas c's tete < kin Soe AVyee 5 sf Le a 
ii “Ree o 2 Ass ope , 1 La 3 
lh) seller tes eseteendstsaenae aes Roe ehe ‘ B65 ye Ait: 
meme cy Jou. 0. 1 § : . 1 
tp Pe ee ene eee 8 5 . 1 1 15 
Mee. . dontie sn. 4 ae : +: 4 
IVENTITI MEME AS. cies ce tee 1 aie . i 
CEPR eMac io dialetons! «ate 4 5B ~ A 
iS fo? ee oe 1 on 1 
ley 1g. eel ea aaa 43 14 e 5 62 
eRe ee ee 18 12 5 35 * 
N. C free Cte eeodw@e é ae 8 6 1 eee . ° = htt is riley 2 1 
iN TOES oe eee net Xe o- see 2° eos 
ODIO sent tals atekcne = 13 2 es °° cee 2: 15 
(OVE a eg ht Rie om ae 1 ae o . oe 1 
Oren®) 23. sarin ix. ve Ar oe sere a eee 
LS RRP Eee ee 1 : .- see oe a 
Leh, delle med pats at, pei Re 2 1 Ast . cee 2 3 
poe are © ee hae ke eee a6 BA Ai oe cee : oe 
plein piss) eat ; Sees 1 Miata ake ve “70° ve 1 
UGX Sy... th ste SAN Ss Wo ao ae see cere * 1 
ot ee lala iatell pate, © a 2 3 . 1 + 1 
et Ott LOU 1 pe 4 see sees 1 2 
Waaste # 020.0, sist sg 1 1 HIN tees see tee 2 
Rho. dia 5 paiiullan aens 6 5 bie ary sees sees see 11 
WW OdMTS ook, . o sveze pita Barts 4 eee cose tee cess see 
OUBE ET «rata (ei Wekatees 142 62 2 3 1 1 ne 223s 


* Includes those places 
142 comprehensive; 
209 cover use, 


i.e. use, height and area. 
alone or in’ combination. 

Low was president of the organization in 1915. 
The Industrial Economics Department made a 
survey of the social and industrial changes 
which had taken place in the United States dur- 
ing the preceding generation. The annual meet- 
ing for 1916 was held at Washington in January. 
One session was devoted to the discussion of 
preparedness for national defense. Among other 
subjects considered were workmen’s compensa- 
tion, pensions for public and industrial employ- 
ees, immigration, changes in labor conditions 

il 


in Eastchester Town covered | by one ordinance. 


6 cover area, alone or in combination. 
146 cover height, alone or in combination. 
Civic Federation Review. A commission was 
sent to England, France, and Italy for the pur- 
pose of studying industrial conditions in those 
countries. The report of this commission was 
made in September. In 1919, President Macy 
was forced to retire because of ill health, and 
Alton B. Parker was elected president. The 
campaign against Bolshevism continued in 1920. 
The Federation’s foreign commission reported on 
social insurance. A second report on_ profit 
sharing was issued. International peace and 


CIVIL SERVICE REFORM 


the League of Nations were considered. In 
this year the annual meeting of the Federation 
was held in New York City. Among the sub- 
jects discussed were increased production 
through industrial training; arbitration, con- 
ciliation, and collective bargaining, and revolu- 
tionary forces in the United States. In 1921 
the national industrial commission of the Fed- 
eration made a special study of questions affect- 
ing the three great divisions of society: capital, 
labor, and the general public. The annual meet- 
ing was held in New York City. The chief 
subjects discussed were problems confronting the 
railroads, trust regulation, free speech, academic 
freedom, chemical warfare, and the Russian 
situation. In 1922 the department on revolu- 
tionary movements made an interesting inquiry 
into the extent to which revolutionary forces 
had penetrated the church, the college, the press, 
women’s clubs, trade unions, etc.; issued a 
symposium on Wells’ Outline of History, and 
took up the “Youth” movement. A national 
committee on foreign relations was organized, 
with the function of educating the people of the 
country in foreign relations. In April, 1928, 
the annual meeting, held in New York City, 
took up the demand for the release of 1. W. W. 
war prisoners, conditions in Soviet Russia, paci- 
fist opposition to patriotic movements, and the 
citizen’s duty to participate in party politics. 
In 1924, the annual meeting was held in New 
York City, April 23-24. The department on 
current economic and political movements re- 
ported on industrial, social, and civic progress 
in the past fifty years. The discussion embraced 
the new economic policy of the American Fed- 
eration of Labor, Soviet Russia, pacifism and 
militarism, and practical politics. A very ac- 
tive women’s department is connected with the 
Federation. 

CIVIL SERVICE REFORM LEAGUE. 
An organization founded in 1881, to establish 
and promote the merit system of appointment, 
promotion and removal in the civil service 
throughout the United States. Throughout the 
decade 1914-1924 the League was active in in- 
vestigating conditions in the government, in 
protesting against violations of the law and 
urging the extension of the merit system. As 
a result of its findings on the sources of ineffi- 
ciency in government departments during the 
War, President Wilson reorganized the Civil 
Service Commission in 1919. Clauses inimical 
to the civil service reform were struck out from 
the National Defense Bill, the Shipping and De- 
fense Bills of 1916, and the 1920 Census Bill, 
though the Rural Credits Bill and the Vol- 
stead Bill were enacted without changes sug- 
gested by the League. A bill sponsored by the 
League which provided for the reorganization 
of the Foreign Service was enacted. The League 
conducted a successful campaign in Colorado in 
coéperation with the local committee, for a civ- 
il service amendment to the constitution and 
helped in securing civil service charters in sev- 
eral important cities. Under the Harding ad- 
ministration it protested the dismissal of the 
director and 30 employees of the Bureau of En- 
graving and Printing and the dismissal of A. 
P. Davis from the post of Commissioner of 
Reclamation. The programme of the League 
demanded the reclassification of the postal serv- 
ice; the inclusion of the prohibition enforce- 
ment bureau in the classified service and the 
elimination of provisions permitting appoint- 


304 


CLARK 


ment of “special experts” without examination. 
tichard Henry Dana was President of the 
League from 1913 to 1923. The officers in 1924 
were: President, William Dudley Foulke; Secre- 
tary, Harry W. Marsh; Treasurer, A. S. Fris- 
sell. Headquarters were maintained at 8 West 
40th Street, New York City. 

CLAIR, MarrHew WESLEy (1865- ) An 
American bishop, born at Union, W. Va., and 
educated at Morgan College, Baltimore. He 
was ordained to the ministry of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church in 1889, and held various 
charges in West Virginia and in the District 
of Columbia until 1919, when he became dis- 
trict superintendent in Washington. In 1920, 
he was made bishop of Monrovia, Liberia. 

CLAIRE, INA (FAGAN) (1892- ). An 
actress and vocalist born at Washington, D. C., 
who opened her career by impersonations of 
Harry Lauder in vaudeville entertainment in 
1907. She has spent her time between plays 
and vaudeville and is best known for her talent 
of mimicry. Some of her best parts included: 
Polly Shannon in Polly with a Past (1917); 
Jerry Lamar in The Gold Diggers (1919); and 
the wife in Bluebeard’s Eighth Wife. 

CLAPP, CuarRLEs Horace (1883- }s po 
American geologist, born at Boston, Mass. He 
was graduated in 1905 at the Massachusetts In- 
stitute of Technology, where in 1910 he received 
the Ph.D. degree. In 1905, he became instruc- 
tor of geology at the University of North Da- 
kota, and at the same time, assistant geologist 
of the State Survey. Two years later he re- 
turned to the Institute of Technology. During 
1908-15, he was geologist on the Geological 
Survey of Canada, and then for three years was 
professor of geology at the University of Ari- 
zona.. He was called in 1916 to the chair of 
geology at the Montana School of Mines; in 
1918, became president of the School of Mines 
and in, 1921, became president of the University 
of Montana. He has also been director of the 
Montana Bureau of Mines since 1919, and as- 
sistant geologist of the United States Geologi- 
cal Survey since 1914. His original investiga- 
tions have to do with petrology and economic 
geology, on which subjects he has published 
many papers and reports. 

CLAPP, Epwin Jones (1881-— Scan 
American economist, born at Hudson, Wis., and 
educated at Yale University and at the Uni- 
versity of Berlin, Germany. During the period 
1910-12, he taught economics at Yale and at 
New York University. From 1912 to 1914, 
he was special traffic commissioner of the Di- 
rectors of the Port of Boston. From 1914 to 
1920, he was professor of economics in New 
York University, and afterwards was privately 
engaged in the study of economie problems. 
He wrote: The Navigable Rhine (1911); The 
Port of Hamburg (1911); Heonomic Aspects of 
the War (1915); The Port of Boston (1916); 
Railway Traffic (1917); The Port of Charles- 
ton (1921); The Port of Baltimore (1921). 

CLARK, BARRETT HARPER’ (1890— ip 
An author and editor born in Toronto. He is 
best known for his many books on the theatre, 
including .The Continental Drama of To-day 
(1914); British and American Drama of To- 
day (1915); Contemporary French Dramatists 
(1915), and How to Produce Amateur Plays 
(1917). He was editor of The World’s Best 
Plays series, 50 vols. (1913-18); four titles in 
the Drama League’s series (1914-18); Walter 


CLARK 


Prichard Eaton’s Plays and Players (1916), 
and Representative One-act Plays by British 
and Irish Authors (1921). He is co-author of 
The Rivet in Grandfather’s Neck (1921) and 
edited and translated many foreign plays. He 
was dramatic director of Camp Humphreys. 

CLARK, Cuamp (1850-1921). An Ameri- 
ean politician (see Vou. V). From 1919 until 
his death, he was Democratic minority leader 
in the United States House of Representatives, 
having been Speaker in the House previous to 
that date. He was defeated in the election of 
1920. He died in Washington, D. C., on Mar. 
zy 1921. 

CLARK, CrLarence Don (1851- }s yAn 
American senator (see VoL. V). He was ap- 
pointed member of the International Joint 
Commission in 1919. 

CLARK, GrorcE LUTHER (1877- ). An 
American lawyer, born at Waynesville, Ohio. 
He graduated from Kenyon College in 1896, and 
studied law at Indiana University and at Har- 
vard. From 1902 to 1904, he was instructor in 
law at Leland Stanford Jr. University, and 
from 1904 to 1909 was professor of law at the 
University of Illinois. He held the same po- 
sition at the University of Michigan from 1909 
to 1912, and in the University of Missouri from 
1913 to 1921. He is author of Hquitable Servi- 
tudes (1917); Equity (1919); and Selected 
Cases on Equity (1921). 

CLARK, James TRUMAN (1852- hee eA 
American railway official, born in Albany, N. 
Y. He was educated in the public schools of 
that city, and began his railway service as mes- 
senger boy with the New York Central Rail- 
road in 1870. In 1873, he joined the Chicago 
and Northwestern Railroad and was rapidly 
promoted to important positions with that line, 
becoming vice president in charge of traffic in 
1899. From 1916, he was president of the 
C. St. P. M. & O. Railway. 

CLARK, JouHN MurRAy 
Canadian lawyer and scholar. He was _ edu- 
eated at the University of Toronto. At one 
time he was president of the Royal Canadian 
Institute, the most important learned society 
of the Dominion. He was appointed by the 
government to codify the mining laws of Can- 
ada. Among his publications are: The Law 
of Mines in Canada; Company Law; Interna- 
tional Arbitration; The Future of Canada; 
Proportional Representation; Thermotics; Can- 
ada and the Navy; The Reign of Law; Can- 
ada’s Gold and War Finance; Disallowance ; 
The Virginia Experiment; and Canada and 
Virginia, and others. 

CLARK, Leon Pierce (1870- ). An 
American neurologist and psychiatrist, one of 
the world’s leading authorities on epilepsy. 
Born at Ingleside, N. Y., he received his medi- 
eal degree from New York University in 1892 
and at once began his career as resident physi- 
cian of the Craig Colony for Epileptics. After 
serving many years in this capacity, he settled 
in New York as a neurologist. In connection 
with the treatment of epilepsy he has of late 
years advocated psychotherapeutic measures as 
valuable and has made converts to this view in 
this country and Great Britain. He has writ- 
ten assiduously on the subject of epilepsy for 
nearly 30 years and has (1924) an exhaustive 
treatise on this disease nearly ready for pub- 
lication. 

CLARKE, Sir Epwarp GeorGE (1841— yi 


1S BO4a i ala ent aki 


305 


CLAUDEL 


An English lawyer (see Vor. V). 
from the bar in 1914. His recent works in- 
elude: The Book of Psalms: the Prayer Book 
Version Corrected (1915); The National Church 
(1916) ; and The Story of My Life (1918). 

CLARKE, Joun HeEssin (1857—- ). An 
American jurist, born at Lisbon, Ohio. He 
graduated from Western Reserve University in 
1877, and in the following year was admitted 
to the Ohio bar. From 1878 to 1880, he prac- 
ticed at Lisbon, and from 1880 at Youngstown. 
He moved to Cleveland in 1897 where he re- 
mained until 1914. For many years he was 
general counsel of the New York Central and 
St. Louis Railroads. He served as United 
States district judge for the Northern District 
of Ohio from 1914 to 1916, and in the latter 
year was appointed associate justice of the Su- 
preme Court of the United States. He resigned 
in 1923 in order to devote all his time to the 
interests of the League of Nations, of which 
he was an ardent supporter. 

CLARKE, JoHN MAson (1857- ). An 
American geologist and paleontologist (see VOL. 
V). He was president of the Geological So- 
ciety of America in 1916-17 and chairman of 
the Geological Committee of the National Re- 
search Council in 1917. The Permanent Wild 
Life Protection Fund awarded him a gold med- 
al in 1920. 

CLARKSON COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY. 
A college for men founded in 1896 at Potsdam, 
N. Y. The number of students increased frora 
104 in 1914 to 251 in 1924, and the number of 
faculty members from 10 to 18. In 1924 the 
total endowment amounted to more than $1,- 
000,000, and the productive funds to $500,000, 
with $150,000 more pledged. Between its foun- 
dation and 1923 the institution granted 403 de- 
grees. President, John P. Brooks, Sc.D. 

CLARK UNIVERSITY. A _nonsectarian 
institution for graduate studies at Worcester, 
Mass., founded in 1889. The enrollment of 
graduate students in 1923-24 was 55, and of 
special students, 44, as compared with 94 grad- 
uate students in 1914. During the same period 
the number of members of the faculty was in- 
creased from 21 to 35, and the library was in- 
ereased from 60,000 to 104,000 volumes. The 
productive funds of the university were in- 
creased from $2,400,000 to $4,693,032. A grad- 
uate school of geography was established in 
1921, and a department of geology was added 
to the university in 1922. Special emphasis 
was given in 1923 and 1924 to studies in his- 
tory, international relations, economics, and ge- 
ography. President, Wallace W. Atwood, Ph.D. 


He retired 


CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY. See PuILOL- 
OGY, CLASSICAL. 
CLAUDEL, PAu (1868- ). A French 


poet and dramatist, born in Champagne at Vil- 
leneuve-sur-Fére, and educated in Paris. He 
frequented the Symbolist circles, attending Mal- 
larme’s famous Tuesdays. Later, he entered 
the French consular service and was sent suc- 
cessively to China, the United States, Germany, 
and Italy. During the War he was transferred 
to the diplomatic service, obtaining the post of 
minister to Brazil an1 afterwards minister to 
Copenhagen. In 1922, he was ambassador to 
Japan. He became after his conversion at 20, 
a poet of mysticism, and broke with the French 
classical tradition of analytic clarity. He ex- 
celled in giving an impression of ensembles and 
took no care for details. He had a literary 


CLAXTON 
vogue both before and after the War, when 
his Tidings Brought to Mary was played on 
the Parisian stage. Claudel’s works include: 
Agamemnon, trans. (1906); La Connaissance 
de VEst (1900); L’Arbre (1900-01); L’Otage; 
Cette Heure qui est entre le printemps et Vété; 
Art poétique; L’Echange; Le Partage de Mid; 
La Téte dor; Le Repos du septiéme jour; La 
jeuné fille Violaine; La Ville; La Oonnaissance 
du monde; Cing grandes Odes; Le Pain dur; 
Le Pére humilié; La Nuit de Noél (1914); 
Corona bénigatitis; Vers VEa«il; L’Annonce 
faite a Marie; Poémes dété; Poemes de guerre ; 
L’Ours et la lune; Feuilles de Saints; Les 
Euménides d’Eschylle. 

CLAXTON, PHILANDER PRIESTLEY 
(1862- ). An American educator (see VOL. 
V). He resigned as United States Commission- 
er of Education in 1921, becoming provost of 
the University of Alabama. He is also known 
as a member of the League for the Enforcement 
of Peace and of other peace societies. 

CLAYTON, Henry De Lamar (1857- 
An American jurist. He was born in Barbour 
County, Ala., and graduated from the Univer- 
sity of Alabama in 1877, and from the law de- 
partment of the university in 1878. He prac- 
ticed law in several towns in Alabama from 
1878 to 1914, and during that period also 
served as register in chancery of Barbour 
County, and as a member of the Alabama Gen- 
eral Assembly (1890-1891). From 1893 to 
1896, he was United States District Attorney, 
and in 1897 was elected to the 55th Congress; 
he served until May, 1914, when he was ap- 
pointed district judge for the Middle and 
Northern Districts of Alabama. While in Con- 
gress, he was the author of the Clayton Act for 
the regulation of railways. In 1908, he served 
as permanent chairman at the Democratic Na- 
tional Convention. 

CLAYTON ANTI-TRUST 
Trusts; UNITep States, History. : 

CLEARING HOUSES. See FINANCE AND 


ACT. See 


BANKING. 
CLEARWATER, ALPHONSO =‘'TRUMPDOUR 
(1848- ). An American jurist. He was 


born at West Point, N. Y., and was educated 
in the public and private schools. In 1871, he 
was admitted to the bar and was elected Dis- 
trict Attorney of Ulster County in 1877, being 
reélected several times. He was appointed 
justice of the Supreme Court to succeed Alton 
B. Parker, and was then chosen chief judge of 
the Court of Appeals. He held many impor- 
tant positions both in legal and civil life, and 
was many times a delegate to national, State 
and other conventions. He is the author of 
numerous papers and addresses on historical, 
patriotic and biographical subjects, and served 
on many important legal commissions. 
CLEMEN, OTto CoNnsTAnTIN (1871- ). 
A German theological historian born in Grim- 
ma. He studied theology and history, special- 
izing on the Reformation. His principal works 
are: Johann Pupper von Goch (1896); Georg 
Helts, Brief wechsel (1907); Alexian Chrosner 


(1908); Studien zu Melanchthons Reden und 
Gedichten (1913); Alte Hinblattdrucke (1911); 
Beitrége zu deutschen Kulturgeschichte aus 


Mitau, Riga und Reval (1919). Clemen is the 
editor of many pamphlets on the Reformation 
and the works of Luther. 

CLEMEN, Pavut (1866- ). .A German 
writer born at Sommerfeld. He studied philos- 


306 


CLEVELAND 


ophy and history, and later became professor of 
art history at Bonn and director of the art gal- 
leries of the Rhine provinces. In 1907-08 he 
was exchange professor at Harvard. He has 
written among other works: Die Portravtdar- 
stellung Karls des Grossen (1889); Der kar- 
olingische Kaiserpalast zu Ingelheim (1890) ; 
Merovinger und Karolinger Plastik (1892); Die 
Kunstdenkmiler der Rheinprovinzen (1892) ; 
Ruskin (1900); Die romanische Monumental- 
malerei in den Rheinlanden (1910) ; Denkmalp- 
flege in Frankreich (1918); Kunstschutz im 
Kriege (1919); and Belgische Kunstdenkmdl- 
er (A921); 

CLEMENCEAU, GeEorRGES 
JAMIN (1841- ). A French statesman (see 
Vout. V). He had written and spoken about 
the possibility of war long before the War be- 
gan, urging the realization of the artillery pro- 
gramme, and in September, 1914, his paper, 
L’Homme Inbre, was suppressed on account of 
its violent criticism of the army medical serv- 
ices. Two days after its suppression, however, 
he issued l’Homme Enchainé, in which, in spite 
of the censorship, he managed to fight the poli- 
ey of the government. He fought also in the 
Senate. On the outbreak of war, he was pres- 
ident of the Foreign Affairs Committee. Later 
he became president of the Army Committee of 
the Upper Chamber. His policy was directly 
opposed to M. Caillaux’s (q.v.), as he advo- 
cated fighting to the finish. On Nov. 16, 1917, 
he succeeded M. Briand as prime minister, and 
formed his ‘Victory cabinet,” thus defeating 
the efforts of M. Caillaux. While he was in 
power during the War his policy was drastic, 
in regard both to the conduct of the War and 
to food restrictions. This policy was accepted 
without opposition as long as the War lasted, 
but after the Armistice his countrymen showed 
less confidence in him as a leader in peace-time. 
Attempts were made to drive him from office 
before the peace negotiations, but he remained 
in power until after the Peace Treaty was 
signed. He presided over the Peace Conference, 
as France’s chief delegate. On Feb. 19, 1919, 
he was fired upon and wounded by a young 
anarchist, Emile Cottin. He was proposed as 
candidate of his party for the presidency in 
1920, but withdrew his name when he saw that 
he stood little chance of success against M. 
Deschanel. He then retired from politics. He 
became a member of the French Academy in 
1918, and was given the doctor’s degree at Ox- 
ford in 1921. In 1922, he visited the United 
States unofficially, and was enthusiastically ac- 
claimed. 

CLEMENT, Ernest Witson (1860- ts 
An American teacher in Japan and writer on 
Japanese subjects (see VoL. V). He was vice 
president of the Asiatic Society of Japan from 
1916 to 1921. In 1920, he resigned as special 
correspondent of the Chicago Daily News. His 
recent works include: A Short History of Ja- 
pan (1915) and Constitutional Imperialism in 
Japan (1916). 

CLEVELAND. The fifth city in the United 
States. The population rose from 569,342 in 
1910 to 796,841 in 1920 and to 912,502 by esti- 
mate of the Bureau of the Census in 1924. 
The area of the city increased from 51.83 
square miles in 1914 to 68.9 in 1924. By char- 
ter amendment voted in November, 1921, and 
put in effect at the beginning of 1924, Cleve- 
land became the largest city in the country 


EUGENE BEN- 


J 
ap 


CLEVELAND 307 


governed by the city manager-council plan. 
The council consisted of 25 members elected 
from one of four districts under a system of 
proportional representation. A number of mu- 
nicipal improvements were completed during 
the 10 years between 1914 and 1924. The dou- 
ble-deck Detroit-Superior viaduct, which was 
3112 feet long and cost $5,407,000, was dedi- 
eated in 1918. Clark Avenue viaduct, 6687 
feet long, was built in 1917 at a cost of $1,398,- 
000, and the Brooklyn-Brighton concrete bridge 
of 18 arches costing $571,057 was finished in 
1916. The hospital, costing $5,337,486 with 
the land, and holding 1200 beds, was nearing 
completion in July, 1924; other units com- 
prised the nurses’ home, the nurses’ training 
school, affiliated with Western Reserve Univer- 
sity (q.v.) the contagious ward, the tuberculo- 
sis ward, and the psychopathic ward. In 1922, 
the Public Hall, a unit of the group plan cost- 
ing about $6,500,000, was dedicated. It seated 
12,000 persons and contained a $100,000 five- 
manual organ of 10,010 pipes. It was voted in 
1919 to allow the Cleveland Union Depot and 
Terminal, which, by the group plan was to have 
been built at the foot of the Mall, to be built 
on the Public Square. It was expected to cost 
$75,000,000. -The Van Sweringen merger of 
four railroads with total balance-sheet footings 
of $1,500,000,000 was to be brought under a 
unified control with Cleveland as headquarters 
in the fall of 1924. 

The Cleveland division of water increased its 
capital investment from $14,870,666 in 1914 to 
$43,293,164 in 1924. The Division Street pump- 
ing station, fed by a tunnel 10 feet in diameter, 
and the filtration plant, with a capacity of 150,- 
000,000 gallons daily, were first operated fully 
in 1918. These units cost $6,653,946. The 
Baldwin filtration plant, under construction in 
1924, was estimated to cost $20,000,000. Its 
reservoir, with a storage capacity of 130,000,000 
gallons, was the largest covered reservoir in 
the world. Two sewage-disposal plants also 
were completed in 1922, and a bond issue 
of $3,000,000 was authorized and contracts 
awarded for a third. The capital investment 
of the municipal electric light plant rose from 
$3,021,135 in 1914 to $8,000,000 in 1924. In 
1914, the miles of track operated by the Cleve- 
land Railway Company was 344.76 and the num- 
ber of passengers carried 231,063,734; by 1923, 
this had risen to 425.7 miles of track and 417,- 
405,905 passengers. 

A city plan commission was named in 1916 
by the mayor. By ordinance the commission 
was given power to supervise and control the de- 
sign and location of public buildings, harbors 
and bridges, and the location, extension and 
platting of streets, parks, and other public 
places. In 1923, a seven-block extension of 
Carnegie Avenue was completed, and in 1924 
property was being acquired for the widening 
of the same avenue from East 22d Street to 
East 55th Street, and construction was expected 
to be completed in 1925. Plans were also un- 
der way to widen and extend Chester Avenue 
from East 2lst Street to East 40th Street, and 
widen St. Clair Avenue. County bonds to the 
amount of $5,000,000 were authorized for the 
construction of the Lorain high-level bridge. 
An art museum was built in 1916, and a mu- 
seum of natural history was founded four years 
later. Another unit, the new Public Library, 
costing $4,500,000, was nearing completion in 


.CLIFFORD 


1924. This will be the centre of a library 
system including 26 neighborhood branches and 
29 school branches. 

After reorganization of the school system in 
1917, four new junior high schools, seven ele- 
mentary schools, and several annexes were 
built. The school board also took over the su- 
pervision of a school for girls over 16 years of 
age which had been started in a local factory 
to combine cultural and trade _ instruction. 
This became the first trade school of the city. 
The council on educational institutions was 
formed of representatives of the institutions of 
higher education, the art and natural history 
museums, the libraries, and similar organiza- 
tions. The union of several great educational 
institutions, including Western Reserve Univer- 
sity and Case School of Applied Science (q.v.) 
was being worked out in 1924. The Cleveland 
Foundation, and the Welfare Federation of all 
the charitable organizations in the city, were 
organized. 

CLEVELAND, FREDERICK ALBERT (1865-__). 
An American economist, born at Sterling, Ill. 
and educated at DePauw University and at 
the universities of Chicago and Pennsylvania. 
From 1900-03, he taught finance in Philadel- 
phia and New York City. Thereafter he served 
on many boards and commissions dealing with 
economics, and notably, since 1907, on the 
bureaus of municipal research in New York and 
Philadelphia. His works include: The Growth 
of Democracy in the United States (1898) ; 
Funds and their Uses (1902); The Bank and 
the Treasury (1905); Chapters m Municipal 
Administration and Accounting (1909); Rail- 
road Promotion and Capitalization (1912); A 


Handbook of Municipal Accounting (1913) ; 
and Organized Democracy (1913). He also col- 
laborated on the following works: Railroad 


Finance (with F. W. Powell, 1913); Democ- 
racy in Reconstruction (with Joseph Schafer, 
1919); The Budget and Responsible Govern- 
ment (with A. E. Buck, 1920); National Ex- 
penditures and Public Economy (addresses and 
papers; with S. M. Lindsay, 1921); Funds and 
their Uses (1922). 

CLEVENGER, GaLen Howe tt (1877- ‘3 
An American metallurgist, born at Pike, N. Y. 
He was graduated at the South Dakota School 
of Mines in 1901. During 1901-05 he served 
professionally as a chemist and metallurgist to 
various mining companies, and then spent a 
year as instructor in metallurgy at Stanford, 
where after three years in consulting practice, 
he returned and held professorial relations with 
that university until 1918, when he again re- 
sumed his consulting practice. During the 
War he was chairman of the section on metal- 
lurgy of the National Research Council, and 
later became vice-chairman of the Division of 
Engineering on the Council. He has invented 
various processes for the treatment of ores and 
is an accepted authority on gold extraction and 
on manganese-silver ores, as well as on electric 
smelting. 

CLIFFORD, SIR HuGH (CHARLES ) 
(1866- ). A British colonial administra- 
tor (see Vout. V). In 1914, as governor of the 
Gold Coast, he drew up, with the French Coloni- 
al authorities, an agreement for the provisional 
administration of Togoland. He was in charge 
of the administration of the British Sphere 
of Occupation in Topgoland during and immedi- 
ately after the War, and governor of the Gold 


CLIFFORD. 308 


Coast until 1919, when he became governor and 
commander-in-chief of Nigeria. He was cre- 
ated Knight of the Grand Cross of St. Michael 
and St. George in 1921. His works during this 
period include: The Further Side of Silence 
(1916); The German Colonies (1918); and 
The Gold Coast Regiment in the East African 
Campaign (1920). 

CLIFFORD, Lucy JANE (Mrs. WILLIAM 
Krnepon C). An English author (see Vou. V). 
She wrote the novels: The House in Maryle- 
bone (1917); Mr. Webster and Others (1918) ; 
Miss Fingal (1919); and the plays: A Wom- 
an Alone (1915), and Two's Company (3 acts, 
1915). 

CLIMATE. See METEOROLOGY; GEOLOGY. 

CLOCK MOTOR. See ELrectric Motors IN 
INDUSTRY. 

CLYNES, JoHN  Rosert- (1869- Sh 
British labor leader, born at Oldham, Lanca- 
shire, England. As a child he worked in a cot- 
ton mill. He became a trade union organizer, 
and later was elected president of the National 
Union of General Workers. In 1906, he en- 
tered Parliament and in 1921 was made chair- 
man of the Parliamentary Labor party. Dur- 
ing the War he was Food Controller (1918-19). 
He was a moderate of the trade union side of 
the British Labor movement, and in 1924 was 
made Lord Privy Seal of Ramsay MacDonald’s 
Labor cabinet. 

COAL. The coal industry throughout the 
world underwent many significant changes he- 
cause of the War and resultant political and 
economic conditions. As a prime essential to 
modern industry coal was naturally important 
in the War; it was required on an extraordi- 
nary scale for the production of munitions. 
Some of the combatant nations were cut off 
from their ordinary sources of commercial sup- 
ply and did not contain this essential within 
their boundaries. 

In this period, the United States, which pre- 
viously had become preéminent as a producer 
of coal, maintained its lead and increased its 
output. In Great Britain no notable increase 
was effected in production; labor and economic 
conditions rather restricted production. In 
France, destruction of the mines by the Ger- 
mans resulted in a shortage which was in no 
way met by the amount of coal actually turned 
over under the terms of the Armistice. Ger- 
many’s loss of the mines of Alsace and Silesia, 
and temporarily of those in the Saar Basin and 
the Palatinate, naturally cut down production; 
in 1913 Germany exported more coal than it 
imported, but in 1922 the imports were in ex- 
cess of the exports. 


WORLD’S PRODUCTION OF COAL 
In Metric Tons) 


Per cent 
Production Produced 
in part by 

(Estimated) United 

States 
POT Bees ssiccpale RE Sone 1,341,000,000 38.5 
UO Tia eaten sey. (Se 1,208,000,000 ato 
1 Aho Se Ae ee oe ee £0) 52 8 1,190,000,000 40.5 
BOLUM pets abs x27 bk eee 1,257,000,000 42.7 
OS Mca o fe co'selic to Poder ote 1,325,000,000 44.6 
UA na. ee etes os ¢ Pee BUSES g 1,332,000,000 46.4 
Ee Mey risa erec lik aie eres 1,168,000,000 43.1 
LO MAB Met on igo ive fo Sov co santas 1,319,000,000 45.3 
Gh S fecal hs ts ee a 1,136,000,000 40.4 
WORDT ee Ee a Gok, 2 1,208,000,000 34.6 

Production in the United States. In 1913, 


the production of the United States was 1,341.,- 


COAL 


000,000 metric tons, or approximately 38.5 per 
cent of the world’s total. By 1916 this output 
had increased to 42.7 per cent, and in the fol- 
lowing year, when the United States had en- 
tered the War, to 44.6 per cent, while in 1918, 
when the United States was making its maxi- 
mum effort, it amounted to 46.4 per cent. In 
1900 the coal production of the United States 
was but 270,000,000 short tons; in 1917 it 
amounted to over 650,000,000 short tons. Nat- 
urally the War led to increased exports of coal 
from the United States, a traffic which, though 
hazardous, was extremely profitable and in vol- 
ume amounted to 20 per cent more in 1917 than 
in 1913: 

When the United States entered the War, the 
industry was organized under government su- 
pervision to secure a maximum output and to 
stabilize prices. The coal committee of the Na- 
tional Council of Defense fixed a price in 1917; 
this was later repudiated by its chairman, Sec- 
retary of War Baker. After further considera- 
tion of the matter, on Aug. 21, 1917, President 
Wilson fixed a base price for coal, and on Au- 
gust 26, Dr. Harry A. Garfield was appointed 
fuel administrator. His work was done un- 
der many difficulties that year. Transportation 
facilities were inadequate, and it was a cold 
and heavy winter which began early. Some 
mines were shut down, and toward the end of 
the year there was a coal famine in the Middle 
West and in the East. Miners’ wages were 
raised, and every effort was made to speed up 
both production and transportation of fuel, so 
that conditions gradually improved. Notwith- 
standing a decline in the number of miners 
through military service, coal production picked 
up in 1918 and more than enough to meet the 
needs of the country was produced. 

The soft coal region was the scene of a seri- 
ous strike in 1919, when the miners demanded 
the permanent continuance of war-time wages; 
it was officially terminated December 10. The 
industry became increasingly efficient in 1920, 
with the aim of making good the shortages 
caused by the strike of the previous year; this 
was achieved in the face of a railway strike and 
failure to allot and handle railway -cars prop- 
erly. In the following year, 1921, the coal in- 
dustry shared in the general depression; pro- 
duction of anthracite increased, but bituminous 
coal fell to its lowest point since 1913. In 
1922, conditions were still worse, with serious 
strikes in both the anthracite and bituminous 
fields. Anthracite production fell from 90,473,- 
451 short tons to 54,683,022 short tons, a de- 
crease of 35,550,429 short tons; this of course 
was due to the. strike, which lasted from April 
1 to September 11, 164. days, or one day less 
than the previous most serious strike, that of 
1902. The production of bituminous coal, in 
1922, was 407,894,000 short tons, as compared 
with 415,921,000 short tons in 1921, and 563,- 
490,845 in 1920. In this year, however, through 
improved industrial conditions, the consump- 
tion of bituminous coal was approximately 400,- 
000,000 short tons against 392,000,000 short 
tons in 1921. | 

During this period there was increased cost 
of coal, and this resulted both in greater con- 
servation and improved furnace equipment and 
operation, as well as the substitution of other 
fuels, such as crude oil, which could be operated 
more efficiently. The bituminous strike in 1922 
paralyzed the union coal fields, but on the other 


: 
> 
é 


ee 


a, a a ae 


hand, the non-union fields were able to produce 
as much as 5,000,000 tons a week, which could 
have been increased to possibly 6,000,000, or 
even 7,500,000 tons in case of a national emer- 
gency. Various attempts were made to end this 
strike, and conferences were called by the Presi- 
dent of the United States, but without result. 
It was finally concluded with a victory for the 
United Mine Workers of America which forced 
the continuance all winter of the war-time 
wages. These strikes were accompanied by the 
usual amount of disorder, but a notable event 
occurred on June 22, 1922, when a mob stormed 
a non-union mine at Herrin, in Williamson 
County, Ill., capturing 48 and shooting and 
cutting 21 of them to death in a most brutal 
manner. This mine was a strip mine, six miles 
south of Herrin in Williamson County, which 
was said to have broken an agreement with the 
union, and attempted to operate with non-union 
labor under an armed guard. 

In 1922 an Act of Congress provided for a 
coal commission which made an_ exhaustive 
study of the conditions attending the production 
and marketing of coal in the United States and 
made a series of recommendations for the better 
conduct of the industry in the preliminary re- 
port submitted on July 8, 1923. It was appar- 
ent that the American coal industry was being 
conducted under unusual conditions due to the 
conflict between capital and labor, as represent- 
ed by the United Mine Workers of America, an 
efficient organization which had been success- 
ful in the strikes and negotiations it had under- 
taken. At the same time the consuming public 
suffered, even in this adjustment, as with in- 
creased wages the cost of coal was raised to the 
consumer. 


ANNUAL COAL PRODUCTION OF THE 
UNITED STATES 


(Net tons) 
Anthracite Bituminous Total 
1) ee ee ea 91,525,000 478,435,000 569,960,000 
iOS ee ee 90,821,000 422,704,000 513,525,000 
U2 SR ae ¢ eae 88,895,000 422,624,000 511,619,000 
EE ONe tors, <%o, o%phs 87,578,000 502,282,000 589,860,000 
i, Wig 9 fe S A PERS 99,612,000 551,790,000 651,402,000 
1 8.7 ee Pugasi lie 98,826,000 579,386,000 678,212,000 
SOL Orin eres 88,100,000 465,860,000 553,960,000 
OL eka ere ss 3 89,598,249 563,490,845 653,089,094 
POOL UA Sinker 90,473,451 415,921,950 506,395,401 
V9 FD) 5peherws ott 54,683,022 407,894,000 462,577,022 


Mine Fatalities. The mining of coal con- 
tinued as a hazardous occupation in the United 
States, but an encouraging decrease in the num- 
ber of fatalities was recorded. In 1922 there 
were 1971 fatal accidents in the United States 
coal mines, which represented a reduction of 16 
from the previous year. There were 13 acci- 
dents in each of which five or more men were 
killed, with a total loss of 272 lives. In 1921 
only five similar accidents occurred, in which 
34 men were killed. The following statistics 
from the United States Bureau of Mines indi- 
cates the decreased number of accidents in this 
field. 


FATALITIES AT COAL MINES 


1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 
2,696 2,580 2,317 2,271 1,987 1,971 


British Coal Industry. The outbreak of the 
War in Europe brought many problems to the 
British coal industry in the way of securing an 
adequate output and maintaining satisfactory 
conditions of labor and employment. In the 
fall of 1916 the British Board of Trade an- 
nounced that it would take over the coal mines 


COAL 


for the period of the War and establish a new 
department of control for the industry. Later, 
matters connected with distribution, wages, 
production, and price of coal were concentrated 
in the Mines Control Department, which was 
established for this purpose. In order to re- 
lieve the traffic on the railways increased trans- 
port of coal by canal was provided for, and 
later Great Britain was divided into fuel dis- 
tricts te provide for inland distribution with 
a minimum of transportation. 

In 1913 Great Britain had produced some 
287,500,000 long tons of coal, and of this it had 
exported some 97,700,000 long tons, divided as 
follows: coal, 73,400,000 tons; coke and_bri- 
quettes, 3,300,000; bunkers, 21,000,000; leaving 
available for home consumption 189,800,000 
tons. During the War the production had fall- 
en in amount, so that by 1918 the output was 
226,000,000, of which 35,000,000 tons were ex- 
ported as cargo and 25,000,000 tons as bunkers, 
while by 1921 there was a serious decline, with 
an output of but 163,000,000 tons, of which 37,- 
200,000 were exported, leaving but 129,200,000 
available for home consumption and requiring 
imports of 3,400,000 tons. 

At the end of March, 1921, the policy of de- 
partment control was ended in Great Britain, 
and the industry was restored to private owner- 
ship. This involved the reduction of wages and 
the abandonment of state subsidies. Already 
a point had been reached where, with the high- 
est wages on record, there had resulted the low- 
est average output per miner ever recorded. 
Unemployment and strikes now developed in 
the industry, and readjustment was imperative; 
this, by the following year, was more or less 
satisfactorily accomplished. British wages this 
year decreased 46 per cent in the leading coal 
fields, and while coal was exported it was at 
prices that did not permit of profit. In the 
following year, 1922, however, the industry was 
restored to a more normal basis, producing 255,- 
891,786 metric tons; and in 1923 this was in- 
creased to over 260,000,000 tons. 

French Coal Industry. The systematic and 
complete destruction of the coal mines of 
France by the Germans in their ruthless’ inva- 
sion developed a condition not altogether com- 
pensated by the return of Alsace-Lorraine with 
its mines after the Armistice. The mines in 
northeastern France, especially those around 
Lens, which contributed a large part of the 
French coal production, were so completely de- 
stroyed, that by the year after the Armistice, 
France was facing an annual shortage of 20,- 
000,000 tons, which was almost half of the to- 
tal normal production. Nevertheless the French 
miners set to work assiduously to repair the 
damage and put their mines on a production 
basis, so that they were able to approach the 
41,000,000 tons marking their pre-war require- 
ments. The production of coal in France dur- 
ing the 10 years, 1913-23, follows: 


SS 


PRODUCTION OF COAL IN FRANCE 
(Metric Tons) 


LOTS A PAVIA LP. SG. . ME, 40,844,218 
LOT AM pest sacle. s\ ane ss + <0 300) a-ha 26,568,258 
DY 4) dine ea ee eee ky 19,523,863 
LO TOMA Meera ac kia e St . ls eaeetanere ees ieee 21,310,000 
BREW LYE Aus Deane me eae er BaramUrOr i tctN cy, (bho 28,891,728 
TUS ties ene g sat lp od. > see es 25,000,000 
LDU O Mee eee oo, (ot nyo %, «eet Ren oe 22,476,766 
TO ZO RRR Aghs o cua shales! oo WBNgmenaaNe anettels 25,274,304 
VOD OR id Re) 2's cheetah obe.s ERE 5 28,940,473 
BRED ye Ee ne Eager NA 31,940,845 


a 


COAL LOADERS 


German Coal Industry. The unsuccessful 
outcome of the War was indeed serious for 
Germany so far as the coal industry was con- 
cerned in its bearing on manufacturing. In 
1913 the German coal production was in excess 
of 190,000,000 metric tons of bituminous coal 
and 87,000,000 tons of lignite, in addition to 
coke and briquettes, as specified in the accom- 
panying table. Of this amount Germany was 
able to export 34,598,408 tons, or an excess of 
24,058,339 tons over domestic consumption. 
Naturally, during the War the exports of Ger- 
many were confined to adjacent neutral coun- 
tries; after the Armistice, Germany was 
stripped permanently of coal lands which had 
been considered invaluable to its industry. 

In 1922 the German inland requirements of 
bituminous coal were estimated at 150,000,000 
tons, and for this, as will appear in the accom- 
panying table, approximately 130,000,000 tons 
were available. The loss of coal production 
capacity in Germany was due first to the fact 
that rich coal areas in Upper Silesia, which in 
1913 had produced 32,500,000 tons of coal, or 
17 per cent of the entire product of the nation, 
were allocated to Poland, while Alsace-Lorraine, 
which in 1913 had produced 4,790,000 tons, was 
returned to France. In addition Germany lost 
the Saar Basin and the Palatinate for 15 years, 
at the end of which a plebiscite was to be taken 
to determine the sovereignty of these areas, 
which, in 1913, produced 12,223,000 tons of 
coal; in 1920, 9,410,433 tons, and in 1921, 9,- 
574,602 tons. Furthermore, the German coal 
industry was restricted by reduced hours of 
labor, which were materially decreased from 
those prevailing before the War, while labor it- 
self was marked by less efficiency. 


PRODUCTION OF COAL AND FUEL IN 
THE GERMAN EMPIRE 
(Metric Tons) 


1913 1922 
190,109,440 


IB GUMIN OUSs 0 op ovescka ele 7s Eee 129,964,597 
NAP TMAGS. MAY 5 ee stone otomeeete 87,283,084 137,207,125 
Coked §. atch, 5h ees OS 34,630,391 29,664,291 
Bituminous briquettes .... 6,992,499 5,562,811 
Lignite briquettes ........ 21,498,397 29,466,149 


Belgian Coal Industry. In Belgium the 
coal mines were not damaged as were those ir 
France, as the intentions of the Germans had 
not been to destroy them utterly but merely to 
render them temporarily incapable of operating, 
when they were not taken over immediately by 
the Germans themselves. Consequently all that 
was required was new machinery, and in 1920 
an output of 22,388,700 metric tons was se- 
cured, which showed a slight diminution in the 
following years. At the same time, this was 
in excess of domestic requirements, which in 
1921 amounted to about 17,000,000 tons, so that 
coal was available for export. This condition 
would not prevail with Belgian industry work- 
ing on a pre-war basis, and imports of fuel 
probably would be necessary. 

Consult current issues of The Coal Age and 
Atlas of Commercial Geology, Part 1: Mineral 
Resources (United States Geological Survey, 
Washington, 1921). 

COAL LOADERS. See Execrric Morors IN 
INDUSTRY. 

COAL STRIKE. See CoAt. 

COAST DEFENSE. See ARTILLERY. 

COATES, Aserr (1882- ). A British 
orchestral conductor, born (of an English fa- 


310 


COBB 


ther and a Russian mother) at Petrograd. Al- 
though he had studied piano with an older 
brother, he did not decide on a musical career 
until he was 20. He then entered the Leipzig 
Conservatory, where his teachers were Teich- 
miiller (piano), Klengel (cello) and Nikisch 
(conducting). He made his début as conductor 
with Offenbach’s Contes d@’Hoffmann in Leipzig. 
Upon the recommendation of Nikisch he was 
appointed principal conductor of the Elberfeld 
opera in 1906. After a short time as Schuch’s 
assistant in Dresden he went to Mannheim as 
coérdinate conductor with Bodanzky. Here the 
director of the Imperial Opera at Petrograd 
heard him and engaged him in 1911 for that 
institution, where Coates remained through the 
horrors of the revolution until 1919. In 1914 
he made his first appearance in London, alter- 
nating with Bodanzky in the first performances 
of Parsifal in England. In 1919, he returned 
as conductor for Beecham’s operatic company, 
directing also some concerts of the London 
Philharmonic Society and of the Symphony Or- 
chestra. On Dec. 30, 1920, he made his Amer- 
ican début with the New York Symphony Or- 
chestra with emphatic success, and for two sea- 
sons he alternated with Damrosch. During the 
summer of 1923, he conducted a season of Rus- 
sian opera at Barcelona, and in 1924, was the 
guest conductor of the Rochester Symphony 
Orchestra for the second half of the season. He 
is the composer of an opera, Sardanapalus 


(Petrograd, 1916), and of some _ orchestral 
works in smaller form. 
COBB, FRANK Irvine (1869-1923). An 


American editor and writer, born in Shawnee 
County, Kan. He was educated in the public 
schools and at the Michigan State Normal 
School, beginning newspaper work for the 
Grand Rapids Herald when he was 21 years old. 
By reporting three national conventions and 
covering several sessions of the Michigan Legis- 
lature, he gained a wide acquaintance with po- 
litical leaders and thus received an adequate 
preparation for his future work. Before being 
invited to New York by Joseph Pulitzer, he had 
been chief editorial writer on the Detroit Free 
Press (1900-04), having just previous to that 
been on the Detroit Evening News. Mr. Cobb 
directed the editorial page of the New York 
World for 20 years (1904-24), and became rec- 
ognized as perhaps the strongest writer on the 
New York press since Horace Greeley. He has 
been described as a writer who shunned sophis- 
try and wrote sincerely and simply. Though 
his editorials were not signed and were written 
for a paper that he did not own, he became a 
powerful personality in the United States. In 
October, 1918, Mr. Cobb was drafted into na- 
tional service as an unofficial adviser at the 
Peace Conference, where he was an admirer of 
President Wilson and a firm advocate of the 
League of Nations. He was a Chevalier of the 
Legion of Honor and the Belgian Order of Leo- 
pold. He died in New York on Dec. 21, 1923. 
COBB, Irvin S(HREWSBURY) (1876- ). 
An American author, born at Paducah, Ky., and 
educated at the common schools and in private 
academies. He began as a reporter for papers 
in Paducah and Louisville. From 1904, when 
he became editor of the humorous section of the 
New York Evening Sun, he was section editor 
or contributor to New York newspapers, nota- 
bly the World. In 1911, he became a staff con- 
tributor to the Saturday Evening Post, for 


COBB 


which he was also war correspondent in Europe 
at intervals between 1914-18. Among his nu- 
merous works are the following: Funabashi (a 
musical comedy, 1907); Mr. Busybody (musical 
comedy, 1908); Back Home (1912, produced as 
a comedy, 1915); Cobb’s Anatomy (1912); The 
Escape of Mr. Trimm (1913); Cobb’s Bill of 
Fare (1913); Roughing It de Luae (1914); 
Europe Revised (1914); Paths of Glory (1915) ; 
Old Judge Priest (1915, 1923); Fibble, D.D. 
(1916); Speaking of Operations (1916); Local 
Color (1916); Speaking of Prussians (1917) ; 
Those Times and These (1917); The Glory of 
the Coming (1918); The Thunders of Silence 
(1918); The Life of the Party (1919); From 
Place to Place (1919); Oh, Well, You Know 
How Women Are! (1919); The Abandoned 
Farmers (1920); A Plea for Old Cap Collier 
(1921); One Third Off (1921); Sundry Ac- 
counts (1922); Stickfuls (1923); A Laugh a 
Day Keeps the Doctor Away (1923); The 
Snake Doctor (1923); and numerous series in 
periodicals. He also collaborated on dramatic 
productions. 

COBB, T(yRUS RAYMOND) (1886-— ). Pro- 
fessional baseball player, born at Narrows, Ga. 
After a brief stay in the minors he joined 
the Detroit Club of the American League in 
1905, becoming manager of that club in 1920. 
He is regarded as one of the best all-round 
players America’s national game has ever devel- 
oped, being especially renowned as a batsman 
and in his earlier career for his speed on the 
base paths. 

COBERN, CAMDEN McCorMACK (1855- ye 
An American professor of theology, born at 
Uniontown, Pa., and educated at Allegheny Col- 
lege, at Boston University and in Europe. He 
was ordained to the ministry of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church in 1878, and was thereafter 
member of several conferences. In 1906, he be- 
came professor of the English Bible and the 
philosophy of religion in Allegheny College 
Among his works are the following: Ancient 
Egypt in the Light of Modern Discovery (1892) ; 
A Critical Commentary on the Books of Ezekiel 
and Daniel (1901); Bible Etchings of Immor- 
tality (1905); Recent Explorations in the Holy 
Land (1914); Studies of Immortality (1916) ; 
and The New Archeological Discoveries and 
Their Bearing upon the New Testament and 
upon the Life and Times of the Primitive Church 
(1917-1921). 

COBLE, ArTHUR Byron (1878- y. An 
American mathematician, born at Williamstown, 
Pa. He was graduated at Pennsylvania College, 
Gettysburg, in 1897, after which he studied at 
Johns Hopkins University. He was instructor 
in mathematics at the University of Missouri 
in 1902-03. After a year of research work, he 
returned to Johns Hopkins as instructor in 
mathematics and continued there until 1918, at- 
taining in 1909 an associate professorship. In 
1918 he was called to the chair in mathematics 
at the University of Illinois. Among the sub- 
jects on which he has published the results of 
his studies are the theory of invariants, groups 
and correspondences. the quintec and _ sextec 
equations, symmetric binary forms and involutes, 
point set and cremona groups, and porisms. 
He was vice-president of the American Mathe- 
matical Society in 1917. and an associate editor 
the American Journal of Mathematics during 

15-10: 

COBURN, CHARLES DovuvitLtE (1877- 3 


311 CODLING MOTH 


An actor-manager born at Macon, Ga. When he 
was 18, he became manager of the Savannah 
(Ga.) Theatre and two years later took up the 
stage as a profession. He played in_ stock 
through the Middle West and starred in The 
Christian and other plays. The Coburn Players 
were organized by him in 1905 for the produc- 
tion and promotion of the classic drama. He 
owns and controls the American and Canadian 
rights to The Yellow Jacket and The Better ’Ole. 
It was this last production which gave him his 
reputation. He created the role of “Old Bill” 
and later of “French Leone’ (1920-21). 
COCHIN, Henry DeENys' BENorIT MARIE 
(1854— ). A French writer and legislator 
(see Vou. V). In 1914, he retired from the 
French Chamber of Deputies in favor of his son. 
He was for four years Conseiller Général du 
Nord. His works published since 1914 include: 
Les deux guerres (1916); L’auvre de guerre du 
peintre Albert Besnard (1918); and Francois 
Pétrarque (published in the collection Les cent 
chef-@aurres étrangers 1920). 
COCHIN-CHINA. See Frencn INbO-CHINA. 
COCHRAN, CHARLES B. (1873- yr 7 
theatrical manager born in Sussex, England. 
He was educated at Oxford, became an actor 
and made his first appearance in New York. 
Subsequently he was press representative to 
various theatres, circuses and exhibitions in the 
United States. For three years he was per- 
sonal representative of the late Richard Mans- 
field. After 1917, he became responsible for the 
productions of the Oxford Theatre and produced 
The Better ’Ole. His other successes include: 
In the Night Watch (1918); The Man Who 
Came Back (1920); The League of Notions 
(1921); As You Were (1918). He has been 
interested in many of the best known English 
theatres either as lessee or licensee. 
COCKRAN, WILLIAM BouRKE (1854-1923). 
A distinguished American lawyer and orator (see 
Vout. V.) He was active throughout his career 
in Democratic politics and was at the time of his 
death a member of Congress. Mr. Cockran was 
generally acknowledged to be one of the leading 
orators of his day, and was also one of the 
most prominent lawyers in the United States. 
COCTEAU, JEAN (1891- ). A French 
poet and pamphleteer born at Maison-Laffite, 
France. His work is a barometer of contempo- 
rary developments in art and music. Thus we 
have from his pen both Cubist and Dadaist 
poems, besides pamphlets in which he justifies 
his own evolution. He does not hesitate to con- 
demn his own works after he has come to a 
new point of view in regard to the art of lit- 
erary expression. He seems more at ease in the 
pamphlet than in any other type of writing, his 
most brilliant and successful work being perhaps, 
Le Coq et VArlequin: Notes autour de la 
musique (1918). His first novel, Le Grand 
écart, appeared in 1923. Like his poems, it is 
impressionistic. His other works are: La Lampe 
d’Aladin (poem, 1909); Le Prince Frivole 
(poems, 1910); La Danse de Sophocle (poems, 
1912); L’Art décoratif de Léon Bakst (with 
Arséne Alexandre, 1914); Prélude @ Vaprés-midi 
@un faune (with others; 1915); Le Cap de 
Bonne-Espérance ; Potomak (dedicated to Strav- 
insky, and condemned by the author afterward) ; 
Parade (a ballet with musie by Eric Satie, 
1917), and Les Mariés de la Tour Eiffel. 
CODLING MOTH. See Entomo.toay, Eco- 
NOMIC. 


COD LIVER OIL 


COD LIVER OIL. See Foop Anp Nutri- 
TION. 

CODY, Henry JoHN (1868- ena Brit- 
ish educator and clergyman (see VoL. V). In 
1914-15 he was a member of the Ontario Com- 
mission on Unemployment. He was Minister of 
Education in the same province in 1918-19, and 
in 1921 chairman of the Commission on Uni- 
versity Finances in Ontario. He was elected 
Archbishop of Melbourne, Australia, in the same 
year, but declined the office. Other offices held 
by him include: Chaplain of the Queen’s Own 
Regiment, Toronto, Honorable Lieutenant-Colonel 
in the Canadian Militia, and member of the 
Board of Governors of Toronto University. 

COE COLLEGE. An institution at Cedar 
Rapids, Iowa, founded in 1881. The student 
enrollment increased from 742 in 1918 to 924 
in the year 1923-24, with 132 in the normal 
school and 262 in the college in the summer of 
1923. The faculty was increased in the same 
period from 47 to 75 members, and the lbrary 
from 15,920 to 21,000 volumes. Harry More- 
house Gage, D.D., LL.D., succeeded John Ab- 
ner Marquis, D.D., LL.D., as president in 1921. 

COFFIN, Henry SLoAne (1877- )) An 
American clergyman and author, born in New 
York, educated at Yale University, at New Col- 
lege, Edinburgh, the University of Marburg and 
the Union Theological Seminary, New York. 
He was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 
1900, and after five years as pastor of the Bed- 
ford Park Chureh, New York, was appointed 
to the Madison Avenue Church in the same city 
in 1905. In the previous year he had been 
named associate professor of practical theology 
in the Union Theological Seminary. He was 
several times preacher to universities, including 
Yale and Harvard. Aside from editing and col- 
laborating, he wrote a number of books, among 
them: The Creed of Jesus (1907); Social As- 
pects of the Cross (1911); The Christian and 
the Church (1912); University Sermons (1914) ; 
The Ten Commandments (1915); Christian Con- 
victions (1915); In a Day of Social Rebuilding 
(the Lyman Beecher Lectures, at Yale Uni- 
versity, 1918); A More Christian Industrial Or- 
der (1920), and What is there in Religion? 
(1922), 

COFFMAN, De WITT (1854- ). An 
American naval officer, born in Shenandoah Co., 
Va. He graduated from the United States 
Naval Academy in 1876. During the Spanish- 
American War he served on the Terror. He was 
appointed lieutenant-commander in 1899; com- 
mander in 1905; captain in 1909, and rear-ad- 
miral in 1914. He served in many capacities, 


- both ashore and afloat, and in 1916 was com- 


mander of the 3d Division of the Atlantic Fleet. 
Later in the same year he commanded the 6th 
Division of the Atlantic Fleet, and in June, 
1916, he was promoted to be vice-admiral. He 
commanded the second battleship force in 1918 
and in the same year was given the command 
of the 5th Naval District and Naval Operating 
Base at Hampton Roads. On Novy. 28, 1918, he 
was retired by operation of law. He was a 
member of the Board of Awards, Medals and 
Honors until Oct. 30, 1919. 

COGHLAN, MTimotHy AUGUSTINE Sig 
(1856-— ). An Australian statistician (see 
Vou. V). He was created Knight in 1914, and 
Knight Commander of the Order of St. Michael 
and St. George in 1918. He was again Agent- 
General for New South Wales in 1916-17, and 


312 


COKE 
1920— In 1918, he published a History of 
Labour and Industry in Australia (4 vols.). 

COHAN, GrorcGe MICHAEL (1878- ). 
American playwright and producer (see VoL. 
V). His recent successful plays and_ pro- 
ductions include: AHit-the-Trail Holliday ; Abie’s 
Irish Rose, written by Anne Nichols, The Song 
and Dance Man, and The Rise of Rosie O'Reilly, 
a satire on Cinderella. 

COHEN, JuLtius Henry (1873- ). An 
American lawyer. He was born in Brooklyn, 
N. Y., and was graduated from the Law Depart- 
ment of New York University in 1896. In the 
following year he was admitted to the bar and 
began practice in New York City. He served as 
city attorney of the Transit Reform Committee 
of One Hundred (1900 to 1905), and as special 
counsel to the Public Service Commission, and 
to other civic organizations. He was a member 
of several legal societies and was the author of 
Law and Order in Industry (1916); The Law— 
Business or Profession (1916); and American 
Labor Policy (1918). He was a frequent con- 
tributor to legal periodicals. 

COHEN, Morris RApHart (1880- An 
American professor of philosophy born in Minsk, 
Russia. He was brought to America when still 
a child, and was educated at the College of the 
City of New York. He pursued graduate studies 
in philosophy under Royce and James at Har- 
vard and received the doctorate in 1906. He 
taught mathematics and philosophy at the Col- 
lege of the City of New York and at intervals 
at Columbia University, Johns Hopkins, and the 
New School for Social Research (New York). 
His writings, although limited largely ‘to ad- 
dresses before philosophical and mathematical 
bodies and to critical reviews in professional 
journals, exercised an influence beyond the or- 
dinary. Professor Cohen also contributed 
polemical writings on political and social ques- 
tions to the New Republic and other journals. 

COHEN, Octavus Roy (1891- ). An 
American author, born in South Carolina where 
he received his secondary and college education. 
At first an engineer, he soon drifted into jour- 
nalism, which he relinquished for authorship in 
1915. He immediately became popular as a 
result of his stories printed in the Saturday 
Evening Post which concerned themselves with 
the adventures of the Southern Negro. If his 
people seemed to possess the usual mythical 
Negro qualities of drollery and miscomprehen- 
sions, his tales at any rate were spirited. Among 
others he wrote: Polished Ebony (1919); Gray 
Dusk (1920); Come Seven (1920); Highly 
Colored (1921); besides some plays and mystery 
romances. 

COKE. In the period between 1914 and 1924 
many important developments were recorded in 
the manufacture of coke which normally takes 
about 15 per cent of the bituminous coal pro- 
duced in the United States and is essential for 
smelting the ores of iron and other metals, as 
well as for use in foundries, while it also finds 
application as a smokeless domestic fuel. In 
the United States the principal sources of coke 
had been the beehive oven, involving the loss of 
the many valuable by-products which could be 
obtained by the distillation of coal in a by~ 
product oven where the valuable volatile con- 
tent was preserved. The by-product oven of the 
Semet-Solvay type had been introduced in the 
United States in 1892, but its use had made slow 
progress until the beginning of the War, when 


COKE 


there was a considerable demand for benzol, 
toluol, and ammonia for use in the manufacture 
of explosives. These were produced at first for 
export but with the entry of the United States 
into the War in 1917 the demand increased so 
that in 1919, 56 per cent of all the coke manu- 
factured in the United States was made in by- 
product ovens, and since that time the propor- 
tion has been even greater. See CHEMISTRY, OR- 
GANIC. 

The economic advantage of the use of the by- 
product oven is shown by the fact that a ton 
of coal of 2000 pounds so treated. would yield 
approximately 19 pounds of sulphate of am- 
monia, 7.1 gallons of tar, 2.4 gallons of ‘crude 
light oil, and 10,500 cubic feet of gas and 1425 
pounds of coke. The ammonia thus obtained 
ean be used in refrigeration and for the manu- 
facture of the high explosive ammonium nitrate 
(see Explosives), and for making the fertilizer 
ammonium sulphate. From the tar are derived 
many organic compounds, such as the aniline 
dyes, and the ultimate residue, coal tar pitch, is 
employed in road making, in making roofing 
and as a binder for fuel briquettes. In refining 


313 


COLBY COLLEGE 


dustry, with the exception of that in 1920, the 
last normal year. Compared with 1920, 1922 
showed decreases of 29 per cent in the total pro- 
duction, 8 per cent in by-product coke, 58 per 
cent in beehive coke. The total production was 
less in 1922 than in any year since 1911, except 
1921, when business was extremely depressed. 

The exports of coke from the United States 
are principally to Canada, in 1923 totaling 
1,104,770 tons, valued at $11,889,897. The im- 
ports of coke into the United States in 1923 were 
75,895 tons, valued at $862,596. 

COKE PRODUCTS. See Cnemistry, Or- 
GANIC. 

COKER, WILLIAM CHAMBERS (1872- jt 
An American botanist, born at Hartsville, S. C. 
He graduated from South Carolina College in 
1894 and took postgraduate courses at Johns 
Hopkins University and in Germany. He taught 
for several years in the summer schocls of the 
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, at 
Cold Spring Harbor, L. I., and in 1902 became 
associate professor of botany at the University 
of North Carolina. He was made professor in 
1907 and Kenan professor of botany in 1920. 


PRODUCTION OF COKE IN THE UNITED STATES 


(Short Tons) | 
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


Years Beehive Per cent By-product Per cent Total 
of total of total 
UNDE RS 0 MNES yk Bile bb G cian Ae Rha A rae is 33,584,830 2.5 12,714,700 21.5 46,299,530 
MCLEE PR eA he. Aesecas Oc geathts.e 8. a 20j000,9 1b 67.5 11,219,943 82.5 34,555,914 
tase Chat aia ste Sil oc AT eltei eae’. s. ile shale 27,508,255 66.2 14,072,895 33.8 41,581,150 
SMR Ce ie ater! o” RePOLOF sc canis tats ey e, ieid eke 35,464,224 65.0 19,069,361 35.0 54 530,000 
ACY eae ae ods cts e cL yede's tel eh at tuk t 33,167,548 59.6 22,439,280 40.4 55,606,828 
Pers MM RUE uth sei che’ ann sh cp oaBe. 3) cide halcaincy cs 80,480,792 54.0 25,997,580 46.0 56,478,372 
PPL AMRIT ones Sees atc Naltets) sie shenins « ucteuetn, © 19,042,936 43.1 2D evo. Oe 56.9 44,180,557 
IPAF, () MOPAR AG? Be see R ee oad to heb an ci iobterlen'e Meier erg 20,511,092 40.0 30,833,951 60.0 51,345,043 
EMOTES Suaeen s citicteabiie s © ale oat abies) ole 5,538,042 21.9 19,749,580 78.1 25,287,622 
iD ney @ee Ts ce fab cha, of diid.p esetehe! aiets eneie 8,573,000 22.0 28,551,000 78.0 37,124,000 


the tar some crude light oil is obtained, but 
much more is secured by washing the coke oven 
gas. The crude light oil is valuable inasmuch 
as it yields benzol, the base of picric acid, and 
toluol, the base of the explosive trinitrotoluol, 
or TNT, which was employed so extensively in 
the War. The distillation of coal also yields 
illuminating gas. 

Naturally the most important use of coke is 
in blast furnaces, foundries and metallurgical 
furnaces as a fuel for melting the charge of ore 
or metal, and in 1918 when there was a total 
production of 56,478,000 tons, about 88 per cent 
was used in this way. Coke also finds employ- 
ment in the manufacture of water gas, in cer- 
tain high-temperature manufacturing processes, 
as a steam boiler fuel, as a producer gas fuel 
and as a domestic heating fuel. In this last 
respect the use of coke was increasing because 
of the cost of coal. 

As is shown by the accompanying table the 
production of beehive coke declined from 1913 
to 1922, while that of by-product coke increased 
considerably, though in 1922 there was an in- 
crease in the production of beehive coke over 
_ the previous year due to the demand of the steel 
industry which in that year was very active. 
Of the total output of 37,124,012 net tons pro- 
duced in 1922, only 23 per cent came from bee- 
hive ovens, as compared with 22 per cent in 
1921, and 40 per cent in 1920; the amount pro- 
duced being the smallest since 1888, except that 
in 1921. The output of by-product coke was the 
largest recorded since the beginning of the in- 


In 1903, he was chief of the botanic staff of 
the Bahama Expedition of the Geographical 
Society of Baltimore. Professor Coker was a 
member of many scientific societies and the 
author of The Plant Life of Hartsville, 8. C. 
(1912); The Trees of North Carolina (with 
H. R. Totten) (1916); and The Saprolegniacea 
of the United States (1921). Besides these he 
contributed numerous articles on morphology 
and botany to scientific periodicals. 

COLBY, BAINBRIDGE (1869- Jaya 
American lawyer and statesman, born at St. 
Louis, Mo., and educated at Williams College 
and at the Columbia and New York University 
law schools. In 1892, he began the practice of 
law in New York. From 1901, when he was 
elected a member of the New York Assembly, he 
took an active interest in State and national 
politics, being one of the founders of the Pro- 
gressive National party. He served on numer- 
ous boards and commissions of the government, 
and in 1917 was a member of the American 
Mission to the Inter-Allied Conference, in Paris. 
In 1920-21, he was Secretary of State. 

COLBY, Everetrr (1874— ). An Ameri- 
can lawyer (see Vor. V). He was a member of 
the Republican National Committee from 1916 to 
1920. In 1917, he served in the United States 
Food Administration, was major in the Officers’ 
Reserve Corps in 1918, and occupied the chair- 
manship of the Executive Committee of the 
League of Nations Non-Partisan Association 
founded in January, 1923. 

COLBY COLLEGE. A coeducational institu- 


COLE 


tion at Waterville, Me., founded in 1813. The 
number of students increased from 440 in 1916 
to 506 in 1923 and the library from 50,000 to 
60,000 bound volumes besides pamphlets. Three 
buildings were erected or acquired in the 10 
years between 1914 and 1924, including Hed- 
man Hall, a dormitory for men; Foster House, 
purchased as a dormitory for women; and the 
Woodman Stadium, a memorial for the men of 
Colby who served in the War, given by Mrs. 
Eleanora Woodman. A fund amounting to 
$500,000 was raised in 1920, of which $150,000 
was given by the Hon. Richard C. Shannon and 
$125,000 by the General Education Board; in 
the three years following, the Board of Edu- 
cation of the Northern Baptist Convention gave 
$100,000, and a campaign for a $150,000 en- 
dowment was brought to a successful conclusion. 
President, A. J. Roberts, A.M. 

COLE, Leon Jacos (1877- ). An Ameri- 
can zodlogist born at Allegheny, N. Y. He was 
educated at the University of Michigan (A.B., 
1901) and at Harvard (Ph.D., 1906). He was 
assistant in zodlogy at Michigan (1898-02) ; 
Austin teaching fellow, Harvard (1903-06) ; 
chief of the division of animal breeding at the 
Rhode Island Experiment Station (1906-07) ; 
and instructor in zodlogy, Yale (1907-10). In 
1910, Professor Cole went to the College of Agri- 
culture, University of Wisconsin, where he was 
successively associate professor of experimental 
breeding (1910-14), professor (1914-18), and 
professor of genetics (1918— ). 

COLE, Timotuy (1852- ). The foremost 
American wood engraver (see VoL. V). He 
published with his own illustrations, Wood En- 
graving: Three Essays (Grolier Club, New 
York, 1916), and The Magic Line, a Study of 
the Technique of Wood Engraving (New York, 
aO17)2 

COLEMAN, ARTHUR PHILEMON (1852- ie 
Professor of geology in Toronto University (see 
Vout. V). He was president of the Geological 
Society of America in 1915, and of the Royal 
Society of Canada in 1921. He published, with 
W. A Parks, An Elementary Geology (1922). 


COLETTE, or CoLeTTE WILLY (pseudonym 
of Mme. Henri de Jouvenel) ( ?—- ye uA 
French novelist whose work includes: Claudine 


a Vécale ; Claudine a Paris; Claudine en ménage ; 
Claudine s’en va; L’Ingénue libertine ; Dialogues 
de bétes; L’Envers du Music Hall; La Retraite 
Sentimentale; Hn Camarades; La Vagabonde ; 
L’Entrave; La Paix chez les bétes;, Mitsou; 
Chéri; La Chambre éclairée; La Maison de 
Claudine; Le Blé en herbe. 

COLGATE UNIVERSITY. A nonsectarian 
institution at Hamilton, N. Y., founded in 1819. 
With the exception of the two war years, 1917- 
19, the university showed a steady growth for 
the decade between 1914-24. The student body 
increased from 518 to 771; the faculty from 
47 to 57; the library, from 80,000 to 99,217 
volumes; and the endowment, from $2,000,000 to 
approximately $3,000,000. A chapel and a dor- 
mitory housing 200 men were built in 1922. 
George Barton Cutten, Ph.D., D.D., LU.D., suc- 
ceeded Elmer Burritt Bryan, LL.D., as president 
TOA 

COLLEGES. See UNIVERSITIES AND COL- 
LEGES. 

COLLENS, CHARLES (1873- ). An 
American architect, born in New York City and 
educated at Yale University and at the Ecole 
des Beaux Arts in Paris. He collaborated on 


314 


COLLINS 


the plans for the buildings of the Union Theo- 
logical Seminary in New York and of the And- 
over Theological Seminary in Cambridge, Mass. ; 
also on those of the libraries of Ohio State Uni- 
versity and Vassar College and of the Memorial 
Chapel of Williams College, as well as on the 
plans for Mrs. Eddy’s Church in Concord, N. H., 
and for the Fifth Avenue Baptist Church, New 
York City. 

COLLIER, WILLIAM MILLER (1867- ). 
An American diplomat (see VoLt. V). He was 
lecturer on international law at the New York 
Law School until 1918. In 1915, he held the 
same position at Wells College, and from 1916 
to 1918 he lectured on diplomacy at George 
Washington University, of which he was presi- 
dent from 1917 to 1921. In 1914 he was ap- 
pointed head of the American delegation to the 
International Conference at Christiania, to out- 
line a government for the Islands of Spitzberg- 
en In 1917-18 he collaborated on The Inquiry, 
conducted by Col. E. M. House. He was a mem- 
ber of the Committee on Policies and Platform, 
authorized by the Republic National Committee 


in 1920. From 1916 to 1919 he was a national 
councilor of the United States Chamber of 
Commerce. In 1921 he was appointed Ambas- 


sador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to 
Chile. He was the recipient of several foreign 
decorations, during and after the War. He is 
author of: The Law and the Higher Law 
(1918) ; George Washington’s Will and George 
Washington University (1918); and College In- 
fluences Before the War and After the War 
(1920). 

COLLINS, Cuyartrs WALLACE (1879- y 
An American lawyer. He was born at Galion, 
Ala., and studied at the Alabama Polytechnic 
Institute, the University of Chicago, and Har- 
vard. He was admitted to the bar in 1901 and 
for five years practiced in Birmingham, Ala. 
From 1915 to 1918, he was in charge of the 
Economic Section of the Legislative Reference 
Service of the Library of Congress, and the 
director of this section from 1918 to 1920. He 
assisted in drafting a bill for a national budget, 
and in 1920-21 was law librarian of Congress, 
serving also as counsel of the Bureau of the 
Budget. He wrote The National Budget System 
in American Finance (1915); The British Budg- 
et System (1920), and contributed articles on 
constitutional law and public finance to many 
law periodicals. 

COLLINS, Josern (1866- ). An Ameri- 
can neurologist, born in Brookfield, Conn He 
received the degree of M.D. from New York 
University in 1888, and after some years of 
private practice took up the specialty of neurol- 
ogy; in 1907, he was made a professor of that 
subject in the New York Post-Graduate Medical 
School. He was later a co-founder and visiting 
physician to the New York Neurological In- 
stitute. In addition to his attainments as a 
practitioner of medicine, Dr. Collins has long 
been known in general literature. His major 
writings, medical and secular, are: Letters to 
a Neurologist (1908; second series 1910); The 
Way with the Nerves (1911); Sleep and the 
Sleepless (1912); Neurological Clinics (1918) ; 
My Italian Year (1919); The Doctor Looks at 
Literature (1923). He has also been an exten- 
sive contributor to periodical literature, both 
medical and secular. 

COLLINS, Ross ALEXANDER (1880- ,. 
An American lawyer, born -at Collinsville, Mass. 


COLLITZ 


He graduated from Kentucky University in 
1899, and from the Law Department of the Uni- 
versity of Mississippi in 1901. In the same year 
he began practice in Meridian, Miss. He was 
elected attorney general of the State in 1912 
and was re-elected in 1915. In 1919, he was a 
candidate for governor in the Democratic prima- 
ry. He was elected to the 67th Congress in 
1921, and in 1922 was re-elected to the 68th 
Congress. 

COLLITZ, HERMANN (1855- ye rAn 
American philologist (see Vor. V), professor 
of German language and literature at Johns 
Hopkins. He is editor of Hesperus: Schriften 
zur germanischen Philologie and author of 
Sammlung der griechischen Dialektenschriften 
(1884-1915). 

COLLOIDAL STATE, COLLOIDAL DIS- 
PERSION. See PuysicaL CHEMISTRY. 

COLLOIDS. See CHEMISTRY; BOTANY; SOIL. 

COLOMBIA. A South American republic 
situated in the northwestern part of the conti- 
nent. Because of boundary disputes its fron- 
tiers were not definitely delimited in 1924. Its 
area iS variously estimated at 435,000 square 
miles to 440,846 square miles. The population 
at the census of Mar. 5, 1918, was 5,855,077, of 
whom 158,428 were Indians. The population in 
1912 was 5,072,604. The capital, Bogota, had 
143,994. Other large cities with their popula- 
tions were: Barranquilla, 64,543; Cartagena, 
51,382; Medellin, 79,146; Cali, 45,525; Mani- 
zales, 43,203. 

Industry and Trade. Coffee was the prin- 
cipal crop and chief article of export, for Colom- 
bia ranked second only to Brazil as a coffee 
producing country. The export totaled 235,- 
368,038 pounds in 1922, with a value of $35,- 
705,780, the United States taking 191,848,984 
pounds. The export in 1913 had been 134,136,- 
000 pounds. Bananas were the second most im- 
portant agricultural product, with exports in 
1922 of 160,298 tons, valued at $3,427,051. In 
1913, 157,385 tons had been exported. Other 
important crops were rice, sugar, cotton, corn, 
tobacco and wheat, while vegetable ivory, rub- 
ber, gums, medicinal plants and dyewoods were 
important forest products. Gold mining, one of 
the oldest industries in Colombia, has been car- 
ried on since Spanish colonial days, and ex- 
ports, which represented practically the entire 
production, were $5,699,920 in 1922. The plati- 
num mines, which furnished the greatest part 
of the world’s supply, had an annual production 
worth some $2,000,000. The emerald mines, con- 
trolled by the government, were the largest pro- 
ducers in the world. The petroleum industry 
was still in its infancy but promised to be of 
increasing importance. One foreign company 
opened a considerable number of producing 
wells, and it was reported that there were other 
deposits of value. The impetus given manufac- 
turing during the War placed many small-scale 


industries in the towns on a stable footing, and ° 


progress was made in the production of cotton 
textiles, shoes, cigarettes, beer, flour, soap and 
matches. The making of Panama hats, a na- 
tive industry requiring no machinery, prospered. 
The foreign trade of Colombia grew steadily. 
The balance of trade was favorable for many 
years, with the result that the Colombian peso, 
which is worth $0.973, was in 1918 above par 
in New York, and in 1924 practically at par. 
Exports in 1922 were valued at $52,390,199 
compared with $33,457,370 in 1913; and imports 


315 


COLOMBIA 


for 1922 were $42,978,101, compared with $27.- 
822,385 in 1913. The United States took on 
the average about 70 per cent of all exports and 
supplied some 47 per cent of all imports, so that 
it ranked first in Colombian foreign trade. with 
Great Britain second. Exports to the United 
States in 1922 amounted to $36,064,000 as com- 
pared with $15,714,000 in 1913, while imports 
from the United States were $20,137,000, com- 
pared with $7,647,000 in 1913. The chief ex- 
ports were coffee, gold, bananas, platinum, and 
hides; and the principal imports, textiles, food- 
stuffs, machinery, and construction material. 

Finance. The Colombian national debt as of 
May 31, 1923, was 45,698,382 pesos. This figure 
comprised 22,076,730 pesos of foreign debt and 
23,621,652 of internal debt. The budget for the 
year 1924 showed estimated revenues of 38,285,- 
397 pesos as against 12,043,145 pesos in 1912, 
and 42,965,953 pesos for expenditures, which 
amounted to 12,500,000 pesos in 1912. The def- 
icit was to be covered by a $5,000,000 foreign 
loan for the retirement of certain treasury 
bonds. Total currency in circulation as of Dec. 
31, 1923, was 38,950,292 pesos. During July, 
1923, the Colombian government used the first 
$5,000,000 installment of the American pay- 
ments on the $25,000,000 guaranteed under the 
1921 treaty to establish a central bank of issue 
modeled on the Federal Reserve Banks. This 
exerted a stabilizing effect on the finances and 
currency of the country. An American mission 
gave Colombia valuable assistance in its finances 
in 1923. 

Communications. In 1922 there were 937 
miles of railway, compared with 620 in 1911. 
Construction work was done during 1923 on the 
Pacifie railway, so that this line was complete 
to Zarzal, a distance of about 200 miles from 
the port of Buenaventura. The 1923 Colombian 
congress passed laws providing for the expendi- 
ture of the remaining $20,000,000 of American 
payments on the construction of 11 railroads 
and other public improvements. 

History. The outstanding events in Colom- 
bia’s history for the decade centred in the set- 
tlement of the Panama question with the United 
States. After the failure of the treaty of 1909 a 
new pact was drawn up in 1914 which contained 
a plain apology, attributed to the Secretary of 
State at the time, William J. Bryan, for the 
American part in the Panama revolution; the 
agreement gave Colombian citizens the same 
rights as those of American citizens in the use 
of the Canal Zone and the Panama Canal, and 
it provided for the payment of a $25,000,000 
compensation in five equal annual installments. 
Colombia ratified the treaty, but the American 
Senate, incensed at its apologetic tone, withheld 
its consent until 1921, when, under the Repub- 
lican administration, the objectionable phrases 
were withdrawn. On Nov. 5, 1921, the Colom- 
bian Senate accepted the treaty as revised, and 
on Mar. 2, 1922, the House of Representatives 
finally acceded, so that in the fall Colombia re- 
ceived its first payment of $5,000,000. From 
1914 to 1918, José Vincente Concha served as 
president; and his minister for foreign affairs, 
Marco Fidel Suarez was elected to the office for 
1918-22. A decree issued by President Suarez 
nationalizing oil resources caused considerable 
excitement in business circles but was declared 
unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. Presi- 
dent Suarez resigned in 1921 because of opposi- 
tion encountered in the Congress, and a 


COLORADO 


provisional president, Jorge Holguin, was ap- 
pointed to fill out the term. For the years 
1922-26, General Pedro Nel Ospina, Conserva- 
tive, was elected. Colombia remained a neutral 
during the War. In 1920 it joined the League 
of Nations. Relations with Panama continued 
unfriendly in 1924. 

COLORADO. Colorado is the seventh of the 
United States in size (103,948 square miles), 
and the thirty-third in population; capital, 
Denver. The population increased from 799,024 
in 1910 to 939,629 in 1920, a gain of 17.6 per 
eent. The white population increased from 783,- 
415 to 924,103; the number of native whites ris- 
ing from 656,564 to 807,149, while the foreign- 
born white population decreased from 126,851 to 
116,954. The Negro population decreased slight- 
ly from 11,453 in 1910 to 11,318 in 1920, while 
the number of Japanese increased from 2300 to 
2464. The urban population rose from 404,840 
in 1910 to 453,259 in 1920, the rural population 
from 394,184 to 486,370. The principal cities, 
with their population in 1910 and 1920, are 
Denver (q.v.), 213,381 and 256,491; Pueblo, 
41,747 and 43,050; Colorado Springs, 29,078 
and 30,105. 

Agriculture. While the population of the 
State increased 17.6 per cent in the decade 1910 
to 1920, the number of farms increased 29.8 per 
cent, from 46,170 to 59,934 In 1910 the acre- 
age was 13,532,113; in 1920 it was 24,462,014, 
while the acreage of improved land in farms in 
those years was 4,302,101 and 7,744,757 respec- 
tively. The total value of farm property ap- 
parently increased in the decade, from $491,471,- 
806 to $1,076,794,749, or 119.1 per cent; the aver- 
age value of farm property, from $10,645 to 


$17,966. In interpreting these values, and in- 
deed all comparative values for the decade 


1914-24, the inflation of currency in the latter 
part of the period is to be taken into considera- 
tion. The index number of prices paid to pro- 
ducers of farm products in the United States 
was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 1920. The total 
percentage of land used for agricultural pur- 
poses in 1910 was 20.4 per cent; in 1920, 36.9 
per cent. The percentage of improved land in 
farms remained practically constant, being 31.8 
per cent in 1910 and 31.7 per cent in 1920. Of 
the total of 59,934 farms in 1920, the number 
operated by owners was 45,291; by managers, 
880; by tenants, 13,763. There was an increase 
in the decade of about 8300 owners, 93 managers, 
and 5370 tenants. The white farmers numbered 
59,381 in 1920, as compared with 45,596 in 1910; 
foreign-born farmers, 9535, as compared with 
8398; and colored farmers, including Negroes, 
Indians, Japanese and Chinese, 553 as against 
574. There were 20,965 farms free from mort- 
gage in 1920; 26,822 in 1910. Those under 
mortgage numbered 21,131 in 1920, compared 
with 9636 in 1910. The number of dairy cows 
rose to 233,747 in 1920, from 144,734 in 1910; 
beef cows to 691,731, from 405,884; sheep, to 
1,813,255 from 1,305,596 Of the 59,934 farms 
in 1920, 28,756 were irrigated, as compared with 
25,857 in 1910, the area irrigated increasing 
from 2,792,032 to 3,348,385 acres The estimated 
production of the chief crops in 1923 was corn, 
31,267,000 bushels; wheat, 16,157,000 bushels; 
oats, 6,677,000 bushels; barley, 5,609,000 bush- 
els; potatoes, 16,786,000 bushels; hay, 2,393,- 
000 tons; sugar beets, 1,890,000 short tons. 
Comparative figures for 1913 are: corn, 6,300,- 
000 bushels; wheat, 9,680,000; oats, 10,675,000; 


316 


COLORADO 


barley, 3,250,000; potatoes, 9,200,000; hay, 1,- 
824,000 tons. Apple trees of bearing age num- 
bered 1,688,425 in 1910 and 1,777,737 in 1920. 
In 1909, 3,559,094 bushels of apples were grown; 
in 1919, 3,417,682. 

Education. The high standard always main- 
tained in education in Colorado continued to be 
upheld in the decade 1914-1924. During this 
period a closer relationship was established be- 
tween the various units of the school adminis- 
trative forces. This has resulted in a marked 
progress along all educational lines, resulting in 
an increase in the number of centralized, con- 
solidated and standardized schools. In 1914 
there were 120 centralized and consolidated 
schools, and in 1920, 130. The standardized 
schools in 1914 numbered 337; and in 1923, over 
600. Colorado was the first of the States to 
adopt Americanization as a part of its system 
of education, and was also the first to adopt 
modern tests and measurements. The legislature 
of 1921 passed measures providing for a mini- 
mum teachers’ salary. 

The enrollment in the grades below high 
school increased from 110,963 in 1914 to 195,828 
in 1920. The high school enrollment increased 
from 17,676 in 1914 to 24,000 in 1920. In 1923 
there were over 3000 grade schools, and 260 
high schools. The total expenditure for the ad- 
ministration of the educational system increased 
from about $7,000,000 in 1914 to approximately 
$18,000,000 in 1922. The percentage of illiter- 
acy decreased from 4.4 per cent in 1910 to 3.9 
per cent in 1920; among the native white popu- 
lation from 2.4 per cent to 2 per cent. Among 
the foreign-born whites it increased from 11.3 
per cent to 12.8 per cent. 

Mining. Colorado is one of the most im- 
portant of the mineral-producing States. Gold, 
however, was no longer its most important min- 
eral resource, having latterly been superseded 
by coal. The products in the order of their 
value are coal, gold, silver and clay. The prog- 
ress of the coal industry in the decade 1914-24 
is shown by these comparative figures: 1914, 
production 8,170,559 short tons, value $13,601,- 
718; 1915, 8,624,980 and $13,599,264; 1916, 10,- 
484,237 and $16,964,104; 1917, 12,483,336 and 
$27,669,129; 1918, 12,407,571 and $33,404,743, 
1920, 12,278,225 and $42,829,000; 1921, 9,122,- 
760 and $32,377,000; 1922, 10,019,597 short tons. 
The decrease in gold production is indicated as 
follows: 1914, 960,845 fine ounces; 1915, 1,084,- 
323; 1916, 926,566; 1917, 760,901; 1918, 616,- 
864; 1919, 478,266; 1920, 366,504; 1921, 330,- 
659, and 1922, 308,314. As silver is derived 
chiefly from ores which are also gold-bearing, a 
decrease in production of that metal has accom- 
panied that of gold. Figures for several of the 
years of the decade will indicate the progress of 
the silver mining industry. In 1914, 8,796,065 
fine ounces were produced; in 1915, 7,027,972; 
in 1917, 7,304,353; in 1920, 5,409,335; in 1921, 
5,631,657, and in 1922, 5,855,911. <A considerable 
amount of copper is also produced in the State: 
in 1914, 6,639,173 pounds, valued at $883,010; 
1919, 3,560,207 pounds, $662,198, 1922, 3,373,- 
454 pounds, $455,416. Other important minerals 
produced are lead and zine, of which in 1922 
23,477,200 and 23,258,000 pounds respectively 
were marketed. Colorado produces also a small 
quantity of petroleum The total value of the 
mineral products in 1921 was $54,045,056, com- 
pared with $76,037,896 in 1920, and $52,161,660 
in 1914. 


COLORADO 


Manufactures. The manufacturing  estab- 
lishments of the State increased from 2034 in 
1909 to 2126 in 1914, and to 2631 in 1919, while 
the number of persons engaged in manufacture 
rose from 34,115 to 33,715 and to 44,729. The 
capital invested in these three years, was $162,- 
667,801, $181,776,339, and $243,826,617, respec- 
tively. The value of the products apparently in- 
creased from $130,044,312 in 1909 through $136,- 
839,321 in 1914, to $275,622,335 in 1919; but 
this increase was largely due to the change in 
industrial conditions brought about by the War, 
and cannot be properly used to measure the 
growth of manufactures between the industrial 
censuses of 1914-19. The increase in the num- 
ber of wage earners and the number of estab- 
lishments, on the other hand, indicates a decided 
growth in the manufacturing activities of the 
State. The most important industries in point 
of value of products are those connected with 
slaughtering and meat packing, which were val- 
ued in 1909 at $9,657,000; 1914,$12,726,000; 
1919, $41,008,000. Flour and grist mill prod- 
ucts in 1909 were valued at $7,868,000; 1914, 
$7,536,000; 1919, $19,954,000. Car construction 
and repairing had a production in 1909 valued at 
$6,559,000; 1914, $6,822,000; 1919, $15,130,000. 
Foundry and machine shop products in those 
years were valued at $5,907,000, $4,575,000, and 
$17,778,000 respectively. Other important in- 
dustries are the manufacture of butter, cheese 
and condensed milk, printing and publishing, 
saw mills and grist mills. The two most im- 
portant manufacturing cities in the State are 
Denver and Pueblo. In Denver, the number of 
manufacturing establishments, with total value 
of their product, was in 1909, 765 and $46,925,- 
000; 1914, 885 and $46,982,000; 1919, 1097 and 
$125,411,000. Pueblo, in 1909, had 92 manu- 
facturing establishments; in 1914, 108, and in 
1919, 120. The value of the products in those 
years was $3,009,000, $3,324,000, and $13,978,- 
000. 

Finance. For finance, see STATE FINANCES, 

Political and Other Events. Much of politi- 
eal and industrial importance happened in Colo- 
rado in the decade 1914-24. In 1914 serious 
coal strikes in the southern coal mines of the 
State created a situation of national importance. 
The apparent inability of the State authorities 
to control it resulted in a call for Federal aid, 
and President Wilson, on April 28, ordered Fed- 
eral troops to the State to prevent conflicts be- 
tween the State militia and the strikers These 
troops remained in the State throughout the 
year. See STRIKES AND Lockouts. In the 
elections of 1914 the Democratic State adminis- 
tration was overthrown and George A. Carlson 
was elected governor. Senator Thomas, Demo- 
crat, was reélected. The State, by a small ma- 
jority, voted for constitutional prohibition at 
this election. Conflicts between the State Legis- 
lature and Judge Ben B. Lindsey in 1915 at- 
tracted wide attention through the prominence 
of the latter as an authority on juvenile courts 
and the reformation of delinquent children. ‘L.e 
Legislature attempted to pass laws abolishing 
the juvenile courts so as to remove Judge Lind- 
sey from office. The attempt grew out of the re- 
fusal of Judge Lindsey to divulge on the witness 
stand confidential conversations with a boy of 
12. He declared that the whole juvenile court 
was founded on the protection of children who 
gave their confidence to him. He was declared 
guilty of contempt of court and was fined $500. 


317 


COLORADO 


In 1916, in spite of a vigorous campaign waged 
by the Republicans and the assistance of Col. 
Theodore Roosevelt, President Wilson carried the 
State by the largest plurality ever given by 
the State and the entire Democratic State 
ticket was elected. President Wilson received 
178,816 votes and Charles E. Hughes 102,308 
votes. Julius C. Gunter, Democrat, was elec- 
ted governor, and all the other State officers 
elected were Democrats. The Legislature, how- 
ever, had a Republican majority of one. Dur- 
ing 1917 the State subscribed over $40,000,000 
to Liberty Loans, and voluntary enlistments to 
the army and navy amounted to over 20,000. 
In 1918 elections for governor, congressmen, and 
State officers, were held. The Republicans re- 
turned to power, electing their candidate for 
governor, Oliver H. Shoup and sent Lawrence 
I. Phipps to the Senate. In December of this 
year, the State became “bone dry” in accord- 
ance with a constitutional amendment endorsed 
by the people. In 1920 Governor Shoup was re- 
elected and S. D. Nicholson, Republican, was 
elected to the United States Senate. In the 
presidential election of this year, Warren G. 
Harding received 173,248 votes and James M. 
Cox 104,936. In June, 1921, cities in the cen- 
tral and southern part of the State suffered 
severely from devastating floods At Pueblo, as 
the result of the breaking of a dam, over 350 
city blocks were flooded. Many buildings were 
destroyed, and there were many deaths. The 
total damage amounted to nearly $15,000,000. 
In November, 1921, as a result of a miners’ 
strike in Huerfano County, Governor Shoup es- 
tablished martial law. In the elections in 1922 
the Democrats again were successful. William 
E. Sweet was elected governor. This year wit- 
nessed a reaction from radical movements which 
had been more or less active in the State in the 
years previous. William Z. Foster, the radical 
labor leader, was ejected from the State. On 
Jan. 1, 1923, William E. Sweet, elected in the 
previous year, assumed the office of governor. 
As the result of failure of the Arizona Legis- 
lature to ratify the so-called Colorado River 
Compact, a difference arose between the govern- 
ments of the two States. An alternative plan 
proposed by Arizona encountered strong opposi- 
tion in Colorado. Samuel D Nicholson, United 
States Senator, died in May, 1923, and on May 
17, Alva B. Adams, Democrat, was appointed 
to succeed him. 

Legislation. The Legislature meets bien- 
nially. Among the important measures passed 
during the period 1914-24 were those noted be- 
low. In 1915 a workmen’s compensation law 
was passed. In 1917 a special session of the 
Legislature voted $2,500,000 in war bonds. The 
Legislature in this year amended the liquor laws, 
passed a pure food Jaw, and amended the laws 
relating to elections. The Legislature of 1919 
ratified the Federal Prohibition Amendment and 
reénacted the workmen’s compensation law 
amendments. In 1921 the Legislature referred 
to the electors an amendment prohibiting aliens 
from holding land in the State. Laws relating 
to corporations were amended and an inheritance 
tax measure enacted. A special session of the 
Legislature, held in April, 1922, provided for 
the creation of an improvement district against 
which bonds to the amount of $6,720,000 were 
authorized for .the construction of a railway 
tunnel through the mountains near James Peak, 
northwest of Denver, on the line of the Denver 


COLORADO 


and Salt Lake Railroad. A second act author- 
ized the organization of a flood control district 
along the Arkansas River for the protection of 
Pueblo and other communities. The Legislature 
of 1923 passed measures to compensate veterans 
of all wars, beginning with the Civil War, to 
facilitate the codperative marketing of agricul- 
tural products. 

COLORADO, Universiry or. A _ coeduca- 
tional State institution at Boulder, Colo., found- 
ed in 1876. The student enrollment increased 
100 per cent, from 1236 in 1914 to 2503 in 
1923-24; the faculty increased from 200 to 268 
in the same period, and the number of volumes 
in the library from 100,000 to 150,000. Twenty 
residence fellowships were established in 1922, 
and separate departments in journalism and 
anthropology were opened. The General Educa- 
tion Board gave $700,000 to be used for the con- 
struction of a medical plant at Denver, and a 
yearly stipend of $50,000 for its maintenance 
over a term of years; and the Liberal Arts 
Building, the Macky Auditorium, a University 
Hospital and Medical School, the State Psycho- 
pathic Hospital and Nurses’ Home, the gym- 
nasium, the engineering laboratory, a _ green- 
house, and a tunnel for the heat lines were built 
during the decade. In 1918 George Norlin, 
Ph.D., succeeded Livingston Farrand, LL.D., as 
president. 

COLORADO COLLEGE. An institution at 
Colorado Springs, Colo., founded in 1874. The 
student enrollment increased from 561 in 1914 
to 700 in 1923-24, the number of members in 
the faculty from 51 to 69, and the number of 
volumes in the library from 75,000 to 100,000. 
The endowment was increased from $1,042,000 
to $1,689,000 during the same years and the an- 
nual income from $85,165 to $244,312. The 
General Education Board also promised to give 
$300,000 to the endowment on condition that the 
college raise $600,000 additional. A new sys- 
tem of honors courses permitting greater spe- 
cialization and wider scope for individual in- 
vestigation was established for members of the 
two upper classes who distinguished themselves 
in the work of the first two years. It included 
among its requirements papers embodying the 
results of individual reading and study, a final 
dissertation, and a comprehensive examination 
in the field of concentration. The entrance re- 
quirements were to be changed in the fall of 
1924.° C. A. Duniway succeeded William F. 
Slocum as president. Charles C. Mierow was 
acting president in 1923-24. 

COLOR-BLINDNESS, 
See HEREDITY. 


TRANSMISSION OF. 


COLORED METHODISTS. See MeEtTHOo- 
DISTS, COLORED. 
COLUM, Papraic (1881- ). An Ameri- 


ean poet and dramatist, born at Longford, Ire- 
land. One of the early leaders of the Irish 
literary renaissance, he soon gained prominence 
as editor of the Jrish Review and a writer of 
charming lyrics. He came to the United States 
in 1914, where, in company with Ernest Boyd 
and others, he did much to familiarize Americans 
with the current trends in Irish literature. 
His later work was largely concerned with the 
preparation of children’s books, done with that 
meticulous care and poetic sense so conspicuous 
in all his writings. Among his books were: 
Wild Earth (1907); Three Plays (1916); The 
Adventures of Odysseus (1918); The Golden 
Fleece (1921); Castle Conquer (a novel, 1923). 


318 


COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 


COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. A _nonsec- 
tarian institution founded in 1754, whose prin- 
cipal buildings at Morningside Heights, New 
York City, comprise Columbia College, a college 
of liberal arts for undergraduate men; Schools 
of Mines, Engineering, Chemistry, Architecture, 
Journalism, Business, and Dentistry; the non- 
professional graduate faculties of political sci- 
ence, philosophy, and pure science; Barnard 
College, for undergraduate women; Teachers’ 
College, including the quarters of education and 
practical arts; and the university library. 
The College of Physicians and Surgeons is on 
West Fifty-ninth Street and the College of 
Pharmacy on West Sixty-eighth Street. In ad- 
dition to the regular session there is a thorough 
system of university extension, and in the sum- 
mer, besides the summer session at Morning- 
side Heights, a summer camp at Morris, Conn. 

The enrollment of the university grew steadily 
from 14,098 in 1913 to 28,861 in 1923-24, in- 
cluding the 12,675 of the summer session of 
1923 but excluding duplicates; and the number 
of members in the faculty was increased from 
907 in the earlier year to 1830 in the later. 
The library was increased during the period from 
550,000 bound volumes and 75,000 German dis- 
sertations to 863,341 volumes; the income from 
$2,793,332.32 to $6,403,808.99; and the produc- 
tive funds from $29,038,975.78 to $47,537,200.94. 
An extensive building programme was laid out 
in 1919. By the close of 1923 the Faculty House 
was in use, and the new residence hall for 
women, the School of Business and the library 
for Teachers’ College were all expected to be 
ready within a year. Work was begun on an 
additional residence hall for Barnard College. 
Plans for other buildings in the original pro- 
gramme were temporarily abandoned on account 
of the excessive cost of construction, which was 
estimated at a sum between $10,000,000 and 
$12,000,000. Approximately $12,426,000 had 
been collected towards the $15,000,000 called for 
by the plans for the new buildings for the Col- 
lege of Physicians and Surgeons, and a lot at 
Washington Heights was donated in 1919 for the 
joint use of the college and the Presbyterian 
Hospital. Women were admitted to the College 
of Physicians and Surgeons for the first time in 
1918. In 1923 the College of Dental and Oral 
Surgery of New York was merged with the 
School of Dentistry, established in 1917. The 
school thus formed was known as the School of 
Dental and Oral Surgery of Columbia University 
and was located at 302 East Thirty-fifth Street 
and 309 East Thirty-fourth Street. 

Lincoln School was established in 1917 under 
the direction of Teachers’ College for the pur- 
pose of scientific experimentation and construc- 
tive work in the reorganization of elementary 
and secondary education. In 1919 psychological 
tests were instituted which might be substituted 
for entrance examinations for Columbia Col- 
lege, and a course in contemporary civilization 
for freshmen was given to take the place of 
courses formerly given in history, economics and 
philosophy. Home study courses were offered 
in the same year under the department of uni- 
versity extension. Institutes of educational re- 
search, cancer research and public health were 
founded in 1921. The faculty of law completed 
in 1923 the plan for the organization of ad- 
vanced instruction and research in the field of 
public and private law, and in May the trustees 
created the degree of doctor of law (Doctor 


COLUMBUS 


Juris) to be conferred on practically the same 
terms as the degree of doctor of philosophy in 
other fields of knowledge. The objection that 
had been offered to the institution of this new 
degree, that it paved the way for an objection- 
able diversification of doctorate degrees, was met 
by the trustees of the university with the decla- 
ration that the degree of doctor would be con- 
fined to the four traditional academic groups, 
law, medicine, philosophy, and__ theology. 
Further to ensure uniformity in the awarding 
of the doctorate degrees in philosophy and law, 
a single representative committee drawn from 
the faculties of political science, philosophy, pure 
science, and law were to have direct supervision 
of the work of candidates for these degrees. Ar- 
rangements were made in 1919 for the prepara- 
tion and publication through the Columbia Uni- 
versity Press of the complete works of John 
Milton, under the editorship of members of the 
department of English and comparative litera- 
ture. Early in the War a plan of mobilization 
of the university resources was drawn up, which 
the Bureau of Education of the Department of 
the Interior at Washington approved and sub- 
mitted as a model to all the colleges and uni- 
versities in the country. A war hospital of 
1000 beds was organized and turned over to the 
government as United States Army General Hos- 
pital No. 1. More than 2000 students left the 
university before June 1, 1917, to enter the 
service, and leave of absence was granted in 
that time to approximately 200 members of the 
faculty for war work. President, Nicholas Mur- 
ray Butler, LL.D. (Cantab.), D.Litt. (Oxon.), 
Jur. D. (Paris). 

COLUMBUS. The capital of Ohio. The 
area of the city was increased from 14,570.2 to 
15,824.5 acres by the annexation of Linden 
Heights village in 1921; the population increased 
from 181,511 in 1910 to 237,031 in 1920, and to 
261,082, by the estimate of the Bureau of the 
Census, for 1923. 

A new Federal plan municipal charter of the 
home-rule type, with nonpartisan ballot, prefer- 
ential voting, recall of elected officials, the refer- 
endum, and a small council elected at large, went 
into effect in 1916. A city planning commission 
was created and carried on an active programme 
in 1920; its membership comprised the city en- 
gineer and director of public safety and citizens, 
including a professor of municipal engineering, 
a real estate man, an architect, and a news- 
paper publisher. Plans were developed for the 
establishment of an elaborate civic centre along 
the Scioto River. Extensive public works were 
constructed. The reservoir in the Scioto River 
was increased in capacity by raising the dam 
until it was capable of containing 5,833,000,000 
gallons, and the purification and pumping works 
were enlarged. The cost of this was met by a 
$3,000,000 bond issue voted in 1919. <A second 
large dam was being constructed to increase the 
water supply. In 1921 three concrete arch 
bridges were opened to traffic to replace the 
bridges lost in the great flood of 1913. The 
Mound Street Bridge, 1050 feet long and sup- 
ported by 9 arches, was built by the city at a 
cost of $6,000,000; the others, at Broad Street 
and Town Street, were built by Franklin County 
at a cost of $600,000 apiece. Nearly $6,000,000 
was expended on a school building programme: 
The value of manufacturing increased from $70,- 
000,000 in 1914 to $100,000,000 in 1923. 

COLVIN, Sir Sipney (1845- ). An 


319 ; 


COMMUNISM 


English art and book critic (see Vou. V). Be- 
sides being a member of numerous learned and 
art societies, he is author of John Keats, His 
Life and Poetry (1917), and Memories and 
Places (1921). 

COMBES, (Justin Louis) Emre (1835- 
1921). A French statesman (see Vor. V). He 
became a member of the Briand ministry with- 
out portfolio in 1915. He died on May 26, 1921. 

COMETS. See ASTRONOMY. 

COMFORT, Witt Levineron (1878- ke 
An American novelist, born at Kalamazoo, Mich., 
and educated in the public schools of Detroit. 
He served in the United States Cavalry during 
the Spanish-American War and in 1899 was war 
correspondent in the Ph:tippines and China. In 
1904 he was war correspondent in Japan and 
Russia. Besides numerous contributions to pe- 
riodicals he wrote the following: Routledge Rides 
Alone (1910); Fate Knocks at the Door (1912) ; 


Down Among Men (1913); Midstream (1914) ; 
Red Fleece (1915); Lot & Company (1915) ; 
Child and Country (1916); The Hive (1918) ; 
The Shielding Wing (1918); Son of Power 


(1920); This Man’s World 
Public Square (1923). 

COMMISSION FOR RELIEF IN BEL- 
GIUM. See BELGIUM. 

COMMISSION AND COMMISSION- 
MANAGER PLAN OF CITY GOVERN- 
MENT. See MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT. 

COMMUNISM. As the type of socialist 
doctrine which, on the basis of the Marxian 
Communist Manifesto, strives for the attain- 
ment of the socialist aim by means of the dic- 
tatorship of the proletariat, communism is a re- 
cent development and quite different from the 
earlier interpretation. While the communists 
believe, like the socialists, in collective owner- 
ship of the means of production, they are un- 
alterably opposed to any temporizing and to any 
codperation toward this end with the bourgeois 
arties. The communists believe that the revolu- 
tionary working classes must seize the power 
and set up a dictatorship of the proletariat in 
preparation for the socialist state. This does 
not mean, however, that the communists reject 
democracy as such, but they hold that during 
the period of transition until the socialist state 
is achieved, majority rule is unfeasible and the 
struggle must be carried on by a class con- 
scious minority. In their insistence on the ul- 
timate application of majority rule and in their 
theory of the state, tle communists are at vari- 
ance with the syndicalists, who regard the mil- 
itant minority as the tool of all progress and 
whose aim is the industrial society with the 
workshop as the basis of organization. The 
tactics of the communists are primarily political, 
those of the syndicalists exclusively industrial. 

Modern communism is distinctly a fruit of 
the Russian Bolshevik revolution of November, 
1917. Previous to the War two socialist groups, 
differing in aim and procedure, existed in Rus- 
sia. The first group, the Revolutionary Social- 
ists, regarded Russia as an agricultural coun- 
try whose economic development must neces- 
sarily be different from that of western Europe. 
The second group, the Social Democratic party, 
stood squarely on the basis of the Marxian doc- 
trine of the class struggle and held that Russia 
must first go through the industrial and cap- 
italistic stage in order to attain the socialist 
ideal. It was this group or rather its majority 
element, the Bolsheviki, who through their 


(1921); and The 


COMMUNISM | 320 


majorities in the Workmen’s and Soldiers’ Coun- 
cils seized the power in Russia in November, 
1917, organized the communist state, and elab- 
orated the communist doctrine. To the Bol- 
sheviki, Russia was the arena of the class strug- 
gle in which the conflict between the proletariat 
and the bourgeoisie had to be fought out. They 
set up a dictatorship of the proletariat—that is, 
of the communists—and suppressed all elements 
opposed to their rule. They had no illusions as 
to the advisability of applying their principles 
of liberty and democracy to existing conditions. 
In their opinion Russia was in a state of transi- 
tion during which all opposition had to be wiped 
out ruthlessly and preparations had to be made 
to bring about the socialist state. The executive 
power of the Russian communist state was in 
the hands of the Board of People’s Commissaries, 
which derived its authority from the All Rus- 
sian Congress of Soviets, the members of which 
were communists, with very few exceptions. The 
Communist party in Russia, which wielded ab- 
solute power, seldom exceeded a membership of 
700,000. It was the agency through which the 
government kept in contact with the trade unions 
and all other organizations. 

Under the auspices of the Soviet government, 
the Third or Communist International was or- 
ganized in March, 1919, at Moscow. At its sec- 
ond congress in Moscow, July, 1920, it was de- 
elared to be established for the purpose of or- 
ganizing common action among the workers of 
various countries who are striving toward a 
single aim: the overthrow of capitalism, the es- 
tablishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat 
and the International Soviet republic, the com- 
mon abolition of classes, and the realization of 
socialism as the first step to the communist 
society. Twenty-one conditions of membership 
were laid down at this congress. The third 
congress was held in Moscow, June 22-July 12, 
1921, with 510 delegates representing 48 coun- 
tries. Having in the preceding congresses de- 
fined the sharp theoretical lines of demarcation 
between the revolutionary and the reformist ele- 
ments of the proletariat of all countries, the In- 
ternationale devoted itself now to tactics and 
methods of organization of the Communist 
parties. At this time the organization had a 
membership of 2,800,000 in 51 countries. At the 
fourth congress, Nov. 7—Dec. 3, 1922, which was 
attended by 400 delegates from 62 countries, rep- 
resenting a membership of 2,200,000, further 
measures were taken to make the Third Inter- 
national the truly international communist 
party. Separate from the Third International, 
but connected with it, was the Young Communist 
International, which was organized in Moscow 
in December, 1919, and included most of the 
socialist youth in all countries. 

Outside of Russia the Communists were 
strongest in France, Germany and Italy. After 
the French Socialist party had voted against 
affiliation with the Third International in 1921, 
the radical minority withdrew and formed the 
French Communist party. The party had 60,- 
000 members in 1923 and secured 29 seats in 
the Chamber in the elections of May, 1924. 
The German Spartacists formed the German 
Communist party in December, 1918. At the 
end of 1923 it reported a membership of 300,- 
000. It grew still further in strength during 
the early part of 1924 and obtained in the elec- 
tions of May in the same year 60 seats in the 
Reichstag. The Italian Communist party was 


COMSTOCK 


born out of the secession of Bombacci and his 
followers from the Leghorn Congress, January, 
1921. The party, which had 50,000 members at 
the time of its formation, reported only half that 
number at the end of 1922 and declined still 
further during a year and a half of Fascist rule. 
The Communist party of Great Britain, formed 
in August, 1920, out of the British Socialist 
party, a section of the British Socialist Labor 
party and other small groups, was negligible 
in membership and influence. 

The radical dissenting elements of the Amer- 
ican Socialist party established the American 
Communist party in September, 1919. A day 
later the Communist Labor party was founded 
by John Reed. The differences between the 
two groups were very slight, and a section of 
the Communist party united in 1920 with the 
Communist Labor party to form the United 
Communist party. The American government 
took strong action against the Communists, and 
as a result the movement in the United States 
was driven underground. When it became im- 
perative to conduct activities publicly because 
of the great number of left wing Socialists who 
were joining the Communists, the Workers’ 
party was formed in December, 1921, to give 
authoritative expression to the communist move- 
ment in the United States. But the Communist 
party continued to exist secretly and held in Au- 
gust, 1922, a convention in the woods near 
Bridgman, Mich., which was raided by Federal 
and State authorities. The participants in the 
convention were prosecuted. On April, 1923, the 
Communist party voted to desolve and desig- 
nated the Workers’ party as its successor. The 
latter held three conventions, the last in Chi- 
cago, Dec. 30-Jan. 2, 1924. Its membership in 
1923 was 15,233. See also SOCIALISM. 

COMMUNITY MUSIC. See Music. 

COMPASS, Eartu Inpuction. See Navica- 
TION. 

COMPANY. See ARMIES AND ARMY ORGANI- 
ZATION. 

COMPASS, Rapio. 
TELEGRAPHY. 

COMPIEGNE, OFreNsIVE 
WAR IN EvuROPE, Western Front. 

COMPLEX, IpEA or. See PsycHoLocy, AB- 
NORMAL. 

COMSTOCK, Ava LOUISE (1876- yal eet 
American educator, born in Moorhead, Minn. 
She studied at the University of Pennsylvania 
from 1892 to 1894, and at Smith College in 
1897. She took postgraduate courses at Colum- 
bia, Mt. Holyoke and the University of Michigan. 
She served on the faculty of the University of 
Minnesota as professor and dean of women un- 
til 1912, when she was appointed dean of Smith 
College. She was a member of several societies 
and from 1921 was president of the American 
Association of University Women. 

COMSTOCK, F. Ray _ (1880- ye An 
American theatrical producer born in Buffalo, 
N. Y., who began as a producer for the theatre 
in 1900 and has been best known for his pro- 
ductions of Very Good, Eddie; Oh, Boy!; Oh, 
Lady, Lady; Oh, My Dear; Chu Chin Chow; 
Mecca. 

COMSTOCK, Harriet THERESA (1860- ie 
An American author, born at Nichols, N. Y. 
She was educated at an academy in Plainfield, 
N. J. In 1885, she was married to Philip Com- 
stock, of Brooklyn. Her books, mostly for chil- 
dren, had a very wide sale. They include: 


See NAVIGATION; RApIo 


AGAINST. See 


Te ed ; 


CONCRETE 


Molly, the Drummer Boy (1900); A Boy of a 
Thousand Years Ago (1902); Janet of the 
Dunes (novel; 1908) ; Joyce of the North Woods 
(1911); A Son of the Mills (1913); The Place 
Beyond the Winds (1914); The Vindication 
(1917); Mam’selle Jo: A Novel of the St. Law- 
rence Country (1918); Unbroken Lines (1919) ; 
The Shield of Silence (1921); At the Cross- 
roads (1922); and many others. 


CONCRETE. See CEMENT; ROADS’ AND 
PAVEMENTS. 
CONE, Hvutcuinson INGHAM (1871- he 


An American naval officer (see Vout. V). He 
commanded the United States Naval Aviation 
Forces from August, 1917, to October, 1918, and 
was wounded when his ship was sunk in the 
Irish Sea by a German submarine, in 1918. He 
received many foreign decorations and the Dis- 
tinguished Service Medal of the United States 
Navy. 
CONFLAGRATIONS. See Fire PRrorection. 
CONGER, SrymMour BeEAcH  (1876- ). 
An American newspaper writer, born at Port 
Huron, Mich. He graduated from the University 
of Michigan in 1900, served on the staff of sev- 
eral papers in Michigan and from 1908 was 
connected with the Associated Press. He served 
this organization in St. Petersburg during the 
revolution of 1905 and the Russo-Japanese War. 
He was director of the Berlin bureau of the 
Associated Press from 1910 to 1917 and was 
war correspondent with the German and Austro- 
Hungarian forces until the -United States en- 
tered the War. He represented the Associated 
Press at the Peace Conference at Paris. In 
1918, he was foreign adviser to the War Trade 
Board in Washington, and following the War 
acted as chief correspondent of the Public 
Ledger, Philadelphia, in Central and Eastern 
Europe. During the Spanish-American War he 
served as private in the 32d Michigan Infantry. 
CONGO, BeLc1AnN. A Belgian colony of Cen- 
tral Africa, with an estimated area, since 1919, 
of 928,000 square miles, and a native popula- 
tion estimated at 8,500,000 to 11,000,000. The 
white population on Jan. 1, 1922, numbered 
9631; on Jan. 1, 1921, it was 8175, against 
5465 in 1912. Of the population of 1921, 4706 
were Belgians, 938 English, 303 Americans, 
1047 Portuguese, and 351 Italians. The leading 
cities were Boma, the capital, Matadi, Banana, 
Leopoldville, Stanley Pool, and Elizabethville. 
Industry and Trade. The rubber industry 
steadily dropped in importance. In 1921 only 
786,436 kilos were exported as compared with 
3,401,970 kilos in 1911. On the other hand, 
the palm-oil industry, exploited by British cap- 
ital, made steady advances so that by 1921 the 
export of palm nuts was 45,876,469 kilos (5,573,- 
630 in 1910), and of palm-oil, 8,970,173 kilos 
(1,963,637 in 1910). With the fall in rubber, 
attention was turned to the cultivation of cotton, 
cocoa, rice, and copal, whose export in 1911 
amounted to 1,944,455 kilos. In 1921 this ex- 
port amounted to 11,097,103 kilos. The devel- 
opment of the copper mines, too, increased enor- 
mously under the British penetration into 
Katanga. (See Copper.) Furnaces were built 
for the smelting of the ore for shipment to the 
United Kingdom. In 1911, the shipment was 
about 909,090 kilos; by 1921 it had reached 30,- 
464,000 kilos and in 1922, 43,362,000. Gold, dia- 
monds, and ivory were other important products. 
Exports both general and special had been valued 
at 142,590,000 francs in 1912. Special exports 
Suprp.—21 


321 


CONGREGATIONALISM 


alone were worth 217,980,062 francs in 1921. 
Copper, palm-nuts, and oil were particularly im- 
portant. Belgium, of course, absorbed most of 
the trade. Great Britain, United States, Rho- 
desia, Angola, France, were next in order. Lead- 
ing imports were cotton, provisions, machinery, 
spirits, ships, and arms. Imports in 1913 were 
worth 71,590,781 franes; in 1920, 237,534,767; 
and in 1921, 276,027,218. In 1920, the coun- 
tries of origin of imports in the order of value 
of goods, were Belgium, Great Britain, Union 
of South Africa, Rhodesia, the United States, 
and France. The United States imports were 
put at 10,844,247 frances, a tremendous increase 
over the 74,525 francs of 1913. By Jan. 1, 1921, 
the total length of railways had increased to 
2663 miles. The most important project begun 
in 1921 was a line from Chilongo in the Katanga 
to Angola, 400 miles, to be linked eventually 
with the line to Lobito Bay on the Atlantic 
Ocean. This would give the Katanga mines di- 
rect connection with European markets. In 
1911 a pipe line was laid from Matadi to Leo- 
poldville for the purpose of transporting crude 
oil for the use of river steamers. In 1921 there 
were 2,085 miles of telegraph line, about twice 
as much as in 1912 (1145 miles), and 15 wire- 
less stations (5 in 1912). 

Finance. In 1922 receipts were 87,320,908 
francs, against 40,418,100 for 1913; 1922 ex- 
penditures were 191,796,313 francs, against 50,- 
933,064 for 1913. The public debt in 1919 was 
349,847,446 francs, a gain of more than 100 per 
cent since 1912. Expenditures regularly ex- 
ceeded receipts, with the result that the deficit 
steadily mounted and loans had to be made for 
its service. The estimates of the 1923 budget 
showed a deficit of 82,028,462 francs. In 1921 
a loan of 500,000,000 franes was raised for an 
ambitious programme of public works. 

History. Natives were employed in the fight- 
ing in East Africa and aided in the subjection 
of German East Africa, At the conclusion of 
the War, Belgium was given the districts of 
Ruanda and Urundi, formerly belonging to Ger- 
man East Africa, and the territory around Lake 
Kivu necessary to make it Belgian. All in all, 
19,000 square miles were added to the Congo’s 
territory. To facilitate the construction of the 
Cape to Cairo railway and more particularly a 
line from the Tanganyika Territory to Uganda, 
Belgium turned over to Great Britain portions 
of this new territory. The native population 
continued to express its dissatisfaction, from 
time to time, in revolts. In 1920 one of these 
manifestations took on a larger importance 
when the white civil servants went on strike. 

CONGREGATIONALISM. Congregational- 
ism traces its origin to both the Separatist and 
Puritan developments of the Reformation in 
England. Its polity represents adaptation to 
conditions rather than accord to a theory of 
church government. The local church is the 
unit. and every church member has an equal 
voice in its conduct and is equally subject to 
its control. The membership inereased from 
750,193 in 1914 to 861,168 in 1923, and the 
number of Sunday school pupils from 701,460 
to 780,375; but the number of churches declined 
from 6096 to 5716 and the number of ministers 
from 6066 to 5581. In October, 1923, the Na- 
tional Council, the representative body of the 
denomination, approved the proposals of the In- 
terchurch Conference on Organie Union, that so 
soon as at least six denominations agreed, they 


CONGREGATIONAL METHODISTS 


should merge under the name of the United 
Churches of Christ in America. The plan grew 
out of overtures made by the General Assembly 
of the Presbyterian Church in the United States 
of America in 1918 and was referred in 1921 to 
State conferences and district associations for 
action. The National Council in 1923 also ex- 
pressed its willingness to confer with the Pres- 
byterian Church with a view to immediate 
merger. <A five year tercentenary campaign in 
celebration of the anniversary of the landing of 
the Pilgrim Fathers was carried on, 1915-20, 
one item of which was the subscribing of $5,000,- 
000 as an endowment of a pension system for 
ministers; a further movement was inaugurated 
to raise $5,000,000 annually for missionary and 
educational purposes. Foreign missions were 
carried on throughout the period in 1600 cen- 
tres under 14 flags, and home missions in 45 
States and Territories of the United States. 
Nine theological seminaries and 40 colleges were 
affiliated with the denomination. 

CONGREGATIONAL METHODISTS. This 
branch of the Methodist Church was organized 
in Georgia in 1872 as a protest against certain 
features of the episcopacy and the itinerancy, 
and for the purpose of securing a more democra- 
tic form of church government. By the figures 
issued by the Census bureau in 1916 there were 
12,503 members of the denomination and 250 
ministers; in 1924, according to a statement is- 
sued by an official of the church there were 
about 8497 members and 128 ministers. 

CONGRESS POLAND. See PoLanp. 

CONKLING, Grace Watcotr’-  HAZzArpD 
(?- ). American author, born in New York 
City, educated at Smith College and abroad. 
In 1914, she went to Smith to teach English. 
Her collected volumes of verse included After- 
noons of April (1915); Wilderness Songs 
(1920). In the period she attracted wide at- 
tention as the teacher of her little daughter, 
Hilda Conkling, whose Poems by a Little Girl 
(1920) displayed great ability. 

CONNAUGHT, ARTHUR WILLIAM PATRICK 
ALBERT, DUKE oF (1850- ). English states- 
man (see Vou. V.) In 1916, he retired from 
his position as Governor-General of Canada, 
and in 1920 went to India to represent the 
King of England in the inauguration of the legis- 
lative councils of Madras, Bengal, and Bombay. 
His only son, Prince Arthur of Connaught, was 
appointed Governor-General of the Union of 
South Africa in 1920. 

CONNECTICUT. Connecticut is the forty- 
sixth of the United States in size (4965 square 
miles) and the twenty-ninth in population; cap- 
ital, Hartford. The total population of the 
State increased, during the decade 1914-24, 
from 1,114,756 in 1910 to 1,380,631 in 1920, a 
gain of 23.9 per cent. The white population 
increased from 1,098,897 to 1,358,732; Negro, 
from 15,174 to 21,046; native white, from 770,- 
138 to 982,219; foreign-born white, from 328,- 
759 to 376,513. The urban population rose from 
731,797 in 1910 to 936,339 in 1920; the rural, 
from 382,959 to 444,292. The growth of the 
principal cities was New Haven (q.v.), 133,605 
to 162,537; Bridgeport (q.v.), 102,054 to 143,- 
555; Hartford (q.v.), 98,915 to 138,036. 

Agriculture. While the population of the 
State increased 23.9 per cent in the decade 
1910-20, the percentage of rural population de- 
clined from 40.1 in 1900 and 34.4 in 1910, to 
32.2 in 1920. The total area in farms decreased 


322 


CONNECTICUT 


13.1 per cent, from 2,185,788 acres in 1910 to 
1,898,980 in 1920; the number of farms, from 
26,815 to 22,655, or 15.5 per cent; the improved 
land in farms, from 988,252 acres to 701,086, 
or 29.1 per cent. The total value of farm prop- 
erty, on the other hand, apparently increased 
from $159,399,771 in 1910 to $226,991,617 in 
1920; the average value per farm, from $5944 
to $10,019. In interpreting these and all other 
comparative values for the decade 1914-24, the 
inflation of currency in the latter part of the 
period is to be considered. The index number of 
prices paid to producers of farm products in 
the United States was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 
1920. The total percentage of land used for ag- 
ricultural purposes in 1920 was 61.6 as com- 
pared with 70.9 in 1910; the percentage of im- 
proved land in farms decreased from 32 to 22.7. 
Of the 22,655 farmers of 1920, 14,955 were 
native white, as compared, with 19,841 in 1910; 
foreign-born white, 7625, compared with 6861; 
colored, 75, as compared with 113. Of the total 
number of farms in 1920, 19,666 were operated 
by their owners, as compared with 23,234 in 
1910; managers operated 1070 farms in 1920 
and 949 in 1910; tenants operated 1919 farms 
in 1920, 2632 in 1910. Farms free from mort- 
gage in 1920 numbered 9597, 13,080 in 1910. 
Those under mortgage numbered 8920, compared 
with 9958. The number of all cattle on farms in 
1920 was 173,764; in 1910, 195,318. The num- 
ber of sheep decreased to 10,842 from 22,418. 
Tobacco growing showed a large increase in the 
decade, in production 50 per cent and in acreage 
nearly 68 per cent. The estimated production 
of the chief farm crops of 1923 was as follows: 
corn, 3,355,000 bushels; oats, 335,000; potatoes, 
2,662,000; hay, 436,000 tons; and tobacco, 48,- 
165,000 pounds. Comparative figures for 1913 
are corn, 2,348,000 bushels; oats, 308,000; po- 
tatoes, 2,208,000; hay, 432,000 tons; and to- 
bacco, 28,520,000 pounds. 

Mining. Connecticut is not an important 
mineral-producing State, and its mineral prod- 
ucts in the decade were chiefly non-metallic. In 
order of importance, they were clay, stone, lime, 
sand and gravel. The value of the clay prod- 
ucts, lumped with those of Rhode Island, was 
$1,229,037 in 1914. In 1920 the value for Con- 
necticut alone was $3,255,295; and in 1921, 
$1,703,528. The annual value of the stone pro- 
duction was approximately $1,500,000. The 
total value of the mineral products of the State 
was $3,023,192 in 1914; $3,501,460 in 1918; 
$6,326,326 in 1920, and $4,219,457 in 1921. 

Manufactures. Connecticut is one of the 
most important of the manufacturing States. 
In 1920, 18 of its cities had more than 10,000 in- 
habitants, with a combined population of 865,- 
943, or 62.7 per cent of the population of the 
State. In 1919, 71 per cent of the value of the 
State’s manufactured products was reported from 
these cities. The number of manufacturing es- 
tablishments in 1909 was 4251; in 1914, 4104; 
and in 1919, 4872. Persons engaged in man- 
ufacture in those years numbered 233,871, 254,- 
499, and 338,033, respectively. The capital in- 
vested in 1909 was $517,546,554; in 1914, $620,- 
194,294, and in 1919, $1,232,324,318. The value 
of the products rose from $490,271,695 in 1909, 
to $545,471,517 in 1914, and $1,392,431,620 in 
1919; but this increase was largely due to 
changes in industrial conditions brought about 
by the War, and cannot be properly used to 
measure the growth of manufactures during the 


CONNECTICUT 


census period, 1914-19. The increase in the 
number of wage earners indicates a decided 
growth in the manufacturing activities of the 
State. Foundry and machine shop products 
rank first in their value, which in 1909 was $65,- 
535,000; in 1914, $67,009,000; and in 1919, 
$203,626,000. Industries relating to the manu- 
facture of brass, bronze and copper products 
rank second, with products valued at $66,933,- 
000 in 1909; in 1914, $69,353,000, and in 
1919, $169,550,000. In the manufacture of tex- 
tiles Connecticut is one of the most important 
of the States; it ranks first in the fur felt hat 
industry, fourth in silk, sixth in manufactured 
cotton, and sixth in the combined woolen and 
worsted goods industry. The value of cotton 
goods product in 1909 was $24,232,000; 1914, 
$30,809,000; and 1919, $105,054,000. The silk 
goods were valued at $21,063,000 in 1909; $30,- 
592,000 in 1914; and $68,053,000 in 1919.° The 
value of the woolen products fell from $19,363,- 
228 in 1909 to $17,128,975 in 1914; in 1919 it 
had risen to $53,814,059 The most important 
manufacturing cities of the State are Bridge- 
port, Hartford, New Britain, New Haven, and 
Waterbury. Bridgeport had 367 establishments 
in 1909; 405 in 1914, and 443 in 1919, with 
products valued at $65,609,000, $85,126,000, and 
$208,090,000 in those years In Waterbury, 169 
establishments in 1909, 190 in 1914, and 253 in 
1919, had products valued at $50,350,000, $50,- 


659,000, and $130,193,000, respectively. New 
Haven had 588 establishments in 1909, 
538 in 1914, and 769 in 1919; producing 


a value of $50,870,000, $57,752,000, and $125,- 
456,000 in those respective years. In Hart- 
ford, which had 396 establishments in 1909, 
380 in 1914, and 504 in 1919, the value of 
local products rose from $40,680,000 in 1909 to 
$42,831,000 in 1914, and to $118,003,000 in 1919. 
New Britain counted 111 establishments in 
1909, with a product valued at $22,021,000; 


1914, 120, with a product of $23,227,000, and in> 


1919, 116, with a product of $63,622,000. Other 
important manufacturing cities are Ansonia, 
Bristol, Danbury, Meriden, Middletown, New 


London, Norwalk, Torrington, Stamford, and 
Willimantic. 
Education. Connecticut . has always been 


one of the most progressive States in the de- 
velopment of its educational system. Legisla- 
tion in 1913 provided for the codification of the 
school laws and for vocational guidance in 
schools. In 1917 an agreement was made with 
the Federal Board of Vocational Education, un- 
der the Smith-Hughes Act, for Federal assistance 
in vocational education. A measure passed in 
1921 provided for a division of physical educa- 
tion and health; another bill created a division 
of special educational standards. Several im- 
portant laws were passed by the Legislature 
of 1923. Provision was made for State aid for 
the transportation of elementary school pupils 
and for the penalizing of any town which un- 
duly delays in providing adequate school facil- 
ities for children under 16 The department of 
Americanization, established in 1919, was 
changed to the Division of Adult Education. The 
registration in the public schools in 1913-14 was 
211,975, with an average attendance of 168,060; 
in 1917-18, 243,870, with a 190,897 average; in 
1921-22, 279,043 and 229,689. In the year men- 
tioned last, registration in the elementary 
schools was 245,747, and in high schools, 33,- 
182. The total expenditure for education in 


323 


CONNECTICUT 


1921-22 was $20,800,637. The percentage of il- 
literacy in the State increased from 7.2 per cent 
in 1910 to 7.8 per cent in 1920, although among 
the population of native white parentage it de- 
creased from 0.6 per cent in 1910 to 0.4 per cent 
in 1920, and among the Negroes, from 7.8 to 7.5 
per cent. Among foreign-born whites it in- 
creased from 16 to 18.1 per cent. 

Finance. For finance, see STATE FINANCES. 

Political and Other Events. During the 
decade 1914-24, Connecticut remained Republican 
in politics, and few political events had na- 
tional importance. In the elections of 1914, 
Marcus H. Holeomb, Republican, was elected 
governor, defeating Lyman T. Tingier. Senator 
Brandegee was reélected over Goy. Simeon E 
Baldwin. Governor Holcomb was reélected in 
1916, and George P. McLean was reélected sen- 
ator. In the presidential election in 1916, 
Charles E. Hughes received 106,514 votes; Pres- 
ident Wilson, 99,786 votes. In 1917 and the 
years following, the great industrial cities of 
the State were benefited by the activities follow- 
ing the entrance of the United States into the 
War. Manufactories were made over for war 
uses and additional factories were built. At 
the end of 1917 the State had about 9000 men 
in camp under the selective draft law and about 
4000 volunteers. In 1918 Governor Holcomh 
was elected for a third term, together with the 
entire Republican State ticket. The total num- 
ber of men drafted in the Federal service, 1917- 
18, was 23,533, with a total of 54,123 in the 
army and navy for the State. Ammunition fac. 
tories and metal-working concerns continued 
prosperous during this year., In 1920 Everett 
J. Lake was elected governor, and Senator 
Brandegee was reélected. In the presidential 
voting of this year, Warren G. Harding received 
229,238 votes and James M. Cox 120,721. In 
1922 Charles A. Templeton, Republican, was 
elected governor, and Senator McLean was re- 
elected to the Senate. Governor Templeton was 
inaugurated on Jan. 3, 1923. In his inaugural 
address he denounced the tendency to violate 
the prohibition law. He also proposed a com- 
mission to study and report on agricultural con- 
ditions with a view to their improvement 

Legislation. Sessions of the Legislature 
are held biennially. Among the more important 
matters acted on by the Legislature in the dec- 
ade 1914-24 were the following: In 1915, the 
budget system was adopted and the State’s finan- 
cial policy revamped to provide a “pay-as-you- 
go” policy which virtually wiped out the State 
debt. In 1915, the woman suffrage amendment 
was rejected by the Legislature, but the State, 
after steadfastly opposing it, suddenly ratified 
in 1920 when doubt about Tennessee’s ratifica- 
tion seemed likely to threaten the validity of 
the forthcoming presidential election, barely 
thirty-six States having ratified. The Legisla- 
ture rejected the prohibition amendment in 1919. 
Demand for a soldiers’ bonus resulted in the es- 
tablishment of a $2,500,000 State “fund, the in- 
come from which is paid to an ex-service men’s 
organization, for the aid of needy men who 
served in the War, or their dependents. In 
1921, a child welfare bureau and a juvenile court 
system were established; a new motor vehicle 
law enacted, basing registration fees on piston 
displacement and putting a tax of $01 a gallon 
on gasoline; a uniform system of accounting for 
all State departments and institutions set up, 
and persons accused of crimes given the right 


CONNELLEY 324 


to choose whether to be tried by the court in- 
stead of by jury. In 1923, the Legislature 
passed a bill to facilitate codperative marketing 
of agricultural products and made provision for 
the creating of associations for this purpose; 
amendments were made to the income tax laws 
and a resolution passed by the Legislature for 
a constitutional amendment to allow the gov- 
ernor to veto single items in appropriation bills, 
subject to reconsideration by the Legislature if 
it is in session. 

CONNELLEY, WILLIAM ELSEY (1855- ie 
An American author (see Vou. V). His recent 
works include History of Kansas (5 vols., 1917), 
and History of Kentucky (5 vols., 1922). 

CONNELLY, Marc (Marcus  CooxK) 
(1890- ). An American playwright born at 
McKeesport, Pa. He began his writing as a 
reporter for the Pittsburgh Sun. He has con- 
tributed verse and articles to Life, Everybody’s 
and other magazines and has written lyrics for 
several musical comedies including: Duley; To 
the Ladies; Little Old Millersville (in collabora- 
tion with G. S. Kaufman, 1921-22): The Beggar 
on Horseback (with Kaufman, 1923), founded 
on P. Apel’s Hans Sonnenstéssers Héllenfahrt. 

CONNOR, WILL1AM DurRwarp (1874- ). 
An American soldier, born at Beloit, Wis. He 
graduated from the United States Military 
Academy in 1897, and was appointed second 
lieutenant. He served in the Philippines cam- 
paign and during the Filipino Insurrection in 
1898 and for several years following was engaged 
in engineering capacities, serving also with the 
General Staff from 1912 to 1916. In 1917, he 
served with the General Staff of the A. E. F. as 
assistant chief of staff. He was appointed chief 
of staff of the 32d Division in 1918, and in the 
same year commanded the 63d Infantry Brigade 
of that division. In 1918-19, he was chief of 
staff of the Service of Supply, and was com- 
manding general of the American forces in 
France to Jan. 7, 1919. In 1921, he was chief 
of the Transportation Service and in the same 
year acted as assistant chief of staff. He re- 
ceived decorations and honors from the British 
and French governments. 

CONRAD, JosepH (1856-1924). An Eng- 
lish novelist. (See Vor. V). The following 
works by Conrad were published over the pe- 
riod surveyed: Within the Tides (1915); Vie- 
tory (1915); The Shadow-Line (1917); The Ar- 
row of Gold (1919); Rescue (1920); Notes on 
Life and Letters (1921); The Rover (1923). 
Early in 1924 he made a short visit to the 
United States. He died in August, 1924. 

CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE UNCON- 
SCIOUS. The conception of consciousness was 
revolutionized in the period 1914-24 by the ac- 
tion of two antithetical extremist movements. 
These movements were behaviorism and the new 
psychology centring around psychoanalysis and 
clinical investigations of abnormal, psychology. 
The theoretical principles in the name of which 
they took the field against the old-fashioned 
structural psychology were diametrically op- 
posed, but the new schools were at one in their 
dissatisfaction with experimental introspection 
as a method for dealing with the practical prob- 
lems of psychology. 

The systematic position of structural psy- 
chology was expressed in the doctrine of psycho- 
physical parallelism; this doctrine not only 
gave a certain theoretical clearness to the prob- 
lems of psychology, but what is more important, 


CONSCIOUSNESS 


it lent itself to a vast experimental programme. 
Psychical phenomena were regarded not as in 
any sense caused by physical or physiological 
phenomena but as running parallel with the 
lower series. The hypothesis of parallelism 
dates back to the seventeenth century, when it 
was used as a metaphysical theory to explain 
the entire structure of the universe. In its 
modern form the hypothesis was less preten- 
tious. It took psychological and physical expe- 
rience at their common-sense face value and 
postulated as a method of investigation and com- 
parison the non-interaction of the two series. 
In order to compare consciousness. with physiol- 
ogy it was necessary to analyze its structure. 
This was done by the method of introspection; 
in opposition, that is, to the method of logical 
reflection under which philosophers down to 
Kant had decomposed the mind into abstract 
categories or faculties. The analysis of con- 
sciousness was carried on under experimentally 
controlled external conditions, and in this man- 
ner consciousness was first decomposed into 
sensations as elements, and when this theory 
proved untenable, into attributes as the funda- 
mental units. These attributes, such as ex- 
tensity, duration, clearness, quality and intensity, 
were aspects of conscious life corresponding to 
specific alterations of physical or physiological 
conditions. By the method of controlled intro- 
spection experimental psychology was designed 
to avoid the Scylla of the subjective faculty 
psychology and the Charybdis of materialistic 
mechanism. But in the view of its opponents 
structuralism sinned in both directions. In ac- 
tual practice the theory of psycho-physical 
parallelism was held to approach more and 
more the doctrine known as epiphenomenalism, 
according to which consciousness was only a 
phosphorescence peculiar to the biological be- 
havior of the neuron particles. Structuralism 
certainly failed to satisfy the common-sense be- 


‘lief in the efficacy of mind on the material world. 


On the other hand its preoccupation with defin- 
ing mental life in terms of a logical system 
drew on it the wrath of those who were grow- 
ing impatient at the failure of psychology to 
become a science like other sciences. Add to 
this the failure to. deal adequately with per- 
ception and with the higher thought processes, 
and its rather uncertain stand in the case of 
instincts and the general substratum of our con- 
scious life, and we are in a fair way to appre- 
ciate the significance of the revolt against struc- 
turalism as a psychological doctrine. 

If one should employ a metaphor drawn from 
politics, the revolt of behaviorism might be 
characterized as a revolt from the left; that is, 
in the direction of more mechanical objectivity. 
The revolt of the psycho-analytic movement 
would then be a push from the right. Behavi- 
orism (q.v.) developed out of the objective 
methods of animal psychology and biology and 
in theory sought to abolish consciousness as 
anything but a functional relation of physiol- 
ogical reflexes. It achieved thereby unity of 
method but only at the expense of ruthlessly 
exterminating the chiaroscuro of mental life. 
Behaviorism, whatever its significance in psy- 
chological experimentation, marked a return to 
the metaphysics of the man-machine with the 
addition of the notion of the conditioned reflex. 
It is this conditioned reflex, the phenomenon that 
we observe so frequently in gymnastic training, 
that is the unconscious saving grace of behav- 


0 
i 
J} 
? 
f 
N 
% 
[ 
? 
‘ 


— 


——— 


oy 


CONSCIOUSNESS 


iorism, for willy-nilly it imports into the rigid 
materialistic mechanism the principle of con- 
tingence. Several attempts have been made to 
combine behaviorism with a realistic meta- 
physic for the evident purpose of eliminating 
consciousness as a directing principle in the 
universal drama. Typical of these are the 
works of E. B. Holt (The Concept of Conscious- 
ness and The Freudian Wish) and articles by 
Prof. R. B. Perry. On the other hand the Eng- 
lish Neo-Realist, Prof. S. Alexander, 
postulating a general monistie position, yet re- 
fuses to reduce the quality of consciousness to 
any of the lower levels of existence. To him, 
it is a quality over and above the nervous sys- 
tem in much the same manner that life is some- 
thing beyond the physico-chemical reactions of 
the living plant or animal. 

The line between the scientific aspects of the 
problem of consciousness and the radiating meta- 
physical speculations is always difficult to draw, 
and it is still more difficult to maintain in the 
concept of the unconscious. she importance of 
this notion has arisen from its growing use in 
clinical psychiatry, where it serves to explain 
and to link together facts which cannot be or- 
ganized on the old hypothesis of parallelism. 
The unconscious might have remained merely a 
romantic idea dear to the metaphysicians of 
Schopenhauerian descent had not the French 
school and the psychoanalytic group developed 
it into a systematic theory of neuroses and 
psychoneuroses. It is_in vain, therefore, that 
Knight Dunlap protested (Mysticism, Freudian- 
ism and Scientific Psychology) against the un- 
scientific nature of the new movement.’ The 
theory of the unconscious is much less rigorous 
than the theories employed in the physiological 
branch of psychology, and it is moreover based 
on a different method of approach and different 
type of word symbols; hence arise problems of 
liaison between the so-called old and new psy- 
chology. But withal, the Freudian theory of 
the unconscious, despite its admitted lack of 
rigor and its tendency to degrade into extrava- 
ganza, is preferable to a refusal to organize the 
phenomena of abnormal psychology at all. 

In brief, what is postulated by the theory of 
the unconscious is a hierarchic continuity of 
psychic life extending indefinitely back into the 
history of the individual, the history of the 
race, and ultimately into the history of life it- 
self. Whereas we ordinarily explain the sensa- 
tions of consciousness by the presence of physical 
stimuli outside the body, the theory of the un- 
conscious explains a great part of conscious phe- 
nomena, particularly those which are not ex- 
plained by the first method, by past history. In 
dream life very little correlation can be traced 
between the mental phenomena and the physical 
stimuli affecting the person; much more ‘inter- 
esting correlations can be obtained between the 
events of a dream and the past history, or even 
the future, of the individual. Even in normal 
consciousness, there appears to be much more in 
the mind than the stimulus which has given rise 
to the sensory experience, and the residue is 
generally explained on the basis of memory. 
The parallelistic hypothesis is unable to account 
for the impulse to action save by the interven- 
tion of a new mechanism, from which conscious- 
ness is excluded, the mechanism of reflexes, in- 
stincts, and habits. The theory of the uncon- 
scious is an effort to unify the three schemas 
of sensory perception, memory, and instinctive 


325 


while: 


CONSCIOUSNESS 


response into a single chain. What we regard 
as full or clear consciousness is merely the end 
product of an historical evolution. As an end 
product it contains the cumulative story of the 
past, a story which can be recovered by the 
proper analytic method. 

The method of analysis parallels the compara- 
tive method of biology in searching for vestigial 
traces. Obviously it cannot be mere external 
observation by the microscope and the scalpel, 
since that form of observation is insufficient to 
detect even the grosser biological evolution. The 
analysis has to be within consciousness, or 
within the lower levels of consciousness mani- 
fested in hypnosis or in dreams, and when this 
is insufficient, selected facts from the history of 
the individual are introduced. The event of 
breaking a leg is not generally of much impor- 
tance to the subsequent morale of the individual, 
but a childhood fear, long since forgotten, may 
be the missing link which accounts for a present 
psychological condition. The daring genius of 
Freud has consisted very largely in seizing on 
certain facts as significant which to other ob- 
servers seemed irrelevant. Prof. Pierre Janet 
in recent years elaborated a theory of various 
levels of psychological tension, according to 
which there are stable gradations of plateaus in 
the continuity from psychological automatism 
to the highest levels of reflective conscious ac- 
tivity. These levels are interestingly correlated 
with the physical metabolism of the organism. 
Thus the execution of a conscious and delib- 
erate act was found to demand a greater ex- 
penditure of physical energy than the same act 
executed as a reflex. This theory serves also to 
make more understandable not only the phe- 
nomena of sleep and hypnosis but the fluctua- 
tions in the behavior of psychopathological cases. 

Another ramification in the theory of the un- 
conscious is the problem of multiple person- 
alities. The clinical evidence on this subject 
shows all gradations from what might be re- 
garded as metaphorical divisions of personality 
to genuine cleavages in conscious activity. Im- 
pressed by these phenomena, Dr. Morton Prince 
and Prof. William McDougall have fought for 
a recognition of pluralism. Professor Mc- 
Dougall’s method of meeting the problem is 
through a revision of the Leibnitzian monadol- 
ogy. From the point of view of positive sci- 
ence, this problem, in reality the metaphysical 
problem of the one and the many, is quite ir- 
relevant. Whether the individual be regarded 
as a distinct consciousness or as a collection of 
conscious instinets or monads, it is evident that 
here is no escape from the paradox of unity and 
diversity. In cases of multiple personality, it is 
the type of unity and the type of diversity which 
differ from those to be found in a normal con- 
scious personality with multiple interests. 
The relation of consciousness and the uncon- 
scious to the instincts or hereditary tendencies 
is equally a problem of the one and the many. 
Freudian psychologists often identify the un- 
conscious with the sex instinct, and at other 
times they speak of the sex instinct as an in- 
stinct among other instincts. At other times 
they split the unconscious into two warring en- 
tities. These ambiguities are practically un- 
avoidable in the attempt to give dialectic move- 
ment to the life of the psyche. The physical in- 
stinct of sex, because it is in the generality of 
men the strongest of the discreet physical urges 
as well as the most mysterious, has very fre- 


CONSTANT 326 


quently been employed as a symbol for the en- 
tire drive of life. Plato’s Eros is an instance 
in point. But the symbol qua symbol of an un- 
derlying reality cannot be confounded with the 
symbol qua independent entity. The whole the- 
ory of sublimation hinges on the distinction be- 
tween symbol and reality; for it is not sex, re- 
garded as a discreet instinct, that is sublimated 
into intellectual or artistic activity; it is rather 
the élan vital expressed in the sex instinct which 
has found new channels. Yet from a phenome- 
nological view it would seem as if there were a 
real conversicn or substitution. 

From the foregoing discussion it is evident 
that the representative theory of consciousness, 
according to which the mind carried a_point- 
to-point image of a physical reality, must now 
be regarded as obsolete. If our psychological 
life is made up of images, then our physical ex- 
perience too is made up of images or symbols. 
The latter symbols or images are more stable 
and conventional than the so-called fainter 
images of the subjective consciousness, but they 
are not different in kind. If consciousness be 
regarded as the phenomenon of knowledge or 
intelligible awareness, it follows that we never 
escape that phenomenon in all human experience. 
But if consciousness be employed in another 
sense to denote the subjective level of experi- 
ence, then the phenomena of consciousness form 
a distinct subject matter of science, a subject 
matter paralleling biology but not reducible to 
it. And this science has now been organized by 
means of the unconscious as a concept of con- 
tinuity. The unconscious must not be hypos- 
tasized into an entity, for like the concept of 
an imaginary number in mathematics it makes 
trouble when it is set up against concrete phys- 
ical experience, although it remains perfectly 
intelligible in its scientific setting. 

It is useful for many purposes to correlate 
one level of experience with another, and in this 
respect there will always be room for a science 
of physiological psychology which uses the meth- 
od of controlled introspection. This science is 
analogous to the sciences of biochemistry (q.v.) 
and biophysics, but like the latter it can only 
make correlations and cannot reduce the facts 
of one level to those of a lower level. Under the 
view here exposed there is justification for all 
the prevailing methods of investigating the phe- 
nomena of consciousness, but the justification 
cannot be extended to the metaphysics which is 
consciously or subconsciously brought in with 
each method. Thus hbehaviorism as a meta- 
physic means materialistic monism, but this ex- 
trapolation of the doctrine is not at all neces- 
sary to the positive method of charting individ- 
ual behavior and thereby predicting conduct. 
The same principle applies to structuralism and 
the psychoanalytic methods of investigating 
consciousness. Whatever conflict arises exists 
between rival metaphysical dogmas and not in 
the positive intellectual organization of facts. 

Bibliography. John Dewey, Human Nature 
and Conduct (1922); Sigmund Freud, A General 
Introduction to Psychoanalysis (1920); Intro- 
ductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis (1922); W. 
McDougall, Outline of Psychology (1923); W. 
H. Rivers, Instinct and the Unconscious (1920) ; 
J. Watson, Psychology from the Standpoitt of 
a Behaviorist (1919); R. M. Woodworth, Psy- 
chology, a Study in Mental Life (1920). 

CONSTANT, FRANK HENRY (1869- )e 
An American engineer, born at Cincinnati, 


cook 


Ohio, on July 25, 1869. He was graduated in 
1891 at the University of Cincinnati, and at 
once entered upon the practice of his profession, 
as assistant engineer of the King Bridge Com- 
pany In 1893-95, he was with the Osborn En- 
gineering Company. In 1895, he became as- 
sistant professor of structural engineering at 
the University of Minnesota and two years later 
was made full professor. In 1914, he’ was 
called to the chair of civil engineering and 
made head of the department at Princeton 
The degree of Sc.D. was conferred on him by 
Cincinnati in 1915 and by Lafayette in the same 
ear. 

CONSTANTINE I, Kine or GREECE (1868— 
1923). (see Vor. V.) His connection with the 
German Imperial family (his wife was the sis- 
ter of the former German Emperor) and his 
known sympathies for German methods generally, 
prompted him to maintain Greek neutrality in 
the War. The ensuing struggle between him 
and Venizelos, who was disposed toward an 
alliance with the Allies, in large part makes up 
the history of Greece in the eventful years 
1914-17. The occupation of Saloniki by an 
Allied army, the formation of a Venizelist ‘‘Pro- 
visional government,” the capture of Athens by 
English and French contingents, all combined to 
seal Constantine’s fate. He yielded to the Al- 
lied demand and on June 11, 1917, relinquished 
his throne in favor of his second son Alexander. 
To December, 1920, he lived in exile. The death 
of his son and the overthrow of Venizelos in 
the election of November, 1920, resulted in his 
triumphal reéntry into his capital, and it was 
largely to rehabilitate his fortunes that he em- 
barked on the Anatolian adventure (June, 
1921). The disastrous defeat that his armies 
suffered in the Greco-Turkish War (1921-22) 
and the consistent refusal of the Allies to sup- 
port or recognize his aspirations again com- 
bined to bring him low. He was forced to ab- 
dicate a second time, Sept. 27, 1922, and took 
refuge at Palermo. Here he died, Jan. 11, 
1923. He was succeeded on the throne by his 
son, George II, who, in turn, on Dec. 18, 1923, 
was compelled to leave the country. On Apr. 


13, 1924 the Greek people expressed themselves . 


as overwhelmingly in favor of a republic. See 
GREECE, History. 


CONSTANTINOPLE. See DARDANELLE®) 
AND Bosporus STRAITS. 

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW. See Law, 
PROGRESS OF THE. 

CONSUMERS’ COOPERATION. See Co- 


OPERATION. 

CONTRACT, Liperty oF. 
RESS OF THE. 

CONTRACTS. See LAw, PROGRESS OF THE. 

CONTROL INSTRUMENTS. See Puys- 
Toss: "* 

CONVOY. See Wark IN EUROPE, 

CONWAY, SiR (WILLIAM) MARTIN 
(1856- ). An English art critic (see VoL. 
VI). He became trustee of the Wallace Collec- 
tion (1916), director general of the Imperial 
War Museum (1917), and president of the Kent 
Archeological Society (1923). His recent books 
include The Sport of Collecting (1914); The 
Crowd in Peace and War (1915); The Abbey of 
St. Denis (1916); Mountain Memories (1920), 
and The Van Eycks and Their Followers (1921). 

COOK, GeEorRGE CRAM (1873- \iee-An 
American author, born at Davenport, Ia., and 
educated at the universities of Iowa, Harvard, 


See Law, Proc- 


a 


cCooK 


Heidelberg and Geneva. In 1895-99, he taught 
in the University of lowa and for a short time 
in Leland Stanford Jr. University. In 1911, he 
became associate literary editor of the Chicago 
Evening Post, and in 1915 director of the Proy- 
incetown Players. His works include: In 
Hampton Roads (1899); Roderick Taliaferro, a 
Story of Mazimilian’s Empire (1903); Evolu- 
tion and the Superman (1906); The Chasm 
(1911); Battle-Hymn of the Workers (1912) ; 
The C. T. U. (1914) ; Suppressed Desires (1920; 
first written as a play in 1915); and The Spring 
(1921; produced as a play and published). 

COOK, Puimipe (1875- ). An American 
Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Delaware, born 
at Kansas City, Mo. He was graduated at 
Trinity College in 1898 and from the General 
Theological Seminary in 1902. He was ordained 
to the priesthood of the Protestant Episcopal 
Church in 1902, and after serving as a mission- 
ary in North Dakota for two years, became vicar 
of the Chapel of the Incarnation in New York 
City. In 1911, he was called to other pastor- 
ates, going to Baltimore in 1916, where he re- 
mained until 1920, when he was elected Bishop 
of Delaware and was consecrated on October 14 
of that year. He was a delegate to the General 
Conventions of the Protestant Episcopal Church 
in 1913 and 1919. During the War, he served 
in France with the 77th Division of the Amer- 
ican Expeditionary Forces as Y. M. C. A. secre- 
tary. 

COOKE, MaARggorie BENTON (?-1920). An 
American author, born at Richmond, Ind. She 
began writing for magazines at an early age, 
and won success for her monologues, which she 
delivered throughout the country after 1902. 
Three one-act plays by her were produced on 
the stage. Bambi, a novel produced in 1914, 
had an immediate and remarkable success. She 
also wrote: Modern Monologues (1903); Dra- 
matic Episodes (1905); Plays for Children 
(1905); The Girl Who Lived in the Woods 
(1910); Dr. David (1911); The Dual Alliance 
(1915); Cinderella Jane (1917); The Threshold 
(1918); The Clutch of Circumstance (1918) ; 
The Cricket (1919); Married? (1921). She 
died in 1920 while in Japan on a world tour. 

COOKE, Morris LLEWELLYN (1872- ». 
An American engineer, born at Carlisle, Pa. 
After having served as a reporter on various 
Philadelphia, Denver, and New York newspapers 
he was graduated from Lehigh University (M.E., 
1895). He practiced his profession with vari- 
ous corporations until 1905, after which he de- 
voted himself to consulting practice until 1911. 
Then, for four years, he was director of the De- 
partment of Public Works in Philadelphia. 
During the Spanish-American War he served in 
the United States Navy as assistant engineer, 
and during the recent War he was in Washing- 
ton engaged as chairman of the storage’ system 
of the War Industries Board of the Council of 
National Defense (1917) and as assistant to 
the chairman of the United States Shipping 
Board (1918). He frequently lectured on sci- 
entific management and municipal administra- 
tion, and is the author of Academic and In- 


dustrial Efficiency (1910), Snapping Cords 
(1915), and Our Cities Awake (1918). 

COOK ISLANDS. See Paciric OCEAN 
ISLANDS. 

COOLEY, Mortimer Etwyn_ (1855- Ps 
An American engineer (see Vout. VI). He was 


elected president of the Federated American En- 


327 


COOPER 


gineering Societies in 1921, and was also an 
officer in a number of scientific societies. 
COOLIDGE, ArcuIBALD Cary (1866- ys 
An American university professor (see VoL. 
VI). In 1918, he was sent as special agent of 
the State Department to Sweden and Northern 
Russia. The following year he was chief of the 
mission attached to the Peace Conference which 
spent five months in Vienna and three months 
in Paris. In 1921, he became a member of the 
American Relief Administration in Russia. He 
is author of The Origins of the Triple Alliance 
(1917), and translator of the English edition 
of Secret Treaties of Austria-Hungary, 1879- 


1914, by Alfred Francis Pribram (2 vols., 
1920-21). , 
COOLIDGEH, Catvin (1872— ). A Presi- 


dent of the United States, born at Plymouth, 
Vt. He graduated at Amherst College, Mass., 
and practiced law at Northampton, Mass He 
held various local offices and served in the Mas- 
sachusetts State Senate (1912-15). He was 
lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts (1916-18) 
and governor (1919-20). He first became na- 
tionally known through his intervention in the 
Boston police strike of 1919, when his prompt 
action in calling out the State troops prevented 
serious trouble and ended the strike. He was 
hailed throughout the nation as a strong cham- 
pion of law and order, and his selection as can- 
didate for the vice-presidency was felt to add 
greatly to the chances of Republican success at 
the polls. At the convention he was nominated 
by acclamation. When President Harding died 
on Aug. 2, 1923, Calvin Coolidge became presi- 
dent, taking the oath of office on August 3. He 
announced that he would follow in general the 
policies of his predecessor. Toward the end of 
the year 1923,° the so-called “oil scandals” 
caused him much embarrassment. The criti- 
cisms launched against Attorney-General Daugh- 
erty and Secretary of the Navy Denby finally 
forced their resignations from the cabinet and 
relieved the situation somewhat. But Congress 
proved more and more independent of his lead- 
ership by passing the bonus bill over his veto, 
changing the Mellon tax bill, and refusing to 
accede to his request in regard to postponing 
the operation of the Japanese exclusion part 
of the immigration bill. He was nominated at 
the Republican National Convention in June, 
1924, as candidate for the presidency to succeed 
himself. The Price of Freedom, a collection of 
his speeches, was published in 1924. 

COOPER, CoLIN CAMPBELL (1856-— ). An 
American artist (see Vor. VI). He won a gold 
medal for oil painting and a silver medal for 
water color at the Panama Pacific International 
Exposition (1915) as well as other prizes in 
1918 and 1919. One of his best recent pictures 
was “Broadway in War Time” in the Pennsyl- 
vania Academy of Fine Arts. 

COOPER, DEAN THomAS PoE (1881~ ie 
An American agriculturist, born at Pekin, IIl. 
From 1902 to 1907, he was statistical agent of 
the Minnesota Experiment Station and special 
agent of the Bureau of Statistics, United States 
Department of Agriculture. He graduated from 
the University of Minnesota in 1908 and until 
1911 was assistant in farm management and 
agricultural economist at that university. From 
1914 to 1917, he was director of the North Da- 
kota Experiment Station and in 1918 became 
dean and director of the Agricultural College of 
the University of Kentucky. He was a member 


COOPER 328 


of several scientific societies and wrote on farm 
management and agricultural economics. 
COOPER, IRvING STEIGER (1882- yO An 
American bishop of the Old Catholic Church, and 
theosophist, born at Santa Barbara, Cal., and 
educated at the University of California and at 
Madras, India. He was consecrated regionary 
bishop for the Liberal Catholic Church in 1919. 
He published the following works: Methods of 
Psychic Development (1911); Ways to Perfect 
Health (1912); The Secret of Happiness (1912) ; 


Theosophy Simplified (1915); Reincarnation, 
the Hope of the World (1917). 
COOPER, JAmeEs_ (1846- ). A British 


theologian (see Vout. VI). In 1916, and again 
in 1921, he was president of the Scottish Logi- 
cal Society, an office which he had held at vari- 
ous times previously. He was Moderator of the 
General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 
1917. In 1922, he retired from his professor- 
ship in church history at the University of 
Glasgow, an office which he had held since 1899. 
His later works. include: Our Sacred Heritage 
(closing address as Moderator, 1917), and Re- 
union, a Voice from Scotland (1918). 

COOPER, LANE (1875- ). An American 
university professor (see Vor. VI). He was 
acting associate professor during the summer 
term of 1914 at the University of Illinois. The 
following year he became full professor of Eng- 
lish language and literature at Cornell Uni- 
versity, and was professor elect at Smith College. 
He was acting professor during the summer 
quarter at Stanford University in 1918, and at 
the University of California the following year. 
Among his later works are: Methods and Aims 
in the Study of Literature (1915, 1921); A’ Con- 
cordance to the Works of Horace (1916); Louis 
Agassiz as a Teacher (1917) ;'The Greek Genius 
and its Influence (1917); Georae Meredith, an 
Essay on Comedy (1918), and Two Views of 
Education, with Other Papers (1922). 

COOPERATION. The decade 1914-24 wit- 
nessed a growth in all forms of codperation. 
This development was not equal in all countries; 
consumers’ coéperation was still most important 
in England; codperative credit was outstanding 
in Germany and India; producers’ codperation 
was most manifest in Holland and Denmark. 
In the United States which had never been 
friendly soil for the codperative movement, sig- 
nificant tendencies toward codperative effort ap- 
peared. 

Credit Unions in the United States. 
Alphonse Desjardins was responsible for the 
passing of the first general law in North Amer- 
ica which authorized the organization of co- 
operative credit associations. This was in 1906. 
His plan was a combination of the Luzzati sys- 
tem of Italy and the German Raiffeisen plan 
of codperative credit. Many French Canadians 
who had become acquainted with the operation 
of credit societies in Canada emigrated to the 
factory towns in New England. The first co- 
operative credit association in the United States 
was established in Manchester, N. H., by Des- 
jardins at the end of 1908. Almost all the mem- 
bers were French. In 1924, it was still operat- 
ing under a special charter granted by the Legis- 
lature in 1909. Massachusetts, however, was 
the first State to consider the possibilities of co- 
operative credit seriously. Desjardins was in- 
vited to describe the working of the credit as- 
sociations of Quebec before the Twentieth Cen- 
tury Club of Boston; and in 1909, Massachusetts 


COOPERATION 


passed an act similar to the Quebee act. The 
first society opened was the Myrick Credit 
Union of Springfield, which began its work in 
May, 1910. Literature was published and scat- 
tered broadcast to explain the advantages of co- 
operative credit associations. The cause was ad- 
vanced by addresses delivered before the Ohio 
Bankers’ Association in 1910 and before the 
American Bankers’ Association in 1912. In 
1913 the First National Conference on Market- 
ing and Foreign Credits met in Chicago. From 
that time on, the agitation for legislation au- 
thorizing the establishment of credit societies 
was more pronounced, and after 86 different bills 
had been submitted by members of Congress, the 
Farm Loan Bill was finally passed, July 17, 
1916. This bill was not entirely codperative in 
its nature, but was a combination of coéperation 
and Federal aid. During this time 19 States 
passed laws which permitted the States to lend 
money to the farmers and provided for rural 
savings banks. The characteristics of credit as- 
sociations differ somewhat in the various States, 
but the main principles are common to the 
majority. 

1. In Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New 
York, Rhode Island, Florida, North Carolina, the 
associations are called credit unions; in Wis- 
consin and Nebraska they are called codpera- 
tive credit associations. 

2. The control is usually exercised by the bank- 
ing department of the State. North Carolina 
is an exception. | 

3. The number of members necessary to form 
a union as authorized by the different States 
ranges from 5 in Rhode Island to 15 in Nebraska. 

4. The par value of each share is low so that 
any person of good character may become a 
member. The range of share values is from $5 
in New Hampshire, South Carolina and Utah to 
$25 in Texas, New York, North Carolina and 
Oregon. 

5. Only members may receive loans from the 
credit unions, and most States provide a limit 
to the amount that may be borrowed by one in- 
dividual. Some States do not permit loans 
greater than $50. 

6. Most credit unions operate on the limited 
liability plan, although it is possible for them 
to adopt the unlimited liability plan current in 
Germany, if their by-laws permit. 

7. Credit unions may receive deposits from 
members in all States, and in Utah, North Caro- 
lina and South Carolina from non-members. 

Massachusetts had 81 credit unions in 1921 
with 32,226 members and a share capital paid 
in during the year over $1,000,000. More than 
12,000 members borrowed a total of $3,000,000 
from the unions. $83,000 was paid as dividends. 
New York had 68 credit unions at the end of 
1920, with 22,490 members, about one-third of 
whom ‘were women. These unions lent $4,511,- 
000 during 1920. There was an increase each 
year in the number of unions formed. North 
Carolina had 22 credit unions in 1921, with 1000 
members, and during that year lent $84,000 to 
290 borrowers. 

The success of the credit unions must not be 
judged by the number of unions. The most 
important aim of the States in encouraging the 
formation of codperative unions was to furnish 
relief to farmers. This object had not been fully 
attained. North Carolina had the most con- 
spicuous success in meeting the demand for 
rural credit. The reasons were obvious. The 


a 


COOPERATION 


unions should not have been under the control 
and protection of the State banking departments, 
since these departments seemed to rest content 
with assuring themselves that the unions fulfilled 
the requirements of the law for banks, while 
European experience had definitely proved that 
cooperative rural credit required encouragement 
and direction. North Carolina was able to pro- 
vide this service. Codperative credit is a form 
of self-help which should be divorced from finan- 
cial aid. If the poor farmers of South Ger- 
many and the indigent ryots of India could, by 
combination, meet their own needs, it seemed that 
the farmers of America should be able to do 
as well. It is a fundamental principle of Raiffei- 
senism that governments should not furnish 
financial assistance but only supervision and 
sympathetic direction. See AGRICULTURAL 
CREDIT. 

Consumers’ Cooperation in the United 
States. The latest official report for the United 
States, from the United States Bureau of Labor 
Statistics Bulletin 313 (1920), stated that there 
were 2600 unions in the United States. Perhaps 
50 per cent were operated on strict codperative 
principles. Consumers’ codperation was reported 
to be particularly strong among the Finns and 
the coal miners of Illinois and Pennsylvania. 
The bulletin referred to reports that 650 con- 
sumers’ societies sold $65,000,000 worth of goods. 
There seemed no reason to suppose that there 
would be any rapid development of consumers’ 
codperation in the United States. 

Producers’ Codperation in the United 
States. While this form of codperation made 
great progress in the United States during and 
immediately after the War, its exact growth 
could not be gauged because of the overlapping 
of consumers’ and producers’ codperation, For 
example, rural societies often purchase codpera- 
tively and market collectively their own output. 
In 1920, the latest year for which figures were 
available, the Bureau of Labor Statistics re- 
ported that the United States had 63,351 mem- 
bers of such associations with a paid-in share 
capital of 11,079,945. See Corron and AGRI- 
CULTURE. 

Codperation in Other Countries. Outside 
of the United States were reported over 60,000 
codperative societies with a membership of more 
than 25,000,000. The Codperative Union of the 
United Kingdom comprised 1472 societies in 
1921, 91 per cent of them consumers’ societies. 
There were 102 producers’ and 3 wholesale 
associations. The total membership of the union 
was 4,598,737, of which number 3,838,000 were 
members of consumers’ societies in England and 
Wales and 662,885 in Scotland. .The codperative 
wholesale societies had become very prosperous, 
owning their own fleet of vessels and more than 
29,000 acres of tea plantations in Ceylon and 
India. The National Federation of Consumers’ 
Societies of France had 1,360,000 members. Be- 
sides this group there were reported to be as 
many societies which were not affiliated, and also 
a considerable number of codperative credit so- 
cieties, some organized according to the Luz- 
zatti system and many more on the Raiffeisen 
plan. The Federation of Codperative Societies 
of Belgium had over 231,000 members. There 
were also several people’s banks organized on the 
Schulze system. There had been a_ partial 
change from unlimited to limited liability. 
This system differs from that of Germany in 
having no central bank. India made great prog- 


329 


COPPER 


ress in the development of codperative credit. 
In many districts the power of the money lenders 
over the poor farmers was broken. Latest re- 
ports showed 42,000 agricultural credit societies 
with 1,400,000 members. The 1921 data from 
official sources in Russia showed 1082 consumers’ 
unions and 7500 agricultural and over 6000 in- 
dustrial societies. The All Russian Central 
Union of Consumers’ Societies, comprising 98 
federations and representing a membership of 
6,000,000, had a wholesale trading organization, 
and published a daily and a weekly paper. 

COOPERATIVE BANKS. See  Lazor 
BANES. 

COOPERATIVE MARKETING. See Co- 
OPERATION; COTTON; AGRICULTURE and AGRI- 
CULTURAL CREDIT. 

COOPERATIVE MORTGAGE BANKING. 
See AGRICULTURAL ‘CREDIT. 

COOVER, Joun Epcar_ (1872- ). An 
American psychologist born at Remington, Ind. 
He was educated at the Colorado State Normal 
School and Leland Stanford Jr. University. 
After 1910, he was a member of the psychology 
department of the last named institution, becom- 
ing full professor in 1921. He is the author of 
Investigation with a Trumpet Medium (American 
Society for Psychical Research, 1915), Formal 
Discipline from the Standpoint of Experimental 
Psychology .(1916), and Haperiments in Psy- 
chical Research (1917). He is also the con- 
tributor of a number of articles on psychology, 
psychical research, education, and_ statistical 
methods, published in professional journals. 

COPEAU, JACQUES (7? . A’. French 
actor-manager and director of the ‘Théatre 
Vieux Colombier. He is a reformer in the 
theatre, and of the various theatrical experi- 
ments in Paris, his seem to be the only ones 
which have resulted in a completely modern self- 
dependent institution established on a basis of 
stability and organized so that all resources 
may be directed toward an idealistic aim. He 
has successfully waged war against decrepit 
tradition but he has kept traditions which are 
still full of life and richness. The classics, for 
the most part, form his repertory. Among his 
performances are: Dostoievsky’s The Brothers 
Karamazov, a very moving production; Twelfth 
Night, one of the plays most frequently pre- 
sented; and André Gide’s Saul, one of his most 
important theatrical achievements of recent 
years. In 1919, the Vieux Colombier came to 
New York City, and he took the part of Wash- 
ington in Percy Mackaye’s Washington. 

COPELAND, Roya S(AMUEL) (1868- 4 
Physician and ophthalmologist, and United 
States Senator from New York. Born in Dex- 
ter, Mich., he received his M.D. from the Uni- 
versity of Michigan, 1889, and in 1905 was made 
ophthalmologist to his alma mater. He moved to 
New York in 1908 to occupy the same chair and 
assume the deanship of the New York Homeo- 
pathic Medical College and Flower Hospital. He 
began his political career as mayor of Ann 
Arbor in 1901-03 and was president of the local 
Board of Education in 1907-08. In 1918, he be- 
came Commissioner of Public Health and presi- 
dent of the Board of Health, New York City, 
resigning in 1923 to assume the duties of sen- 
ator. In 1906, in collaboration (Copeland and 
Ibershoff) he published the work Refraction. 

COPPER. The War naturally had an im- 
portant effect on the production of copper as this 
metal was required in large quantities for muni- 


e 


COPPER 


tions. The world’s production in 1913 was 
2,181,253,000 pounds, but with the stimulation 
of the War it began to increase, reaching a 
maximum of 3,150,552,000 pounds in 1918, when 
almost 2,000,000,000 pounds were produced in 
the United States alone. From this time, how- 
ever, the production dwindled until 1921 when 
but 1,234,576,000 pounds were produced of which 
505,586,098 pounds were the output of smelters 
in the United States. This was considerably 
Jess than the annual production for the period 
of 1916-17-18, but in 1922 the output was 
larger amounting to 1,851,864,000 pounds, while 
in 1923 the United States alone had a smelter 


330 


COPPER 


WORLD PRODUCTION OF COPPER 
(In Pounds) 


UWE on Aes eS Sint On ty MAGeiys 2,181,253,000 
BU ss lee aise’ byeith is pete ete ecce 2,054,090,000 
DOUG A ou hs ls o's le wieelietele. ce whee 'ele le ty 2,330,886,000 
LEN Ke = SR eyo ooo bie pibte lois 3,037,236,000 
1) ee oe b's ke eieis 3,150,552,000 
OM Sp acc ols «© eieieln ip ie isie alot aie ssise|0.fe)hn 3,148,499,000 
LEO E ON (5 PAS Sans Sis oe 2,191,372,000 
LO ZOD RS sbeis poyeip efareeto meets ster ker 2,112,007,000 
1 Psiky S SIS SSI h ey TH AG ao GSE 1,234,576,000 
IO Pmiene s,s a; 2' o's stencne te Casket Rete aie ere 1,851,864,000 


America, which, as will appear from the accom- 
panying table of the world’s production was the 
source of the greater amount of the copper used 
in industry. As a consequence the price of this 


WORLD’S PRODUCTION OF COPPER BY COUNTRIES—(Smelter Output), 1919-1923 « 
(In metric tons) 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


Where no footnotes are given, figures are taken from official publications. 


For countries from which ore 


or matte was exported for smelting, official figures have been converted to figures showing the quantity of 


copper recoverable by the smelters. 


Country 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 
Canadas OWA eRe kee ft ROU. SR hee 34,044 37,014 21,600 19,450 > 39,890 
Cuba pe. ion ith ree ee seats we he Cie Shinn ene ¢ 7,500 ¢ 8,400 ° 8,200 ¢ 11,800 ¢ 11,000 
Wy oO paren Ae Gitte Ges Suey RO Ay ae 56,172 49,192 15,228 4 26,978 253,372 
United = States. trrve csccke Bloke b vetete iets teem ce 583,516 548,426 229,332 431,047 650,912 
North. ptAmericas (iuieweins Seite sesthe Seeds 681,232 643,032 274,360 489,275 OO hee 
Bolivia ERY bir tee BR OR A Paenien 4 Sud Gueeck  Bce ie 9,524 9,982 10,592 5,661 e 
Obie Bates LE Pe Wate ee ieee eens 79,580 98,952 59,239 129,575 >’ 175,460 
PATURtS rR ELE Oe LIEN hone SmI we Reeds Ga lesaihe 39,230 32,982 33,284 36,408 (¢@ 
LV CNOZUCI A: Hate -eW telcie eich strates olonsa eRe Latest > cece 1188 ¢ 400 ¢ 800 ¢ 1,700 (¢) 
South#vAmericn e@e\, . wenibe. cit eho ote 128,522 142,316 103,915 173,344 (¢) 
AUSEYID Wis xtath-en pele Sieh an vtaredalodel ol ebenouscete lc cme iecete 648 1,645 4,277 94,581 (¢) 
England le jaleteotetata ia cielethic « sttitloteterccen’ tei 146 129 1fG3 104 (¢) 
Finland aj seek ele. tthe eee een. ¢ 730 ¢ 460 ¢ 200 BF SY 0) (¢) 
GOLMANY 4a oo tie byw eh oce heen whens Codeine Ort ele 15,861 14,976 19,000 17,000 (¢) 
TUALY dios overopoee pteyes aLei'ere oie eheie stolecks, ot ele kever<\emcets eye! 635 356 319 310 
BN OTR AY. Fe oie kwcd tale’ or. bus Gin apeme ec ete tence Riel Siscthe = 437 556 1,348 80 (¢) 
Portugal’ wid SS NR ee de Os © 650 ¢ 1,000 © 1.600 +) (¢) 
RAM Anas Tihisees evel ¢ ek? eae ey ee. caemete sired j14 5165 5108 dg bel (¢) 
ER TESSIG Bator esc: sie eee eh do, ciate ts es Reb eemeaet saetete (%) BRT OL k 4,668 (*) (¢) 
Sa lipwrarasict cretes teeters: sccbererereietore eleelices tater speie 23,419 22,458 36,345 25,139 (¢) 
SWECOMPT ie Calas toledo he wel eee tert tote legetals Rt one 3,558 1,289 Wes i 9 Nal ale eR Ants a (¢) 
JULO SIA VIS fh jetecede Oe areveie eho yee Wace Teh sweets, ore (t+) 2,436 4,144 5,354 (¢) 
Wurope of. CR ee OTS eR eS 152.837 49,500 73,268 158,438 (¢) 
QGhiT Ss ees Ce eS ae, corre ks’ Sats venmacb ate ten> m 554 metro T m 958 Ue as Ws (¢) 
DAT. date cea tc al Aote lis SuSE thee | ANN eee Fes 78,443 67,792 54,092 54,126 62,100 
PAV W EAN Se See een s Gaia, oll ate ne sel ote Ueto ee nate ee te 884 592 ib akeyre (4) (¢) 
A STADE E Artie ites Libero dtd tolie Ae eee ER. as 79,881 68,575 56,247 155,339 ((2)) 
PAT Orie ery Soe Ye Uae s Mee: vo. te CEE REME ES Rene ete ae © 60 ¢ 430 ¢ 300 ¢ 430 ¢ 560 
Belgians Kono): by. 5 Are kee eieletdets 3S bik 23,019 18,962 30,464 43,362 "56,479 
Rhodesia: 
NORE GI UeAy a.) ss Lous abies tole toe ne Te eieds aes 185 132 200 181 132 
SOULHErIL: Mee eek. (cee kre SNES IR RAG e 3% 4 2,782 2,820 2,794 3,074 2,697 
Southwest African Protectorate ......-... ° 2,400 ° 4,370 © 7,400 ¢ 3,900 (¢) 
Union of South Africa ...... J.. Eee ia ra fe'e aoe 1,075 92 665 7,980 
Atricn tees Al MON RASS 31,973 27,789 41,250 51,612 (e) 
Brpatratian al wee...) chia stoke ee sctud 19,491 27,022 11,147 12,040 (¢) 
Grand?) Total i: @ orem. che oe see | 9947000 958,000 560,000 ™ 840,000 (¢) 


*Tn addition to countries shown it is reported that Chosen (Korea) produced 2288 metric tons of crude copper 


in 1919 and 5368 metric tons in 1920. 
b Preliminary 


¢ Estimated by the U. S. Geological Survey. 


Just what material this “crude copper” includes can not be determined. 


4Consulate General of Mexico, Engineering and Mining Journal-Press of Apr. 19, 1924. 


¢ Figures not ‘yet available. 


f Figures from Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau. 


9 Consular Report, Nov. 25, 1923. 


4 According to the American Bureau of Metal Statistics. 
is included 


7 Figures not yet available, but an estimate is 


in the total. 


j For the year ending March 31 following that stated in the heading of the column, 


k Mining Journal (London) of Apr. 8, 1922. 


tIncludes estimate for countries for which information is not yet available. 


m™ Exports of ingots and slabs. 


production from domestic ores of 1,434,999,962 
pounds. For the World’s production in pounds 
for the years 1913-22 see next column. 
Naturally with the extensive use of copper 
for cartridge cases and other munitions of war 
the outbreak of hostilities in 1914 stimulated 
activity in the copper industry, especially in 


2 


"T’Echo de Mines. 


metal mounted, and in the United States there 
was great activity both in the mining and in 
the refining and manufacture of copper. The 
British government at this time considered ship- 
ments of copper to neutral countries contraband, 
on the ground that it was destined for the 
Central Powers. Accordingly some 45,000,000 


COPPER 331 


pounds of copper were thus seized. On the 
other hand the Allies were large consumers of 
American copper. 

By March, 1917, a maximum price of 37 cents 
a pound was secured in the United States, and 
when the American government entered the War 
it received adequate supplies of copper from the 
producers, though the question of price was de- 
ferred. On September 6th the War Industries 
Board of the United States bought about 77,000 
pounds of copper for the Allies which advanced 
the price, but finally a price of 231% cents was 
fixed hy agreement between the War Industries 
Board and the copper producers. There were 
strikes in Montana and Arizona at this time 
which curtailed production, but these were ad- 
justed and during the War copper in adequate 
amount was forthcoming. 

With the great demand due to the War, pro- 
duction of copper by the United States was car- 
ried on at an extraordinary rate. Naturally 
with the termination of hostilities there was no 
further call for this metal for munitions, and at 
the beginning of 1919 the copper producers held 
some 839,510,000 pounds of unsold metal. In 
addition the allied governments at the same 
time held over a billion pounds of virgin copper 
bought for war purposes but not required after 
the Armistice. Furthermore there was twice 
that amount of scrap copper and held copper ac- 
cumulated by various war manufacturing plants. 
Such conditions naturally had their effect on the 
industry which was slow in adjusting itself. 

However, conditions improved very slowly 
through 1921, and during 1922 the world’s sur- 
plus stock of copper was being slowly absorbed. 
At the end of 1922 secondary copper stocks were 
so far reduced that they ceased to be considered 
as a menace to the industry, and new produc- 
tion was entered into on a much larger scale. 
Copper mining in 1922 in the United States em- 
ployed approximately 100,000 men. The in- 
dustry during the year improved as in connec- 
tion with the refining of copper; gold and silver 
were also recovered. 

During 1923 the smelter production of pri- 
mary copper from domestic sources in the United 
States amounted to 1,434,999,962 pounds, an in- 
crease of approximately 51 per cent over 1922. 
The value of smelter production increased ap- 
proximately 64 per cent in 1923 over 1922, this 
increase in value being mainly due to the high 
prices prevailing during the first quarter of 
the year, for at the end of the year prices were 
at a lower level than the average for 1922. The 
average price of 2,404,768,102 pounds of copper 
delivered during the year, as reported to the 
Geological Survey by selling agencies, was 14.71 
cents a pound, as against 13.5 cents in 1922. 
Smelter production of copper in Arizona in- 
creased from 428,200,624 pounds in 1922 to 
615,493,561 pounds in 1923; in Montana from 
165,341,414 pounds to 224,353,764 pounds; and 
in Utah from 79,665,563 pounds to 210,118,291 
pounds. Most of the large companies in 1923 
and 1924 were maintaining production at a rate 
somewhat below capacity, which they stated was 
because they did not wish to reduce their re- 
serves at prices which do not yield an adequate 
return. In 1922-23 the Calumet & Hecla, the 
Ahmeek, the Allouez, the Centennial, and the 
Osceola companies formed the Calumet & Hecla 
Consolidated Copper Co., and the Kennecott Cop- 
per Corporation absorbed the Utah Copper Co. 

Domestic production of new refined copper 


COPPER 


from domestic and foreign sources, in 1923 was 
at a higher rate than that maintained during 
any previous year, except the abnormal years of 
1916, 1917, and 1918. Domestic consumption 
also kept pace with production and except for 
the years mentioned was also at the highest 
rate, but because of unfavorable conditions in 
Europe, which had retarded consumption in the 
important consuming countries there, and the 
increased production in South America and 
Africa, which tended to increase competition in 
European and other markets, stocks by 1924 had 
increased, and prices were below what the pro- 
ducers had confidently expected they would be. 
The American producers sought to offset the low 
selling price of copper, so far as they were able, 
by decreased costs of production. These de- 
creases were obtained by increased efficiency of 
operation, by improved labor, by consolidation 
of mining companies, and by closer codperation 
between producers and manufacturers. 


COPPER PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES 


FROM DOMESTIC ORES, 1923 
(Smelter output, in pounds fine) 


State 1923 

Alaskaweas tetas ae tes ee als 68,648,368 
ATIZON AP Me et ee es Os Se ee Catron 615,493,561 
Calivorwiataes strate tates Seer Ske eae ee 27,042,835 
Colorg doe eee Re i a ILE 4,343,418 
BOT Pah ie aes eee es eine 40's TR ah elie. (a) hen See CAME ee? aS 
DOAN OMe sae eet ae eat eee etre eaters 3,664,079 
INMETCDT ATG vette ete Pa ole en Meee erate 137,691,306 
MASSON Il Mee ees cee tie byes mercy ae Sea ties 217,449 
IP OITCAT aye ne ee ea Se eos ek enya ov es 224,353,764 
Nevada Glee Ueno tie anes See ee teens 63,495,928 
New. SMexicouss Saas 47 Ses Pe ae, BW Sele Wl 
NOt Carolus! Waser ae cic, ene teeta 61,913 
Ore ron te ty ee wean gece ae. 2) ee ae 1,182,437 
PSNTUSVIVATIA sree tee cleo ote fete reteset a laa 29 WSS ic 
South Dakota rer. rae aie tae seme nats AT 
MENDESSCO DER EMEateh etree ieee kena ae eat ehieee 6 18,721,932 
TGR AS MM RaNs copie cai Silay Siete ee eater ate fate 4,216 
HO erdet | tS bP oe PRA le re LS Mee KAA ALAS A a Or 210,118,291 
WidsSitime tore aerate often atcrctonene ts see 839,254 
Wiy OMAR aol Pete ep ohie! o areey » Wetcmeietta so etle 87,686 
Unidistributedhyn see fe cicero seasiaie. ot saene 390,734 
TOGA Lear erccer iat ote rete soca ce teeta oes 1,434,999,962 


In the above table the production is apportioned to 


the States in which the copper was mined. The figures 
represent the content of fine copper in the blister 
produced, the smelter output of ingot, and anode 
copper from Michigan. 


It was realized that additional uses for cop- 
per could be developed with advantage to pro- 
ducers and manufacturers, and in 1921 the Cop- 
per and Brass Research Association was organ- 
ized to promote a more general knowledge of the 
availability of copper for various purposes. 
This body made a survey of dwelling house con- 
struction and found that in this field alone 150,- 
000,000 pounds of copper were used, and more 
would be required with the resumption of active 
building construction. Accordingly a campaign 
was put under way to increase the use of cop- 
per in this field. 

In the period under consideration there had 
been heavy investments of American capital in 
South America in copper properties, particularly 
in Chile where the mines at Chuquicamata, 
Raicagua and elsewhere were receiving the at- 
tention of well organized and financed com- 
panies. 

Likewise an important development with a con- 
siderable bearing on the copper situation of the 
world was the opening and exploitation of 
the copper deposits in the Katanga region of 
the Belgian Congo Free State owned by the 
Union Miniére du Haut Katanga, said to be 
the largest in the world. This was a Belgian 


COPPER 332 CORELLI 


SOME SALIENT COMPARATIVE FIGURES OF THE COPPER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 
1913-1923 (In pounds) 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


Refinery 

production of Withdrawn 

Smelter primary copper Exports from total 

Year production ' (domestic Imports (un- of metallic supply on 

(domestic ores) and foreign manufactured) copper domestic ac- 
sources ) count (new) 
HOLS: Firs weer hae 1,224,484,098 1,615,000,000 409,000,000 926,000,000 812,000,000 
DO ea ee ie isis Reks 1,150,137,192 1,533,800,000 306,000,000 840,000,000 702,000,000 
OS rere ec tc res eee 1,388,009,527 1,634,200,000 316,000,000 682,000,000 1,137,000,000 
TOU GSS LA ees 1,927,850,548 2,259,400,000 462,000,000 784,000,000 1,479,000,000 
LOTT CA SMe eee 1,886,120,721 2,422,000,000 556,000,000 1,126,000,000 1,395,000,000 
ao Pent Np ale  R: 1,908,533,595 2,394,000,000 576,000,000 744,000,000 1,662,000,000 
LODO sate atsters ce cehere 6 1,286,419,329 1,770,000,000 429,000,000 516,000,000 914,000,000 
1920 OARS Se a 1,209,061,040 1,526,000,000 486,000,000 623,000,000 1,054,000,000 
LOST og. See Ley ot 3. 505,586,098 951,000,000 350,000,000 628,000,000 611,000,000 
DOD staat eee aie as 950,285,947 1,256,000,000 541,000,000 743,000,000 897,000,000 
ODS uc teastnatesteks. 4 sues 1,434,999,962 1,980,000,000 676,000,000 829,000,000 1,300,000,000 


STATISTICS OF, THE OOPPER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES IN “1922 AND 1923 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


Summary of features of the copper industry in the United States in 1922 and 1923 

Production of copper: 1922 1923 

SmelteriMmout pus Move <:dearcuctate taney: eae vende) io) olevelisiieesh ele rsiet ay MG pounds... 950,285,947 1,434,999,962 

Mise. Tt prOd UCtON Ny ors io ctve le ee nede ile o) shee ftckad te Meekereks rear esc anin COMero tts 964,583,894 (2) 
Refinery production of new copper 

Wlectrolytic: i c-. tye sect sie ey He edeh bceeaete Coates apels legebeneuMetele cits eSeee OTe sees 766,944,836 1,302,454,492 

Tas de@y poles, dfn incl Soak oh oe ioe teks sete, ep hee ral prone eas SCRE ORT, dose icste 122,545,126 137,691,306 

GAaSting; (ANG Digwi ne wid. themtbse bere =) Gc sascsne ale SMM aeteas che ols eons GOs . cre T1380 (23 24,019,197 

Total sd OMEStiGi tains, he his: eeehaaes oes Us onic crete aye Bake PENe Lado eaeae tte dows. : 904,670,685 1,464,164,995 

Totaly GOMeStYC And * LOTCILD Ate csts: oie och serch berate rok epiars oe manent ete CLO Shs 1,255,515,959 1,979,835,616 

TotalgnieywiwanGd Old) sCOPDeLs ote sites ors cur, cretene dendievetd siriislerenrbetane CLO Genchore 1,927,000,000 2,802,000,000 
Ore produced: 

CWOPPOE ONE: Kore hc chester ehe tote clots covet Sbce ates aise short tons. . 26,898, eH (4) 

AV EHAZOWLVIClG LOLs COPDELymeie 4 bictepepstesets slehe slsacuemactnesstereye per cent.. (#) 
Otherw Ore yield in SMCOPPEL Mes. v-screderen- saksuedete’ eh ous lett) ouster short tons. . bie 370 (2) 
FAVELA le apEICEL Der epOUNdiers, teopetedene cue elevebevalin che SR horaielt ce redone! oo Cents... 13.5 1457 
Imports (CUNDIANULACTUYEC) wry -ceunerehoie: cre siskorsin isl clot eh mabcus Reve nn otsmere pounds... 541,013,220 676,473,338 
taxporisy of metallic copper? ss. web ks spispemtoings aurie ¢, es eee dork, FE 742,755,957 828,854,827 

Withdrawn from total supply on domestic accounts: 
Tate, LL eNO Wie COD DCT uma s uels tele lots onal pepere mac iaatie saiele Teste os pounds 896,633,833 1,300,473,331 
Wotal un Cwiandy O1Os COD DEM Atcha oisaens ich eliet sis 2 eetonenste cols et eee ren Cow:® 1,568,000,000 2,122,000,000 
Stockss#ofiereninedicoppernc. Ui iemicie)epsiess ermicce consielts censuchepe tates o) Une bes kane ag) Sea 216,000,000 264,000,000 
Stockstfof blister) and ‘materials in’ “solution\e, sprees 2 - ne cheats ee cv erence 361,000,000 432,000,000 
Viahremots production, INuethew NITCOUESLATES » eqisgctul pediiel eellelc to. « tetipaaneny «ile $128,289,000 $210,945,000 
Worldisks production any crepe) cess sicus) ele ch clebe ohersbehe ke memonntal ak italetn pounds 1,851,864,000 (*) 
@¥Figures not available when table was compiled. 


> Total exports of copper, 
¢ At the end of the year. 


company in which the Tanganyika Concessions, 
a British corporation, owned a 39 per cent inter- 
est. With its mines, local smelters and refiner- 
ies the Union Company was the largest copper 
producer in the world in 1921, with an output of 
67,012,000 pounds, which was exceeded in 1922 
when the production was estimated at 92,400,- 
000 pounds. The official estimate of the ore re- 
serves at the 12 great mines of the eastern 
group of the Union Miniére was 2,800,000 tons 
of copper contained in 6-per cent ore aggregat- 
ing some 49,000,000 tons. The other group of 
mines under development by this corporation 
was said to include 1,700,000 tons of metal in 
8- to 9-per cent ore. 

Large refining and reducing works have been 
erected in proximity to the mines, and hydro- 
electric power from the Lufira and Lualaba 
rivers was to be installed, inasmuch as other 
copper deposits have been found in Katanga, as 
well as elsewhere in Africa, the advent of which 
into the world’s copper production was an im- 
portant factor. 

The rapid development of the copper industry 
in the Belgian Congo by 1923 had reached a 
point where the production amounted to some 
57,000 metric tons as compared with 43,362 tons 
in 1922. The leading copper mines under opera- 
tion were the Star of the Congo, Kambove, Likasi 


exclusive of ore, concentrates, 
material, which can not be separated from ore and concentrates. 


and composition metal, and for 1923, unrefined 


and Luishia. The Star of the Congo had been 
exhausted three times, but in 1922 large re- 
serves of ore were found. A smelter at Lum- 
bumbashi handled the ore and concentrates, some 
of which were prepared at the mines. There 
were reverberatory furnaces and electrocathodes 
were produced. The copper was sent to Europe 
by way of Beira ordinarily, but in 1923 some 
went out by Dar-es-Salaam, as the cost of. trans- 
portation was slightly less. Half of the black 
copper produced in the Belgian Congo was 
shipped to America for refining, while the rest 
was treated in Europe, but there was under 
construction an eloctrolytic refinery to handle 
this ore near Antwerp. 

CORAL REEF FORMATION. See Geror- 
oGy. 

CORBIN, Joun (1870- ). An American 
dramatic critic and author (see Vor. VI). He 
wrote The Edge (1915) and until 1916 was 
secretary of the Drama Society of New York. 
From 1917 to 1919, he was dramatic critic of 
the New York Times and after 1919 editorial 
writer for the same paper. He produced Shake- 
speare’s Tempest (with full text in the Eliza- 
bethan manner) in 1916, ai.d in 1922 published 
The Return of the Middle Class. 

CORELLI, Marte (1864-1924). 
novelist (see Vor. VI). 


An English 
Her later publications 


ee ee 


aa 


ee es ee ae 


2 


ee ee Se ee ee 


_ the same period was as follows: 


COREY 


include: Innocent, Her Fancy and His Fact 
(1914, 1921) ; The Young Diana (1917); My Lit- 
tle Bit, a Record of War Work (1919); The 
Love of Long Ago (1920); The Secret Power 
(1921), and The Treasure of Heaven: a Ro- 
mance of Riches (1921). 

COREY, WILLIAM ELuis (1866— ). An 
American capitalist, born in Braddock, Pa. He 
was educated in the public schools and at Duft’s 
College, Pittsburgh. He entered the Edgar 
Thompson Steel Works at the age of 16, and he- 
came superintendent of the plate mill at the 
Homestead Steel Works in 1899. He succeeded 
Charles M. Schwab as general superintendent 
at these works in 1897. From 1901 to 1903, he 
was president of tle Carnegie Steel Company, 
and from that year to 1911 was president of 
the United States Steel Corporation. In the 
latter year he resigned this post to ‘become 
chairman of the board of the Midvale Steel and 
Ordnance Company. He was a director and of- 
ficial in many important financial institutions. 

CORFU DECLARATION. See J UGO- 
SLAVIA. , 

CORFU GOVERNMENT. See Sersra. 

CORFU INCIDENT. See ALBANIA; 
GREECE; ITALY. 

CORN. According to the census of 1920, 
corn was produced on three-fourths of the farms 
in the United States. The average annual pro- 
duction of the country for the years 1914-23, in- 
elusive, was 2,883,000,000 bushels. The average 
annual production of the leading corn states for 
Towa 402,000,- 
000 bushels, Illinois 320,000,000 bushels, and 
Nebraska 205,000,000 bushels. The average acre 
yield in the United States increased from 24.1 
bushels for the ten-year period 1890-99 to 26.1 
bushels for the ten-year period 1910-19. It was 
estimated that 40 per cent of the corn crop was 
fed to swine on farms, 20 per cent to horses on 
farms, 15 per cent to cattle on farms, and 10 
per cent was used for human food. About 4,- 
000,000 acres of corn each year were made into 
silage, over 2,500,000 acres were cut for fodder 
and more than 2,000,000 acres were pastured off 
with hogs. About four years after the War, 
corn production in southeastern Europe had 
practically regained its pre-war status. The 
corn area of Russia in 1923 was 3,548,000 acres, 
as compared with 2,223,000 acres in 1913. 


Largely as a result of the War, corn production 


in Argentina was increased to a considerable ex- 
tent, although the yield in 1923 was below the 
average for the years 1909-13, which was 174,- 
502,000 bushels. 

The average annual total value of the corn 
crop of the United States for the five-year period 
1910-14 was $1.577,000,000, but the higher price 
of corn from 1916 to 1919 raised the value for 
that period to $3,024,000,000. The 1920 crop 
was the largest ever harvested, but prices were 
receding and its total value was only $2,150,000,- 
000, while in 1921, with a yield only 4 per cent 
under the crop of 1920, prices had dropped so 
low that the total value was only $1,303,000,000, 
or only 43 per cent of the annual value during 
the war period and about 16 per cent less than 
the pre-war value although the crop was 10 per 
cent larger than the pre-war average. During 
the war the average farm price of corn rose 
above $1.90 per bushel; but the price began to 
decline in 1920 and reached the low point at the 
end of 1921, reducing the purchasing power of 
corn far below that of any other year. A marked 


333 


CORNELL 


rise in the cost of production occurred from 1914 
to 1920, and the rise in price was even greater 
and more rapid. The cost of production was far 
from declining in the same proportion as the 
price of corn, and this was one of the principal 
factors leading to the agricultural economic 
crisis beginning in 1920 and continuing for sev- 
eral years. 

The United States Grain Standards Act of 
Aug. 11, 1916, required that in all interstate 
buying and selling of corn the grades used shall 
be the Federal grades established by the Secre- 
tary of Agriculture. According to these grades, 
based on condition and quality, the best corn is 
graded Number One and corn lower in quality is 
given numerical grades down to and including 
Number Six, while a “sample grade” is added for 
corn too low in quality for the numbered grades. 
To the insect pests attacking the corn crop in 
the United States was added the European corn 
borer. This insect, first reported within the 
United States near Boston in 1917, became es- 
tablished during the following six years in east- 
ern New York and in a narrow strip along the 
shores of Lake Erie in New York, Pennsylvania 
and Ohio. By that time the insect infested, in 
Ontario, Canada, an area extending from Lake 
Erie northward and equal to the area infested in 
the United States. Quarantine regulations were 
put in force to prevent its spread and Congress 
appropriated money for its control. The diseases 
of corn which have become troublesome in recent 
years are the brown spot disease, characterized 
by brown spots usually on the leaf, the leaf 
sheath and the stalk, and root rot of corn which 
results in the partial or total decay of the root 
system causing the plant to lodge, and which at- 
tacks also the stalk and the ear. 

Corn Oil. Corn oil, derived largely from the 
germ in the corn kernel and produced economi- 
cally only in connection with the manufacture 
of corn products from which the germ is ex- 
cluded, is of growing importance. Formerly 
used mainly in the manufacture of soaps and 
paints, it is now refined and used for food in 
the form of lard and butter substitutes, salad 
and cooking oils, shortening, and other similar 
substances. With the increase in the manufac- 
ture of corn products during the War, due in 
part to flour substitute regulations, the annual 
production of corn oil rose to 118,000,000 pounds 
but later receded to about 90,000,000 pounds. 
Corn oil is used also in making rubber substi- 
tutes. Corn cobs are utilized in paper-making, 
the production of adhesives, the manufacture of 
fibre board and wall board, and for other simi- 
lar purposes. In some of the manufacturing 
processes employed, furfurol, a compound used 
for technical purposes and also as a germicide 
and fungicide, is recovered as a_ by-product. 
Consult United States: Department of Agricul- 
ture Yearbook, 1921. See AGRICULTURE. 

CORN BORER, EUROPEAN. See ENrTo- 
MOLOGY, ECONOMIC. 

CORNELL, KATHARINE (2 ). An 
American actress who made her first appearance 
in 1916 with the Washington Square Players in 
Bushido and remained with that company 
some time, playing The Death of Tintagiles, 
Plots and Playwrights, ete. In 1918, she was 
with the Jessie Bonstelle stock company at Buf- 
falo and subsequently toured in Cheating Cheat- 
ers and The Man Who Came Back. In 1919, she 
played Jo in Little Women in London and the 
next year toured in The Man Outside. One of 


CORNELL UNIVERSITY 334 


her best characterizations in New York was the 
part of Eileen Baxter-Jones in Nice People 
(1921). 

CORNELL UNIVERSITY. A _ nonsectar- 
ian, coeducational institution at Ithaca, N. Y., 
established in 1865. The university’s annual in- 
come available for current expenses increased 
during the decade between 1914 and 1923-24 
from $3,000,000 to $4,500,000. Besides aug- 
mented income from invested funds, somewhat 
higher tuition fees, and increased State appro- 
priation for the State College of Agriculture and 
Veterinary College, this increment included some 
$100,000 given annually by alumni, $100,000 
from rents of new residential halls, and $200,- 
000 from the United States for research and ex- 
tension instruction in agriculture. A cam- 
paign for new endowment, begun in 1919, yielded 
subscriptions of more than $6,000,000, mainly 
for increased salaries for faculty members. The 
enrollment of students in 1923-24 was 5153, as 
compared with 5015 in 1914, and the faculty 
numbered 949, an increase of 199 over 1914. 
The number of volumes in the library was multi- 
plied by almost one-half. The Baker Laboratory 
of Chemistry, for which George F. Baker gave 
$1,500,000, and a $400,000 State building for the 
department of dairy industry, were completed 
in 1923. Gifts received within the decade were 
$500,000 from August Heckscher to endow re- 
search, $50,000 from Mrs. Sarah Manning Sage 
for medical research, and an anonymous gift of 
$200,000 for pediatrics. The library received 
from Charles W. Wason a collection relating to 
China, with a $50,000 endowment. Col. Oliver 
H. Payne’s bequest of $4,500,000 to endow the 
medical college, which is situated in New York 
City, became available in 1914. The New York 
State Drill Hall was completed in 1917 and was 
used during the War by an army school of mili- 
tary aéronautics. Livingston Farrand succeeded 
Jacob Gould Schurman as president in 1921. 

CORPS. See ARMIES AND ARMY ORGANIZA- 


_ TION. 

CORTISSOZ, RoyaL (?- ). An Ameri- 
can journalist, born in New York City. For 
many years he was literary and art editor of 
the New York Tribune, and was a frequent con- 
tributor to magazines on art subjects and also 
lectured much on art. He was the author of 
Augustus St. Gaudens (1907); John LaFarge 
(1911), and Art and Common Sense (1913). He 
edited many classics, including Don Quixote and 
The Autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini. He 
also edited Whitelaw Reid’s American and Eng- 
lish Studies. He was a member of the National 
Institute of Arts and Letters. 

COSGRAVE, WILLIAM THomAs (1880- ). 
An Irish statesman, born at Dublin. He was 
educated at the Christian Brothers’ Schools, and, 
engaging in business in Dublin, amassed a for- 
tune. He was a member of the secret revolu- 
tionary organization called the Irish Republican 
Brotherhood. In 1909, he was elected to the 
Dublin City Council. He was a leader in the 
Sinn Fein ranks, and on May 5, 1916, he was 
arrested, brought to trial, and sentenced to 
death. His sentence was changed to imprison- 
ment for life, but he was released in the general 
amnesty of 1917. In the fall of 1917, he was 
elected to Parliament, but because of his Sinn 
Fein principles, did not take his seat. In May, 
1918, he was again arrested and taken to Eng- 
land. He returned in 1919, was again arrested 
and deported. Upon his return to Dublin this 


COSTA RICA 


last time, he became minister of loeal govern- 
ment in the Dail Eireann. In January, 1922, 
he put through a plan to spend £1,000,000 on 
housing within the year. On the death of Ar- 
thur Griffith and of Michael Collins, Cosgrave 
became head of the Provisional Government. The 
constitution of the Free State was ratified, and 
in December, 1922, the Provisional Government 
came to an end. Timothy M. Healy became the 
first governor-general of the Irish Free State, 
and Cosgrave was elected president of the Execu- 
tive Council. He also became Minister of Fi- 
nance. 

COSMOGONY. See ASTRONOMY. 

COSTA RICA. A Central American re- 
public situated between Nicaragua and Pana- 
ma. Its area, variously estimated at 18,- 
691 to 23,000 square miles, seated in 1922 an 
estimated population of 576,581 (population in 
1911, 388,266). Immigration in 1920 was 6040 
(1911, 9537) and the emigration, 5280 (1911, 
8170). The populations of the largest cities, as 
estimated in 1920, were: San José, with sub- 
urbs, 51,395; Cartago, 17,402; Heredia, 13,885; 
Alajuela, 11,908, Limon, 10,231. 

Industry and Finance. Agriculture con- 
tinued to prosper. The coffee planters in 1922 
had the best year in the history of their indus- 
try. In 1913, exports totaled 13,019,059 kilos, 
at a value of $3,605,930; in 1922, 18,616,803 
kilos, at $6,677,762. Exports for 1923 and 1924 
were large and commanded excellent prices. The 
1924 crop was very good. In 1913, Great Brit- 
ain took 82 per cent of the total; the United 
States, 6 per cent. During the War the United 
States displaced Great Britain from her com- 
manding position, only to be compelled to yield 
up first place once more in 1922, when she 
bought 34 per cent, and Great Britain, 59. The 
sugar industry showed great advances. In 1913, 
production was 2,869,429 kilos with only an in- 
significant amount exported. In 1920, the ex- 
port was 5,107,251 kilos, and in 1922, 2,608,678 
kilos. Production in 1923-24 was placed at 19,- 
000,000 pounds. The banana industry, worked 
for the most part by the United Fruit Company, 
ranked second in importance in point of export 
value. In 1912, the number of bunches shipped 
was 10,647,702; in 1922, 7,671,619, (with a value 
of $5,003,455). Production was decreased some- 
what in 1923 by blight. Cacao production as- 


sumed economic importance during the decade. . 


Exports in 1913 were 845,931 pounds; in 1922, 
7,236,378. Mining, on the other hand, decreased 
because of the exhaustion of the known ore 
bodies. Exports of gold and silver bullion for 
1905-14 were worth an annual average of $706,- 
457; in 1922, $491,188. Commerce over the 
whole period showed imports of $8,687,280 for 
1913; for 1922, $8,344,670; exports for 1913 and 
1922, $10,234,149 and $14,224,332. In 1912, 46 
per cent of the imports came from the United 
States; in 1922, 61 per cent. Exports to the 
United States increased from 55 per cent to 56 
per cent in 1922. They had reached 68 per cent 
in 1921. Government accounts fluctuated over 
the period. The year 1922 was the first to show 
a surplus since 1912. Expenditures in 1913 
were 10,184,261 colones; in 1922, 17,311,165 co- 
lones. Revenues for the same years were 9,612,- 
533 and 18,971,023 colones. Largely as a result 
of the deficits, the internal debt increased from 
3,829,783 to 40,050,901 colones. The external 
debt increased in the same period from $7,869,- 
295 to $13,635,852. The par value of the colon 


eh, Sy 


COST OF LIVING 


is $0.465 (2.15 colones to the dollar). In 1922 
the colon was worth 4.4 to the dollar, so that the 
government was compelled to fix the legal rate 
of exchange, in October, 1922, at 4 colones. Dur- 
ing 1923 there was a fluctuation in value, the 
colon going as high as 454 to the dollar, but 
the exceptionally good coffee crop and high prices 
of 1924 increased the gold exchange and made 
possible the regulation of the rate at 4 colones 
again. 

History. President Alfredo Gonzalez, elected 
in 1914, was confronted by serious disturbances 
in 1917 on his attempt to inaugurate a radical 
financial programme and was compelled to relin- 
quish his office. His successor, Federico Tinoco, 
leader of the revolutionists, was refused the 
recognition of the United States, with the result 
that his waning influence ended with his over- 
throw in 1919 at the hands of Julio Acosta 
Garcia. The latter served as president, 1920-24, 
and during his administration the country re- 
gained the stability for which it had formerly 
been celebrated in Spanish America. Under a 
small and satisfied land-owning class, prosperity 
prevailed. In 1917 Costa Rica severed relations 
with Germany and in 1918 assumed the role of 
an Associate Power on the side of the Allies. 
In 1920 the suffrage was extended to women. 
In 1921 the administration was thwarted in its 
attempt to join the newly-formed Central Amer- 
ican Union by the negative vote of the National 
Assembly. (See CENTRAL AMERICAN UNION). 
In 1923 Secretary of State Hughes announced 
that it was the intention of the United States 
to recognize Costa Rica’s rights in the use of the 
San Juan River for the Nicaraguan Canal route. 
The question had arisen out of Costa Rica’s pro- 
test against the Bryan-Chamorro treaty of 1916 
and her subsequent suit before the Central Amer- 
ican Court of Justice, on the ground that the 
route, in being run through the San Juan River, 
alienated her territorial rights. For the presi- 
dential term 1924-28 Ricardo Jiminez was 
elected in May, 1924. 7 

COST OF LIVING IN THE UNITED 
STATES. The cost of living index numbers 
given by the United States Bureau of Labor Sta- 
tistics show the changes in the cost of living 
throughout the United States during 1914-24 in 
comparison with the average cost in 1913. Retail 
prices of food are secured directly from 15 to 
25 dealers in each of 51 cities, and prices are 
also secured for coal, wood, gas, electricity, and 
kerosene from dealers in a number .of cities. 
Other data on retail prices are secured by spe- 
cial agents. Rental figures are for 400 to 2000 
houses and apartments in each city, according to 
its population. The costs of clothing, furniture, 
and miscellaneous items are determined from 
four quotations from each city on each of a 
large number of items; in Greater New York 
five quotations were secured instead of four. 
In the calculation of the index number the 
prices for the different articles of food are 
weighted according to the relative values shown 
in the budgets of over 12,000 families secured 
by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics 
in its investigation during 1918-19. The dif- 
ferent types of expenditure are weighted accord- 
ing to their relative values in total expenditure, 
as shown also in this budget investigation, but 
prices within the budget divisions are not 
weighted except for food. The following weights 
are used for the different budget divisions in 
the calculation of the cost-of-living index num- 

12 


335 


COST OF LIVING 


ber for the United States: food, 38.2; clothing, 
16.6; housing, 13.4; fuel and light, 53; furni- 
ture and furnishings 5.1; and miscellaneous, 
21.3. 

As shown by the figures given above, there 
were marked differences in the rate of increase, 
in 1913-24, in the six budget divisions. Food 
costs increased rapidly and also decreased 
rapidly; food costs after May, 1921, were 
nearer the cost level of 1913 than any of the 
other budget divisions. The cost of housing 
increased but slowly and was still showing a 
tendency to increase, and the cost of house and 
furnishing goods was also rising during the lat- 
ter few years, after a rapid decrease from its 
peak in 1920. The cost of clothing remained 
well above the level of 1913, as did also the cost 
of fuel and light and the cost of miscellaneous 
items. The total cost of living shows amounts 
of change quite different from those indicated by 
any of the budget divisions separately. 

In addition to the cost-of-living index num- 
ber for the United States, the Bureau of Labor 
Statistics publishes data on the change in the 
cost of living in 32 cities. In 19 of these cities 
comparison is made with prices prevailing in 
December, 1914; in 13, with prices prevailing in 
December, 1917. Each of these index numbers 
is weighted according to the proportionate ex- 
penditure for the different budget divisions 
shown by the budgets collected in the city dur- 
ing the 1918-19 investigation. The food ex- 
penditure, however, is weighted according to the 
average expenditure shown in all budgets col- 
lected in the geographical division in which the 
city is located, rather than according to that 
shown in the budgets secured in the particular 
city. As will be seen by reference to the accom- 
panying table, there is considerable variation 
among the cities in the amount of change in the 
total cost of living, variation being partly from 
differences in weights and partly from differences 
in retail prices. In all instances, however, liv- 
ing costs increased slowly at first, and then more 
rapidly until the highest point was reached in 
June, 1920. The decrease was fairly rapid until 
March, 1922, and since then there has been a 
tendency in some instances toward a slight de- 
crease and in others toward a slight increase. 
Monthly prices for 43 articles of food are secured 
by the Bureau in 51 cities and are published at 
quarterly intervals in the Monthly Labor Ke- 
view, separately for each article in each city, 
and also combined to show the change in the 
cost of food for a family, the same system of 
weighting being used as in the calculation of 
the cost-of-living index numbers. There is also 
quarterly publication of retail prices of coal, gas, 
and electricity, and until November, 19238, of 
retail prices of dry goods. Other index num- 
bers of the cost of living are those of the Na- 
tional Industrial Conference Board and the Mas- 
sachusetts Commission on the Necessaries of 
Life, the first based on data on prices from all 
sections of the United States and the second on 
price data secured in Massachusetts. 

Two interesting index numbers for the period 
1909-19 were prepared by the National Bureau 
of Economie Research in connection with the 
study of income in the United States (Income 
in the United States: Its Amount and Iistribu- 
tion, 1909-1919, vol. ii). It was felt that an 
index number of the cost of living based on the 
goods and proportionate expenditure of families 
with small incomes might not measure accurate- 


COST OF LIVING 


336 


COST OF LIVING 


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“standpoint. 


COTTON 337 


ly the change in the cost of living of families 
with larger incomes, and special indexes were 
prepared based on the goods and proportionate 
expenditure estimated for families spending 
$5000 and $25,000 per annum on consumption 
goods. In both cases the increase in the cost of 
living was less marked during the latter part of 
the period than that shown by the index number 
of the cost of living of families with smaller in- 
comes. Quantity budgets descriptive of the liv- 
ing standard of families at different economic 
levels have been used in a number of instances 
in determining wage rates for different classes of 
employees under local living conditions and also 
in making changes in wage rates in accordance 
with changes in local prices. Such quantity 
budgets have been published by the United States 
Bureau of Labor Statistics for the family of a 
government employee in Washington, D. C., and 
also for the family of a workingman; the level 
is described as one of “health and decency.” 
The Philadelphia Bureau of Municipal Research 
prepared a very detailed estimate of the expendi- 
tures required for the maintenance of a fair 
standard of living among city employees and has 
issued periodic statements of the amount neces- 
sary for the maintenance of this standard at 
current prices in Philadelphia. 

Quantity budgets at higher economic levels 
were issued in 1923 by the California State Civil 
Service Commission. In these, the estimated ex- 
penditures of families of executives and of cleric- 
al workers were given in great detail as well as 
the estimated expenditures of the families of la- 
borers. Quantity budgets for the lower economic 
levels have been prepared in a number of places 
by social agencies as the basis for relief grants 
to dependent families. Budgets for women work- 
ers have been used frequently by Minimum 
Wage Commissions as the basis for the estab- 
lishment of minimum wage rates. Two types of 
problems seem to need solution in connection 
with the measurement of the cost of living. It 
is necessary to know the amount of change in 


the cost of living because of changes in the price - 


level, it being assumed that the standards of 
expenditure have remained relatively unchanged. 
It is also necessary to know the cost of main- 
taining a specified living standard under given 
conditions of living costs. The first type of 
problem is being solved by the availability of in- 
dex numbers which measure the change in the 
living cost in many localities in the United 
States. The second type of problem is being 
solved by the use of quantity budgets. Along 
both lines much progress has been made in the 
United States. See WacEs. 

COTTON, MANUFACTURES OF. 
MANUFACTURING. 

COTTON. The cotton situation of the world. 
in 1924 was unsatisfactory from almost every 
As a result of recent investigations 
new industrial uses for cotton have been devel- 
oped and the quantity required for automobile 
tires, artificial leather, pyroxylin, which has 
many uses, ete., is very large. “This new de- 
mand, coupled with diminishing world supplies 
of cotton, ae made it difficult if not impossible 
for spinners and weavers to keep their spindles 
and looms fully employed. On the other hand, 
the growers of cotton in many countries have 
been hard put to produce their crop at a profit 
on account of insects, diseases, unfavorable cli- 
matic, soil, and labor .conditions, and in’ some 
eases, lack of adequate transportation. The 


See TEXTILP 


COTTON 


maximum world’s production of cotton was at- 
tained in 1914 when a crop of 24,800,000 bales 
of 500 pounds each was marketed. Of this total, 
15,934,000 bales, or nearly 65 per cent, was 
produced in the United States. In 1923 the esti- 
mated world’s production of commercial cotton 
was 17,600,000 bales, of which 10,160,000 bales, 
or 58 per cent, was grown in the United States. 
Following the year 1920 there was a surplus of 
commercial cotton for a few crops and there was 
a large carry-over, but reduced production and 
growing demand had so drawn upon the reserve 
that in 1924 there was every prospect of a de- 
ficient supply. This was shown in the greatly 
depressed condition in the spinning centers of 
many countries. 

Boll Weevil. In the United States the re- 
duced production was due to a number of 
causes, the principal of which is the boll weevil, 
Anthonomus grandis. The boll weevil, which is 
a native of Central America and Mexico, made 
its appearance near Brownsville, Tex., about 
1892. It advanced toward the north and east 
at an average rate of about 100 miles a year 
until in 1923 practically all the old cotton belt 
from Texas and Oklahoma to North Carolina was 
infested. So severe were its ravages that the 
production of upland cotton was greatly cur- 
tailed and the crop of Sea Island cotton was re- 
duced from a maximum of 119,000 bales in 1911 
to less than 1000 bales in 1923. The presence 
of the boll weevil necessitated the adoption of 
modified methods of growing the crop that ma- 
terially increased its cost. Early maturing va- 
rieties are more extensively grown, and heavy 
applications of fertilizers are recommended to 
hasten the maturity of the crop. Poisoning the 
weevils with calcium arsenate has been extensive- 
ly adopted and more than 1,000,000 pounds of 
this material were employed in 1923. Where 
the land is sufliciently fertile to produce at 
least half a bale to the acre the use of calcium 
arsenate has proved very profitable. By the 
combination of these methods it has been found 
entirely practicable to grow cotton in regions of 
heavy boll weevil infestation. See ENTomoLoey, 
Economic. 

Distribution of Production. There was a 
very considerable extension of the cotton area 
of the United States between 1914 and 1924. 
Arizona and California became important pro- 
ducers of cotton, with a production in 1923 of 
more than 132,000 bales. In Arizona, the in- 
dustry was largely built up around strains of 
Egyptian cotton, and in 1920 the production of 
Egyptian-American cotton was in excess of 100,- 
000 bales. This cotton is of a special type, 
having very long and fine lint, and it is suited 
to special manufactures. The overproduction in 
1920 resulted in a fall in price and a reduced 
planting of these varieties. In 1923 only about 
22,000 bales of this type of cotton were grown, 
while there was a decided increase of short staple 
eotton both in Arizona and in California. 

In Egypt, one of the great cotton producing 
countries, there was a steady decline in the 
yield of cotton per acre, and although there was 
a large area brought under cultivation by the 
construction of the great Assuan Dam, the total 
production of cotton showed little increase. Sev- 
eral commissions studied the situation and the 
reduced production per acre was attributed to 
various causes, among them changed cultural 
methods, rise of water table due to overirriga- 
tion, extensive planting of varieties of low pro- 


COTTON 338 


duction but yielding fine lint, and the spread 
of pests, especially the pink bollworm. 

For many years Great Britain has been the 
greatest consumer of cotton, about 35 per cent 
of all the spindles devoted to cotton spinning 
being in that kingdom. In order to make Eng- 
lish spinners less dependent upon the United 
States for supplies of cotton, an active cam- 
paign was started to increase the growing of 
cotton within the British Empire. In 1902 
there was organized the British Cotton Grow- 
ing Association. In 1919 the Empire Cotton 
Growing Corporation was chartered and it is sup- 
ported by contributions from the government 
and by a tax of 6d. per bale on all cotton im- 
ported into and spun in the United Kingdom. 
Through the activities of these organizations the 
growing of cotton has been stimulated in many 
parts of the British Empire. In some coun- 
tries subsidies have been granted to growers, 
gins have been erected, experiment stations and 
seed farms established, and irrigation works con- 
structed, all with a view to increasing cotton 
production. While no large amounts of cotton 
were added to the world’s production, the pos- 
sibilities of successful cotton growing in some 
countries seemed assured. Parts of Africa, par- 
ticularly the Sudan, Uganda and Nigeria, were 
considered very promising. In Australia the cli- 
mate and soils appeared favorable, and it was 
believed a profitable industry could be built up. 
Efforts were being made to improve the cotton 
situation in India, and a fund derived from a 
tax of 2 annas (about $.08) a bale on all cotton 
grown in the country was devoted to research 
in the cotton industry. Brazil had a 1923 crop 
estimated at 660,000 bales. An international 
commission visited Brazil in 1922 and reported 
favorably on the possibilities for cotton grow- 
ing and suggested means whereby production 
might be greatly increased. 

Although active efforts were made by Euro- 
pean agencies to increase the production of cot- 
ton in order that there might be larger supplies 
for the old spinning centres, there has been a 
rapid expansion of spinning in new territories 
and it is considered doubtful whether the desired 
object will be attained. Japan, reporting nearly 
5,000,000 spindles in 1922, became an important 
consumer of raw cotton. In Brazil, as cotton 
production has increased, manufacturing it into 
yarn and cloth has grown. India is consuming 
more of its crop in domestic manufactures and 
the exports are not increasing very appreciably. 

In February, 1924, there were in the United 
States 37,742,000 spindles, an increase of about 
15 per cent since 1914, indicating a material in- 
crease in cotton consumption within the coun- 
try. There was a decided movement of cotton 
spinning toward the cotton growing States, and 
while there were still about 2,000,000 spindles 
more in the northern than in the southern States, 
the number of active spindles and spindle hours 
per month in the cotton growing States were 
greater in the South in February, 1924. See 
TEXTILE MANUFACTURING. 

Cooperative Marketing. An important de- 
velopment in cotton marketing in the United 
States took place soon after 1920. Codpera- 
tive marketing was established on an extensive 
scale through state-wide agencies, associations 
having been organized in Texas, Oklahoma, 
Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina. 
These were federated into a Cotton Growers’ 
Coéperative Association. In 1922 about 700,- 


COUE 


000 bales were marketed codperatively, and of 
the crop of 1923 it is claimed that more than 
1,500,000 bales were so handled. A_ selling 
organization known as the American Cotton 
Growers’ Exchange was established in 1923. 
In connection with the Cotton Standard Act of 
March 4, 1923, the United States Department of 
Agriculture has established standards for Amer- 
ican cotton that have become widely adopted, 
and on Aug. 1, 1924, they became the universal 
standards for grade and color. See AGRICUL- 
TURE; and the articles on individual States 
which lie in the Cotton Belt. 

COTTON, HENRY ANDREWS’ (1869- e 
An American psychiatrist widely known in con- 
nection with the relief of certain forms of in- 
sanity through surgical intervention. Born in 
Norfolk, Va., he graduated at the Baltimore 
Polytechnic Institute in 1894 and took his med- 
ical degree at the University of Maryland in 
1889. He studied psychiatry in Europe during 
1905-07, being active in the laboratories of Pro- 
fessors Kraepelin and Alzheimer, at Miinich. 
Upon his return he was placed at the head of 
the New Jersey State Insane Asylum. In 1921, 
he delivered a course of lectures at Princeton 
on the relation of focal infection to insanity. 
His views and experience are set down in his 


book The Defective, Delinquent and Insane 
C1927)" 
COTTON, JosEpH PoTTER (1875- yA 


American lawyer, born at Newport, R. I. He 
graduated from Harvard in 1896 and from the 
Harvard Law School in 1900. After 1915, he 
served as counsel to the New York Commission 
on Workmen’s Compensations, and was consult- 
ing counsel of the Federal Reserve Board and 
of the United States Shipping Board. He was 
chief of the meat division, United States Food 
Administration, in December, 1917, and in the 
following year was European representative of 
the Federal Food Administration. He was also 
a member of the Inter-Allied Finance Council. 
He edited Constitutional Decisions of John 
Marshall (1906). 


COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. See_ ENTo- 
MoLoGY, Economic. 

COTTRELL, FREDERICK GARDNER 
(1877- ). An American chemist (see VOL. 


VI). During 1920-21, he was director of the 
United States Bureau of Mines, and also chair- 
man of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical 
Technology of the National Research Council. 
He was also a member of many important chem- 
ical and engineering societies. 

COTTRELL PROCESS. The Cottrell proc- 
ess for precipitating fine particles of solid mat- 
ter in smoke, gases, and furnace fumes was very 
widely applied in American metallurgical plants. 
Not only does it greatly reduce smoke and fumes 
exhausted from chimneys, but in some cases it 
recovers material of very great value, as in 
metal smelters. The process consists of passing 
the fumes between two conductors maintained 
at a unidirectional difference of potential of 
from 50,000 to 100,000 volts. For this purpose 
high potential alternating voltages are rectified 
by means of a mechanical rectifier or more re- 
cently by means of a hot cathode two-electrode 
vacuum tube known as a kenotron. 

COUE Emme (1857-  ). A French 
psychologist, born at Troyes, France. At 19, he 
became an apprentice in a pharmacy, and at the 
end of three years, went to Paris and took his 
Ph.D. in Pharmacy, helping to pay his way by 


. 
7 


x 


COULTER 


winning a competition for government fellowship 
of 1200 frances a year. Later, a druggist at 
Troyes offered him a partnership. This drug- 
gist soon died, leaving the store to his young 
partner. Coué married the daughter of a 
wealthy horticulturist of Nancy. He became a 
hypnotist, then an autosuggestionist. Later he 
had a sanitarium where he practiced without 
charge to his patients. After a somewhat sen- 
sational career in France and England, he came 
to the United States early in 1923 and held many 
clinics in New York City and throughout the 
country. Coué’s theory was that the subcon- 
scious mind may be trained to direct the diseased 
organ to do the thing that will make it better. 
The subconscious mind was trained by repeat- 
ing many times each day: “Every day in every 
way I am getting better and better” A Na- 
tional Coué Institute was organized under the 
auspices of Col. A. Woods, Mrs. W. K. Vander- 
bilt, and others. 

COULTER, JOHN LEE (188l-— Vee AT: 
American statistician (see Vor. VI). During 
1917 and 1918, he was a member of the West Vir- 
ginia State Council of Defense, also expert for 
the National Exports Council, and of the War 
Industries Board. He was with the Army Over- 
seas Educational Commission® during 1918 and 
1919. 

COUNCIL OF FIVE. See 
FERENCE AND TREATIES. 

COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 
See UniTEp STATES, History. 

COUNCIL OF TEN. See 
FERENCE AND TREATIES. 

COUNTY, AtsBerT JOHN (1871- oA 
American railway official, born in Dublin, Ire- 
land. He entered the railway service with the 
Great Southern and Western Railway of Ireland, 
in 1885. Removing to the United States, he 
became clerk in the secretary’s department of 
the Pennsylvania Railroad, and in the years fol- 
lowing served in various important capacities 
with that road and with its subsidiary lines. 
In 1916, he was appointed vice-president in 
charge of accounting and corporate work of the 
Pennsylvania and affiliated roads and was also 
director and president of most of the branch and 
affiliated lines of the Pennsylvania Railroad 
Company. He was also an official and director 
in many important financial institutions and 
was a member of many learned societies. 

COUPERUS, Louis (1863-1923). A Dutch 
novelist, born at The Hague, where he was edu- 
eated. His youth was spent in Batavia, Greece, 
Italy, and the south of France. His _ publica- 
tions began to make an impression in foreign 
countries as early as 1891, when The Footsteps 
of Fate was published in England. His first 
venture was a volume of verse, Hen Lent van 
Vaerzen (1884). After the publication of Or- 
chideien (1887), he wrote only fiction. Many 
of his later works show the influence of his 
Italian experience, and indicate a lighter view 
of life. The first to be rendered into English 
by tle official translator of his works, Alexander 
Teixeira de Mattos, was a short love story en- 
titled Ecstasy (1891), which appeared in the 
United States in 1919. This was followed by 
English versions of Majesty; Universal Peace; 
Psyche ; Fidessa; Babel; God and the Gods; and 
a series of four novels entitled “Books of the 
Small Souls,” namely, Small Souls; The Later 
Life; The Twilight of the Souls; and Dr. Ad- 
riaan, which reached a wide public in the United 


PEACE Con- 


PEACE CON- 


339 


COWL 


States. He also published at intervals histor- 
ical novels which reflected his researches in the 
Greek and the Italian past, including The Moun- 
taiy Light, a study of the emperor Heliogabalus, 
and The Comedians (De Komodianten, 1906), 
which deals with two young actors in the reign 
of Domitian. These were held back by the 
translator as unsuitable for an English version. 
Another, The Tour, of which the scene is laid 
in Egypt in the reign of Tiberius, was published 
in the United States in 1920. His other histor- 
ical romances are A bu-A bdallah the Unfortunate ; 
The Flying Chessboard; and Xerzes or Pride. 
He also wrote two mythological romances, Di- 
onysus and Heracles, which were being trans- 
lated in 1923. Meanwhile he wrote another 
story of modern life called Old People and the 
Things that Pass, issued in the United States in 
1919. In addition, he published volumes of 
travelers’ impressions, sketches, short stories, 
and a number of novels whose scenes are laid 
in the Dutch East Indies. He died at Amster- 
dam, July 16, 1923. 


COURLAND. See BALTIC PROVINCES ; 
LITHUANIA; LATVIA. 
COURTENAY, WILLIAM (1875- uttan 


American actor born at Worcester, Mass., who 
attracted notice first as a member of the late 
Richard Mansfield’s company. He played in 
various places in the United States and made 
his most notable recent successes in: Under 
Fire (1915); Pals First (1917); General Post 
(1917); The Maid of the Mountains (1918) ; 
Cappy Ricks (1919); Civilian Clothes (1920) ; 
Honors Are Even (1921). 

COURT OF INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS. 
See LABoR ARBITRATION; KANSAS. 

COURT TENNIS. See TENNIS. 

COUSE, E. Irvine (1866- ). An Ameri- 
ican: painter (see Vou. VI) whose specialty is 
the portrayal of Indian life. He recently won 
many prizes for his Indian paintings including 
a silver medal from the Panama Pacific Inter- 
mational Exposition (1915), the Altman prize 
from the National Academy of Design (1916), 
Isidor prize from the Salmagundi Club (1917), 
the Ranger Fund Purchase Prize from the Na- 
tional Academy of Design (1921), and the Lip- 
pincott prize from the Pennsylvania Academy 
of Fine Arts (1921). 

COVENEY, CHARLES CARDEN (1874— hs 
An American architect born in Boston. He re- 
ceived his professional training in an architect’s 
office and during travel in Europe. His princi- 
pal architectural achievements are the Chris- 
tian Science Church and the Burrage residence 
in Boston, the Memorial Church in Fairhaven, 
Mass., and the Messiah Home in New York. 

COWL, JANE (?- ). An American 
actress, born in Boston. She began her stage 
career as an extra girl, one of her early small 
parts being in The Music Master. She had her 
first big leading role in David Belasco’s produc- 
tion, Is Matrimony a Failure, and then she 
played stock. This was followed by The Gam- 
blers, her first great success, and by Within the 
Law, Common Clay, and other successes. She 
turned her attention to playwriting also, and 
wrote Daybreak with Jane Murfin, then Lilac 
Time and Information, Please. Her most nota- 
ble triumph has been Juliet, in Romeo and 
Juliet, which she played in 1923 and 1924. She 
began to study this rdle when she was 13, and 
her interpretation of her part was given great 
praise. During the 1923-24 season she ap- 


COWLING 340 


peared also in Pelléas and Mélisande and in 
Antony and Cleopatra. 

COWLING, Donatp Joun_~ (1880- ye 
An American university professor and college 
president, born at Trevalga, Cornwall, England. 
He was brought to America by his parents in 
1882 and was educated at Lebanon Valley Col- 
lege, Yale and Baker Universities. He received 
the honorary LL.D. degree from Knox, Williams 
and Oberlin Colleges. After teaching philoso- 
phy at Baker University, he became, in 1909, 
president of Carleton College. Dr. Cowling was 
a leader in religious education, and was trustee 
of the Congregational Foundation for Education 
and of the Chicago Theological Seminary. In 
1918, he was president of the Association of 
American Colleges and in 1919, served on the 
American Council on Education. 

COWS. See Darryina, LivE Stock, VETERI- 
NARY MEDICINE. 

COX, Harotp (1859- ). An English 
editor and economist (see Vou. VI). He was a 
member of the Bryce Commission on German 
Outrages in 1915, a member of the Committee 
on Public Retrenchment (1916), and of the Roy- 
al Commission on Decimal Currency (1919). 
He published Economic Liberty in 1920. 

COX, James M. (1870- ). An American 
politician (see Vot. VI). He was Governor of 
Ohio for the terms 1913-15, 1917-19, and 
1919-21. In 1920, he was Democratic nominee 
for President of the United States, but was de- 
feated by the Republican candidate. 

COX, Sir Percy ZAcHARIAH (1864— ). 
A British High Commissioner of Iraq (Meso- 
potamia). He was educated at Harrow and 
Sandhurst. After a few years in the British 
army he was appointed to the Indian political 
department, and acted as consul on the Somali 
Coast, at Berbera, in Arabia, and on the Per- 
sian Gulf. In 1914, he was secretary of the 
foreign department of the Government of India, 
and acting British minister to’Persia from 1919 
to 1920. His administration of Iraq as high 
commissioner (1920-23) covered the transition 
from military rule through a provisional gov- 
ernment to the time when Feisal, a son of the 
King of the Hejaz, was made king by the Brit- 
ish in 1921. He had considerable trouble with 
cabinet crises which arose because of objec- 
tions to the acceptance of the British man- 
date. 

COXE, WILLIAM Griscom (1869- NMA 
American marine engineer, born in Reading, Pa. 
He received his engineering education in Ger- 
many and for several years was with a marine 
construction company in Scotland. He acted as 
foreign representative and assistant general su- 
perintendent for the Cramp Shipbuilding Com- 
pany from 1898 to 1904, and built for them sev- 
eral large battleships for Russia and other 


countries. He was president and official in 
many shipbuilding and engineering corpora- 
tions. During the Spanish-American War he 


served as lieutenant in the United States Navy 
and from 1917 to 1920 was district manager of 
the Emergency Fleet Corporation, Delaware 
River District. He was president of the Atlan- 
tic Coast Shipbuilders’ Association from 1917 
to 1920. 

CRACKING OF 
CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC; PETROLEUM. ; 

CRAFTS, Wirtsur Fisk (1850-1922). An 
American clergyman (see Vor. VI). He was 
United States delegate to the Purity Congresses 


PETROLEUM. See 


CRANE 


in 1915, 1916, and in the same years was @ 
member of the Union National Commission to 
frame an amendment for Constitutional Prohi- 
bition. In 1917, he became a member of the 
Presbyterian Social Service Commission and of 
the United Committee of War-time Activities. 
At the time of his death he was superintendent 
of the International Reform’ Bureau at Wash- 
ington, D. C. Among his later works are: The 
Bible in School Plans in All Lands (1914); 
Bible Stories and Poems (1914); Dress Reform 
(1918); Why Dry? Briefs for Prohibition, Leo- 
cal, State, National and International (1918, 
1919); Made in Mayflower Land (1920); That 
Boy and Girl of Yours, and Other Addresses 
(1921). 

CRAIG, Austin (1872- ). An Ameri- 
can historian, born at Eddytown, N. Y., and ed- 
ucated at Cornell University, the University of 
Rochester and Pacific University, Ore. From 
1895 to 1898, he was school superintendent in 
Oregon. In the latter year, he was admitted to 
the bar and began the practice of law. In 
1904, he entered the Philippine Civil Service. 
In 1912, he became assistant professor of his- 
tory in the University of the Philippines, and 
in 1918, Rizal research professor and head of 
the department of history. His works include: 
The Story of José Rizal (1909); Los Errores 
de Retana (1910); The Lineage, Life and La- 
bors of José Rizal (1912), and The Story of the 
Philippine People (1919). He also edited the 
following: The Rizal Translations (1912-14) ; 
Pre-Spanish Philippine History, 4D. 43-1521 
(1915); The Former Philippines through For- 
eign Eyes (1915); The Beginnings of Philip- 
pine Nationalism (1916); Famous Filipinos 
(1916); Rizal’s Own Story (1919); The Fil- 


ipinos’ Part in the  Philippimes’ Past 
(1921). 
CRAIG, CHARLES FRANKLIN (1872- ). 


An American bacteriologist (see Vox. VI). Dr. 
Craig was appointed curator of the Army Med- 
ical Museum in 1918, resigning to accept in 
1920 the chair of bacteriology, parasitology and 
preventive medicine at the Army Medical 
School, Washington, D. C. He was also ap- 
pointed director of laboratories. His mono- 
graph, The Wassermann Test, was published in 
1918. 

CRAIG, Epwarp Gorpon (1872- ). An 
English actor (see VoL. VI). His recent pub- 
lications on the theatre include The Theatre 
Advancing (1921) and Scene (1923). ° 

CRAMER, Joun LUTHER (1871- ), a Ae 
American railway official, born in Burlington, 
Iowa. He was educated in the schools of that 
city and began his railway career with the Chi- 
cago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway as clerk, 
in 1883. In the years immediately following, 
he served in various capacities with the Mon- 
tana Central and other roads in the West and 
Northwest. From 1889 to 1902, he was auditor 
of the Great Northern Railway and was assist- 
ant comptroller of the Rock Island System from 
1902 to 1904. From 1904 to 1911, he was vice- 
president and comptroller of the C. H. & D. 
Railway Company, and from 1904 on served in 
various offices with the Pere Marquette Rail- 
road Company; in 1920, he became vice-presi- 
dent and treasurer of that company. 

CRANE, CHARLES RICHARD (1858— ); 
An American business man and diplomat, born 
at Chicago and educated in the public schools 
of that city. He early entered business and 


1 
? 
. 
; 
4 
. 
f 
q 
, 
q 


CRANE 


from 1894 to 1914 was vice-president or presi- 
dent of the Crane Company of Chicago. In 
1917, he was a member of the President’s Spe- 
cial Diplomatic Commission to Russia, and in 
1919 was American Commissioner on Mandates 
in Turkey. In 1920-21, he was American Min- 
ister to China. 

CRANE, FRANK (1861- ). An Ameri- 
can journalist (see Vor. VI). His recent works 
include: War and World Government. (1915) ; 
Adventures in Common Sense (1916); The 
Looking Glass (1917); Christmas and the Year 
Round (1917); Dr. Frank Crane’s Opinion of 
Astrology (edited by F. T. Allen, 1918); Light- 
ed Windows (1918); 400 Four Minute Essays 
(10 vols., 1919), and The Crane Classics (10 
vols., 1920). He also translated, with Arthur 
Crane, Bhagavadgita, or The Battle of Life— 
the Ancient Poem of India (1918). 

CRANE, WALTER RicHARD- (1870- yi 
An American mining engineer, born at Grafton, 
Mass. He was graduated in 1895 at the Uni- 
versity of Kansas, took post-graduate courses 
there in 1896 and then studied at Columbia, ob- 
taining his Ph.D. in 1901. In 1898, he became 
assistant professor of mining at Kansas and 
seven years later returned to Columbia, where 
he taught until 1908, when he accepted a call to 
the chair of mining at the Pennsylvania School 
of Mines and Metallurgy, also serving as dean. 
In 1918, he went to Washington and became 
mining engineer with the United States Bureau 
of Mines, and in 1920 he was chief engineer of 
the War Minerals Relief Commission. In 1921, 
he became superintendent of the Southern Min- 
ing Experiment Station in Birmingham, Ala. 
Dr. Crane also served on the United States Geo- 
logical Survey during 1902-05. In addition to 
many other technical papers, he is the author of 
A Treatise on Gold and Silver (1908), Index of 
Mining Engineering Literature (1909), and Ore 
Mining Methods (1910). 

CRANES, ELECTRIC. See Exectric Mo- 
TORS IN INDUSTRY. 

CRAPSEY, ALGERNON SipNEY (1847- ie 
An American author and former Protestant 
Episcopal clergyman (see Vou. VI). Included 
among his later works are: The lise of 
the Working Class (1914); The Ways of the 
Gods (1920), and The Last of the Heretics 
(1924). 

CRAVATH, PAvut Drennan (1861- yi 
An American lawyer, born at Berlin. Heights, 
Ohio. He was educated abroad and at Oberlin 
College, graduating in 1882. He graduated 
from the Law Department of Columbia Univer- 
sity in 1886, and in the same year was admitted 
to the bar. He was advisory counsel of the 
American Mission to the Inter-Allied Council 
on War Purchases and Finance, in London and 
Paris, in 1918, and was awarded the Distin- 
guished Service Medal for exceptionally merito- 
rious service during the War. He also received 
decorations from the French and Italian gov- 
ernments. He was a member of many legal and 
other societies. 

CRAVEN, FRANK (?- ). An American 
actor and dramatist who played in the United 
States until 1913, when he went to London in 
Bought and Paid For. He returned to the 
United States with his own play, Too Many 
Cooks, in which his acting established his repu- 
tation, and which he took to London in 1919. 
Other plays in which he has acted are: This 
Way Out (his own play, 1917); Going Up 


341 


CRIMINOLOGY 


(1917); The Girl from Home (1920); The First 
Year (His own play, 1920). In collaboration 
with Geo-ge V. Hobart he wrote The Little 
Stranger. He also wrote Spite Corner (1921). 

CRAWFORD, WILLIAM Henry (1855- Ne 
An American educator (see Vout. VI). He was 
appointed National War Work Council secre- 
tary of the Y. M. C. A. in 1917, and went to 
France in 1917-18. In 1920 he resigned as 
president of Allegheny College, becoming presi- 
dent emeritus. He is the author of The Ameri- 
can College (1915). 


CREDIT, Co0OpERATIVE. See COOPERATION. 


CREDIT BANKS. See AGRICULTURAL 
CREDIT. 

CREDIT UNIONS. See COoPERATION. 

CREEL, GEoRGE (1876- ). An American 


editor and author, born at Blackburn, Mo., and 
educated in the public schools. From 1899 un- 
tib 1913, he was successively editor of The 
Kansas City Independent, The Denver Post and 
The Rocky Mountain News. In 1917-19, he 
was chairman of President Wilson’s Committee 
on Public Information. His works include: 
Quatrains of Christ (1904); Children in Bond- 
age (1913); Wilson and the Issues (1916) ; 
Treland’s Fight for Freedom (1919); How We 
Advertised America (1920); The War, the 
World and Wilson (1920); Police Commission- 
er Enright Replies to His Critics (1921), and 


Uncle Henry, Anonymous (1922. Introduction 
by Irvin S. Cobb). 
CREIGHTON, James Epwin (1861- a 


An American philosopher. Both as editor of 
the Philosophical Review and as professor at 
the Sage School of Philosophy (Cornell Uni- 
versity), he continued to exercise a strong in- 
fluence in the direction of idealism. On the oc- 
casion of the twenty-fifth anniversary of his 
service to philosophy, a testimonial volume of 
essays was published by former pupils of the 
Sage School (1917). 

CREWS, LAurA Hope ( ?- ). An Ameri- 
can actress born in San Francisco, who made 
her first appearance on the stage as a child. 
She appeared later in stock and played with 
Frances Starr. Her recent characterizations, 
which have been among her best, include: Mrs. 
Deane in Peter Ibbetson (1917); Mrs. Sher- 
man Fessenden in On the Hiring-Line (“The 
Wrong Number”) (1919); The Wife in Tea for 
Three (1920); Olivia in Mr. Pim Passes By 
(LOZTYs 

CRICKET. See Sports. 

CRILE, GkEorce WASHINGTON (1864— Nic 
An American surgeon (see Vout. VI). Dr. Crile 
was very active throughout the War, and before 
the participation of the United States was at 
the head of the Lakeside Hospital Unit attached 
to the British Expeditionary Force in France. 
After the entry of the United States, he was 
again in France in the capacity of senior con- 
sultant in surgical research and was made colo- 
nel of the Medical Officers Reserve Corps. In 
1921, with others, he founded the Cleveland 
Clinie, an institution for clinical and researcl: 
activities in Cleveland. He has written the fol- 
lowing books since 1914: The Origin and Na- 
ture of the Emotions (1915); A Mechanistic 
View of War and Peace (1915); Man as an 
Adaptive Mechanism (1916); The Kinetic Drive 
(1916); A Physical Interpretation of Shock 
(1921); Surgical Shock and the Shockless Op- 
eration in collaboration with Lower (1920). 

CRIMINOLOGY. See PENoLOGY. 


CRISP 


CRISP, ArtHur (1875- ). An American 
painter. He was born at Hamilton, Ont. and 
studied with Bryson Burroughs and Frank Du- 
mond at the Art Students’ League, New York 
City. His art is essentially decorative, and 
he is best known as a mural painter. Among 
his most important murals are the decorations 
of the Belasco Theatre and the Playhouse, in 
New York City, and of the Houses of Parliament 
in Ottawa, Canada, besides many private resi- 
dences in the United States. His best known 
recent canvases are “British Recruiting on 
Boston Common,” in the Commons’ reading room 
of the House of Parliament, Ottawa, and ‘“L’En- 
core,’ Canadian National Gallery. He was 
elected Associate of the National Academy of 
Design in 1911, won the first Hallgarten prize 
at the National Academy in 1916, and the gold 
medal at the New York Architectural League in 
1923. . 


CROATIA. See Jvuco-S.AviA; SLAVONIC 
LITERATURE. 
CROCE, BENEDETTO (1866-— ). An Italian 


philosopher born at Pescasseroli, Aquila, Italy. 
Although he accomplished his mature work be- 
tween his 30th and 50th years, his reputation 
in Anglo-Saxon countries has developed very 
largely since the War. The publication of a 
biographical volume in English by Piccoli 
(1923) has corresponded to the growing inter- 
est in a philosopher who, like Bergson, is able 
to combine popular appeal and intellectual in- 
sight. His theory of esthetic as the expression 
of intuitions found literary champions in Amer- 
ica in Mr. Joel Spingarn and his group, and 
this part of his philosophy is by far the most 
widely read. At the close of the War, Signor 
Croce took an active part in Italian politics. 
He attacked the humanitarian ideals of Presi- 
dent Wilson, which he regarded as shortsighted 
and dangerous to Italian interests. He was 
made senator, and in 1920 served as minister 
for education in the cabinet of Giolitti. His 
works published since 1915 include a volume of 
New Essays on Asthetics (English translation 
1921); Pagine sparse (3 vols., 1919-20); La 
Poesia di Dante (1921; English translation, 
1922) ; La Spagna nella vita italiana durante la 


rinascenza (1917); Storia della Storiografia 
italiana (1921), and Ariosto, Shakespeare and 
Corneille (1920). See ASSTHETICS and ITALIAN 
LITERATURE. 

CROCKER, BoswortH (Mrs. LUDWIG 
LEWISOHN). (?- ). A playwright born in 
London. She was brought to the United States 


as a child and educated in America. She is best 
known for her plays, The Dog, produced by the 
Bryden Road Players (1915); The Last Straw 
(1917); Pawns of War (1918); The Baby Car- 
riage (1919); Humble Folk, a collection of one- 
act plays with a foreword by Ludwig Lewisohn 
(1923). She also wrote a novel, Don Juan’s 
Wife (1924) and contributed verse and critical 
articles on the drama to contemporary maga- 
zines. 

CROISET (Joser MARIE) ALFRED (1845- 
1923). A French philologist (see Vout. VI). 
He is the author of L’effort de la France (1916), 
Les democraties antiques (1916) and History 
of Latin and Greek and Democracy (1919). He 
has also edited Otero José Pacifico: L’ Argen- 
tine devant Vhistoire (1921). 

CROISET, MAvrice (1846- ) (see VoL. 
VI). A French philologist. He is the author 
of Les civilisations helleniques (1922) and has 


342 


CROWDER 


translated into Spanish Homer: la Odisea 
(1921) and collaborated with his brother on a 
translation of Euripides. 

CROKER, BiITHIA Mary (SHEPPARD): 
( ?-1920). An English novelist (see VoL, 
VI). She died in London on Oct. 21, 1920. 
Her works written since 1914 include: Lismoyle 
(1914); Her Own People (1914): Babes in the 
Wood (1915); Given in Marriage (1916); Jo- 
hanna (1917); Bridget (1918); The Chaperon 
(1920). ete. p 

CRONAU, RupDoLtF (1855- ). A German 
journalist and author born at Solingen. He 
has spent a great part of his time in New York. 
Among his works are: Geschichte der Solinger 
Klingenindustrie (1885); Unter dem Sternen- 
banner (1887); Das Buch der Reklame (1889) ; 
Im wilden Westen (1890); Amerika, Geschichte 
seiner Entdeckung (1890); Our Wasteful Na- 
tion (1908); Drei Jahrhunderte deutschen Le- 
bens in Amerika (1909); The British Black 
Book (1915); Our Hyphenated Citizens (1915) ; 
German Achievements in America (1916), and 
Woman Triumphant, the Story of Her Strug- 
gles for Freedom (1919). 

CROOKS, WILLIAM (1852-1921). An Eng- 
lish labor leader (see VoL. VI). In 1916, he was 
appointed Privy Councillor. He died soon after 
his retirement from Parliament in 1921. 


CROSLAND, THOMAS W (ILLIAM) 
H(opason) (1868- ). A British editor and 
author (see Vout. VI). His later works in- 


clude: The Chant of Affection (1915); The 
Showmen (1915); The Soul of a Crown Prince 
(1915), and The English Sonnets (1916). 

CROSS, (CHARLES) WHITMAN (1854- Ve 
An American geologist (see Vout. VI). In 1918, 
he was president of the Geological Society of 
America, and an officer of the National Re- 
search Council. He was also author of geolog- 
ical reports and maps published by the United 
States Geological Survey. 

CROSS, WirsuR, Lucius (1862- ja = An 
American university dean (see Vor. VI). In 
1916, he became dean of the Graduate School of 
Yale University, and in 1921, professor of Eng- 
lish, resigning from a similar position in the 
Sheffield Scientific School. He is the author 
of A History of Henry Fielding (1918), and 
editor of the following: Sterne’s Political Ro- 
mance (1914); Lounsbury’s Life and Times of 
Tennyson (1915), and Shakespeare’s Love’s La- 
bor’s Lost (Yale Shakespeare, 1918). 

CROTHERS, RAcHEL ( ?- ). An Ameri- 
can playwright born at Bloomington, IIl., who 
directs the production of her own plays. The 
quality of her work is good and her plays are 
exceptionally well known in the United States. 
They include: The Three of Us; The Coming 
of Mrs. Patrick; Myself Bettina; A Man’s 
World; Young Wisdom; Ourselves; The Heart 
of Paddy Whack; Old Lady 31; Once Upon a 
Time; Mother Carey’s Chickens; A Little Jour- 
ney; 39 East; He and She; Nice People; Every- 
day; Expressing Willie. 

CROWDER, Enocn HERBERT (1859- ) 
An American army officer. He was educated at 


the United States Military Academy, and at the 


University of Missouri Law School, and became 
major in the United States Judge Advocate’s 
office in 1895. He was in the Philippines from 
1898 to 1901, and with the Japanese army in 
Manchuria in 1904-05. In 1899-1902, he was 
Judge Advocate General of the Army of Cuban 
Occupation; he drafted the legal code for the 


CROWELL 


new republic and also helped.to frame its con- 
stitution and to direct its financial policies and 
legislation. General Crowder is best known for 
his remarkable record as Provost Marshal Gen- 
eral during the War in administering the selec- 
tive service act which he himself had drafted. 
Under this law, about 24,000,000 men altogether 
had been registered and classified within 18 
months after America had entered the war, two 
million of whom were in France, and almost 
as many more ready to go. In 1923, the rank 
of the United States’ representative in Cuba 
was raised to that of ambassador, and General 
Crowder was the first to serve in that capacity. 
See CUBA. 

CROWELL, BENEpIcT (1869- ). A min- 
ing engineer, born in Cleveland, Ohio, who en- 
tered War Service in 1916 and was a member 
of the Kernan board of the War Department to 
report on munitions of war and arsenals. In 
1917 he was appointed Assistant Secretary of 
War and in the next year was made director of 
munitions. Among his recent books are The 
Iron Ores of Lake Superior and How America 
Went to War, in collaboration with Capt. Rob- 
ert T. Wilson. 

CROWTHER, Samvuet (1880- ). An 
American author, born at Philadelphia. He 
was educated at the University of Pennsylvania 
and subsequently engaged in newspaper work. 
He toured Europe in 1918-19 and collected his 
impressions in several volumes. His most im- 
portant work was Henry Ford (with Henry 
Ford, 1922), an excellent analysis of the mental 
processes of a large industrialist. 

CROZIER, WILLIAM (1855- ). A United 
States artillery officer (see Vout. VI). He was 
chief of ordnance from the beginning of the 
War until December, 1917; member of the War 
Council, and commander of the Northeastern 
Department in 1918. 

CRUISER. See VESSEL, NAVAL. 

CRUISER, ARMORED. See 
NAVAL. 

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE. See PHYSICS. 

CUBA. An island republic of the West 
Indies with an area of, 44,215 square miles and 
a population according to the census of Novem- 
ber, 1919, of 2,889,004. This was a gain of 840,- 
024 over the last census year, 1907, or an an- 
nual average increase of 3.4 per cent. The 
white population increased, with a proportion 
to the total population in 1907 and 1919 respec- 
tively of 69.7 and 74.3 per cent. Males contin- 
ued in excess of females, the proportions for 
the two years were 52.5 and 53 per cent. To- 
ward the end of the decade 1914-24, immigra- 
tion, largely from Spain, but also from Haiti 
and Jamaica, increased enormously. In 1911, 
it amounted to 38,053; 1919, 80,485; 1920, 340,- 
241; 1921-22, 128,177. Immigration was of a 
transitory character, a large proportion of the 
immigrants returning to their native countries 
at the end of the sugar crop season. Popula- 
tions of the large towns in 1907 and 1919 were: 
Havana, the capital, 295,157 and 363,506; 
Cienfuegos, 30,100 and 95,865; Camagiiey, 29,- 
616 and 98,193; Santiago de Cuba, 45,470 and 
70,232; Matanzas, 36,009 and 62,638. The of- 
ficial estimate of population for Dee. 31, 1922, 
was given as 3,123,040, of whom a little over 
70 per cent were whites. The progress of edu- 
cation was slow during the period 1911-22, for 
though registration almost doubled over the 11 
years, attendance remained about the same. In 


VESSEL, 


343 


CUBA 


1911, average attendance was 105,774; in 1921- 
22, 183,672. In the latter year there were 3337 
school houses open, served by 6075 teachers. 

Industry. Sugar cultivation continued the 
leading activity and the source of the country’s 
well-being. The crop consistently increased aft- 
er 1913, For that year the crop was 2,443,986 
long tons. The crop reached the very large to- 
tal of 4,104,205 long tons in 1919 but dropped to 
3,758,347 long tons in 1920. 1921 again showed 
an upward turn; 3,974,116 long tons were pro- 
duced in that year. The 1922 crop reached al- 
most 4,000,000 tons, while that of 1923, falling 
below previous estimates, showed a total pro- 
duction slightly in excess of 3,600,000 tons. 
Estimates for the 1924 crop made it at least 
equal to that of 1923. In 1912, 92 per cent of 
the whole crop went to the United States at a 
price between $.02 and $.03. The 1917-18 crop 
at $.046 and the 1918-19 crop at $.055 went 
mostly to the United States, but the failure of 
the Americans to buy the 1919-20 crop, to- 
gether with the world shortage, sent the price 
crazily upward, so that by mid-year, 1920, it 
reached $.235. The market then broke, and by 
the end of the year, sugar dropped below $.04. 
During 1921 the fall was continuous; the price 
reached $.02 or less, and Cuban growers carried 
over a heavy surplus into 1922. Conditions be- 
gan to improve with that year as the price once 
more ascended. The purchase of sugar by the 
United States reflects the state of affairs. In 
1913-14 the United States bought 4,926,606,000 
pounds for $98,394,782; in 1921, 5,180,145,- 
000 pounds for $194,156,615; in 1922, 9,054,- 
289,838 pounds for $227,257,590; and in 1923, 
6,852,685,625 pounds for $331,925,712. Tobacco 
was the crop of next greatest economic importance. 
In 1913 over 27,500,000 pounds (value $16,- 
164,795) were exported to the United States; 
in 1922, 22,600,000 pounds (value $19,898,- 
309). The 1923-24 tobacco crop was expected 
to be the largest in the history of Cuba. 
Other agricultural products were coffee, ca- 
cao, and tropical vegetables and fruits for the 
American winter markets; the economic value 
of these groups remained slight. Cattle raising 
Was receiving increasing attention with the re- 
sult that herds increased from 2,829,553 heads 
in 1912 to 4,771,394 in 1922. Horses similarly 
increased in number. Mineral areas were con- 
siderable; 1921, 407,000 acres of iron, 248,000 
of copper, 102,300 of oil, and 42,000 of man- 
ganese. Exports to the United States dropped 
off, for interest in mining was not great. In 
1913-14, 1,289,000 tons of iron ore were ex- 
ported to the United States; in 1922, 381,746 
tons. 

Commerce. Imports in 1912 totaled $120,- 
229,317 and exports $146,787,295; for 1918-19 
they reached $316,000,000 and $477,000,000, and 
in 1919-20, the very high point of $435,000,000 
and $862,000,000; for 1920-21 they dropped to 
$356,435,000 and $278,000,000, and for 1921-22 
to $180,259,000 and $323,911,000. By 1923, im- 
ports once more ascended to $226,118,000 for 
the fiscal year. The United States remained 
the most important factor in Cuba’s foreign 
trade, the proportions for exports and imports 
ranging between 70 and 80 per cent of the 
whole. In 1913-14 the American imports from 
Cuba totaled $132,303,795; for 1920, $721,693,- 
880; for 1922, $267,840,867, and for 1923, $376,- 
442,581. American exports to Cuba amounted 
to $68,884,428 in 1913-14; for 1920, $515,208,- 


731; for 1922, $127,873,202; and for 1923, $192,- 
437,893. The importance of this trade may be 
gauged by the fact that in 1920, American im- 
ports and exports from and to Cuba almost 
equaled the whole United States trade with 
South America. For 1922-23 the American 
trade with Cuba was equal to 75 per cent of the 
whole South American trade. Other countries 
participating in Cuban trade during the period 
1913-24 were Great Britain, Spain, and France. 
Imports, in order of importance, were food- 
stuffs, textiles, metals and metal goods, machin- 
ery, drugs, and wood. Cuba ranked fourth 
among countries exporting to the United States 


and seventh among importers of American 
goods. 
Finance. For 1912-13 estimated revenues 


were $37,940,000, and expenditures $33,974,147 ; 
for 1922-23, $55,638,800 and $54,852,302; for 
1923-24 (estimates), $68,500,000 and $67,779,- 
438, and for 1924-25 (estimates), $76,719,000 
an $66,400,282. The national debt in 1911 was 
$62,083,100, with the debt service, in 1911, $2.,- 
464,585. In July, 1922, the public debt was 
$91,542,400 and in July, 1923, $173,000,000, 
funded and floating. In January, 1923, a loan 
of $50,000,000 was floated in the United States. 
The result was that the budget for 1923-24 car- 
ried the large figure of $12,248,000 for the debt 
service. By the law of November, 1914, a Cu- 
ban coinage was established, with a gold peso 
equal to the American dollar. American coin- 
age remained legal tender, Cuban currency in 
circulation in January, 1921, was $23,787,250 
gold, $8,413,140 silver, and $1,449,560 nickel. 
It was estimated that there was also in circula- 
tion in 1923 $2,000,000 in United States gold 
coin and more than $100,000,000 in United 
States paper notes. In an effort to hasten the 
stabilization of financial conditions, the United 
States Federal Reserve Board granted the ap- 
plications of the Boston and Atlanta Federal 
Reserve Banks to establish agencies in Cuba in 
June, 1923. At the same time, as a result of 
the recommendations of the former governor of 
the Federal Reserve Board, W. P. G. Harding, 
who had served as financial adviser to Cuba in 
1922, a Cuban national commission reported in 
favor of the creation of a Cuban Reserve Bank 
with powers to accept deposits, rediscount com- 
mercial paper, and issue paper currency. 
Economic Conditions. In 1920 - financial 
affairs reached so chaotic a condition that a 
national moratorium was declared on October 
10 for 50 days and was then extended several 
times, until Jan. 31, 1921. This was precipi- 
tated by the break in the sugar market and the 
fact that banks had lent as much as $.15 and 
$.16 on sugar stored in warehouses by specu- 
lators who were waiting for a rise in price. 
Eighteen of the Cuban banks went into the 
hands of a liquidation commission. Rejected 
merchandise, amounting to an estimated in- 
voice value of from $60,000,000 to $100,000,000, 
accumulated in bonded warehouses, with the re- 
sult that American exporters were particularly 
hard hit. It was not until 1922 that conditions 
began to show improvement. By 1922 seven 
banks had already been liquidated; settlements 
made through the Havana Clearing House be- 
gan to increase; and interest rates decreased. 
On Jan. 4, 1921, in the interest of the United 
States, General Crowder went to Cuba as ad- 
viser. The end of 1923 saw conditions in gen- 
eral in Cuba distinctly favorable. Sugar prices 


CUBA 

were firm, and crop prospects were fairly good, 
with estimates ranging from 3,500,000 to 3,700,- 
000 tons. It was expected that the 1923-24 to- 
bacco. crop would be the largest in the’ history 
of Cuba, with prices continuing at a high level. 
Government income exceeded expenses consist- 
ently during the early months of 1924, and im- 
ports and exports were much higher than in 
1923. Sales in many lines were better than for 
the corresponding months in 1922, and business 
in general was in a satisfactory condition. 

Communications. In 1922 there were 3020 
miles of railway as compared with 2200 in 
1913. The largest developments of the period 
1913-23 centred in the construction of motor 
roads, so that by November, 1922, there were 
1500 miles of these fit for travel. An air serv- 
ice was started in 1920 between Havana and 
Key West, Fla. In 1922 steam vessels with an 
aggregate of 5,498,850 net tons entered Cuban 
ports in the foreign trade. An enactment whose 
Implications seriously affected the conduct of 
the sugar trade was the Tarafa bill, signed Oct. 
9, 1923. It provided for the formation of a 
holding company under which all Cuban rail- 
ways were to be consolidated. American sugar 
interests attacked it because it aimed at closing 
many of the small ports used in the sugar 
trade. The result was that on the request of 
the United States State Department certain 
monopolistic provisions were eliminated. 

History. The country continued peaceful, 
and as a result of the large sugar crops, be- 
came increasingly prosperous. With the ap- 
proach of the presidential elections, partisan 
feeling accounted for many disorders. The elec- 
tion of 1916 was closely contested, with the re- 
sult that because of irregularities charged by 
the Liberals, a revolt broke out under ex-Presi- 
dent Gomez on Feb. 9, 1917. By March the gov- 
ernment had the uprising well in hand, being 
aided, materially, by the presence of American 
forces in the province of Oriente and, morally, 
by the condemnation of the rebels by Secretary 
of State Lansing. In May, 1917, the Cubaz 
Congress announced the reélection of President 
Menocal over his Liberal opponent, Alfredo 
Zayas. On Apr. 7, 1917, both houses of Con- 
gress unanimously passed a measure declaring 
war on Germany, and financial measures to put 
the country on a war footing were drawn up. 
A war loan of $13,000,000 was raised, and ex- 
traordinary taxes were placed on sugar and on 
the profits of mining and insurance companies. 
In 1918 a draft act was passed and the office 
of an alien property custodian created. In 
1919, as a result of the aid of General Crowder, 
a new electoral law provided for obligatory vot- 
ing and the public counting of ballots. In 
1920, the year of the presidential election, sen- 
timent was again at a high pitch. The office 
was contested by Dr. Alfredo Zayas, running 
on a coalition Conservative-Liberal ticket, and 
his old leader Gen. José Miguel Gomez. Zay- 
as’s supporters had united with the Conserva- 
tives because of their fear. of Gomez’s strength. 
Zayas was declared elected, but the unwilling- 
ness of the Gomez partisans to accept the re- 
sult again threatened a national crisis. This, 
and the moratorium, led President Wilson to 
send General Crowder once more to Cuba. 
New elections were held in four provinces on 
Mar. 15, 1921, with the result that Zayas’s elec- 
tion was confirmed and he was inaugurated on 
May 20. General Crowder’s continued stay on 


United States, in 


—, = 


CUBISM 345 


the island occasioned criticism, and so did the 
presence of American marines at Camagiiey. 
General Crowder’s presence stimulated the pas- 
sage of a series of noteworthy administrative 
reforms which included a new civil service law, 
improvement of the accounts system, means for 
facilitating the removal of judges, and the con- 
traction of a large foreign loan. General Crow- 
der returned to the United States in October, 
1922. In January of the same year, the Amer- 


ican marines had been removed from the island. 


The loan of $50,000,000 was approved by the 
accordance with the Platt 
Amendment, and was floated in January, 1928. 
This measure, together with the political re- 
forms mentioned, aided materially in bringing 
the country back to its former commercial pros- 
perity, so that by 1923 the financial depression 
of 1920-21 was being rapidly obviated. Gen- 
eral Crowder was nominated as the first Amer- 
ican Ambassador to Cuba on Feb. 9, 1923, and 
proceeded at once to his post. Dr. Cosme de la 


-Torriente was appointed Cuban Ambassador to 


the United States on Sept. 1, 1923. Two days 
later he was elected President of League of Na- 
tions Assembly at Geneva. The continued par- 
ticipation by the United States in Cuban af- 
fairs was protested, and the Cuban Congress 
by a joint resolution in July, 1923, declared 
that “outside interference with their civil af- 
fairs” might prejudice Cuba against the United 
States. As a result Ambassador Crowder was 
summoned to Washington to confer with the 
State Department. A new force in Cuban do- 
mestic. affairs emerged in August, 1923, with 


‘the formation of the Veterans’ and Patriots’ 


Association. It immediately began to conduct 
a campaign against public graft, the Tarafa 


‘bill (see above, Communications), the national 


lottery, the disabilities of women, and for the 
paying of soldiers’ back pensions. It was so 
powerful that its programme was at _ once 
adopted by one of the candidates for presiden- 
tial honors. In 1924, this propaganda almost 
succeeded in precipitating a national crisis. 
President Zayas moved against the Association 
with alacrity; its leader, General Garcia-Vélez, 
was dismissed from the diplomatie service and 
compelled to quit the country; Hl Sol, the As- 
sociation’s organ, was suppressed on March 26. 
Garcia-Vélez took refuge in New York and con- 
tinued to direct activities, and sentiment in 
Cuba became feverish. An armed revolt broke 
out on April 29, in Central Cuba; to this the 
government replied by seizing the leaders of the 
Veterans’ and Patriots’ Association. Fighting 
went on for two weeks, principally in the prov- 
inces of Santa Clara and Oriente, but the back 
of the rebellion was broken when President Zay- 
as succeeded in inducing the United States War 
Department to sell the Cuban government large 
stores of arms and ammunition. Materials to 
the value of $208,000 were purchased in this 
way by May 10. A general amnesty was 
granted May 17. Hostile elements insisted 
that the incident had been enormously magni- 
fied, for the most part by Zayas himself who 
sought to strengthen his popularity in Cuba, 
and that the Veterans’ and Patriots’ Associa- 
tion, instead of being discredited, remained a 
great force in internal affairs. At any rate, 
in the summer of 1924, it was seen that Zayas’s 
position was unstable. 
CUBISM. See PAINTING. 


CULBERTSON, WituiAm SmiruH (1884- __s=—»~n 


CUMMINS 


An American lawyer and tariff expert, born at 
Greensburg, Pa. He graduated from the College 


of Emporia, Kan., in 1907, and from Yale 
University in 1908. After taking special 
courses in German _ universities, he became 


examiner of the United States Tariff Board 
in 1910, serving until 1912. From 1917, he 
was a member of the United States Tariff 
Commission. He was reappointed for a term 
of 12 years from 1921, by President Harding. 
From 1922, he was vice-chairman of the board 
of the commission. During the War he was 
engaged in Y. M. C. A. service in France, and 
in services for the government at the Peace Con- 
ference in Paris. He is the author of Ale«an- 
der Hamilton, an Essay (1911) and Commer- 
cial Policy in War Time and After (1919). 

CULLEN, THOMAS STEPHEN (1868- ). 
An American gynecologist, born at Bridgewa- 
ter, Ont. He was educated at the Toronto :Col- 
legiate Institute and the University of Toronto. 
He became associated with the Johns. Hopkins 
Hospital College and was made a professor of 
clinical gynecology at the latter and visiting 
gynecologist to the hospital. He has written, 
alone, and in collaboration, four important 
monographs: Oancer of the Uterus (1900); 
Adenomyoma of the Uterus (1908); Myomata 
of the Uterus (1909); Diseases of the Umbili- 
cus (1916). 

CULTURE, History oF. 

CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM WILSON 
(1890- ). An American economist, born at 
La Verne, Cal., and educated at Occidental Col- 
lege, Los Angeles, and at Columbia and Prince- 
ton universities. In 1916, he became a mem- 
ber of the faculty of the University of Minneso- 
ta. In 1918-19, he was economic or financial 
expert on several United States government 


See ETHNOLOGY. 


‘boards and commissions in France and Armenia. 


In 1919-20, he was financial expert with the 
United States High Commission in Turkey, and 
the following year was attached to the Depart- 
ment of State as expert on foreign trade. In 
1921, he was appointed Administrator of Cus- 
toms of the Republic of Peru. He published 
Codperative Marketing (1918). 

CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN 
CHURCH. This denomination originated in 
Tennessee in 1810 as an outgrowth of the re- 
vival of 1800 in Kentucky and Tennessee and 
in protest against some of the doctrines taught 
by Calvinists of that day. The membership in 
1923, according to figures supplied by the or- 
ganization, was 65,000, as compared with a 
membership of 72,052 by the Federal census of 
1916, and the number of ministers in 1923 was 
about 800, as compared with 728 in 1916. In 
the latter year there were reported 12 synods 
and 70 presbyteries. As a result of the merger 
movement of 1906, when about half the denom- 
ination joined with the Presbyterian Church 
in the United States of America, the Cumber- 
land branch in 1914 was practically without 
property and without any educational endow- 
ment; in 1924 it owned a good educational 
plant at McKenzie, Tenn., with buildings and 
equipment valued between $150,000 and $200,- 
000; $500,000 in endowment; a faculty of 20 
persons, and a publishing plant having $65,000 
assets above liabilities. 

CUMMINS, Apert BaArirp = (1850- ie 
An American senator (see Von. VI). He was 
reélected United States senator for the terms 
1915-21 and 1921-27. He was joint author 


CUMONT 346 


with Representative Esch of the act which re- 
turned the railroads to private ownership aft- 
er the War. 

CUMONT, FRANZ VALERY MARIn 
(1868- ). A Belgian writer on Oriental 
Religions (see Vor. VI). Besides being a cor- 
responding member of learned bodies in vari- 
ous countries, he is author of Etudes syriennes 
(1916), 
(1922); 

CUNNINGHAM, LEon (?- ). A play- 
wright, whose best known recent play was Hos- 
pitality, produced at the Forty-eighth Street 
Theatre (New York) in 1922. He also wrote 
The Draldo Bloom (1919) and The Wondership 
(1919), one-act plays of considerable beauty. 

CUNO, Cari JoSEPH WILHELM (1846- ). 
A German chancellor, and director-general of 
the Hamburg-American Steamship Line. He 
was born at Suhl, Thuringia, Germany, in 
1846, and educated at Berlin, Heidelberg, and 
Breslau. He became connected with the de- 
partment of the treasury in 1906, and in 1912 
was made privy councilor. During the War he 
was director of the grain and food organiza- 
tion, and upon the death of Albert Ballin be- 
came the head of the Hamburg-American Steam- 
ship Line. He represented Germany at Brus- 
sels and Versailles, and became chancellor in 
November, 1922. He was much criticized be- 
cause of his policy of passive resistance to the 
French occupation of the Ruhr, and also for the 
‘fall of the mark. He resigned on Aug. 12, 
1923, the immediate cause being the loss of 
Socialist backing in the Reichstag. Upon a 
number of occasions, Dr. Cuno was urged to 
accept the post of German Ambassador to the 
United States. 

CUREL, FRANcoIS, VICOMTE DE (1854— ie: 
A French dramatist (see Vout, VI). He re- 
cently wrote L’Ame en Folie, La Comédie du 
Génie, and L’lvresse du Sage. 

CURLEY, Micnart Josepn (1879- ‘. 
An American bishop, born at Golden Island, 
Athlone, Ireland, and educated in the Royal 
University of Ireland and at the College of the 
Propaganda Fide in Rome. He was ordained 
to the Roman Catholic priesthood in 1904, and 
for the 10 ensuing years was a missionary in 
Florida. In 1914, he was made Bishop of 
Saint Augustine and in 1921 Archbishop of 
Baltimore. 

CURRELLEY, Cuartes Trick (1876- i: 
A Canadian clergyman, director of the Royal 
Ontario Museum of Archeology (see VoL. VI). 
In 1919, he returned from his eiglit-year col- 
lecting trip in Egypt and Europe. 

CURTIS, CHARLES (1860- ). An Ameri- 
can senator (see VoL. VI). He was reélected 
to the United States Senate for the terms 1915- 
21 and 1921-27. 

CURTISS, GLtenn HaAmmonpd (1878- ‘ 
An American aviator (see VoL, VI). In 1914, 
he designed and constructed for Rodman Wana- 
maker the America, which was the first heavi- 
er-than-air flying boat made for transatlantic 
passage. In 1917, in conjunction with J. N. 
Willys, he increased the output of his factories 
to meet the war demands of England, Russia 
and the United States. He developed all types 
of aircraft, especially the Wasp, the holder of 
world records for speed and altitude, and, with 
the United States navy, the Navy-Curtiss fly- 
ing boats 1, 2, 3, and 4. 


CURTISS, Ratpu. Hamitton (1880- ‘ys 


and After-life in Roman Paganism 


CURZON 


An American astronomer, born at Darby, Conn. 
He was graduated in 1901 at the University of 
California, where in 1904 he received his Ph.D. 
After serving as an assistant in astronomy at 
California during 1900-01 he was a fellow dur- 
ing 1901-05 at the Lick Observatory, and was 
a member of the Lick Eclipse Expedition 
(1901) to Sumatra. In 1905, he became as- 
sistant astronomer at Allegheny Observatory 
and two years later, assistant professor of 
astrophysics at Michigan, where in 1918 he be- 
came full professor, also serving as assistant 
director of the Detroit Observatory. His re- 
searches have had to do chiefly with the spec- 
troscopy of the heavenly bodies, photography of 
comet forms, spectrography of variable stars, 
and of stars with peculiar spectra in Class B, 
on all of which he has published papers. 
CURWOOD, James OLIver (1878- ye 
An American author, born at Owosso, Mich. 
From 1900 to 1907, he was engaged in news- 
paper work, but in the latter year resigned 
from these activities to devote himself exclu- 
sively to novel-writing. His romances enjoyed 
a wide popularity and sold by the hundreds of 
thousands annually. They were usually vivid 


tales of the Canadian Northlands, depicting ~ 


conventional emotions and conflicts, but written 
with an earnestness that often gave them the 
aspect of reality. The better known included: 
Flower of the North (1912); God’s Country 
and the Woman (1915); Nomads of the North 
(1919); The Valley of Silent Men (1920); The 
Country Beyond (1922). 

CURZON LINE. See ViLNa. 

CURZON OF KEDLESTON, Georce Na- 
THANIEL CURZON, FIRST MARQUIS OF (1859- +). 
An English statesman (see VoL. VI). In 1915, 
he became a member of the Asquith Coalition Cab- 
inet and as such played a prominent roéle in the 
conduct of the War. Under the Lloyd George 
government of 1916, he advanced to even higher 
honors. He became government leader of the 
House of Lords, President of the Council, and 
one of the four members of the inner War Cab- 
inet in whose charge rested the details of all 
military and civilian operations. With the 
passing of Arthur Balfour in 1919 he took con- 
trol of the Foreign Office. He continued at the 
head of foreign affairs through the Lloyd 
George, Bonar Law, and Baldwin ministries, 
though in the first he was largely overshad- 
owed by the operations of his superior. In the 
Bonar Law and Baldwin governments, he was 
given a free hand, and Europe and America 
again witnessed the characteristic and possibly 
unfortunate boldness that had distinguished 
his Indian career. For a time he almost 
seemed on the verge of succeeding with the 
eighteenth century diplomatic methods which 
he conspicuously adopted. It was declared of 
him that he treated Trotsky and Mastapha Kem- 
al as though they were Tallyrands. Malicious 
critics said that the dukedom, which he so ar- 
dently desired, was within his grasp. But he 
really failed. France and England continued 
to draw farther and farther apart; British pol- 
icy in Turkey, Mesopotamia, and Egypt, was 
characterized by a series of blunders; Russia 
continued estranged. When the Baldwin gov- 
ernment went out in January, 1924, Curzon’s 
name was not mentioned for a dukedom in the 
King’s honor list. In 1924, Curzon practically 
put the capstone on his political career: he an- 
nounced the preparation of his memoirs. In 


a. a2 


i a 


CUSHING 


1916 he married, as his second wife, Grace 
Elvina, daughter of J. Monroe Hinds, American 
minister to Brazil, and widow of Alfred Dug- 
gan, an Argentine millionaire. In 1923, he 
published Tales of Travel. 

CUSHING, Harvey (WirrtAMs) (1869- _). 
An American surgeon (see Vor. VI). During 
the War, Dr. Cushing was director of United 
States Base Hospital No. 5. His monograph, 
Tumors of the Nervus Acusticus, was published 
in 1917. 

CUTHELL, Cuester WeELpE (1884- }re 
An American lawyer, born in New York City. 
After graduating from Columbia University 
Law School, he began the practice of law in 
New York City, and also in Washington. In 
1918-19, he acted as general counsel of the 
United States Shipping Board Emergency Fleet 
Corporation, and effected collections of claims 
of the War Department against England, France 
and Italy. For his services, he was awarded 
the Distinguished Service Medal and decora- 
tions from the governments of France and 
Italy. 

CYCLING. See Sports. 

CYCLONES. See METEOROLOGY. 

CYPRUS. An island of the Mediterranean 
and a British Crown colony; area, 3584 square 
miles; population in 1911, 274,108; in 1922, 
317,000. The population was 80 per cent Greek 
and almost 20 per cent Turkish. The leading 
activity remained agriculture in the decade 
1914-24. Chief exports in 1921 (1911 figure 
in parentheses) were animals, £89,000 (£94,- 
932); carobs, £305,000 (£182,883) ; wine, £82,- 
000 (£53,685); raisins, £42,000 (£29,636) ; 
fruits, £43,000 (£21,585); silk cocoons, £11,- 
000 (£27,587). Imports were foodstuffs, coal, 
petroleum, cotton piece goods, manufactured ar- 
ticles, and machinery. The trade record over 
the period showed that the imports for 1913, 
1920, and 1922, exclusive of bullion, were £619,- 
337, £2,068,759, and £1,411,697; exports for the 
same years, £620,591, £1,200,449, and 871,211. 
The form of government showed no change. 
Revenues for 1913-14 were £341,816; for 1922, 
£668,294. Expenditures for 1913-14 were £296,- 
165; for 1922, £719,752. The imperial annual 
grant was £50,000; the public debt, 1921-22, 
£215,000. British occupation of Cyprus, since 
1878, became outright possession when the Brit- 
ish government declared the island formally 
annexed on Noy. 5, 1914. The later discredited 
Treaty of Sevres (1920) with Turkey confirmed 
the action, and so did the Franco-British agree- 
ment of Dec. 23, 1920. The status of the island 
was given international attention during 1919- 


23, when its disposition was ironically linked 


with that of Rhodes by the Italian government. 
A treaty between Greece and Italy in 1919 pro- 
vided for the holding of a plebiscite in Rhodes 
on the question of cession to Greece, only and 
when Great Britain would hold a similar pleb- 
iscite in Cyprus. The stratagem succeeded in 
keeping the whole question of the Dodecanese 
(q.v.) and the other Mediterranean islands open 
until 1923, when the Treaty of Lausanne rec- 
ognized Great Britain’s right in Cyprus and 
Italy’s in Rhodes. 

CYRENAICA. See LipyA. 

CYTOLOGY. See Zoo.oey. 

CZECHO-SLOVAKIA. One of the newly 
created states of Europe, formed out of all or 
parts of the old Austro-Hungarian governments 
of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Slovakia, and 


347 


CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 


Ruthenia, on Oct. 28, 1918. The frontiers, de- 
limited by the Treaties of Versailles, St. Ger- 
main, and the Trianon, and the Ambassadors’ 
Conference of July 28, 1920, affecting the 
Teschen district, had an area of 54,877 square 
miles, and a population, by the census of Feb. 
15, 1921, of 13,611,349. The provinces, with 
their areas and populations, are Bohemia, 20,- 
106 square miles, population, 6,670,578; Mo- 
ravia, 8615 square miles, population, 2,662.845; 
Silesia, 1767 square miles, population, 671,611; 
Slovakia, 18,933 square miles, population, 3,- 
000,701; Ruthenia, 4903 square miles, popula- 
tion, 604,670. The principal towns, with their 
populations in 1921, are Prague, 676,476; 
Brunn, 221,422; Pilsen, 88,447; Pressburg, 93,- 
329; Kosice, 52,699. Ethnologically, the great 
majority of the people are Czecho-Slovaks (8,- 
760,957) ; the ratio between Czechs and Slovaks 
is about three to one. Of the other races, the 
Germans include 3,123,000, the Magyars, 747,- 
000, the Ruthenians, 461,000, the Jews 180,000, 
the Poles, 75,000. From 1910 to 1921, the 
Czecho-Slovaks increased 9 per cent, and the 
Ruthenians 6, while the Germans declined 17 
per cent and the Magyars 30. By religions, 
the population was divided into Roman Catho- 
lics, 10,384,860; Protestants, 992,083; Greek 
Catholics, 532,608, and Jews, 353,925. Compul- 
sory education was provided for with particu- 
lar care in Slovakia and Ruthenia, where the 
stern policy of Magyarization systematically 
carried out by the Hungarian government had 
kept the mass of the population ignorant of 
their native tongue. In 1921, there were 13,417 
elementary schools, of which 64 per cent were 
Czecho-Slovak, 25 per cent German, 3 per cent 
Ruthenian, and 6 per cent Magyar. There were 
also 1411 advanced schools, 388 gymnasia and 
normal schools, 267 technical schools, 4 poly- 
technics, and 4 universities. These last were in 
Prague (one Czech and one German), Brunn 
(Czech), and Pressburg (Slovak), the last two 
founded in 1918. By the Treaties, racial mi- 
norities were guaranteed protection in their ra- 
cial and religious rights. In districts where a 
minority constituted 20 per cent of the popula- 
tion, full rights were accorded for the use of 
the native tongue in schools and before judicial 
and administrative bodies. See Sravonio Lit- 
ERATURE. 

Agriculture. Because industry in the East 
was primarily agricultural, the largest single 
group of workers was busied on the land; this 
was about 40 per cent of the total population. 
Methods of production were intensive; aided by 
a strong government interest, they yielded good 
profit. The total area of agricultural land was 
35,688,750 acres, of which the arable comprised 
16,059,938 acres, meadows 6,423,975, and for- 
ests 11,778,288; only 1,427,550 were nonpro- 
ductive. The following table indicates the area 
and yields of principal crops in 1921. 


Crops Area Yield in 

metric tons 
"Wheat oo ecm ertdteree ss cee Soe el DOO 1,152,756 
Ry Gipiperesthede tans Uheas ain le vce sietel's 2,103,642 1,361,939 
Barley aa tie it Bucirckctete: sj00/eveiey ete 1,615,441 15033, 574 
OdtS) .ceckesteeetiretiara. os uid «0, o As 1,965,769 1,075,387 
POTATOES “eames Meee ee boc te were 1,575,791 4,329,166 
Sugar “Beetsiia seus £2... .iéik i 546,200 4,071,655 


Live stock (1920) included eattle, 4,351,794; 
horses, 587,639; pigs, 2,045,780; sheep, 982,- 
258; goats, 1,213,833. These numbers were 


CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 348 


considerably less than those antedating the 
War. The sugar beet industry, which ranked 
second in the world, engaged 172 factories and 
refineries in 1921, and these produced 722,955 
metric tons of sugar. 457,039 tons were ex- 
ported in 1921 and 318,179 tons in 1922. Sim- 
ilarly, the hop industry supported 700 brewer- 
ies which turned out from 7,000,000 to 15,000,- 
000 hectoliters annually. The centre of hop cul- 
ture was in the Saaz, the breweries in Pilsen. 
The export of grain, flour, flour products, and 
malt, in 1921, was 36,103 tons; by 1922, it had 
increased to 227,157 tons. Land reform, al- 
ways a crying need in the provinces because of 
the preponderance of great entailed estates us- 
ually owned by foreign families or by German 
or Magyar overlords, became at once the con- 
cern of the new government. By an act of 1919 
the National Assembly ordered the expropria- 
tion of all estates of more than 475 acres if 
cultivated and of 350 acres if uncultivated. 
By January, 1922, 9,746,076 acres had been 
seized. In Bohemia, farms of 7% acres or less 
totaled only 23.5 per cent of the whole area; 
all the rest consisted of large estates. In Mo- 
ravia, small farms had totaled 29.6 per cent, 
and in Silesia, 25.2 per cent. The progressive 
character of the agricultural class was indi- 
cated by the presence of some 10,000 agricul- 
tural codperatives with a membership of 1,000,- 
000. 

Minerals and Industries. Coal and iron 
were the principal minerals. Coal production, 
including lignite, in 1921 totaled 32,699,112 
metric tons; in 1922, 28,848,281 tons. While 
coal did not suffice for native wants, the yield 
of lignite was more than sufficient. In the 
Ostrava-Karvin basin, 70 per cent of the total 
coal production was mined; in the Most-Teplice 
basin, 77 per cent of the total lignite was ex- 
tracted. Principally at Roudny, 983,960 tons 
of iron were mined. Other mines yielded gold, 
lead, copper, rock-salt, and graphite. The total 
number of workers in mining in 1919 reached 
130,000. The petroleum region, extending along 
the Carpathians and marking the continuation 
of the Galician fields, produced about 7000 tons 
annually. With these resources, the metallur- 
gical industry was able to support 27 furnaces, 
10 of them in Bohemia, the most important at 
Witkowitz and Kladno, with an annual capaci- 
ty of 1,500,000 tons. In 1920, 709,890 tons of 
pig iron were turned out; in 1921, 543,100 tons. 
Steel production reached 917,662 tons in 1921. 
There were well known mineral springs at 
Karlsbad, Marienbad, Franzensbad, Teplitz, and 
the Chalybeate springs of Giesshiibel and Bilin. 
Other plants, numbering some 8830 and em- 
ploying 848,600 workers in 1919, concerned 
themselves with the manufacture of textiles, 
glass and precious stones, food articles, furni- 
ture, machines, metals, paper, and chemicals. 
The important centres were, for textiles, Reich- 
enberg, Trautenau, and Briinn; china, Karls- 


bad; glass, Gablonz and Haida; chemicals, 
Aussig. 
Commerce. Imports in 1921 reached a value 


of 22,435,000,000 crowns; in 1922, 12,695,000,- 
000 crowns; and in 1923 they were 10,129,000,- 
000 crowns. Exports for 1921 and 1922 were 
27,312,000,000 crowns and 18,086,000,000, de- 
clining to 12,518,000,000 in 1923. The princi- 
pal exports were glass, finished textiles, fuei, 
and sugar; the imports were raw textiles, food- 
stuffs, and iron. The greatest volume of im- 


CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 


ports came from Germany, which, in 1922, sent 
44 per cent of the total. Others participating 
were the United States, 7.1 per cent, and Aus- 
tria, 6.8 per cent. Proportions of exports, in 
weight, by countries of destination in 1922 were 
Germany, 42 per cent; Austria, 31 per cent; 
Hungary, 9 per cent. Imports from the United 
States for 1922 (six months) were valued at 
1,305,932,000 crowns, and exports at 609,025,- 
000 crowns. Again, exports to the United 
States amounted to $16,606,242 in 1922, com- 
pared with $8,318,596 in 1921. Throughout 
1922 and 1923, the export of manufactured 
goods showed marked decline; this was due 
largely to the appreciation of the crown and 
to labor troubles, and also to the number of 
commercial treaties effected by which England, 
France, and the United States received favored- 
nation treatment. 

Communications. On Jan. 1, 1922, there 
were 8717 miles of railway in the state, of 
which 5305 miles were government owned. In 
July, 1923, the government acquired the Bust- 
chrad railway, the last privately owned line 
of importance. From 1920 on, the government 
applied itself to the projection of a system of 
lines connecting east and west. The  pro- 
gramme called for the construction of 15 new 
lines, 558 kilometers in length, of which 389 
kilometers were to be in Slovakia, and the rest, 
of lines connecting Slovakia with the west. 
The plan included the building of a railway 
through the centre of Slovakia, leading from 
Veseli on the Moravia River to Marmarosska 
Sihot. There were 265 miles of navigable wa- 
terways on the Elbe and Danube Rivers. The 
former connected the country with Hamburg 
and the North Sea, and the latter with the 
Balkans. Pressburg was the chief port on the 
Danube and its terminal developments were be- 
ing rapidly pushed. By the Treaties, Czecho- 
Slovakia was given the right to use certain 
wharfs in the ports of Hamburg and Stettin. 
The country had 73,600 miles of telegraph line 
and 138,482 of telephone line in 1921. 

Finance. In 1922, the debts of the state 
were internal state loans, 6,807,550,300 crowns; 
from regulation of the currency, 8,262,702,035 
crowns; foreign loans, 8,740,275,998 crowns; 
total, 23,870,528,333 crowns; debts imposed on 
the republic, 16,250,000,000 crowns, comprising 
6,500,000,000 crowns of pre-war debt and 9,750,- 
000,000 crowns for reparations; the grand to- 
tal of debt was 40,120,528,333 crowns, or 
$968,950,000 at average exchange for 1922 
($.024151). In the budget for 1923 receipts 
were estimated at 18,812,390,860 crowns ($587,- 
887,000, at $.03125) and expenditures at 19,- 
377,880,639 crowns ($605,559,000). Revenues 
came from direct taxation, indirect taxation, 
government monopolies, and state enterprises. 
On- the service of the debt, the 1923 budget car- 
ried 2,790,225,194 crowns. In December, 1919, 
6,621,000,000 crowns were in circulation, against 
a metallic reserve of 86,000,000 crowns; in De- 
cember, 1922, notes in circulation were 10,064,- 
000,000, against a reserve of 818,000,000, while 
in April, 1924, notes in circulation totaled 7,- 
654,000,000 crowns, the lowest figure since 1919. 
The total reserves at the beginning of 1924 
were 3,464,000,000 crowns. 

Economic Conditions. The country was 
steadily marching to a greater stability, pre- 
senting the only pleasant relief in a Central 
Kurope otherwise characterized by hopeless in- 


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a ee ee ee ee 


as 


_ 


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SS ee ee ee ee 


Oe ee — 


ee ee eS ee Cl ee ee 


OEE 


CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 


fiation, disorganized economic life, and wide- 
spread unemployment. Whereas the crown in 
1918 was worth about $.01, it had gone up to 
$.015 in January, 1922, and by January, 1923, 
it had reached $.03125. Retail prices fell, too. 
Based on the index number 100 for 1914, neces- 
sities, ie. foodstuffs, fuel, and clothing, were at 
2488 in January, 1921; at 1760 in January, 
1922; at 1029 in December, 1922; and at 972 
in May, 1923. On tke other hand, wages 
ranged between 9 and 121% times the pre-war 
rate. From 1919 to 1921 unemployment regu- 
larly dropped, falling from 260,000 to 100,000. 
However, the industrial crisis of the ensuing 
year raised the total of men out of work to 
490,000, so that by February, 1923, 200,000 
men were receiving unemployment doles. The 
reaction was due to the setback which indus- 
tries supplying foreign markets received with 
the appreciation of the currency. <A recovery 
was manifesting itself in 1923 as foreign buy- 
ers once more returned to Czecho-Slovakia be- 
cause of the high cost of living in Austria and 
disturbed conditions in Germany. In the field 
of social legislation the government’s attitude 
was enlightened. Within the years 1918-24, 
legislative provision was made for accident and 
sickness insurance codes, maternity insurance, 
a limited form of old age pensions, an eight 
hour day, prohibition of night work for women 
and children in industry, housing legislation, 
an equal legal status for women, and a limited 
form of workers’ councils in mines and facto- 
ries. Trade-union members numbered about 1,- 
400,500 workmen in 1920; the largest groups 
were the Czecho-Slovak Federation of Trade 
Unions, with 822,520 members, and the Bo- 
hemian Labor Committee, with 352,608. La- 
bor troubles were not wanting, with so large a 
proportion of the population organized. In 
1918, 139 strikes involved 343,752 workers; in 
1920, 1491 strikes brought out 1,675,321 work- 
ers. In December, 1921, occurred a_ general 
strike which lasted three days and involved 
162,100 men. 

History. That Czechs, whose dreams of na- 
tional independence had been kept alive since 
their defeat at the battle of the White Moun- 
tain in 1620, should look on the outbreak of 
the War with misgivings and should render its 
prosecution only a lukewarm support was to be 
expected. Their leaders had openly identified 
themselves with Pan-Slavism; victory for the 
Central Powers would mean submergence of 
their racial aspirations. But that resentment 
should be so violent as to take the form of 
wholesale desertions had. presumably never oc- 
curred to the Austrian bureaucracy. It is esti- 
mated that voluntary surrenders of Czechs to 
Serbs numbered 35,000 in 1914 alone; 300,000 
surrendered to Russians and 30,000 to Italians 
during the war period. Retaliatory measures 
were therefore extreme. Czech civilians in- 
terned numbered 25,000; 5000 were sentenced to 
death by courts martial; attempts were made 
to force submission by the imprisonment of the 
womenfolk of absent Czech patriots; papers 
were suppressed, the Slav societies dissolved, 
and German installed as the official language in 
Bohemia. Magyar activities in Slovakia were 
even harsher. Driven underground, Slovak re- 
sistance took the form of a secret society, the 
Mafia, which kept up a steady stream of com- 
munications with leaders abroad, maintained a 
secret intelligence, and practiced successfully 


349 


CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 


an economic and military sabotage. The out- 
side world was apprised of the struggles of the 
people for independence by the Czecho-Slovak 
National Committee at Paris, and the work of 
the outstanding national leaders, the Czecho 
Masaryk and BeneS, and the Slovak Stefanik. 
Firstfruits of their labors appeared when the 
liberation of the Czecho-Slovaks was included in 
the statement of the Allies’ war-aims on Jan. 10, 
1917; the next development was Czech spokes- 
men’s audacious championing of their causes of 
historic rights and national self-determination 
in the first Austrian Parliament called since 
1914, on May 30, 1917. On Jan. 6, 1918, at 
Prague, a convention of all the leaders of the 
Czecho-Slovak world met and openly made de- 
mands for a sovereign state and the liberation 
of Slovaks from Magyar exploitation. Other 
such congresses, at Prague, April 13; at Rome, 
April 8-10, and again at Prague, May 16, made 
it plain to the Allies that the subject races of 
the Dual Monarchy were one in demanding lib- 
eration. Other evidence of the wholehearted- 
ness with which Czecho-Slovaks were ready to 
give proof of their support of the Allies’ pur- 
poses was furnished by their equipping troops 
for the Allies’ armies. The most important 
Czech unit was the corps formed of Czech pris- 
oners in Russia after the revolution. This 
took part in the fighting on the eastern front 
in July, 1917, and then, after the collapse of 
the Russian army, undertook an astounding 
and almost mythical journey through the heart 
of Siberia in 1918 to join the troops on the 
western front. In the west, in December, 
1917, a Czecho-Slovak unit was recognized; on 
the Italian front, the same steps were taken. 
Beginning with the summer of 1918 one after 
another of the Allies recognized Czecho-Slovak- 
ia as of their number and the National Com- 
mittee as its de facto government; the United 
States did so on Sept. 3, 1918. On October 7, 
the Dual Monarchy formally accepted President 
Wilson’s statements as a basis for negotiation; 
on October 14, BeneS announced the establish- 
ment of a Czecho-Slovak government, and its 
principles were promulgated on October 18; on 
the same day President Wilson declared to Aus- 
tria-Hungary that no negotiations could be un- 
dertaken without the recognition of Czecho-Slo- 
vakia’s and Jugo-Slavia’s independence; on Oc- 
tober 17, Andrassy accepted for the Dual Mon- 
archy and in so doing dealt Austria-Hungary 
its deathblow. Czecho-Slovakia was now a Eu- 
ropean state. Its first national assembly met 
at Prague, Nov. 14, 1918, welcomed the Slovak 
delegates, elected Masaryk first president by 
acclamation, and set up a cabinet with Dr. 
Kramar as premier and Dr. BeneS as foreign 
minister. Also, Dr. Kramar and Dr. Benes 
were delegated to represent the country at the 
Peace Conference. The conflicting claims of 
self-determination and historic rights have al- 
ready been alluded to: in these centred the 
leading difficulty before the Peace Commission- 
ers with respect to Czecho-Slovakia. The old 
Czech kingdom had included the whole of the 
provinces of Bohemia, Moravia, and Austrian 
Silesia; within these there were now 3,500,000 
Germans, constituting 37 per cent of Bohemia’s 
population, 28 per cent of Moravia’s, and 44 
per cent of Silesia’s. It was therefore with 
some hesitation that the Supreme Council de- 
cided to yield to the demand for historic jus- 
tice, instead of racial, and created a state em- 


CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 350 


bracing so great a number of a minority and 
antagonistic people. Ample grounds were to be 
found for the decision; the Czechs had after all 
come to the country first, while the Germans 
had been colonized there; the boundaries had 
to be kept intact for strategic reasons; eco- 
nomic considerations, such as the convergence 
of the rivers toward the centre of the country, 
and German Bohemia’s being an industrial cen- 
tre and thus serving to complement the agri- 
cultural districts of the rest of the country, 
favored the move. In the case of Slovakia, his- 
toric rights were ignored in favor of Czecho- 
Slovak claims, and the Danube was accepted as 
the southern frontier in spite of large Magyar 
minorities on the left bank. In Ruthenia, of 
572,028 inhabitants 319,361 were Ruthenes, 
169,434 Magyars, 62,187 Germans, and only 
4057 Slovaks, and the request of certain dele- 
gates of Ruthenians resident in the United 
States for union with Czecho-Slovakia was far 
from convincing; but as the Allies wished to 
establish direct territorial contact between 
Czecho-Slovakia and Rumania, and above all to 
prevent the future union of so strategically im- 
portant a region as Carpathian Ruthenia with 
Russia or Ukrainia, ethnic ties were violated, 
and the area was assigned to Czecho-Slovakia, 
with treaty stipulations for autonomy, a sep- 
arate diet, and the retention of the Ruthene 
language. Only in the Teschen (q.v.), Zips, 
and Orava areas, in the north, was the boun- 
dary left undetermined; the Treaty provided 
for plebiscites there. The Czecho-Slovak com- 
missioners also effected the internationaliza- 
tion of the Elbe, the use of free zones in the 
ports of Hamburg and Stettin, and the recon- 
stitution of the European Commission of the 
Danube. 

The National Assembly continued to sit un- 
til the framing and adoption of the new con- 
stitution, Feb. 29, 1920. This document, which 
showed largely the American and French in- 
fluence, provided for a president, a parliament 
of two houses, and a judiciary somewhat on 
the American plan. The president was to be 
elected for seven years by both houses in joint 
session, was to represent the republic in its in- 
ternational relations, to head the army, and to 
have the power to summon, prorogue, and dis- 
solve Parliament. He did not have the right 
of veto. Both chambers were to be elected 
by universal manhood and womanhood suf- 
frage, on the basis of proportional representa- 
tion. The Chamber of Deputies was to have 
300 members; the Senate, 150. Declarations of 
war and amendments to the constitution might 
be passed only by a three-fifths vote of all the 
members of both houses. Finance and army 
bills were to originate in the lower house. 
Cabinet ministers, 15 in number, were to be 
appointed by the president and to be responsi- 
ble to the Parliament. During the intervals 
between sessions, a permanent parliamentary 
commission was to exercise the legislative pow- 
er. A constitutional tribunal was to pass on 
the constitutionality of laws; there were to be 
special benches in the case of litigation in min- 
ing matters; and industrial courts were pro- 
vided for labor disputes. In the elections of 
April, 1920, parties returned were as follows 
(first figure for Chamber, second for Senate) : 
Social Democrats (Centre Socialists), 74 and 
41, from whom 22 deputies and 5 senators 
broke away to form a Communist wing; Na- 


CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 


tional Socialists (Right Socialists), 24 and 
10; the Popular party (Catholics from Mo- 
ravia and Slovakia), 33 and 18; Czecho-Slovak 
Agrarians, 28 and 14; Slovak Agrarians, 12 
and 6; National Democrats (Liberals), 19 and 
10; German Social Democrats, 31 and 16; Ger- 
man Electoral Union, 15 and 8; German Agra- 
rians, 11 and 6; German Christian Socialists, 
10 and 4; Magyar parties, 10. The vote, by 
nationalities, was 4,203,480 Czecho-Slovaks, 1,- 
576,692 Germans, 274,630 Magyars. V. Tusar 
(Social Democrat) succeeded Kramaf (Nation- 
al Democrat) and formed a ministry on July 
8, 1919; on Sept. 15, 1920, Tusar was followed 
by Jan Cerny (National Democrat) as a result 
of the split in the Socialist party; BeneS (In- 
dependent) succeeded on Sept. 26, 1921; on Oct. 
8, 1922, he was followed by A. Svehla (Agra- 
rian). In all these cabinets, the portfolio of 
foreign affairs was held by Dr. Benes. The 
cabinets included representatives of all the 
Czecho-Slovak parties except the extreme left. 
The problems confronting the leaders of the 
young state were indeed grave. To begin with, 
food and clothing were scarce, the cost of living 
high, the coal shortage serious, the rate of ex- 
change unfavorable, and the transportation sys- 
tem, because of the studied plan of Aus- 
tria-Hungary, hopelessly inadequate. The first 
budget showed a marked deficit and conditions 
of life were far from normal. But the econom- 
ic snare slowly disentangled itself so that from 
1922 on Czecho-Slovakia presented the pleasant 
spectacle of a country at work, with high 
wages, and an appreciating currency. The 
well-being of the workers and Agrarian labor- 
ers was zealously provided for in elaborate 
codes of social legislation. Cultural problems 
were perhaps more complex and less easy of 
solution. The subject of the racial minorities 
cut deeply. In the first place, Czechs and Slo- 
vaks were not brothers, as their common name 
might imply, but rather distant cousins, and 
the superior attitude of the Czechs did not en- 
hance Czecho-Slovak solidarity. During 1919- 
24, dissatisfaction was evident; Slovaks com- 
plained of espionage and censorship and of the 
de-industrializing of their country; even the 
Magyar overlordship was deemed more desira- 
ble by many. By 1924 it was plain that an 
autonomist movement had made considerable 
headway. Too, the Germans, the most cul- 
tivated and industrialized of the races residing 
in the country, were treated harshly; attempts 
were made to Slavonize them; their officials 
were removed; communes were split up to elim- 
inate the preponderance of the minority race; 
Germans, and Magyars too, were hard hit by 
the land expropriation in favor of the Slavonic 
small farmer. As for Ruthenia, not until 
March, 1924, were elections held in the prov- 
ince for the selection of National Assembly rep- 
resentatives. Dissatisfaction was grounded on 
cultural neglect. Nothing revealed the com- 
plex character of the Ruthenian problem bet- 
ter than the fact that 13 parties contested for 
the eight seats. Another cause for internal dis- 
sension lay in the marked regional differences. 
In Bohemia and Moravia the standard of edu- 
cation was high and there were few illiterates; 
but in Slovakia, as a result of relentless Mag- 
yarization, literacy was low, primary schools 
were few, and up to 1918, there were no seconda- 
ry schools; and in Ruthenia, as a result of the 
same policy, the illiterate population included 


i 


CZECHO-SLOVAKTIA 


75 per cent of the total. In religious circles, 
another discordant element manifested itself. 
In 1920, as a result of the “Away from Rome” 
movement, which contended for such changes 
in Roman Catholic practice as abolition of celi- 
bacy, the use of the vernacular in church sery- 
ices, and a more democratic church administra- 
tion, all of which the Pope naturally refused 
to countenance, dissatisfied bodies founded the 
Czecho-Slovak Church. By the 1921 census, 
120 churches and 525,313 communicants were 
recorded. The political significance of the act 
lay in the fact that the Church was being sup- 
ported by the Czechs, while the Slovaks, who 
were the most pious Catholic peasantry of Eu- 
rope, regarded it with hostility. 

The foreign policy of Czecho-Slovakia was 
perforce bold, in view of the new nation’s situa- 
tion as a landlocked state almost surrounded by 
a cordon of hostile neighbors. In its interna- 
tional relations it was guided by two ‘princi- 
ples, the maintenance of friendly relations with 
the Entente and with France first and then 
with Italy, and the creation of a group of con- 
ventions with the succession states of Austria- 
Hungary for the preservation of the status quo. 
With the aid of France the military establish- 
ment was perfected; in 1921 a military accord 
between the two powers was formed; on Jan. 
25, 1924, after lengthy pourparlers between 
Poinearé and Masaryk and Benes, a political al- 
liance with important implications was signed. 
This included a pledge on the part of both 
nations to maintain the peace treaties and to 
prevent a Habsburg restoration; promises of 
mutual support, but without definite military 
commitments; the upholding of the League of 
Nations; arbitration in the case of disputes, 
and a new commercial convention. Though 
BeneS succeeded in convincing Great Britain 
that the intent of the treaty was pacific, by 
Germany and Italy the whole was regarded 
with suspicion, while Austrian and Hungarian 
comments were plainly querulous. Again, the 
creation of the Little Entente in Central Eu- 


351 


CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 


rope was largely the work of Bene’. By a 
series of bilateral conventions formed in 1920 
and 1921, Czecho-Slovakia, Jugo-Slavia, and 
Rumania united to preserve the peace in Cen- 
tral Europe, to further the maintenance of 
normal economic relations, and to block con- 
sistently all attempts at reaction, in Hungary 
and Austria particularly. (For the character 
of the alliance and its achievements, see LITTLE 
ENTENTE.) A political convention of a similar 
nature was signed with Poland in 1921. Thus, 
Czecho-Slovakia regarded with suspicion all at- 
tempts at a Habsburg restoration in Hungary; 
it objected, too, to the proposed union of Aus- 
tria and Germany, or a Danubian confedera- 
tion. In the field of commercial relations, 
treaties and trade agreements were concluded 
with almost all the country’s European neigh- 
bors and with the United States on the basis 
of the most-favored-nation clause. In Russian 
political affairs, Benes steadfastly refused to in- 
tervene, but in 1921 unofficial missions were ex- 
changed between Russia and Czecho-Slovakia, 
and on June 5, 1922, a commercial agreement 
similar to the Anglo-Russian arrangement was 
concluded, opening the vast but disorganized 
Russian market to Czech enterprise. In Sep- 
tember, 1923, Czecho-Slovakia was elected as 
one of the smaller nations to be represented 
in the League of Nations Council. In May, 
1924, another important link in Czecho-Slovak 
international relations was forged when a treaty 
of amity was signed between Bene’ and Masaryk 
for Czecho-Slovakia and Mussolini for Italy. 
It pledged both countries to the observance of 
the Peace Treaties and both promised to em- 
ploy their good offices in the event of a dispute 
between either signatory and a third power and 
even to consider acting in concert in the case 
of war with a third power. This action, like 
so many others, during 1923-24, seemed to mark 
a new orientation in Central European polities, 
with Italy as the centre of the system rather 
than France. See also TESCHEN, ZIPS, AND 
ORAVA QUESTIONS; SLAVONIC LITERATURE. 


D 


’ABERNON, EpearR_ VINCENT. 
See ABERNON, EpGAR VINCENT D’. 

DAEGER, ALBERT THOMAS 

(1872— ). An American bish- 


op, born at New Vernon, Ind., and 

educated at Saint Francis College, 
Cincinnati, and in several houses of the Friars 
Minor. He was ordained to the Roman Catho- 
lic priesthood in 1896, and from that time until 
1919 was connected with various churches in 
Missouri, Nebraska and New Mexico. In 1919, he 
was consecrated Archbishop of Sante Fé, N. M. 

DAFOE, Joun W. (1866— ). A Canadian 
journalist (see Vor. VI). In 1919, he was the 
representative of the Canadian Department of 
Public Information at the Paris Peace Con- 
ference. 

DAHLGREN, ULRICc (1870- phew kn 
American zodlogist born in Brooklyn, N. Y. 
He was educated at Princeton University, and 
was instructor in biology (1895-99), assistant 
professor (1899-1911), and professor of biology 
(1911- ) at Princeton. In 1921 he was di- 
rector of the Harpswell Marine Laboratory. 
Professor Dahlgren published (with Kepner) 
Principles of Animal Histology (1908), Pro- 
duction of Light by Orgamsms (1915), and va- 
rious shorter papers mostly on electric and 
luminous organs of fishes. 

DAHOMEY. A French colony on the west 
coast of Africa between Togoland and British 
Nigeria, forming part of the Government Gen- 
eral of French West Africa. Its area is 42,- 
460 square miles, and its population in 192] 
was 842,243 of whom 538 were Europeans. The 
capital and chief business centre was Porto 
Novo, with an estimated population of 20,000. 
Other cities are Abomey, 12,372; Whydah, 13,- 
000; and Kotonu, 2456. Palm kernels and 
palm oil remained the products of greatest eco- 
nomic value. Cotton cultivation was success- 


fully introduced in the central provinces, 
1914-24. Imports in 1921 were 39,255,747 
francs and exports 36,637,787 francs. In com- 


paring these with the 1911 imports of 19,524,- 
531 francs and exports of 21,958,301 francs, ac- 
count should be taken of the fall in value of the 
French frane during the period 1914-21. In 
1921, 248 vessels of 680,740 tons entered the 
country’s ports. Germany’s share of the palm 
kernel trade was largely absorbed by Great 
Britain after the War. In 1922 the local budg- 
et balanced at 8,960,000 francs. The natives 
remained orderly during the War, and many 
served in the carrier contingents doing duty in 
Europe and the Cameroon. 

DAIL EIREANN. See IRELAND. 

DAINGERFIELD, Evuiorr (1859- Ds 
An American painter (see VoL. VI), head of 
Permanent Art School, Blowing Rock, N. C. 
His work, as exemplified in “An Arcadian 
Huntress,” is pervaded with poetic meaning. 
Among his later pictures, “The City That Never 
Was” and “Tower of Silence” were imaginative 
impressions of the Grand Canyon. In 1914, he 
published Ralph Albert Blakelock. 


DAIRYING. The decade 1914-24 was 
marked by advancement in dairying. The pub- 
lic was better educated to a more complete 
realization of the food value of dairy products, 
and consumption was consequently stimulated. 
The producers and dealers came to exercise 
greater sanitary precautions in the production 
of milk and in the manufacture of its products. 
Pasteurization became almost universal in the 
milk supplies of the larger cities, the ordi- 
nances, of many of the cities allowing no raw 
milk to be sold. This condition tended to re- 
duce the spread of contagious diseases liable 
to be transmitted in milk. The manufactured 
dairy products became better known and more 
fully appreciated by increased advertising and 
by marketing products of more uniform quality 
and in a more attractive way. A wider use of 
brand names to denote slight differences in the 
products was also employed. Cheese and ice 
cream consumption was tremendously increased 
in this way. It has been suggested that pro- 
hibition also played a part in the increased use 
of ice cream and milk drinks. United States 
Department of Agriculture estimates of the per 
capita consumption of dairy products expressed 
in terms of whole milk were in 1919, 831 
pounds, rising to 950 pounds in 1922, with esti- 
mates of a still greater consumption during 
1923. 

The development of codperative and other or- 
ganizations of milk producers during this peri- 
od brought more independence in transactions 
with milk dealers and the receipt of better 
prices for milk. The first real stand of the 
dairymen against the dealers occurred in Octo- 
ber, 1916, when the Dairymen’s League of New 
York State declared a strike pending the ad- 
justment of milk prices for the ensuing six 
months’ period. The dairymen were essential- 
ly victorious after a spirited contest, and since 
that time many codperative organizations have 
grown rapidly and now control large businesses, 
some of them going so far as to buy milk plants 
and to manufacture various types of dairy prod- 
ucts. Along with the development of codpera- 
tive marketing associations, producers have al- 
so progressed profitably in the development of 
cow testing associations, bull associations, etc. 
Such progress made it possible to distinguish 
the profitable from the unprofitable cow and 
has served to demonstrate the importance of 
high producers. The bull associations have 
made it possible for owners of small herds to 
obtain the use of better bulls at a reasonable 
cost. Pure-bred sire campaigns and advanced 
registry testing in the different breeds of pure- 
bred dairy cattle also showed much progress. 
The increases in the cost of labor and feeds oc- 
curring during the War made it absolutely 
necessary to produce milk as efficiently as pos- 
sible, and also furnished a legitimate excuse 
for increased milk prices. A decrease of from 
30 to 50 per cent in feed prices during 1920, 
however, without any great reductions in milk 
prices, left the milk producer in a better posi- 


352 


DAIRYING 353 


tion than he had enjoyed for many years. 
Much interest was evidenced not only by the 
dairy industry but by the publie in general in 
the World’s Dairy Congress, which was held in 
the United States in October, 1923, and attended 
by 231 representatives from 43 foreign coun- 
tries and 1590 delegates from 47 of the States. 
Two hundred and fifty-six papers were listed on 
the programme dealing with national health, 
regulation and control, research and education, 
and industry and economics. This congress, 
held in conjunction with the National Dairy 
Exposition, was a great success. 

International Trade. A very significant 
change occurred in the world’s market for dairy 
products. The Danes had before the war de- 
veloped their system of butter production to 
supply the winter market of the United King- 
dom, but a vast development of dairying in the 
Southern Hemisphere tended to furnish an am- 
ple or oversupply of butter to this market in 
the winter, and as a result of the War a short- 
age occurred in the summer, due to the cutting 
off of the supplies from Russia, the second larg- 
est exporter of butter before the War, and a 
great reduction in those from France and other 
European countries. Offsetting Russia in a 
sense, however, was Germany, which before the 
War imported over 100,000,000 pounds of but- 
ter annually and which since the War used but- 
ter substitutes extensively and imported only 
negligible quantities of butter. During the 
first nine months of 1923, 56 per cent of the 
butter and 59 per cent of the cheese imported 
by the United Kingdom, the largest importer of 
dairy products in the world, were from the 
Southern Hemisphere, as compared with 21 per 
cent of the butter and 40 per cent of the cheese 
in 1914. The greater part of the increased dai- 
rying in the Southern Hemisphere appeared in 
New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, and South 
Africa. The British butter market was prom- 
ising for those countries of Northern Europe 
with dairy resources, such as Finland, Es- 
thonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. The British 
cheese market was not so much disturbed as 
the butter, since the cheese imports from New 
Zealand and Canada were complementary as 
to seasons of production and approximately 
equal in amount. 

The foreign trade of the United States under- 
went very marked changes, due to an unusual- 
ly large demand for dairy products by the bel- 
ligerent countries of Europe, where many dairy 
cattle were slaughtered or not fed for maximum 
production. The summer butter shortage in 
the British markets also caused some flurry in 
American markets. It was problematical as to 
whether it would be more advantageous to ship 
fresh butter to the British market or hold it in 
storage for the home winter market despite the 
depreciation of quality from keeping. Very lit- 
tle American butter was shipped, however. The 
table below, giving the annual exports and im- 
ports of butter, cheese, and canned milk of the 
United States during 1913-23, shows how vari- 
able the international trade in these products 
was. A marked reduction in the foreign de- 
mand for canned milk due to the initial recov- 
ery in Europe in 1920 threatened a serious sit- 
uation, but many of the condensing and evapo- 
rating plants turned to making butter and 
cheese when the first signs of flooding the 
markets were evident. 

It is of interest to note the influence of the 


DAIRYING 


amounts of dairy products exported from the 
United States to the United Kingdom on the 
total exports of the United States as given in 


IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS 
OF THE UNITED STATES 


IMPORTS 

Condensed, 

evaporated, 
Year Butter Cheese and 

powdered 

milk and 

cream 
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 
LGD Sik oe aia Takats 3,426,437 55,589,582 a 
LOT Ae eet: 7,200,669 55,477,044 @ 
LOL aS aa Ae: 1,544,158 38,919,345 @ 
1.91 Gist assent trees te 676,082. 28,515,766 2 
a Sy ees hee EAs 1,307,750 6,332,562 a 
LOTS ee 1,655,467 7,562,044 10,904,998 
LOL OBIE. os. 9,519,368 11,332,204 16,509,239 
1920 sees che 87,454,172 15,999,725 23,755,780 
TO? eee ie oer is 18,558,388 26,866.404 8,667,626 
DP de ace nr 6,957,159 46,573,099 5,293,631 
19238 oe sak 23,741,247 64,419,788 10,398,001 
EXPORTS 

Hig? Sf ea Sonate 3 ‘dene rs on Co lO My ai 2,654,315 16,473,782 
LO PANES ae 3,687,657 3,797,450 22,831,904 
VOLS: A es t7,940;875 9:63,22:7,375 75,691,206 
LOY Ge see Bier 26,561,302 54,092,585 219,686,127 
EO VM iw ou tea Case (in es alte 8 i Bay fa lala ey Oy ae: DAs taa yy yee 
LUDESA SR RR es 2 26,194,415 48,404,672 551,139,754 
LDLO Ys, becsrsdett. a2 84,556,485 14,159,721 852,865,414 
OD Ou at ie, a cases 17,48-7,735,1416,291;529  .414/950,021 
RO Dy eet sore op ate SO Lao iemik Valen | 200 te TOS 
1922 BS 229239! 10,937,519 5,006,574 193,686,904 
1923 eee Ba ee. D, 04D 514 8,331,321 196,701,738 


*Quantity not given in Commerce reports of the 
United States. 


the table. The changes in the amounts of but- 
ter sent to the United Kingdom as compared 
with the preceding years were, in round num- 
bers, for the years showing the greater fluctua- 
tions: in 1917, decrease of 17,000,000; 1918, 
increase of 20,000,000; 1920, decrease of 18,- 
000,000; 1921, decrease of 3,750,000; 1922, in- 
crease of 3,500,000; and 1923, decrease of 3,- 
250,000. The large reduction in the total ex- 
ports of cheese of 34,000,000 pounds in 1919 
was accompanied by a reduction of 38,000,000 
pounds in the amount exported to the United 
Kingdom. Likewise the fluctuations in the ex- 
ports to Great Britain played a large part in 
the total fluctuations in the exports of canned 
milk. In 1916 the United Kingdom took 106,- 
000,000 pounds of condensed, evaporated, and 
powdered milk from the United States, but in 
1919, the year of the largest exports of canned 
milk, the United Kingdom received 421,000,000 
pounds, but in 1920 the exports to the United 
Kingdom dropped to 124,500,000 pounds and 
have not since reached 74,000,000 pounds in one 
year. Exports to Belgium and France also 
reached a high total in 1919 of 176,000,000 
pounds, which dropped to 77,000,000 in 1920 
and 28,000,000 in 1921. Exports of canned milk 
to Germany reached a high mark in 1921 of 
nearly 61,000,000 pounds, which dropped to 
about 31,500,000 in 1922 and 1923. Cuba’s con- 
sumption of canned milk was relatively large, 
being over 30,000,000 pounds annually from 
1916 to 1921 and 19,000,000 and 28,000,000 
pounds, respectively, in 1922 and 1923. 

The table shows that the War acted as a 
great stimulus to the production and export of 
all dairy products from the United States, more 
especially canned milk and cheese. Previous to 
the War the United States was importing over 


DAIRYING 354 


55,000,000 pounds of cheese annually, whereas 
in 1917 only a little over 6,000,000 pounds were 
imported. American exports of cheese were like- 
wise affected. Previous to the War less than 
4,000,000 pounds was exported annually, but in 
1915, 1916, and 1917 over 50,000,000 pounds 
were exported annually. The temporary char- 
acter of this change in the exports, especially 
of cheese, is shown by the fact that the amount 
returned to 5,000,000 pounds in 1922 and a 
little over 8,000,000 in 1923, and at the same 
time the imports were 46,500,000 and 64,500,- 
000 pounds respectively. The imports of cheese, 
which before the War came largely from Italy 
and Switzerland, were almost entirely cut off 
during the War. Argentina sent a large part 
of the cheese imported; from this source came 
nearly 10,000,000 pounds in 1920. The export 
of a little less than 200,000,000 pounds of 
canned milk during 1922 and 1923 indicated 
that this market also had again reached some- 
what of a stable condition. 

Research. The progress of research in dairy- 
ing had gratifying results. As the importance 
of vitamines was better understood, the need of 
including them in the rations of dairy animals 
became apparent. The vitamines content of 
dairy products was forcibly brought out in 1918 
by studies at Yale University and at the Uni- 
versity of Wisconsin. Work on the importance 
of minerals in the rations of dairy cattle was 
intensively carried on by E. B. Forbes at the 
Ohio Experiment Station, E. B. Hart at the 
Wisconsin Experiment Station, and E. B. Meigs 
of the United States Department of Agriculture. 
These investigations tended to show the dif- 
ficulties of keeping cows producing large 
amounts of milk in a positive calcium balance, 
even When plenty of calcium was supplied in 
the ration. The significance of the legumes, 
more especially alfalfa, as an aid to the main- 
tenance of a positive calcium balance was first 
suggested from the Wisconsin Station and was 
later corroborated by other investigators. The 
proper curing of the alfalfa used is essential to 
prevent the partial or entire destruction of the 
substance which aids calcium assimilation. In- 
vestigations in the manufacture of dairy prod- 
ucts progressed along bacteriological lines. The 
isolation in the United States Department of 
Agriculture of organisms necessary for the pro- 
duction of different types of fancy cheese which 
it was thought necessary to import previous to 
the War, and a study of the temperature 
and humidity requirements for ripening such 
cheeses, have made it possible to produce cheese 
in this country closely resembling many im- 
ported types. The influence of different strains 
of bacteria in butter making has been extensive- 
ly studied at the Iowa Experiment Station, and 
some success has accompanied attempts to sep- 
arate strains of organisms which are morpho- 
logically and characteristically very similar and 
which have been found to operate in the pro- 
duction of varied flavors. 

The Illinois Experiment Station conducted a 
series of studies dealing with the thoroughness 
of different methods of sterilizing utensils and 
tests of the numbers of bacteria added to 
the milk through improperly cleaned utensils. 
Other investigations from the Illinois Station 
have tended to demonstrate the relative influ- 
ence of different operations and methods of per- 
forming them on the bacteria added to the milk 
during milking and the handling of the product. 


DALMATIA 


The New York State Experiment Station at 
Geneva has revealed interesting effects of milk- 
ing machines on the bacterial count of milk, and 
has made an extensive study of different meth- 


ods of sterilizing and cleaning parts of these 


machines. 

Bibliography. Recent important reference 
books published in the decade 1914-24 are: 
C. H. Eckles, Dairy Cattle and Milk Production 
(New York and London, 1923, rev. ed.); E. 8. 
Savage and L. A. Maynard, Better Dairy Farm- 
ing (Ithaca, N. Y., 1923); A. C. McCandlish, 
The Feeding of Dairy Cattle (New York and 
London, 1922); P. G. Heineman, Milk (Phila- 
delphia and London, 1919); T. Mojonnier and 
H. C. Troy, The Technical Control of Dairy 
Products (Chicago, 1922); E. Kelly and C. E. 
Clement, Market Milk (New York and London, 
1923): M. Mortensen, Management of Dairy 
Plants (New York, 1921); O. F. Hunziker, The 
Butter Industry (LaGrange, Ill., 1920); G. L. 
Mckay and C. Larsen, Principles and Practice 
of Butter Making (New York and London, 


1922); C. Thom and W. W. Fisk, The Book of : 


Cheese (New York, 1918); O. F. Hunziker, Con- 
densed Milk and Milk Powder (LaGrange, IlL., 
1920); W. W. Fisk, The Book of Ice Cream 
(New York, 1919). ‘ 
DALLAS. The leading wholesale market 
and manufacturing centre of Texas and the 
home of the Federal Reserve Bank of the elev- 
enth district. Its population increased by 72.6 
per cent in 10 years, from 92,104 in 1910 to 
158,976 in 1920, and to 177,274 by estimate of 
the Bureau of the Census for 1923. The value 
of building permits issued increased from $3,- 
422.512 in 1915 to $20,988,469 in 1923; bank 
resources from $43,399,929 to $152,914,761; de- 
posits from $30,187,466 to $128,829,981; and 
bank clearings from $256,200,598 to $1,865,414,- 
000. The factory output of Dallas increased 
from $31,065,000 in 1914 to $93,650,000 in 1919; 
in 1923 the wholesale business was estimated 
by the Chamber of Commerce at $700,000,000 
and the retail business at $250,000,000. <A $6,- 
600,000 Union Station and terminals and a $1,- 
000,000 interurban station were built during the 
decade. Engineers were at work in 1924 on 
plans for a new water supply project, to be 
built by a $5,000,000 bond issue voted in 1922. 
DALLIN, Cyrus Epwin (1881- ) eo fot 
American sculptor (see Vout. VI). He has in 
recent years continued his impressive Indian 
subjects in such works as “The Hunter” (1915), 
Arlington, Mass.; “Massasoit” (1921), Plym- 
outh, Mass., and “The Last Arrow” (1923). He 
has succeeded also in the domain of historical 
sculpture in works like “Anne Hutchinson,” 
State House, Boston, and the impressive relief, 
“Signing the Compact,” Provincetown, Mass. 
DALMAN, GustAr HERMANN (1855- ie 
A German Orientalist, professor of Old Testa- 
ment Exegesis at the University of Greifswald 
(see Vor. VI). In 1917, he was appointed pro- 
fessor in the University of Greifswald, and in 
1918 he became Geheim-Konsistorial-Rat. His 
works published since 1914 include: Die Kapelle 
zum heiligen Kreuz und das heilige Grab in 
Gorlite und in Jerusalem (1915); Orte und 
Wege Jesu (1921); Das Grab Christi in Deutsch- 
land (1922); and Jesus-Jeschua. Die drei 
Sprachen Jesu. Jesus in der Synagogue, auf 
dem Berge, beim Passahmahl, am Kreuz (1922). 
DALMATIA. See Frume-ApDRIATIC CONTRO- 
VERSY. 


‘ 
/ 
q 
; 
% 


DALRYMPLE 


DALRYMPLE, Leona (Mrs. C. Acton WIL- 
SON) (?- ). An American author. In 1914, 
she won a prize of $10,000 for her novel, Diane 
of the Green Van. Among her other stories 


are: Traumerei (1912); The Lovable Meddler 
(1915); Jimsy, the Christmas Kid (1915); 
When the Yule-Log Burns (1916); Kenny 


(1917); “Paul” stories (1920). She also wrote 
short stories for magazines, and moving picture 
scenarios. 

DALTON, ALBERT CLAYTON (1867- 1 
An American army officer, born at Lafayette, 
Ind. He entered the United States Army as a 
private in the 25th Infantry in 1889 and was 
promoted second lieutenant two years later, and 
by successive advancements became _ brigadier- 
general in the Quartermaster’s Department in 
1922. His services included participation in the 
campaign against the Cheyenne Indians in 
1890 and in that against the Sioux in 1891; 
and in the Santiago campaign in 1898 as well 
as those in the Philippines during 1899-1902, 
and that on the Mexican border in 1916-17. 
During the War he organized the Army Trans- 
port Service from New York (1917-18) and in 
1919 he was in France commanding the 9th Di- 
vision. He is a graduate of Infantry-Cavalry 
School (1895), the General Staff School (1920), 
and the Army War College (1921). 

DALTON LABORATORY PLAN. See 
EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 

D’ALVIELLA, Count GoBLET (1846- ie 
A Belgian legislator, writer, and minister of 
state (see VoL. VI). During the War he was 
a member of the Belgian cabinet. He received 
many medals and other decorations, both Bel- 
gian and foreign, for his services. He pub- 
lished The True and the False Pacifism (1917). 

DALY, THoMAS AUGUSTINE (1871- he 
An American writer born in Philadelphia, Pa. 
He was educated in the public schools and at 
Villanova College, Pa., and also was in Ford- 
ham University to the close of his sophomore 
year. He received honorary degrees from Ford- 
ham University, Notre Dame University and 
Boston College. He was associated with sev- 
eral newspapers, among them the Catholic 
Standard and Times, Philadelphia, and the Lve- 
ning Ledger and Philadelphia Record. He is 
the author of the following books: Canzoni 
(1906) ; Carmina (1909); Madrigali (1912) ; 
Little Polly’s Pomes (1913); Songs of Wedlock 
(1916); McAroni Ballades (1919). 

DAMASCUS. See Syria. 

DAMS. With greatly increased needs for 
large and constant water supplies for municipal 
purposes, for irrigation, and for power, as well 
as to provide adequate flood control and pro- 
tection, the design and construction of dams re- 
ceived considerable attention among civil engi- 
neers between 1914 and 1924. With increased 
costs of fuel and greater demands for power, it 
was realized that more and more the natural 
power resources of the world must be utilized, 
and that mountain streams and other available 
sources must be conserved and transformed into 
reservoirs by suitable dams so that water at 
suitable head and in adequate amount could be 
obtained for power purposes. See WATER 
POWER. 

There was an increased tendency in the Unit- 
ed States, as well as in Europe, to secure and 
enforce state or national supervision for dam 
design and construction, as it was found almost 
always in the case of the failure of dams and 


355 


DAMS 


disastrous damage to life and property to the 
valleys below that faulty design or construction 
was responsible. After the War private capital 
was all the more anxious to develop power 
schemes under the terms of the Federal Water 
Power Act. In the case of streams either un- 
der United States control, or under various lo- 
cal statutes or regulations for streams not sub- 
ject to Federal supervision, it was realized that 
sound design and construction were essential 
to maintain the integrity of the investment, as 
well as to conserve the safety of the valley be- 
low, and for this reason engineers were devot- 
ing more attention to design. 

The height of dams gradually was being in- 
creased and for structures with, record heights 
additional attention had to be paid to the foun- 
dations and footings as well as to the main con- 
struction. Particularly was this the case where 
a mountain gorge had to be closed by a mason- 
ry dam of unusual height and here important 
problems had to be solved. On the other hand 
where there were dams of considerable length, 
as for example, the Wilson Dam at Muscle 
Shoals, the undertaking was rather more simple 
though involving construction work of consid- 
erable volume. Where possible earth dams 
were being employed in greater amount and of 
greater size, and here the provision of suitable 
cores and other features was absolutely essen- 
tial. These earth dams could be built rapidly 
by hydraulic fill, but they presented problems 
no less than other types of construction. 

Arch Dam Investigation. In 1922 in the 
United States the Engineering Foundation put 
under way a practical study and investigation 
of arch dams in order to learn as much as pos- 
sible about their characteristics and perform- 
ances in different conditions and temperature of 
depth of water in the reservoirs. The arch 
dam was selected by the Engineering Founda- 
tion as a subject of special importance on ac- 
count of its use in connection with water power 
development and irrigation and water supply 
projects, particularly in the western states of 
the United States and in similar regions in 
other countries. In this type it was possible to 
secure the necessary strength to resist the pres- 
sure of the water or of ice with less masonry 
than was required for the other common type 
of masonry dam known as a gravity dam which 
resisted the pressure of the water and other 
forces chiefly by its weight. 

For the systematic investigation of arch 
dams, the committee appointed by the Engi- 
neering Foundation in 1924, proposed to build 
a test dam 60 to 100 feet high, which was to be 
tested repeatedly during construction and under 
different conditions, and finally to destruction. 
The site selected was in Stevenson Creek, a trib- 
utary of the San Joaquin River, about 60 miles 
east of Fresno, California. This site was in 
conjunction with a U-shaped section, typical of 
many dam sites, and a stream gradient of about 
25 per cent. It afforded a suitable foundation 
without an undue amount of stripping and was 
convenient and accessible. There was adequate 
water available derived from a tunnel from 
Shaver Lake which passed near by so that the 
reservoir formed by the test dam could be filled 
at will. This reservoir was not so large as to 
imperil life or property in case of the actual 
failure of the structure. 

Wilson Dam. The Muscle Shoals project 
to develop power by a dam across the Tennessee 


DAMS 356 


River was an important war time undertaking 
put under way in 1918. The Wilson Dam— 
Dam No. 2 across the Tennessee—was a struc- 
ture of the overflow type about 4600 feet in 
length from bank to bank, and about 96 feet 
high from bed rock to pool level. It not only 
would supply power but would render adequate 
depth of water for navigation of the Tennessee 
River. The dam was founded on solid rock 
with two tandem locks excavated in solid rock, 
60 feet wide by 350 feet in length at the north 
end of the dam, each giving a lift of about 451% 
feet and affording a minimum depth over mitre 
sills of 7144 feet. The spillway section of the 
dam shown to the right of the lower half of the 
accompanying plate is 2660 feet in length, and 
over its crest rise 8-foot piers which support a 
concrete arch bridge. In the 58 openings bhe- 
tween the piers are vertical steel sliding crest 
gates 18 feet high and 38 feet wide, which are 
sufficient to pass a flood 75 per cent greater 
than the highest ever known on the river with- 
out any appreciable rise in the upper pool level. 
The heel trench is 35 feet wide and is carried 
down below the base of the dam so as to give 
a minimum breast wall of five feet without any 
seams. 

The power house proper is located in a sec- 
tion of the dam about 1200 feet long, which is 
a continuation of the spillway section and in- 
cludes a building for housing the generating 
machinery. Here were to be installed at the 
beginning four 30,000-h.p. turbines, although 
power was available to generate from 300,000 
to 375,000 h.p., and provision was made for a 
corresponding installation of turbines. This 
dam contains nearly 1,000,000 cubic yards of 
masonry and is one of the largest dams ever 


DAMS 


River, California, about 250 miles east of San 
Francisco, and at an elevation greater by 3600 
feet, there was built a straight cyclopean mason- 
ry gravity section dam’600 feet in length with a 
siphon spillway. From the crest of the dam to 
the lowest excavation it was 311 feet in height, 
and the dam rises to a height above stream 
level of 212 feet, there being an average exca- 
vation of 72 feet. See AQUEDUCTS. 

Don Pedro Dam. The highest arch gravity 
non-overflow type of dam in the world, and in 
fact one of the highest dams of any kind was 
completed in 1923, across the Tuolumne River 
in California. This dam, which was built on a 
simple curve with a radius of 675 feet and a 
height of 280 feet, is 1040 feet long on the crest 
and contains 282,000 cubic yards of concrete 
masonry. The spillway with a capacity of 100,- 
000 second-feet was provided with 10 gates, 
each 58 feet long and weighing 22 tons. These 
gates sink into the lip when not in use and can 
be raised to increase the reservoir height by 
nine feet. There was also a power house built 
at the toe of the dam which was equipped for 
an initial capacity. of 150,000 horse power. ‘The 
Don Pedro Dam forms a reservoir four miles 
above the La Grange Diversion Dam for the 
joint use of the Turlock and Modesto Irriga- 
tion districts in the San Joaquin Valley, Cali- 
fornia. Its estimated cost was about $4,000,- 
000. The reservoir when full covers an area of 
3068 acres, having a capacity of about 280,000 
acre feet. This dam itself was located about 


60 miles below the Hetch Hetchy Dam of the © 


San Francisco water supply project. 

Dams of U. Bureau of Reclamation. 
Some of the most important dam construction 
in the United States has been carried on by the 


RECENT HIGH MASONRY DAMS 
(Approximate Dimensions) 


Height Width Length 

above Top Base on Crest Plan 
Bedrock 
349 6.0 223.0 1,100 Curved 
261.75 13212 228.55 666 vk 
306 18.0 215-0 Loy 3s Straight 
307.0 28.0 235.0 1,843 
217 Fah 8 aya Pi 1,400 Curved 
334.66 eat Baie: + 
345-4380 4 aa be ore Le ate Straight 
279.0 16. 176.4 975 Curved 
160.0 TW Sse) 158.0 1,300 Straight 

95.0 AG Dy 156.0 4,111 “t 

80-120 4 St ahs mee. SARS vg 
270.0 daly 234.0 1,600 Curved 


Date of 
Dam Location Construction 
CATED WTOC Ke oie ak Welt tete te United States 1912-1916 
Sam@Antonios i. eee. Spain 1914-1917 
Elephants Butte; 3) Gia United States 1916 
IC eNSICOLGes ates pace chen Spain 1916 
BY Sein oe, teeta hee eee United States 1917 
Camarasa 2%"... 08 puree . a! 1918-1920 
Hetch:; Hetchy: -s25 2). te ef +f 1921- 
ons Pedvotw.ca: ye Gre: aed 3 re 1921 
GAD Oa, «anand etole = 3 akon oat ae rg a 1921-1924 
AWWalSO mn) 1 eave bee 4h Ge cet s on + 1918- 
Krishnaraja Sagara India 1919- 
Lake Arthur Hill ..... ie 1916— 
® Ultimate Height 
built as regards its volume. See MUSCLE 


SHOALS. 

Gilboa Dam. The Gilboa Dam for the 
Schoharie development of the Catskill aqueduct 
of the New York City water supply system was 
a large gravity masonry structure for the over- 
fall portion, 1300 feet in length with an earth 
portion with a masonry core 1000 feet in length. 
The masonry section has steps on the down- 
stream side leading to a spillway channel along 
the toe of the dam for which earth portion there 
was a masonry core in the centre of heavy rock 
paving on the up-stream side. At the transi- 
tion section the dam was flagged both up stream 
and down stream by a heavy masonry retain- 
ing wall to intersect the long slope of the 
earth section. This dam had a maximum height 
of 160 feet (see AQUEDUCTS). 


Hetch Hetchy Dam. On the Tuolumne 


United States Bureau of Reclamation, and its 
engineers have developed designs in which most 
of the leading types have been represented, as 
will appear from the accompanying table giving 
a summary of United States dams over 50 feet 
built by the Reclamation Bureau. Up to the 
end of 1923 the Bureau had built three dams 
over 300 feet high, two dams between 200 and 
300 feet, four dams between 100 and 200 feet, 
and nearly 100 dams ranging from about 2% to 
nearly 100 feet in height. In 1924 there were 
six dams under construction, the most impor- 
tant of which were the Tieton River Dam in the 
State of Washington, with.an estimated volume 
of 185,000 cubie yards, and a height of 244 feet 
(maximum height to the bottom of the core 
wall is 321 feet); the McKay Dam in the State 
of Oregon with an estimated volume of 2,300,- 
000 cubie yards and a height of 159 feet; and 


es i ee 


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SWYVG 


DAMS 


the Black Cannon Dam in Idaho with an esti- 
mated volume of 74,500 cubic yards and a 
height of 153 feet. 

The Arrowrock Dam near Boise, Idaho, built 
by the United States Reclamation Service in 
the interval between 1910 and 1916, has a 
height of 349 feet, and is 1100 feet long on the 
crest. It is built of concrete with large stones 
imbedded in the concrete. The total volume, 
including the spillways, is 610,600 cubic yards. 
Another high masonry dam constructed by the 
United States Reclamation Service was the Ele- 
phant Butte Dam across the Rio Grande, 120 
miles above El Paso, Texas. This dam, which 
was finished in 1916, has a height of 306 feet 
above bedrock, and contains 605,200 cubic feet 
of concrete. 


357 


DAMS 


brought to. the dam ‘site from borrow pits in 
cars was washed into position by hydraulic 
giants to a central pool divided by the core 
wall. Here a pump was installed to pump a 
large amount of the soft clay material from the 
lower side of the core wall to the upper side, 
leaving a fine graded sandy material against 
the down-stream side of the core wall and a 
clayey puddle against the up-stream side of the 
core wall. 

The volume of the embenkment is approxi- 
mately 2,000,000 cubic yards. In the rock cliff 
on the west side a spillway was to be built 
with an overflow lip 420 feet long, equipped 
with six drum gates of the Arrowrock type, 
65 feet long and 8 feet high. This spillway 
has a capacity under normal conditions of 30,- 


DAMS CONSTRUCTED BY THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF RECLAMATION WITH HEIGHT OF 
50 FT. OR MORE 
Crest 

Name and state Height Type Length Volume 

(feet) (cu. yds.) 

COMME LGC Ste eee an is eae S ce oe 349 Rubble concrete arch, gravity 1,100 585,130 
DHOshone, SUV vO! PO oe te ase ee, 328 Rubble concrete arch 200 78,576 
Mlepianterbuttes PN cs Wlex. c.rsh. Jue eheel lo-)ence 806 Rubble concrete, gravity wei 619,000 
HROOEGUCILAM AL IZ eteeRer Ns @ cutis i FS a) dey ich end) vis, «, 280 Rubble masonry arch, gravity LAgS 842,325 
BANCO Oem ViOer ecient cs Greece Ce Se ee 218 Broken range masonry arch 432 60,210 
Mage ParkiGCeton! f..1. OF. Sa S90 OU) IR 2. 139 Concrete arch, gravity 250 12,000 
SUB IVER MONA aoeqe ake ha, Sects éc 132 Concrete masonry arch one 6,200 
DTMOTLE Uk ON CV AL Himba ela Wt ule yu Wh occ kat F< 1A: Earth and gravel fill 1,400 770,000 
BEhererOUnChOw “Dake vets Peete. att ae 122 Earth fill 6,200 1,600,000 
Sold pringsprOres®. O1HI x5 HO HAD. oul. 98 Earth and rock fill 3,800 789,500 
Minidoka Edalto;) wiadtats © Seyret A. celnis 86 Rock fill, concrete core 937 242,500 
CCA T MOREA uaW A5llei a 24 sale bsiedacmae ence «2 84 Concrete arch 404 4,100 
MNBL DUINO SAKES: MMO Gry aceite ieee lens 83 Earth embankment P33 201,500 
WillowsGreek? i Montiot tak 2 Base LT. 73 Earth fill 525 196,400 
eitFaw berryyy, Utah 6 ideas Asrge LUNE BOOS LA. 72 Earth fill, concrete core 488 108,415 
eet Keechelis Vials. «a <b bale ens.< 5.0 foiek discs 70 Earth and gravel fill 6,500 639,000 
ipner peer ertat, raaho 32. fo. 2 SR 70 Earth fill 4,000 1,190,275 
Wilwood) Wyo; .2OLmineanim Ant bet liie 70 Concrete ogee weir 320 22,119 
Goricanalige, Washi. ca.5.. Basha h irs!) ae eneee th 67 Hydraulic earth fill 1,000 354,242 
sha Bishi Pier WW. VO. wad vibe Se a shaders alive = cid é 67 Concrete gate section and earth fill 4,450 845,400 
PERN ALATe IVE a oie ee ee eee hee: 65 Earth fill 3,700 570,000 
PakelikacWesshiWash? sels swode very. 63 Earth and gravel fill 1,400 193,300 
Take .MéMillan, N. Mex? 2): 2). bes ciele . cee 55 Earth and rock fill 2,070 150,744 
Jo SARA GER CS 5 a ater Pile, 7, a 8 50 Earth and rock fill, concrete core 1,380 168,773 
RUS TOUR NVV.O se taro tt iets coe sean et oan ete tae 50 Earth fill 150 24,740 


Tieton Dam. In order to provide a reservoir 
with a capacity of 205.500 acre-feet as a part 
of the storage system for the Yakima project, 
Washington, the United States Reclamation 
Bureau constructed an earth dam on the Tulon 
River about 26 miles above Naches, Washing- 
ton, in the Mt. Rainier National Forest. This 
was an earth dam heavily blanketed with rock, 
approximately 230 feet high and 900 feet long 
on the crest, with a concrete core ‘wall of an 
approximate height of 330 feet extended over 
solid rock to the crest. During the construc- 
tion of the dam a diversion tunnel 2200 feet 
long and of a diameter of approximately 21 feet 
was constructed to carry the waters of the Tie- 
ton River, and this work after the completion 
of the dam was to be used as a portion of the 
outlet control. The core wall consists of a con- 
crete diaphragm completely across the core and 
tied into bedrock on the base and sides below 
the ground surface. It is five feet thick with 
no reinforcing. From the ground surface this 
core wall tapers to one foot thickness to the 
top of the dam, being heavily reinforced and 
without expansion joints. 

The embankment forming the dam consists of 
hydraulie fill blanketed with rock, having a 
maximum height of approximately 230 feet, a 
crest 900 feet long with a 3 to 1 slope on the 
up-stream side, 25 foot top width and a 2 to 1 
slope on the down-stream side., The material 


000 second-feet. and a capacity of 50,000 second- 
feet before the dam would be over-topped. It 
discharges through a concrete conduit down the 
slide of the cliff to a pool well below the toe 
of the dam. The outlet control works operate 
to control the water at three stages so that the 
gates will never have to operate under a great- 
er head than 80 feet. These outlets each have 
a capacity of 25,000 second-feet which will be 
the maximum of any irrigation dam. 

Boulder Dam. The United States Reclama- 
tion Service in 1924 proposed the improvement 
of the Colorado River Basin so as to provide 
adequate flood control, the impounding of water 
for irrigation, the storing of water for gener- 
ating electric power, the provision of an all- 
American canal for supplying the Imperial Val- 
ley with irrigation water, and a possible future 
source of domestic water to supply California 
cities. An essential element of the project pro- 
posed was the construction of a dam across the 
Boulder Canyon, raising the water surface 605 
feet, a height greater than that of the Washing- 
ton Monument, and more than 2% times as 
much as the Don Pedro Dam in California. 

The proposed dam would contain over three 
and three-fourths million cubic yards of con- 
crete, or more than three times as much as the 
Assuan Dam in Egypt, which with 1,179,000 cu- 
bie yards had a record for the greatest amount 
of masonry of any dam yet constructed, though 


DAMS 


it was exceeded by the Wilson Dam _ with 
1,291,385 cubic yards. The Boulder Dam would 
cost about $50,000,000 or 2% times as much as 
the Assuan Dam. It would provide a reservoir 
120 miles long with an area of 157,000 acres, 
or 50 per cent greater than that of Gatun Lake 
on the Panama Canal. This reservoir would 
have a capacity of, 34,000,000 acre-feet, eight 
times as great as that of Gatun Lake and 
nearly 13 times as great as that of the Ele- 
phant Butte Reservoir in New Mexico, the larg- 
est in the United States. 

The dam as recommended in the Fall-Davis 
report, submitted in 1922, would begin 150 feet 
below the bed of the river, and would rise to 
a height of 605 feet, being 1350 feet long and 
650 feet thick at its base. The construction 
would have be carried on in a normal current, 
20 to 30 feet deep ordinarily, with a flood crest 
in the canyon of 30 feet, having a velocity of 
15 feet per second at the time. This. proba- 
bly would require the diversion of the river 
through tunnels around the construction, which 
was in every way feasible. This report and 
supplementary opinion received the careful con- 
sideration of Congress, but up to the middle of 
1924 no positive action had been taken in this 
connection. 

Roller Crest Dam. The Grand River Dam, 
completed in 1915 to form a diverting struc- 
ture of the high line or main canal project, was 
the largest of the roller crest dams built in 
the United States; in fact there were but two 
others, one a short single roller controlling a 
logway in the Boise Dam of the Reclamation 
Service, and the other an installation of three 
rollers in the Washington Water Power Com- 
pany’s dam at Long Lake, near Spokane. The 
Grand River Dam is a steel roller crest sur- 
mounting an ogee concrete weir, with a sluice- 
way and a canal intake of a capacity of 1425 
cubic feet per second at its west end. By 
means of this roller crest the entire upper 10 
feet of the dam can be raised above high water 
so that the elevation of the back water surface 
in flood is no greater than during operation 
for maximum requirements in low water. The 
axis of the dam is normal to the direction of 
the river, and on the west end is a canal intake 
controlled by nine regulator gates each 7 feet 
square. In front of the intake head wall is the 
sluiceway, 60 feet wide and 255 feet long. The 
dam proper consists of six bases, each 70 feet 
wide, or a total of 420 feet. 

The roller crests consist each of a hollow 
steel cylinder, each 74 feet, 914 inches long, 
and 7 feet, 1% inches in diameter, the ends 
projecting about 2% feet into recesses in the 
piers and rolled on smooth tracks at an angle 
of 20 degrees with the vertical, while a toothed 
rim engages in a toothed rack. The hollow 
cylinder axle and the required height of the 
crest is obtained by fastening to the cylinder 
an extension shield which rests on the sill when 
the roller is down, thus forming the bottom 
seal. There is also a roller crest at the sluice- 
way of essentially the same design but of dif- 
ferent dimensions. 

The Camarasa Dam. In 1921 there was com- 
pleted in the Pyrenees Mountains in northern 
Spain the Camarasa Dam to form a reservoir 
for the Rio Noguera Pallaresa at a point 80 
miles northeast of Barcelona. At the time of 
its erection this was the highest dam in Europe, 
and one of the highest dams in the world, ris- 


358 


DAMS 


ing to a height of 333 feet from bed rock to 
crest, and containing 285,000 cubic yards of 
cyclopean concrete. It is 270 feet wide at the 
base and 13 feet wide at the crest which is wid- 
ened to 21 feet to provide a roadway and foot 
walk along the top, whose length is 460 feet. 
This dam is of gravity section and is arched 
on a radius of 1000 feet. It forms a reservoir 
which supplies a head of water so that at the 
power house below some 88,000 h.p. is gener- 
ated. The dam was built in a very narrow 
part of a deep gorge, so that it was necessary 
to place the spillway adjacent to the south 
abutments of the dam, and the headworks con- 
trolled the flow to the power house on the op- 
posite side of the north abutment. At the 
power house the total head of 270 feet was de- 
veloped. 

Montejaque Dam. In 1924 there was com- 
pleted a concrete dam of pure arch type in the 
Andalusian Mountains of Spain, which with a 
maximum height of 273 feet from the lowest 
portion of the foundation to the crest was the 
highest structure of the kind essayed up to that 
time. It was built across a gorge of the Gad- 
uares River where the cliffs rise almost ver- 
tically, and was of variable radius increasing 
from 72 feet at the base to 123 feet at the crest 
which, measured along the centre line, was 256 
feet in length. Excavation was begun in July, 
1923, and the crushed stone and sand were ob- 
tained from adjacent sources of supply. The 
completed structure contained 35,000 cubic 
yards of concrete and formed a reservoir con- 
taining 1,412,000,000 cubic feet of water. The 
design was the work of Swiss engineers who 
also supervised the construction. 

Tirso Dam. Completed in 1923 in western 
Sardinia, Italy, this multiple-arch dam 200 feet 
high, was the highest dam of this type in the 
world, being almost 70 feet higher than the 
Lake Hodges Dam which had the record for 
height in the United States. The Tirso Dam 
had _ reinforced-concrete arches supported on 
cut-stone masonry buttresses and formed the 
main structure of a power plant generating 
some 30,000 horse power at maximum load and 
10,000 horse power normally. The dam itself 
forms a reservoir with a surface area of 8.5 
square miles which has a storage capacity of 
some 330,000 acre-feet, and will furnish irriga- 
tion water to about 75,000 acres. 

The Tirso Dam in southern Italy, built in 
1923, was exceeded in height by a new dam 
built in the following year for the Suviana 
Reservoir on the Limentra di Treppio Brook in 
the Province of Bologna, which has a height of 
286 feet as compared with 213 feet for the Tirso 
Dam. This was a concrete multiple-arch dam 
built for the State railways of Italy, so as to 
afford a storage capacity of 35,000 acre-feet, of 
which 29,000 acre-feet was to be utilizable 
storage. 

In the development of water power in Italy a 
number of concrete multiple-arch dams of large 
proportions had been constructed, though they 
did not have the height of the two dams men- 
tioned. Thus the Pavana Reservoir across the 
Limentra di Sambuca Brook, also in Bologna, 
was formed by a concrete multiple arch dam 
187 feet high, and had a storage capacity of 810 
acre-feet. 

Indian Dams. Some of the largest and most 
notable dams and reservoirs in the world have 
been constructed in India to provide irrigation 


DAMS 


and power. The more important are the fol- 
lowing: the Periyar in the Madras Presidency, 
the Marekanave in the Mysore State, Lake 
Whiting at Bhatghar which supplies the Nira 
Canal in the Bombay Presidency, and the Tansa 
Reservoir, the principal source of water supply 
for Bombay, and Lake Fife near Poona. These 
dams were designed for a maximum height as 
follows: Periyar Dam 173 feet; the Marekan- 
ave Dam 167 feet, and the Tansa Dam 118 feet. 
Greater, however, than any of these was the 
Krishnaraja Sagara Dam which was_ built 
across the Kaveri River in the state of Mysore. 
This dam is built of rubble masonry with cut 
stone faces, and at its first stage has a height 
of 80 feet, but is designed to rise ultimately to 
a height of 120 feet. It affords a storage res- 
-ervoir of 41,500 million cubie feet capacity, 
carrying nearly 30,000 acres. From this reser- 
voir water would be provided for both irriga- 
tion and power in an unfailing supply as the 
water impounded in the monsoon season would 
be available for the use of farmers and make 
cultivatable an increased acreage of land. At 
the same time there would be developed in- 
creased power needed for the large hydroelec- 
tric station at Sivasumudrum, lower down the 
river. 

The actual foundation of this dam, which was 
built on solid rock where considerable excava- 
tion was required, was 5150 feet in length, and 
the complete dam was to contain nearly 30,- 
000,000 cubic feet of masonry. 

Sukkur-Barrage, Bhatghar. Construction 
began on one of the largest dams in the world 
in October, 1923, across the Indus River in the 
Province of Sind in India at Bhatghar, 35 
miles from Poona. This dam would form a res- 
ervoir with a storage capacity of 551,000 acre- 
feet as compared with 1,070,000 acre-feet stored 
by the Assuan Dam in Egypt, and would pro- 
vide water for the irrigation of 6,000,000 acres 
of land, the entire project including about 850 
miles of main canals, and over 1200 miles with 
branch canals in addition to the dam, costing 
about $50,000,000. The dam known as_ the 
Lloyd Dam, or Sukkur-Barrage, will be one 
mile in length and will be built of masonry us- 
ing local limestone, with 66 arched openings of 
60 feet each, provided with control gates. The 
height of the dam above the lowest foundation 
will be 185 feet and the height of the water 
above the sills of the lowest sluices will be 1438 
feet, a height which can be increased to 153 
feet by means of gates in the waste weir. The 
masonry content of the dam will be approxi- 
mately 800,000 cubic yards, and it will have 
two bridges on the top, the lower one directly 
over the water openings, carrying a roadway, 
while the other will be used for the machinery 
operating the gates. The Lloyd Dam takes the 
place of an older dam. 

In connection with the Lloyd Dam attention 
might be directed to the elaborate system of 
canals by which the water is distributed. The 
eastern canal at Nara is to be carried through a 
deep cut nearly double the width of the Suez, 
while the northeastern canal will be nearly 100 
miles long, and will have about 500 branches, be- 
ing nearly as wide as the Suez Canal, and will 
irrigate more than 750,000 acres. The Central 
Rice Canal, which is the second largest, will be 
87 miles in length, and will have 350 miles of 
branches. It will have a discharge equal to 
that of the River Thames. 


359 


DAMS 


Hartebeestpoort Dam. In September, 1923, 
the Hartebeestpoort Dam on the Crocodile Riv- 
er in South Africa was completed. This dam, 
situated about 23 miles from Pretoria, closes a 
gap in the Magaliesberg Range, and affords a 
reservoir with a surface area of about 6.7 
square miles with a gross storage capacity of 
136,241 acre-feet at spillway level, or 123,232 
acre-feet above outlet level, having a drainage 
area of 1506 square miles, and an average an- 
nual rainfall of 26.34 inches. The dam is built 
of concrete in arch plan, 195 feet high, from the 
lowest foundation to the top of the solid para- 
pet wall. It has a top radius of 240 feet on the 
up-stream face, and at the bottom the radius is 
148 feet and 75 feet on the up-stream and down- 
stream faces respectively, affording a thickness 
of 73 feet. From the bottom, elevation 3795, to 
elevation 3960, both faces have a batter of 1 
in 5.714, above which point they are vertical 
giving a roadway along the top. 

The height of the dam from the river-bed 
level to the elevation of the crest of the waste 
weir is 140 feet, with an approximate height 
flood level of 158 feet to the top of practically 
163 feet. At the west side of the gap there was 
a flat slope which required the construction of 
a long tangent abutment beyond which the 
spillway was cut in the rock and separated 
from the reservoir proper by a levee or weir 
420 feet long. This spillway was 56 feet wide 
at this upper end and increased in width to 
125 feet at the bottom where it is crossed by a 
concrete arched bridge. The channel so formed 
is lined with concrete and beyond its: lower 
end below the dam the rock surface of the cliff 
is faced with gunite. On each side of the dam 
there is an outlet tower from which through 
pipes the water is passed into an open canal, 
whence it proceeds for irrigation purposes to 
the territory below the dam. Ag the main road 
from Pretoria to Rustenberg crosses the dam 
it has been made particularly ornamental as 
regards its finish and that of the bridge towers. 

Gleno Dam Failure. Among the more seri- 
ous of recent dam failures was that of a 
multiple-arch dam at Gleno, about 30 miles 
northeast of Bergamo in north central Italy, on 
Dec. 1, 1923, resulting in a loss of some 500 
lives and property destruction estimated at 
150,000,000 lire. This dam, which formed a 
reservoir of 190,000,000 cubic feet capacity, was 
a reinforced concrete structure of multiple-arch 
type 143 feet in height above the stream, 863 
feet long on top, and of curved ground plan, 
with a central portion 250 feet in length flanked 
on either end by straight portion tangents to 
the central curve. The multiple-arch construc- 
tion rested on a gravity base of stone masonry, 
being substituted without proper authority for 
the gravity dam for which official permission 
had been granted. The masonry basin was 
5% feet high and some 250 feet long and car- 
ried the curved part of the superstructure, 
while the straight portions at the sides were 
built directly on the rock of the side of the 
valley. In all there were 25 arches of semi- 
cylindrical form, 26 feet 3 inches between but- 
tresses and inclined 53 degrees to the _ hori- 
zontal. 

At the time of the failure eight of the arches 
of the curved portion of the dam, together with 
their buttresses, and the first arch of the tan- 
gent section on the left bank together with the 
heavy buttress at the point of tangency went 


DANA 


out. This released a vast volume of water 
which passed down the steep and narrow valley 
of the Dezzo River, for 12 miles to its junction 
with the Oglio River at Darfo, and then down 
the Oglio Valley 5 or 6 miles to Iseo Lake at 
Pisogne. Power stations at Vilminore, Dezzo, 
Mazzuno, Angola and Darfo, a number of fac- 
tories, including the Voltre Steel Works at 
Darfo, and many houses and villages were de- 
stroyed by the flood. The failure of the dam 
was due to the faulty design and construction 
of the base. The execution of the work was 
badly performed and there was a failure to cut 
footings in the rock for the buttresses. Im- 
proper materials, badly mixed and poured, lax 
inspection and incompetent direction, all con- 
tributed to the disaster as was revealed in an 
official report published in 1924. It was_ be- 
lieved that one outcome of the catastrophe 
would be the formation of a government depart- 
ment to pass on the design and construction of 
all dams as had been proposed previously by 
different Italian engineers. 

Bibliography. Among the recent and more 
notable works on dams available are—Weg- 
mann, Design and Construction of Dams (7th 
ed., revised and enlarged, New York, 1922), 
which has a full bibliography of the available 
literature; Creager, Engineering for Masonry 
Dams, (New York, also translated into French) ; 
Morrison and Brodie, High Masonry Dams (2d 
ed., New York, 1916); Davis, United States Ir- 
rigation Works (Washington, D. C., 1917). 
Most satisfactory, however, are the files of the 
Engineering News-Record (New York); fec- 
lamation Record (Washington); Engineering 
(London) ; and Engineer (London), and Trans- 
actions of the American Society of Civil Engi- 
neers (New York, current), as well as Reports 
Chief of Engineers U. 8S. Army (Washington, 
annual); and Reports Commissioner of the Re- 
clamation Bureau (Washington, annual). 

DANA, PavuL (1852- ). An American 
editor (see Vout. VI). He was stationed at 
Namur from May to June, 1915, as a member 
of the Committee for Relief in Belgium. 

DANDURAND, Raout.- (1861- yO A 
Canadian lawyer and statesman (see Vou. VI). 
In 1921, he became minister without portfolio 
in Canada. Mrs. Dandurand, his wife, was 
elected vice-president of the National Council 
of Women, and was decorated by the French 


government. 

DANE, CLEMENCE (WINIFRED ASHTON) 
( ? ). An English author, who wrote 
the following novels: Regiment of Women; 


First the Blade; Legend, a novel composed 
chiefly of conversation which gives a striking 
revelation of character, through its subtlety of 
method. She also wrote the following dramas: 
A Bill of Divorcement, played in New York in 
1921; Will Shakespeare, played during the 
1922-23 season, and The Way Things Happen. 

DANIELS, JOSEPHUS (1862- ). An 
American public official (see Von. VI). He 
was Secretary of the Navy under President 
Wilson from 1913 to 1921, and from the begin- 
ning urged the establishment of a larger navy. 
That he had the real interests of the enlisted 
men of the navy at heart is shown by his order 
that no intoxicants should be allowed on ship- 
board, and by the fact that he caused opportun- 
ities to be given for the training of the men in 
various trades. He believed in government 
ownership of armorplate factories, and of tele- 


360 


DANZIG 


phones and telegraphs. In 1921, he resumed 
the editorship of the Raleigh News and Ob- 


server. He wrote: The Navy and the Nation 
(1919). 

DANISH LITERATURE. See Scanpi- 
NAVIAN LITERATURE. 

D’ANNUNZIO. See ANNUNzIO; ITALIAN 
LITERATURE; ITALY, History. 

DANUBE RIVER. See War In EvROPE, 


Balkan Front. 

DANZIG. Formerly belonging to Germany, 
but since 1920 a Free City established by the 
Treaty of Versailles and placed under the 
League of Nations’ protection. The area of the 
district is about 745 miles, and the population, 
on Jan. 1, 1923, 365,000, largely German; in 
faet, only 6 per cent were Poles. The Free City _ 
area contains 325 localities, four of them cities 
with the following populations: Danzig prop- 
er, 194,953; Zoppot, 18,397; Neuteich, 2395; 
Tiegenhof, 2834. Of the Free City’s total boun- 
dary line of 147 miles, 35 miles are on the sea. 
The production of the rural sections fell short 
of the requirements of the population with the 
result that foodstuffs had to be imported. The 
same was true of lumber, and stocks had to be 
imported from Poland. With Poland, Danzig 
was connected by three main lines, Danzig to 
Warsaw, 204 miles; Danzig to Lodz, 263 miles; 
Danzig to Posen, 192 miles. Inland waterways 
communication was of course maintained by the 
Vistula. Although by 1922 Danzig’s trade had 
not reached pre-war proportions, it seemed in 
a fair way to recover its old stability. In 
1913, 1921, and 1922, imports into Danzig by 
sea weighed, in metric tons, 1,233,630, 1,322,- 
428, and 466,286; and exports by sea, 878,471, 
383,448, and 504,876. A resumption of the im- 
portation of hides and skins, wool, wine, etc., 
all of which were destined for reshipment, ap- 
peared in 1922. Before the War, the princi- 
pal exports from Danzig were grain, lumber, 
and sugar. Lumber, by 1922, had recovered 
pre-war proportions; sugar, too, was rapidly 
increasing, but grain had become an article of 
import. In 1913, 2854 vessels of 918,097 net 
tons entered and 2836 vessels of 931,509 net 
tons cleared Danzig; in 1922, 2712 vessels of 
1,423,132 net tons entered and 2697 vessels of 
1,428,820 net tons cleared. In 1923, 1,722,927 
tons entered and 1,689,255 tons cleared. The 
disproportion between imports and exports for 
1919-22 was largely due to the size of relief 
shipments originating in the United States. In 
1920, 88 per cent of the total trade was made 
up of imports; in 1921, 78 per cent; but in 
1922, 48 per cent, which approximated the pre- 
war status. 

History. The problem posed in 1919 by the 
Polish claim to a sea outlet involved several im- 
portant considerations. Danzig, the focal point 
of Polish aspirations, was overwhelmingly Ger- 
man in population, at least 90 per cent. The 
creation of a Polish “corridor” through Prussia 
to connect Poland with Danzig on the sea 
meant the separation from the Reich of some 
2,000,000 Germans in East Prussia. On the 
other hand, Danzig was bound up with the life 
of the new state economically and geographical- 
ly, for Danzig was the port of the Vistula, and 
the valley of the Vistula was really Poland; 
of the 40 cities of more than 20,000 yopulation 
in Poland, 23 are in the valley of the Vistula 
system. If on the grounds of history, race, 
and economic necessity the Germans could ob- 


DANZIG 


ject to an outright cession of Danzig, the Poles 
could answer that Danzig had remained loyal to 
Poland as late as 1813, that under Prussian 
rule the city had dropped, as a commercial port, 
to a place of comparative insignificance, and 
that the well-being of 20,000,000 Poles was per- 
haps more important than the interests of the 
170,000 inhabitants of the city or at most, 360,- 
000 Germans in the city and the adjacent area. 
But to preserve the principle of self-determina- 
tion of which so much had been made during 
the War, and to check the growth of a German 
irredentism, a compromise had to be effected. 
Articles 100-108 of the Treaty of Versailles, 
therefore, set up in Danzig and the German 
area about it a Free City under the League of 
Nations. Its governing head was to be a High 
Commissioner; foreign relations and customs 
tariff were to be controlled by Poland; while 
economic matters such as administration of 
_ railways, posts, telegraph lines, waterways, and 
port facilities, were to be largely in Polish 
hands. Under Article 103 of the Versailles 
Treaty, which provided for the drafting of a 
constitution by representatives of the city in 
agreement with the High Commissioner ap- 
pointed by the League, a Constituent Assem- 
bly was elected in Danzig on May 16, 1920, by 
universal suffrage with proportional representa- 
tion. This Assembly, in which the various Ger- 
man parties had an overwhelming majority, 
drew up a constitution which was approved by 
the High Commissioner and the League. The 
City’s relations with Poland were defined by a 
treaty signed on Oct. 27, 1920, and ratified on 
November 9, and by a supplementary treaty of 
Oct. 24, 1921, regarding economic matters and 
naturalization. The formal proclamation of the 
new state, in accordance with these arrange- 
ments, occurred on Nov. 15, 1920. The essen- 
tial points of the new system thus created were 
that the High Commissioner was to decide all 
points of dispute between Danzig and Poland, 
though a right of appeal to the League Council 
was assured; local autonomy was_ preserved 
through the creation of a bicameral diet, the 
president of whose upper house was to act as 
state head; a single customs area was to exist, 
and Poland was to be in charge of railway, 
postal, telegraph, telephone, diplomatic, and 
consular matters; Danzig port and terminal 
questions were to be in the hands of a joint 
board headed by a neutral. Any settlement so 
thoroughly permeated by the spirit of compro- 
mise was certain to be stigmatized as unfair by 
both sides, yet the Danzig experiment was more 
successful than some of the other decisions of 
the Peace Conference, albeit, as events of 1920- 
24 manifested, the causes of irritation were 
many. Sir Reginald Tower and the other Eng- 
lishmen who succeeded him in the office of 
High Commissioner displayed admirable tact 
and impartiality in their difficult task; never- 
theless in the first 18 months of the Free City’s 
existence, appeals were made to the League 
Council against nine of his 12 decisions. The 
announcement of the League Council that the 
former German rifle factory at Danzig must be 
closed by July 30, 1921, was provocative of con- 
siderable resentment in Danzig. On the other 
hand, the refusal of the Danzig government, 


backed by High Commissioner Tower, to permit 


the passage of supplies to Poland during the 
Russo-Polish War, was censured by both Poland 
and France. Polish intentions to establish an 


361 


DARDANELLES © 


ammunition dépot in the centre of Danzig har- 
bor infuriated the Danzigers, while the steady 
infiltration of Polish business men, officials, and 
publicists threatened to contest the German 
supremacy. Nevertheless a more amicable at- 
titude on the part of the Danzigers appeared as 
they began to realize that their economic inter- 
est would be best served by a prosperous Po- 
land. Polish penetration of the region was 


tending to turn the city into a Polish port. See 
PoLAND, History 
DARDANELLES AND BOSPORUS 


STRAITS. Economically and strategically the 
excellent position of Constantinople at the 
crossroads of Europe and the Near East caused 
many of the Great Powers to regard this whole 
region with an acquisitive eye. To Russia its 
possession implied a “warm water” port front- 
ing on the seas of the world, and long before the 
dawn of the 20th century Russian expansionists 
looked on the Golden Horn as their ultimate 
goal. When in 1913 Germany arranged to send 
a military mission to Turkey, with the aim of 
strengthening the Turco-Teutonic grip on the 
Straits, Russian resentment took the form of a 
secret crown council, which discussed plans for 
the seizure of the vital waterway in case of 
war. After the War began, in 1914, Russia 
held an expeditionary force ready for months 
to sail for the Bosporus, but it was never sent. 
The Czar’s government succeeded in vetoing a 
projected Greek attack on the Straits in 1915, 
and in exacting from France and England, in 
March of the same year, a pledge that the en- 
tire region of the Straits must be allotted to 
Russia in case of the Allies’ victory. To Ger- 
many, on the other hand, the unhampered con- 
trol of the waterway by a friendly Turkey 
meant the realization of the Berlin to Bagdad 
scheme and the checking of Russian aspirations. 
German domination of the Straits was de- 
stroyed by the Allies’ military success in the 
War, while Russia’s claims were cast aside aft- 
er the Bolshevist revolution. At the close of 
the War there remained to be considered the 
claims of the Turks, reinforced by Moslem sgen- 


' timent everywhere, most particularly in India; 


of the Greeks, whose pretensions far exceeded 
their power; of the Black Sea peoples of Bul- 
garia, Rumania, the Ukraine, and Transcau- 
casia, whose maritime intercourse with the 
West depended on freedom of the Straits; and, 
above all, of the British, whose historic policy 
of barring the Straits against Russia had been 
suddenly exchanged for the exact opposite, 
“freedom of the Straits.” These warring pur- 
poses were reflected in the compromise which 
was struck in the Treaty of Sevres of 1920. 
Constantinople, with the region surrounding 
the Sea of Marmora, was restored to Turkey. 
The Straits themselves were placed under the 
control of an international commission while 
the whole region about was demilitarized and 
all fortifications were ordered destroyed. The 
sudden appearance and astounding success of 
the Turkish Nationalists indicated the ephem- 
eral nature of the settlement, for one of the 
watchwords of the new leaders was the reéstab- 
lishment of the security of the Straits and the 
Sea of Marmora. During 1921-23 the matter 
caused much anxiety to both the British and 
the French. Military men, Marshal Foch 
among them, pressed for an Allied or interna- 
tional domination of the gateway, for the dis- 
astrous Gallipoli campaign had indicated how 


DARLING 


successfully a force on the banks could block 
the passage of ships. Something of these pur- 
poses was written into the first draft treaty at 
Lausanne, but that document's rejection by the 
Turkish National Assembly in February, 1923, 
left the matter still unsolved. Finally, to the 
completed Treaty of Lausanne of July, 1923, 
was appended an elaborate convention for the 
regulation of the Straits in peace and war. 
Once more a commission was set up under the 
protection of the League of Nations, this time 
presided over by a Turk with powers to execute 
the prescribed regulations for the passage of 
ships. A demilitarized zone was again mapped 
out, to include much smaller areas along the 
shores of the Dardanelles Strait and the Strait 
of Bosporu;:. The Turks were permitted to 
maintain a garrison at Constantinople, and the 
free movement of their fleet in Turkish waters 
was not to be impaired. In time of peace the 
Straits were to be free for all merchant vessels 
and for warships; in time of war, Turkey, if a 
belligerent, was permitted to exclude enemy 
merchantmen and warships. 

DARLING, SAamureLt Taytor (1872- ). 
An American physician, parasitologist and au- 
thority on tropical medicine, born in Harrison, 
N. J. He obtained his medical degree at the 
College of Physicians and Surgeons at Balti- 
more in 1903 and he was in charge of the labor- 
atory at the Panama Canal during the con- 
struction period (1906-14), later accompany- 
ing General Gorgas to South Africa. He be- 
came a member of the staff of the Rockefeller 
Foundation in 1915 and was chairman of the 
expedition to the Far East for the purpose of 
studying hookworm and malaria; later, he vis- 
ited Brazil in a similar capacity. He has writ- 
ten many papers on tropical diseases and ani- 
mal parasites and has published, in collabora- 
tion: Hookworm and Malaria Research in Ma- 
laya, Java and the Fiji Islands (Darling, Bar- 
ber and Hacker, 1917), and Studies in Hook- 
worm Infection in Brazil (Darling and Smillie, 
1921); 

DARLINGTON, James Henry (1856- )y 
An American bishop (see Vout. V1). He de- 
clined an appointment on the United States 
Commission to Russia, but became head of the 
Serbian Relief Fund in the United States. In 
1920, he was chairman of the commission to 
confer with the Eastern Orthodox Churches and 
the Old Catholics from the Episcopal Church 
of the United States, which visited Constanti- 
nople, Athens and other European capitals for 
the purpose of making a concordat. 

DARLINGTON, URBAN VALENTINE W. 
(1870- ). An American bishop, born in 
Shelby Co., Ky., and educated at the Kentucky 
Wesleyan College. In 1896, he was ordained to 
the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
South, and from that time until 1917 was pas- 
tor in various churches in Kentucky and West 
Virginia. In 1917-18, he was president of the 
Morris Harvey College in Barboursville, W. Va. 
In 1918, he was made a bishop of the Method- 
ist Episcopal Church, South. 

DARMSTAEDTER, Paut (1875- peat ae 
German historian, born in Berlin. He studied 
at the universities of Berlin, Munich, Freidburg 
and Strassburg, and became professor in Gdt- 
tingen in 1907. His works include Das Reichs- 
gut in der Lombardei und in Piemont (1896), 
Die Befreiung der Leib eigenen in Savoyen, 
Schweiz und Lothringen (1897), and-a history 


362 


DAUDET 


of the United States for Ullstein’s History of 
the World. A recent publication was Ge- 
schichte der Aufteilung und Kolonisation Afri- 
kas (1913-20). 

D’ARSONVAL, 
ARSENE D’. 

DARTMOUTH COLLEGE. A nonsectarian 
institution at Hanover, N. H., for which an 
English royal charter was granted in 1769. 
With the exception of the war years 1917-19, 
when the number of students registered in the 
college fell off sharply, Dartmouth grew stead- 
ily during the decade from 1913 to 1923-24. 
During that time the enrollment increased from 
1329 to 2065, and two new dormitories, Topliff 
Hall and Russell Sage Hall, the Steele Chemis- 
try Building, Robinson Hall, headquarters of 
other than athletic student organizations, the 
new golf links at Hilton Field, the Spalding 
Swimming Pool, and the concrete football 
stand, a memorial to the Dartmouth men who 
died in the War, were built. From 1916 to 
1923-24 the faculty was increased from 123 to 
177 and the library from 130,000 to 175,000 
volumes. In 1922 a new selective process for 
admission was adopted. Ernest Martin Hop- 
kins, Litt.D., LL.D., succeeded Ernest Fox Nich- 
ols as president in 1916. 


_ARSENE. See ARSONVAL, 


DARWINIAN THEORY. See HEREDITY; 
ZOOLOGY. 

DASKAM, JOSEPHINE DopcE (Mrs. SELDEN 
Bacon)  (1876- ). An American author 


(see Vou. VI). Her recent works include: To- 
Day’s Daughter (1914); Open Market (1915) ; 
When Binks Came; The Memoirs of a Baby 
(1920); Blind Cupid (1923), and new editions 
of many of her earlier publications. She is al- 
so the compiler of On Our Hill (1918), and 
Square Peggy (1919). 

DATO EIRADIER, Epvarpo (1856-1921). 
A Spanish jurisconsult and statesman (see 
VoL. VI). Upon the outbreak of the War, 
Dato was still in office and Spain’s neutrality 
was a result of his efforts. He was prime min- 
ister during the crisis of 1917, and again in 
1920-21. He was murdered at Madrid on Mar. 
Br 1927 

DAUDET, Ernest (1837-1921). A French 
novelist and historian (see Vou. VI). Follow- 
ing are his principal works published since 
(1914), Devant la douleur (1915), L’entre-deux- 
cois—Joseph (1917); La Mission du Duc de 
Saint-Vallier (1918); La Mission du Baron de 
Courcel (1919); Soixante années du régne des 
Romanoff (1919); Souvenirs de mon temps 
(lst vol., 1921; others to be finished by his 
son). He died at Petites-Dalles (Seine-Infé- 
rieure) on Aug. 20, 1921. 

DAUDET, Litton (1867- ). A French 
novelist and editor, member of the Académie 
Goncourt (see Vou. VI). Since 1913, he has 
published Souvenirs des milieuw littéraires, pol- 
itiques, artistiques et médicauax de 1880 a 1905, 
in four series, as follows: Fantomes et vivants 
(1914), Devant la douleur (1915), L’entre-deux- 
guerres (1915), Salons et journauw (1917). 
His other works during the decade include: 
Hors du jong allemand (1915); La vermine du 
monde (1916); Le Bonheur @étre riche (1917); 
‘Le coeur et Vabsence (1917); L’hérédo (1917) ; 
Le poignard dans le dos; notes sur Vaffaire 


Malvy (1918); Dans la lumiére (1919); Su- 
eanne (1921); and Le stupide XIXe siécle 
(1921); Les Oeuvres devant les Hommes 


(1922); Sylla et son destin (1923); L’Héca- 


DAUGHERTY 


tombe (1923). During the War he was promi- 
nent in the campaign against defeatism and 
afterwards was especially conspicuous as head of 
the Action Frangaise in monarchist agitation. 
DAUGHERTY, Harry MicasAn_ (1860- 
). An American public official, born at 
Washington Court House, Ohio. He was edu- 
cated in the public schools and studied law 
at the University of Michigan. He began prac- 
tice at Washington Court House in 1881 and 
in 1893 removed to Columbus, Ohio, where he 
was in practice from 1902 to 1921. He was 
active in politics and was one of the leaders 
responsible for the nomination and election of 
President Harding, in whose cabinet he became 
Attorney General in 1921. Prior to that time 
he had served in the Ohio House of Representa- 
tives for two terms. Following the death of 
President Harding in August, 1923, Mr. Daugh- 
erty was retained in office by President Cool- 
idge. Throughout his term of service he had 
been subject to severe criticism and this cul- 
minated in 1922 in an effort to bring impeach- 
ment proceedings in the House of Representa- 
tives. This failed on the ground that the evi- 
dence did not warrant the proceedings. In 
March, 1923, as a result of charges instigated 
chiefly by Senator Wheeler of Montana, a com- 
mittee of the Senate began an investigation in- 
to Mr. Daugherty’s administration of his office. 
In spite of great pressure brought to bear upon 
him, President Coolidge refused to ask for Mr. 
Daugherty’s resignation until the charges had 
been heard. Following Mr. Daugherty’s refusal 
to furnish certain information to the commit- 
tee, President Coolidge asked for and received 
his resignation on Mar. 28, 1924. 
DAVENPORT, EvGENE (1856— yet 
‘American agriculturist (see Vor. VI). From 
1895 to 1922, he was dean of the College of 
Agriculture at the University of Illinois, and 
in the latter year was made professor emeritus. 
Until 1922, he was director of the Agricultural 
Experiment Station and professor of threm- 
matology at the University of Illinois. He 
wrote many agricultural bulletins for the ex- 
periment stations of Michigan and _ Illinois. 
DAVENPORT, GerorGE WILLIAM (1870- 
). An American Protestant Episcopal 
bishop, born at Brandon, Vt. He studied at 
Hobart College and was graduated from the 
General Theological Seminary in 1896, in which 
year he was also ordained to the priesthood. 
Subsequently he was rector of various churches 
in the East, until he was consecrated bishop on 
Sept. 15, 1920, when he went to live at Easton, 
Md. While in Burlington, he served as provin- 
cial secretary of the first province. 
DAVIDSON, Jo (1883- ). An American 
sculptor born in New York City of Russian par- 
ents. He has won fame for his sculptures by 
the interpretation of the mental and physical 
in his subjects. His art is expressive of sub- 
dued emotion and characterized by massiveness 
of line. He is essentially sophisticated with a 
sophistication which does away with poses, at- 
titudes and conventional mannerisms in his por- 
traits. He struck out a line for himself and 
won recognition in Paris, America and London. 
Besides his many portraits, Mr. Davidson de- 
signed the United States War Industries Badge. 
He also designed a heroic group for the French 
government to commemorate the first victory 
of the Marne. 


DAVIDSON COLLEGE. An institution at 


363 


DAVIES 


Davidson, N. C., founded in 1837. During the 
years 1914-24 the student body increased from 
335 to 575, the teaching staff from 15 to 31, 
and the productive endowment from $284,745 to 
$630,000. Because of a fire which destroyed 
10,000 books, the number of volumes in the li- 
brary decreased from 23,276 to 21,000. Income 
increased from $48,557 to $206,000. Three 
large fireproof dormitories housing 340 students 
were erected at a cost of $225,000, and a cen- 
tral heating plant, a laundry, and homes 
for professors were built. Twenty-nine courses 
were added to the curriculum, and the entrance 
requirements were raised. President, William 
J. Martin. 

DAVIES, ARTHUR B._ (1862— To ae 
American painter (see Vor. VI). In 1916, he 
was awarded the first W. A. Clark prize and 
Corcoran gold medal. His manner continued 
highly individualistic, his rebellion against the 
existing order still softened by the romantic, 
mystic atmosphere with which he surrounded 
his subjects. In his later works, among them 
“Sea, Wind and Sky,” “Strewing Dust,” and 
“Orchard of Pleasant Bounties,” something of 
the mathematical or intellectual appeared to be 
displacing his earlier instinctive rhythm. By 
some, his feeling for abstract beauty was felt 
to be verging on preciosity. 

DAVIES, Sir Louis Henry (1845-1924). A 
Canadian jurist (see VoLt. VI). From 1882, he 
was elected successively in the Dominion House 
of Commons, and continued a member until his 
appointment as chief justice of the Supreme 
Court of Canada in 1918. In the same year, 
Chief Justice Davies became Deputy Governor- 
General of Canada. 

DAVIES, Sir (HENRY) WALFORD 
(1869- ). A British organist and compos- 
er, born at Oswestry, England. He received his 
first musical education as a chorister in St. 
George’s chapel, Windsor. From 1885 to 1890, 
he studied organ with Sir W. Parratt, acting 
frequently as his assistant. In 1890, he won 
a scholarship at the Royal College of Music, 
where for four years he studied composition, at 
the same time holding positions as organist. 
In 1895, he succeeded Rostro as professor of 
counterpoint at the Royal College of Music, 
remaining there till 1919, when he became pro- 
fessor of music at the University of Aber- 
ystwyth. He also was conductor of the London 
Church Choir Association (1901-13) and of the 
Bach Choir (1903-07). He was knighted in 
1922. His works include an oratorio, The Tem- 
ple; three symphonies; two overtures, Dedica- 
tion and Festal; two suites for orchestra, Par- 
thenia and Wordsworth; a Short Requiem A 
cappella; three piano quartets; two string quar- 
tets; three violin sonatas; a horn sonata; an- 
thems, songs and part-songs. He also pub- 
lished Music and Christian Worship’ (1913). 

DAVIES, Witt1Am HENrRy (1870- ). 
Welsh poet and author, born at Newport, 
He began life as a picture-frame maker, but 
after completing his apprenticeship, he tramped 
through England and America, picking fruit, 
selling pins and needles, etc., and crossed the 
ocean several times on cattle boats. His 
poems include The Soul’s Destroyer °(1907), 
Forty New Poems (1918), The Hour of Magic 
and Other Poems (1922); and his prose works 
are The Autobiography of a Super-Tramp 
(1908), Beggars, A Weak Woman, The True 
Traveler, Nature, and A Poet's Pilgrimage. 


-DAVIS 


DAVIS, CHARLES Harotp (1856- ). An 
American painter (see Vor. VI). The change 
from his earlier tendency to interpret nature in 
her more sombre moods is to be seen in such 
later paintings as “The Sunny Hillside,” “In 
Golden Light,” and “On the West Wind,” where 
hill and tree, as well as cloud, are used expres- 
sively, and a spirit of light and joy predom- 
inates. ? 

DAVIS, Harvey NATHANIEL (1881- ys 
An American physicist, born at Providence, R. 
I. He was graduated in 1901 at Brown Uni- 
versity and received his Ph.D. at Harvard in 
1906. He was instructor of physics at Harvard 
1905-10, and in 1919, after successive promo- 
tions, he became professor of mechanical engi- 
neering. He also served with the General Elec- 
tric Company during 1917-18, in charge of 
their turbine department; and in 1921 became 
consulting engineer to the United States Bu- 
reau of Mines. During the War, he was as- 
sociated with the Air Service of the United 
States Army as a mechanical engineer. His va- 
rious original investigations have had to do 
with the thermal properties of matter. He is 
the author (with L. S. Marks) of Steam Tables 
and Diagrams (1908), and (with N. H. Black) 
of Practical Physics for High Schools (1913). 


DAVIS, HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS 
(1874- ). An English historian (see VoL. 
VI). In 1915, he was a member of the War 


Trade Intelligence Department, and the follow- 
ing year of the War Trade Advisory Committee. 
He was made Commander in the Order of the 
British Empire in 1918. He became director of 
the Dictionary of National Biography (1920), 
and professor of modern history in the Univer- 
sity of Manchester (1921). His works in- 
clude: Political Thought of Treitschke (1914) ; 
Why We Are at War (in collaboration, 1914) ; 
contributions to the History of the Peace Con- 
ference (ed. Temperley, 1920, etc.) and to The 
Encyclopedia Britannica (12th ed., 1922). He 
edited Oxford Pamphlets (1914-15). 

DAVIS, JAMES Cox  (1867—- ). An 
American lawyer, born at Koekuk, Iowa. After 
passing through the public schools of Keokuk 
and London, Ont., he was admitted to the bar 
in 1877 and began practice in Keokuk, where 
he remained until 1903. He acted as city solic- 
itor of Keokuk, and as mayor. Under the Fed- 
eral administration of railways, he was general 
solicitor for the Chicago and Northwestern, and 
in 1920-21 he was general counsel of the 
United States Railroad Administration. In the 
latter year, he was appointed Director-General 
and Agent of the President in settling contro- 
versies arising out of Federal control. 

DAVIS, JAMES JOHN  (1873- ) ean 
American cabinet member, born at Tredegar, 
South Wales, where he was educated at the 
publie schools. He came to the United States 
in 1881 and worked in iron mills in Pittsburgh 
and in Elwood, Ind. From 1898 on, he was ac- 
tive in city and State politics in Indiana and 


in various fraternal organizations. He was 
named Secretary of Labor in 1921. 

DAVIS, JoHn WILLIAM (1873- Aman 
American lawyer and_ diplomatist, born at 


Clarksburg, W. Va., and educated at Washing- 
ton and Lee University. He was admitted to 
the bar in 1895, and from 1896 to 1897 was as- 
sistant professor of law in Washington and Lee 
University. During the period 1897-1913, he 
practiced law at Clarksburg, took an active in- 


364 


DAWES 


terest in State and national politics, and was 
elected to Congress. From 1913 to 1918, he 
was solicitor-general of the United States, and 
from the latter year until 1921 he was ambas- 
sador to Great Britain. In 1924, he was Demo- 
cratic nominee for the Presidency. See UNITED 
States, History. 

DAVIS, KatTHERINE BEMENT (1860- iF 
An American sociologist (see Vor. VI). She 
was appointed, by Mayor Mitchel, Commissioner 
of Correction of New York City, for the term 
Jan. 1, 1914, to Dec. 28, 1915. From 1915 to 
1917, she was chairman of the Parole Commis- 
sion. In 1918, she was director of the women’s 
work section of the Social Hygiene Division of 
the Commission on Training Camp Activities, 
and in the same year, was appointed general 
secretary of the Bureau of Social Hygiene. 

DAVIS, Norman HH. (1878- ). An 
American statesman, born in Bedford Co., 
Tenn., and educated at Vanderbilt University 
and the University of California. In 1902, he 
interested himself in the sugar, banking, and 
other businesses in Cuba. During the War, he 
was active on various commissions and hoards 
and as special delegate to foreign countries, 
particularly as regards financial problems. He 
was financial adviser to the American Peace 
Delegates in Paris and was a member of the 
Armistice Commission and of the Supreme Eco- 
nomie Council. In 1919-20, he was Assistant 
Secretary of the Treasury, and from 1920 to 
1921, he was alternately Under Secretary of 
State and Acting Secretary of State. 

DAVIS, Owen (1874- ). An American 
dramatist born in Portland, Me., who began 
writing plays in 1898 and has written more 
than 100 plays produced in New York. Of 
these about 50 were produced by A. H.. Woods 
nd were mostly melodramas. His most fre- 
cent popular plays were: The Family Cup- 
board; Sinners; Mile a Minute; Forever After ; 
Opportunity; The Detour (1921); Icebound 
(1922), which was awarded the Pulitzer Prize 
for the year. 

DAVISON, Henry Pomeroy (1867-1922). 
An American banker born at Troy, Pa., June 
13, 1867. After a school education at Greylock 
Institute, South Williamstown, Mass., he was 
errand boy in a bank conducted by his uncle at 
Troy, Pa. He later went to the Astor Place 
Bank, New York City, remaining there from 
1891 to 1894. He became vice-president of the 
First National Bank in 1902 and afterwards a 
member of the firm of J. P. Morgan and Com- 
pany. He was chairman of the executive com- 
mission and a director of the Bankers’ Trust 
Company; director of the American Foreign Se- 
curities Company; and from 1917 to 1919, he 
was chairman of the War Council of the Amer- 
ican Red Cross, during the time when $300,000,- 
000 was raised by popular subscription for war 
sufferers, and he was elected chairman of the 
governing board of the World League of Red 
Cross Societies in Paris, May, 1919. He died 
May 6, 1922. 

DAWES, CHARLES GATES (1865- ). An 
American public official (see Vou. VI). In 
1917, he was in France on General Pershing’s 
administrative staff. He was chairman of the 
general purchasing board, and also general pur- 
chasing agent for the United States Army in 
France. In 1919, he returned to the United 
States, and in 1921 was appointed by the Presi- 
dent as director of the newly created Bureau 


& 
Fs 


“e ys ~ 


DAWES REPORT 365 


of the Budget, and organized the first budget of 
the United States government. On July 8, 
1922, he retired from the Budget Bureau, and 
in November of the same year was elected di- 
rector of the Chicago and Great Western Rail- 
way Company. At the beginning of 1924, Gen- 
eral Dawes was appointed chairman of a group 
of experts to ascertain Germany’s capacity to 
pay reparations for the losses caused by the 
War. ‘This Reparations Commission arrived in 
Berlin on Jan. 30, 1924, and submitted a report 
on Apr. 9, 1924. The report was favorably re- 
ceived in practically all the Allied and neutral 
countries, and even Germany was not wholly 
hostile to its provisions. On June 12, 1924, 
General Dawes was nominated for vice-presi- 
dent of the United States by the Republican 
party in convention at Cleveland, Ohio. 

DAWES REPORT. See REPARATIONS. 

DAWSON, Atrrec Jonn (1872- yse0An 
English novelist (see Vor. VI). He served 
throughout the War (1914-19), and was 
awarded the Croix de Guerre with Palm, and 
was made a member of the Order of the British 
Empire. He entered the service in 1914 as tem- 
porary lieutenant, was advanced to the rank of 
captain the following year, and thereafter was 
attached to other branches of the service, in- 
cluding the Military Intelligence Staff of the 
War Office, and the Air Intelligence Staff. In 
1918, he joined the Royal Air Force, becoming 
major the same year. In 1919-21, he was di- 
rector of information to the Government of 
Bombay. He is author of: How to Help 
Lord Kitchener (1914); Somme Battle Stories 
(1916); Back to Blighty (1917); For Prance 
(1917), and Everybody's Dog Book (1922). 

DAWSON, CONINGSBY (WILLIAM ) 
'(1883- > ). An Anglo-American author (see 
Vout. VI). He joined the Canadian Army at 
the front in 1916, and continued in service 
until the end of the War. After having been 
wounded, he came twice to the United States 
(1917, 1918) on lecture tours. In 1918, he in- 
vestigated, for the British Ministry of Infor- 
mation, American military preparedness in 
France. In 1919, he went to England to study 
European reconstruction problems, and _subse- 
quently lectured on the subject of the United 
States. He also visited and reported on the devas- 
tated regions of Central and Eastern Europe 
at the request of Herbert Hoover. His recent 
works include: Florence on a Certain Night 
(1914); The Raft (1914); Slaves of Freedom 
(1916); The Seventh Christmas (1917, 1921); 
Carry On (1917); The Glory of the Trenches 
(1918); Out To Win (1918); Living Bayonets 
(1919); The Test of Scarlet (1919); The Little 
House (1920), It Might Have Happened to You 
(1921); The Kingdom Round the Corner (1921, 
1923), and Christmas Outside Eden (1922). 
He also edited, with W. J. Dawson (q.v.), Best 
Short Stories (1923). 

DAWSON, Mires MENANDER (1863- yh 
An American lawyer (see Vor. VI). He was 
adviser to the Governor of New York and the 
commission regarding workmen’s compensation 
in 1914. He was special counsel for the United 
States in the tax litigation in 1915 and 1917. 
In 1917 and 1921 he was adviser to the War 
Risk Bureau, and in 1918-19, special attorney 
examiner for the United States Shipping Board 
Emergency Fleet Corporation. In the. latter 
year, he was also counsel and actuary for the 
commission to investigate the New York. State 


DEAN 


Insurance Fund. He is the author of The Eth- 


ics of Confucius (1915), and the translator of 


ad a poetical tragedy, by Henrik Ibsen 
(1916). 

DAWSON, WirtiAm JAmeEs (1854— if 
An English clergyman and author (see VOL. 
VI). He is the author of: Robert Shenstone 
(novel, 1917) ; The Father of a Soldier (1917) ; 
The War Eagle (1918); Chalmers Comes Back 
(1919), and The Borrowdale Tragedy (1920). 
Me edited, with Coningsby Dawson (q.v.), Best 
Short Stories (1923). 

Dey se, CLAVE. (181 i ). An American 
university professor (see VoLt. VI). He was 
chief of the Balkan Division of the American 
Commission to Negotiate Peace (Paris, 1918- 
19). He published a revised and enlarged edi- 
tion of his History of Commerce (1922) and 
The Question of the Balkans, a_ brochure, 
(1920). 

DAY, Hotman Francis (1865— | Pheagab a1 
(American author (see Vor. VI). Among his lat- 
er works are: The Landloper (1915); Along 
Came Ruth (play produced in New York, 
1914); Blow the Man Down (1916); Where 
Your Treasure Is (1917); Kavanagh’s Clare 
(1917); The Rider of the King Log (1919); 
When Egypt Went Broke (1920); All Wool 
Morrison (1921). 

DAY, JAMES  Roscozk (1845-1923). An 
American educator (see Vout. VI). In 1922, he 
became chancellor emeritus of Syracuse Uni- 
versity. He was famous as a defender of “big 
business.” During and after the War he -criti- 
cized the Wilson administration and the League 
of Nations unsparingly. He published My 
Neighbor the Workingman, and at the time of 
his death was about to start on an autobiog- 
raphy. He died at Atlantic City on Jan. 13, 
1923. 

DAYTON. A city of Ohio. The population 
rose from 116,577 in 1910 to 152,559 in 1920, 
and to 165,530, by estimate of the Bureau of 
the Census, for 1923. A _ flood prevention 
works, which was considered one of the 
world’s greatest engineering projects, was 
begun immediately after the flood of 1913 and 
completed in 1923, at a cost of $35,000,000. 
Five aviation fields were established at and 
near Dayton, which came to the fore as a centre 
of aviation. .The United States government 
aviation experiment laboratories were located at 
McCook Field, and a supply dépot and airplane 
manufacturing plant at Wilbur Wright Field, 
which was expanded to 5000 acres by a gift 
of the people of Dayton to the government. Early 
in 1924 a city planning and zoning commission 
was appointed. 

DEALEY, JAMES QUAYLE (1861- ). An 
American university professor (see Vor. VI). 
He was president of the American Sociological 
Association in 1920, and in 1921 went to China 
as exchange professor and lecturer. He is au- 
thor of The Growth of State Constitutions 
(1915); Sociology—Its Development and Appli- 
cations (1920); and State and Government 
(1921). 

DEAN, ArtHur LyMANn (1878- ). An 
American chemist, born at Southwick, Mass. 
He was graduated at Harvard in 1900 and re- 
ceived his Ph.D. from Yale in 1902. During 
1902-07, he taught plant physiology at Shef- 
field Scientific School, Yale, and was also a 
Carnegie research assistant during 1904-05 as 
well as chief of the section of wood chemistry 


DEARBORN 


in the United States Forest Service during 
1905-07. He had charge of the chemical labor- 
atory of A. D. Little in Boston during 1907-08, 
but at the close of the year returned to the 
Sheffield Scientific School, being assistant pro- 
fessor until 1914 when he was called to the 
presidency of the University of Hawaii in Hon- 
olulu. His original investigations have in- 
cluded studies on inulin, proteolytic enzymes, 
creosote oils, and chaulmoogra oil in treatment 
of leprosy, on all of which he has published 
valuable papers. 

DEARBORN, GEORGE VAN NEss 
(1869- ). An American psychologist and 
surgeon, born at Nashua, N. H. He was edu- 
cated at Dartmouth College and received his 
medical degree from the College of Physicians 
and Surgeons, Columbia University, in 1893. 
He then devoted himself to graduate study in 
psychology at Harvard and Columbia Univer- 
sities, and following his doctorate he became a 
professor of psychology and education. The 
greater part of his career was spent at the 
Sargent Normal School, Cambridge, Mass. 
Besides various contributions to professional 
journals, he is the author of a number of books 
on psychology and hygiene, the more impor- 
tant of which are the following: The Emotion 
of Joy (1899); Textbook of Human Physiology 


(1908); Motor-Sensory Development (1910), 
and Physiology and Hygiene (1921). 
DEARBORN, WALTER FENNO (1878— . 


An American psychologist and educator born at 
Marblehead, Mass. He was educated at Wes- 
leyan and Columbia Universities, receiving his 
degree of Ph.D. from the latter institution in 
1905. He pursued medical studies in German 
at the University of Munich. He taught edu- 
cational psychology at the University of Wis- 
consin, and in 1909 was called to the faculty of 
Harvard University. One of the leading au- 
thorities in educational psychology, Professor 
Dearborn has contributed numerous papers on 
the psychology of reading, the practice experi- 
ment in learning, intelligence tests, mental hy- 
giene, and school training. 

DEATH. See ZooLoey. 

DEAVER, JoHn Buarr (1855— ye ATL 
American surgeon, who received his medical de- 
gree from the University of Pennsylvania in 
1878, and after holding several other teaching 
and hospital positions was appointed Barton 
professor of surgery in his alma mater and 
chief surgeon to the University Hospital. His 
major publications include: Treatise on Ap- 
pendicitis (1896), which was expanded in its 
fourth edition (1913); Surgical Anatomy, 3 
vols. (1889-93); Hnlargement of the Prostate 
(1905); Surgery of the Upper Abdomen, in col- 
laboration with Ashhurst, 2 vols. (1909, 19138) ; 
Surgical Anatomy of the Head and Neck 
(1912); The Breast, in collaboration with 
McFarland (1917); Hacursions into Surgical 
Subjects, with Reimann (1923). 

DE BLOIS, AusTeEN KENNEDY (1866— ue 
A Canadian clergyman, born at Wolfville, N. S., 
educated at Brown University, and at Berlin 
and Leipzig, Germany. He became president of 
Shurtleff College, Alton, Ill, in 1894. During 
1900-01, he traveled in Europe and Africa, and 
on returning to the United States became pas- 
tor of several Baptist churches successively. 
He wrote: Bible Study in American Colleges 
(1899); The Pioneer School (1900); Imperial- 
ism and Democracy (1901); History of the 


366 


DE LA GORCE 


First Baptist Church in Boston, 1665-1915 
(1916); Life of John Mason Peck, Prophet of 
the Prairies (1917); The Message of Wisdom: 
Studies in the Book of Proverbs (1920). 

DEBS, Eucene Victor (1855— ).» An 
American labor organizer (see Vor. VI). He 
was convicted of violation of the espionage act 
in September, 1918, and was sentenced to 10 
years’ imprisonment in the penitentiary. The 
decision was sustained by the Supreme Court 
of the United States on Mar. 10, 1919, and he 
went to prison on Apr. 13, 1919. He was par- 
doned by President Harding on Dec. 24, 1921, 
but his political rights were not restored. 

DEBT, PusLic. See FINANCE AND BANKING. 

DEFLATION. See AGRICULTURE. 

DE FOREST, Lee (1873— ). An Ameri- 
can inventor (see Vor. VI). In 1915, he was 
awarded a gold medal by the San Francisco Ex- 
position for radio telephone. In 1919, he had 
taken out over 120 patents on radio devices, the 
most important being the “Audion,” a detecter, 
oscillator and amplifier which made _ possible 
telephone service both by wire and’ wireless 
across the continent. 

DEISSMANN, Gustav ADotr (1866-___). 
A German New Testament scholar, professor at 
the University of Berlin, Geheimkonsistorial- 
rat (1916- ), member of the Brandenburg 
Provincial Synod and of the Prussian General 
Synod from 1914 on (see Vout. VI). He deliv- 
ered a course of lectures for the clergymen in 
1916-17 in Warsaw, Vilna, and Brussels. In 
1918, he was for the second time Olaus-Petri 
Lecturer at the University of Upsala, and the 
following year became a member of the German 
Evangelical Synod in Dresden. His works pub- 
lished since 1913 include: Der Lehrstoff fiir 
Religiongeschichte (1914); Der Krieg und 
die Religion (1914); Deutscher Schwertsegen 


(1915. 28th ed., 1916); Inneres Aufgebot (1st 
to 3d ed., 1915); Hvangelischer Wochenbrief 
(1914-21). 


DELACHENAL, JEAN PIERRE FRANCOIS 
RoLanp (1854-1923). A French historian. He 
was born at Lyons, Apr. 5, 1854, and entered in 
1879 the French paleographic institute, the 
Ecole des Cartes. In 1885, he published a 
learned Histoire des Avocats du Parlement de 
Paris. His monumental work on Charles V oc- 
cupied 25 years of labor; three volumes were 
published from 1897 to 1916, and at his death 
two additional volumes remained unpublished. 
Delachenal was also the author of the Grandes 
Chroniques de France (1910-1916-1920). A 
member of the Academy of Inscriptions (1920), 
Delachenal was affiliated with a number of 
learned bodies, including the French historical 
society and the Royal Society of England, of 
which he was a foreign correspondent. He died 
in Paris on Jan. 31, 1923. 

DELAGOA BAY. See PorTUGuESE EAst 
AFRICA. 

DE LA GORCEH, PirrRE-FRANGCOIS-GUSTAVE 
(1846- ). A French historian, born at 
Vannes and educated at the Institution Saint 
Jean (Douai) and the University of Paris. He 
began his career in 1872, at Rocroi, as juge 
suppléant, and held positions subsequently at 
various places, but he resigned in 1880, finding 
that he could not follow his conscience in judg- 
ing cases. He then practiced law for several 
years, but finally gave that up, too, and devoted 
himself thereafter to historical studies. In 
1895, he was awarded the pria Alfred Née by 


DELAND 


the French Academy, and in 1900 the grand 
prix Gobert. In 1907, he was admitted to the 
Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, 
and in 1914 was elected to the French Academy, 
being received in 1917. He belongs to the 
“classic” school of historians, that is, his writ- 
ings, while based on solid study, are not an- 
notated. They are literary, and he does not 
hesitate to express personal opinions. He 
writes from the point of view of a Roman Cath- 
olic and a conservative. His works include, be- 
sides contributions to periodicals: Histoire de 
la seconde République francaise, 2 vols. (1887) ; 
Histoire du second Empire, 7 vols. (1894-1905) ; 
Histoire religieuse de la Révolution frangaise, 
vols. i and ii (1909-12). 

DELAND, Margaret WADE (1857-— yi. 
An American author (see Vout. VI). She is the 
author of: The Hands of Esau (1914); Around 
Old Chester (1915); The Rising Tide (1916, 
1918); Old Chester Tales (1919. Introduction 
by Vida D. Scudder); Promises of Alice 
(1919); Small Things (1919); Old Chester Se- 
cret (1920); °*The Vehement Flame (1922). 

DELANO, EpiItH BARNARD (?- po. fAn 
American author, born at Washington. She 
wrote: Zebedee V (1912); The Land of Con- 
tent (19138); The Colonel’s Experiment (1913) ; 
Rags (1915); The White Pearl (1916); June 
(1916); To-morrow Morning (1917); Two 
Alike (1918). She also wrote feature photo- 
plays, and contributed to many magazines. 

DELANO, FReperRic ApDRIAN (1863- ie 
An American railroad president (see Vor. VI). 
He was appointed by President Wilson to the 
Federal Reserve Board in 1914, but resigned in 
June, 1918, to join the army. He was commis- 
sioned major of the Engineering Corps and as- 
signed to the staff of General Atterbury, direc- 
tor general of transportation at Tours, France. 
He was promoted to be colonel of the transpor- 
tation corps in May, 1919, and discharged on 
Oct. 25, 1919. He was appointed receiver for 
the Supreme Court of the United States in the 
Red River Boundary Case. 

DELANO, Lyman (1883- ). An Ameri- 
ean railway official, born in Newburgh, N. Y. 
He graduated from Harvard in 1906, and began 
his railway career in 1909 with the A.C. L. 
R.R., eventually becoming the executive vice- 
president. He was an official and director in 
many other railroads and terminal companies. 
During the period of the War, he was Federal 
manager for the A. C. L. and other railroads. 

DELANO, Wu.tam ApdAms_ (1874— \e 
An American architect, born in New York City 
and educated at Yale University and at the 
Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris. He began prac- 
tice in New York in 1903, and from that time 
until 1910 was professor of design in Columbia 
University. He collaborated on the plans for 
the Knickerbocker, Colony and India House club 
buildings in New York. 

DELAWARE. Delaware is the forty-seventh 
of the United States in.size, 2370 square miles, 
and the forty-sixth in population; capital, Do- 
ver. - The total population increased from 202,- 
322 in 1910 to 223,003 in 1920, a gain of 10.2 
per cent. The white population rose from 171,- 
102 to 192,615, while the number of negroes fell 
from 31,181 to 30,335. The native white pop- 
ulation increased from 153,682 to 172,805; the 
foreign-born whites from 17,420 to 19,810. The 
urban population grew from 97,085 to 120,767, 
while the rural population decreased from 105,- 

13 


367 


DELAWARE 


237 to 102,236. The only large city in the State 
is Wilmington (q.v.), with a population of 110,- 
168 in 1920 as compared with 87,411 in 1910. 

Agriculture. While the population of the 
State showed an increase of 10.2 per cent in the 
decade 1910-20, the number of farms decreased 
6.4 per cent, from 10,836 to 10,140, and the 
acreage from 1,038,866 to 944,511. The total 
value of farm property showed an apparent in- 
crease from $63,179,201 to $80,137,614, and the 
average value per farm from $5830 to $7903. 
In interpreting statements of comparative val- 
ues for the decade 1914-24, the inflation of cur- 
rency in the latter part of the period is to be 
taken into consideration. The index number of 
prices paid to producers of farm products in 
the United States was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 
1920. The total percentage of land used for ag- 
ricultural purposes in 1920 was 75.1, compared 
with 82.6 in 1910. The percentage of improved 
farm land increased from 68.7 to 69.1. Of the 
total of 10,140 farms in 1920, 6010 were worked 
by owners, compared with 6178 in 1910; 144 
by managers, compared with 123; 3986 by ten- 
ants, compared with 4535. The white farmers 
in 1920 numbered 9268, compared with 9914 in 
1910; native-born white, 8905, compared with 
9504; foreign-born white, 363, compared with 
410; Negro, 872, compared with 922. The to- 
tal number of dairy cows in 1920 was 37,878; 
35,708 in 1910. The number of sheep decreased 
from 4415 to 3220. The estimated production 
of the chief farm crops in 1923 was: corn, 6143 
bushels; wheat, 1,908,000; oats, 176,000; pota- 
toes, 724,000; sweet potatoes, 934,000; and hay, 
82,000 tons. Comparative figures for 1913 are 
corn, 6,206,000 bushels; wheat, 1,638,000; oats, 
122,000; potatoes, 957,000; and hay, 94,000 
tons. In 1923, the apple and peach crops were 
estimated at 859,000 and 203,000 bushels, re- 
spectively. 

Mining. Delaware has no important min- 
eral resources. Those produced include clay 
products, sand, gravel, and stone, to a total 
value between $350,000 and $400,000 per year. 
In 1921 the figure was $379,785, compared with 
$288,516 in 1914. 

Manufactures. Delaware is not an im- 
portant industrial State. The only city of more 
than 10,000 inhabitants is Wilmington, and the 
industries of the State are to a large extent 
concentrated here. This city had 73.3 per cent 
of the value of manufactured products in 1919. 
In 1909 there were 726 manufacturing estab- 
lishments; in 1914, 808; and in 1919, 668. Per- 
sons engaged in manufacture in 1909 numbered 
23,984; in 1914, 25,533, and in 1919, 32,972. 
The capital invested increased from $60,905,671 
in 1909 to $69,323,927 in 1914, and $148,207,598 
in 1919. The total value of products apparent- 
ly increased from $52,839,619 in 1909 to $56,- 
034,966 in 1914, and $165,073,009 in 1919; but 
this abnormal increase is due largely to the 
change in industrial conditions caused by the 
War, and these figures cannot be used to meas- 
ure the growth of manufactures between the 
industrial census of 1914 and 1919. It will be 
noted that the number of establishments de- 
creased to a large extent in 1919. The most 
important industries in point of value of prod- 
ucts are those connected with the manufacture 
and tanning of leather. These were valued at 
$12,079,000 in 1909; $9,183,000 in 1914; and 
$50,138,000 in 1919. Pulp goods rank second, 
with a product valued at $1,032,000 in 1909; 


DELAWARE 368 


1914, $2,145,000; and 1919, $9,385,000. Car 
construction and repair products in 1909 were 
valued at $3,251,000; 1914, $3,551,000, and 1919, 
$7,687,000; and the products of iron and steel, 
steel work and rolling mills in 1909 at $1,715,- 
000; in 1914, $1,669,000; in 1919, $7,115,000. 
Wilmington had, in 1909, 261 establishments, 
with a product valued at $38,069,000; 1914, 319, 
with a product of $39,403,000; and in 1919, 262, 
with a product of $121,040,000. 

Education. The development of education in 
Delaware in the decade 1913-23 was slow but 
steady. As in other southern States the mix- 
ture of whites and Negroes in the population 
adds to the difficulty of educational advance- 
ment. In 1919 a new school code was put into 
effect. A school law, passed by the legislature 
in 1920 and modified by the Legislature of 1921, 
provided for a bi-partisan State Board of Edu- 
cation; for improved methods for raising funds 
for school purposes; consolidation of school dis- 
tricts by referendum vote of the districts in- 
volved; continuation of vocational training in 
agriculture and home economics, and State sup- 
port of high schools. Sixty scholarships for 
the training of teachers in the University of 
Delaware were provided in 1919 by Pierre S. 
Du Pont and other members of the Du Pont 
family. The period showed great improvement 
in the supervision of rural schools and in the 
provision of industrial training in the colored 
schools. The enrollment in the public schools 
increased from 36,000 in 1913 to 39,000 in 1921- 
22, In the elementary white schools in the lat- 
ter year 28,278 were enrolled, and in the white 
high schools 4479, a total of 32,757. In the 
colored elementary schools 6227 were enrolled; 
in the colored high schools, 158. The total ex- 
penditure for public schools for the year ending 
June 20, 1922, was $2,189,032, of which $1,338,- 
149 was paid to special districts and the re- 
mainder expended by the State Board of Edu- 
cation. The percentage of illiteracy in Dela- 
ware decreased from 10 in 1910 to 7.4 in 1920; 
among the native whites, from 4.2 to 2.6; 
among the foreign-born whites, from 19.7 to 
18.2; and among the Negroes, from 32.9 to 24.6. 

Finance. For finance, see STATE FINANCES, 

Political and Other Events. Political con- 
trol in Delaware, in the decade 1914-24, fluctu- 
ated between the Republican and Democratic 
parties. In 1914 elections were held for a rep- 
resentative in Congress and for State Treasurer 
and Auditor. A Republican candidate for the 
House of Representatives, Thomas W. Miller, 
was elected. Great industrial prosperity was 
brought about by the War. Some of the larg- 
est ammunition factories in America are locat- 
ed in the State; they received large orders from 
the warring countries. Several serious explo- 
sions occurred in ammunition factories during 
1915. In 1916 Josiah Wolcott, Democratic can- 
didate, was elected to the United States Senate, 
defeating Senator Du Pont, while John G. 
Townsend, Republican candidate for governor, 
was elected. In the presidential election of this 
year Charles E. Hughes received 26,011 votes; 
Woodrow Wilson, 24,753. In 1918 no elections 
for State officers were held; L. Heisler Ball, Re- 
publican, was elected Senator. Elections were 
held in 1920 for governor and other State of- 
ficers. William D. Denny, Republican, won the 
governorship. In the presidential election of 
this year, Warren G. Harding received 52,858 
votes and James M. Cox, 39,897. In 1922, 


DELITZSCH 


Thomas F. Bayard, Democrat, was elected to 
the United States Senate, defeating Henry A. 
Du_ Pont. 

Legislation. The most important activities 
of the State Legislature, which meets biennially, 
were as follows during the decade 1914-1924. 
In 1915 an agricultural commission was cre- 
ated. In 1917 the Jaws relating to the admin- 
istration of the State government were amend- 
ed, and so were the child labor laws. A work- 
men’s compensation act was passed, and meas- 
ures were enacted looking toward the preven- 
tion of monopolies and unfair discrimination in 
the buying and selling of commodities. A com- 
mission was appointed to study the educational 
system of the State and make recommendations 
for necessary changes. The Legislature of 1919 
created a banking department, passed several 


“new school laws, and amended the criminal law 


of the State. In 1921 the Legislature imposed 
an income tax for school purposes, amended the 
law in respect to alien land ownership, provid- 
ed a tax on shares of banking corporations, es- 
tablished a child welfare commission, amended 
the laws relating to compulsory school attend- 
ance, and adopted legislation for carrying out 
the educational programme of 1920. This work 
for education by the Legislature was greatly 
augmented by gifts worth millions of dollars 
from Pierre S. Du Pont in university, high 
school, and graded school buildings and equip- 
ment. 

DELBET, Pierre Louis Ernest ‘(1861— ye 
One of the leading surgeons of France. His 
chief hospital connection was with the Hotel- 
Dieu, and his principal works are: Dw traite- 
ment des aneurysmes externes (1889); Des sup- 
purations pelviennes chez la femme (1891) ; 
Legons de clinique chirurgicale faites a l’Hotel- 
Dieu (1899); Grands procés morbides (1907); 
Méthode de traitement des fractures (1916). 
In collaboration, he published: Affections chir- 
urgicales des artéres (1911, with Moquot) ; Mal- 
adies de Vanus et du rectum (1916, with 
Brechot) ;Biologie de la plaie de guerre (1918, 
with Fiessinger) ; Nouveau traité de chirurgie, 
with Le Dentu, which came out serially, the 
first volume in 1907. 

DELBRUCK, Hans D. L. (1848-_). 
Professor of history at the University of Berlin, 
Geheimregierungsrat (see VoL. VI). In 1920, 
he became a member of the Historical Committee 
for the Imperial Archives. His works pub- 
lished since 1913 include: Regierung und 
Volkswille (1914, 1920); Bismarcks Erbe 
(1915); Krieg und Politik, 3 vols. (1919); 
Geschichte der Kriegskunst, 4th vol. (1920) ; 
Kautsky und Harden (1920); Ludendorff, Tir- 
pitz, Falckenhayn (1920); Ludendorffs Selbst- 
portrdt (1922). 

DELCASSE, TufopHite (1852-1923). A 
French statesman. In 1913-14 he served as 
Ambassador at Petrograd, and from 1914 to 
1915 was Minister of Foreign Affairs. He had 
previously served iti this capacity in 1912. He 
Was recognized as one of the most eminent of 
French statesmen, and was best known as the 
founder of the Entente. 

DELITZSCH, FrieprRicH (1850—- hes see 
German Assyriologist (see VoL. VI) professor 
at the University of Berlin, member of the 
Akademie der Wissenschaften. His works pub- 
lished since 1913 include: Swmerische Gram- 
matik (1914); Sumerisches Glossar (1914) ; 
Die Grosse Tduschung (1920; Part 2, 1921, 


- 


DELL 369 


1922); Lese-und Schreibfehler im Alien Testa- 
ment (1920). 

DELL, FLoyp (1887- ). An American 
novelist and critic, born at Barry, Ill. He en- 
tered the field of journalism at, the age of 18 
and in six years was the literary editor of the 
Chicago Evening Post. In 1914, he went to 
New York to associate himself with Max Fast- 
man in the publication of The Masses, a period- 
ical with a radical economic policy and an ex- 
cellent literary department. Early attempts 
at writing did not reveal his true métier, but 
the, publication of his novel Mooncalf (1920) 
proved him a fictionist of the highest rank. He 
followed the success of this work with The 
Briary-Bush (1921). These together made a 
full-length portrait of the American youth of 
the period: ambitious, curious, esthetically- 
minded, but thwarted by the hostility of his en- 
vironment and his own sentimental heritage. 
Janet March (1923) was a less successful at- 
tempt to do the same thing for the young Amer- 
ican woman. Other books included: Were You 
Ever a Child? (1919); Looking at Life (1924). 

DELORME, Epmonp (1847- ). A French 
surgeon, surgeon-general of France before and 
during the recent War. Many years before the 
outbreak of hostilities he published his great 
work Traité de chirurgie de guerre in two vol- 
umes (1888-1893). When war was declared in 
1914, he promptly issued his manual, Précis de 
chirurgie de guerre, which was translated into 
English for the British Army in 1915. In the 
midst of the War, he published Chirurgie de 
guerre—fractures (1917); and at the close of 
the War, Les enseignements chirurgicales de la 
grand guerre (1919). 

DEMILLE, Cecit B(LountT) (1881- ). 
An American actor and motion-picture producer, 
educated at the Pennsylvania Military - College 
and the American Academy of Dramatic Arts. 
After being successively playwright, actor and 
theatrical producer, after 1914 he devoted him- 
self entirely to production for the moving pic- 
tures. His best work includes: Girl of the 
Golden West; The Warrens of Virginia; Car- 
men; Joan of Arc; The Dream Girl; The Woman 
God Forgot; The Devil Stone; The Whispering 
Chorus; Don’t Change Your Husband; For 
Better, For Worse; Male and Female; Why 
Change Your Wife; Something to Think About; 
The Affairs of Anatol; Fool’s Paradise; 
Manslaughter; The Ten Commandments, and 
Triumph. 

DE MORGAN, WILLIAM FREND (1839-1917). 
An English novelist (see Vou. VI). The Old 
Madhouse was published posthumously in 1919, 
and The Old Man’s Youth, De Morgan’s incom- 
pleted novel, was published, with additions by 
his widow, in 1921. 

DEMPSEY, Jack (1896- ). World’s 
heavyweight boxing champion, born as William 
Harrison at Manassa, Colo. He began his pug- 
ilistic career in 1915 and four years later de- 
feated Jess Willard for the world’s title at 
Toledo, Ohio. He has since successfully de- 
fended his laurels against many aspirers to the 
pugilistic throne, including Georges Carpentier, 
Tom Gibbons and Luis Firpo. He knocked out 
Carpentier in the fourth round of a scheduled 
15-round bout at Boyle’s Thirty Acres, New 
Jersey, in 1921 and won on a decision from 
Gibbons at Shelby, Montana, in 1923. His 
most spectacular battle was with Firpo at the 
Polo Grounds, New York City, which also oc- 


DENIS 


curred in 1923, Dempsey winning by a knock- 
out in the second round after having been 
knocked from the ring himself by his opponent 
in the first round. 

DE MUYTER, Ernest ( ?- ). A Bel- 
gian airman, contestant for the Gordon Bennett 
International Balloon Cup for several years. 
He won the Balloon race and the Cup in 1922 
and again dn 1923, 

DENBY, Epwin (1870- ). An American 
lawyer, born at Evansville, Ind. As a boy he 
went to Pekin with his father, then minister 
to China, and served in the Maritime Customs 
Service during 1887-94. He then returned to 
the United States, was graduated in law at the 
University of Michigan in 1896, and was ad- 
mitted to practice in the same year. In 1903, 
he was a member of the Michigan House of 
Representatives, then was elected from the 
First Michigan District to Congress, serving 
during 1905-11. During the war with Spain, 
he was a gunner’s mate on the Yosemite, and 
when the United States entered the recent war, 
he enlisted as a private in the United States 
Marine Corps, becoming a major on the Re- 
serves’ list in that corps.. By appointment of 
President Harding, he became Secretary of the 
Navy in March, 1921, but in response to a re- 
quest from Congress to President Coolidge, he 
resigned from his office in March, 1924, and re- 
turned to Detroit, where he resumed the prac- 
tice of his profession. 

DENGEL, PuiLtipep IGNaz (1874— ie 
German philosopher and professor of general 
history at the University of Innsbruck. He 
was born at Elbigenalp in the Tirol, and stud- 
ied at the universities of Innsbruck and Berlin. 
He was elected member of the Austrian Histor- 
ical Institute of Rome and specialized on Ital- 
ian history and politics. His principal works 
are: Geschichte des Palazzo di San Marco in 
Rom bekannt als Palazzo di Venezia (1909); 
Die verschollene Mappa mundi im Palazzo di 
Venezia (1912); Der italienische Irredentismus 
(1912); Palast und Basilica di San Marco 
(1913) ; Die Siidgrenze Deutsch-Tirols (1919); 
Italien auf falschem Wege (1919); Sidtirol im 
Lichte des italienischen Irredentismus, Nation- 
alismus und Imperialismus (1919). 

DENIKIN, ANTON (1872- ). A Rus- 
sian soldier. After years of service in the Rus- 
Sian armies, he was Chief of the General Staff 
under Generals Alexeiey and Brussilov during 
the War. Following the Russian revolution, he 
was placed in command of the western front, 
succeeding General Gourko in June, 1917. He 
was commander of the southwestern front dur- 
ing the advance of General Kornilov against 
Kerensky, in September, 1917, and following 
the death of the latter took command of the 
volunteer force, which in Mar. 26, 1918, cap- 
tured Kuban. He assembled an army against 
the Soviet government, which included about 
100,000 men. In February, 1919, he took the 
offensive, and by November had established a 
fighting front from which he advanced a con- 
siderable distance in the interior of Russia. In 
February, 1920, he was completely defeated by 
the Soviet army and his forces were dispersed. 

DENIS, Maurice (1870- ). A French 
painter born at Granville, Manche, who was to 
become one of the so-called Symbolists. He 
studied at the Ecole des Beaux Arts and was 
strongly influenced by Paul Serusier, who fa- 
vored synthesis and the use of form and color 


DENISON UNIVERSITY 


to express subjective states of mind. He was 
also one with the Rose Croix group who favored 
idealist decorative art rather than realism. In 
1894, a visit to Italy impressed him with the 
value of Italian quattrocento art and _ influ- 
enced his work to a large extent. He found the 
subjects for most of his important murals in 
religious pieces and classical mythology. Be- 
sides murals, he has executed many easel pic- 
tures and has illustrated books and contributed 
to art reviews. In 1902, he was made a full 
member of the Société Nationale and in 1910 
he became Chevalier de la Légion d’Honneur. 
His most important pieces have been exhibited 
at the Salon des Indépendents and the Salon 
d’Automne, and he is also represented in the 
Luxembourg, Paris. 

DENISON UNIVERSITY. A coeducation- 
al Baptist institution founded in 1830 at Gran- 
ville, Ohio. The student enrollment increased 
from 575 in 1914 to 978 in 1924, and the num- 
ber of members in the faculty from 43 to 69. 
The productive endowment in 1924 amounted to 
$2,250,000. Marsh Hall, which was partially 
destroyed by fire in 1918, was fully recon- 
structed; Swasey Chapel, seating 1300, was 
partly built in 1924, and funds were in hand 
for the construction of the Helen Arnett Whis- 
tler Memorial Hospital. Col. Edward A. Deeds 
gave a large tract of land to enlarge the campus 
and built the Deeds athletic field with its con- 
crete stadium seating 6000 persons and _ field 
house equipped with dressing rooms, showers, 
ete. President, Clark W. Chamberlain, Ph.D., 
LL.D. 

DENMARK. The smallest of the Scandina- 
vian countries, whose area, by the accession of 
North Schleswig (q.v.) in 1920, was increased 
to 16,604 square miles, and whose population, 
by the census of Feb. 1, 1921, was 3,267,831. 
The increase in population over the last census 
period was distributed evenly between the rural 
and urban centres. The population of the cap- 
ital, Copenhagen, was 561,344, in 1921. Other 
large towns are Aarhus, 74,256; Odense, 49,- 
469; Aalborg, 71,613; Horsens, 27,588; and 
Randers, 26,495. The population growth was 


370 


DENMARK 


dependent on its export trade in dairy prod- 
ucts and pork particularly. After the War re- 
covery was rapid, though no advance was dis- 
cernible up to 1924 over the pre-war years. In 
1922 there were 575,773 horses, 2,525,348 cattle, 
441,875 sheep, 1,899,019 swine, and 19,100,000 
hens; in 1910, 535,018 horses, 2,253,982 cattle, 
726,829 sheep, 1,467,822 swine, and about 15,- 
000,000 hens. In 1922, 237,180 acres were un- 
der wheat, 546,660 rye, 666,217 barley, 1,117,- 
902 oats, and 204,206 potatoes. Though har- 
vests were large, the drop in prices following 
the depression of 1921 reacted unfavorably on 
every branch of industry. Grains were selling 
in December, 1922, for 50 per cent less than the 
December, 1920, figures. The same drop was to 
be traced all along the line. 

Industry. Small plants were the rule. In 
1914 factories numbered 82,442; in 1906, 85,- 
242. Here were employeed in 1912 346,000 
hands; in 1906, 317,086. Because.of the de- 
mands of belligerents during the War, manu- 
facturing activity increased considerably, but 
the world-wide depression of 1921 brought the 
country back to its pre-war status. The pro- 
duction of margarine, one of the most impor- 
tant industries, increased somewhat; in 1921 
the output was 55,740 tons, compared with a 
1911 output of 35,400 tons. 


Commerce. The trade record for typical 
years follows, in millions of kroner; value, 
$.268: 
ao eA eee Dine ae ee 

Average 

Year Imports Exports exchange 

rate 

ih We a te eee 795 867 $0.2625 
1 Of ee dco eee Be vec ie 1,082 1,065 .2959 
LOZ 0. Pe Rey. bees eet cea 3,142 1,814 1577 
gM tard ed Ses Se Shs A 1,697 1,564 1779 
do PPM RSS. vice Sanne DE Wr 1,448 1,173 -2095 
EN GAEIRY Mile Ss SCA ee SS ad 


In 1922, animals to the value of 47,270,000 
kroner were exported; provisions to the value 
of 917,439,000 kroner; and cereals to the value 
of 379,000 kroner. Exports and imports by 
countries for typical years, in thousands of 
kroner, were: 


IMPORTS EXPORTS 
Country 1912 1920 1921 Country 1912 1920 1921 
mitedassinedome..c ee 135,887 = 887,549 305,360") United “Kingdoms a1. 37,312 671,981 825,552 
Germany nt 2. lor ooh eee 314,246 °5382,219° "461,748 \Germanyy as... ceisler 181,646 326,471 211,187 
Swedeny iss iieeeh. . 1. OA 69,060 189,904 O7989. Sweden h. yeh be 33,352 358,270. 189,351 
FR ULSSUA ME Re Copeis ie sytketsy a) saci eaeas DG sss.) UL esrkk. sus Bede ABEL eos Russia %.. om aie epics © ee 16,347). Athen mes eae 
United states o-¢.. caoe 58,830. 753,666) 342.597 United States) Se... .- 10,568 . 90,719 42,761 


about 1 per cent annually. Emigration was 
chiefly to the United States, 6300, in 1920; in 
1921, 5309; in 1922, 4300. The pre-war yearly 
average was 9000. North Schleswig has an 
area of 1538 square miles and a population of 
164,500. The Faeroe Islands count 21,364 in- 
habitants and an area of 540 square miles. 
Agriculture. A movement from the land 
to the cities was shown in Denmark, the tillers 
of the soil dropping from 40 per cent of the to- 
tal population in 1900 to less than 35 per cent 
in 1921. The movement toward the creation of 
small holdings continued; the law of 1919, in 
particular, aimed at the parcelling up of large 
estates held in entail. Intensive cultivation 
and dairy farming made continued headway 
through the initiative of the codperative socie- 
ties. The War of course dealt Denmark’s agri- 
culture a severe blow, for its prosperity was 


In March, 1923, 2082 vessels of 1,070,218 tons 
were flying the Danish flag; 628 of these were 
steamers. During the War official figures put 
the shipping losses due to submarine attacks 
and mines at almost 150 ships, of 230,000 tons. 
In 1920, 23,038 vessels of 3,269,268 tons entered 
Danish ports and 23,944 vessels of 1,030,954 
tons cleared. A sign of renewed activity was 
the fact that in 1922, 13,700 vessels of 3,850,- 
000 tons entered Copenhagen alone. Important 
maritime activities included the opening of the 
Odense Canal in 1921 and the commencement 
in 1922 of the Drogden, a channel for larger 
ships between the North Sea and the Baltic. 

Communications. At the end of 1920 the 
country had 4713 miles of road, with 23,654 
miles of by-ways. Railways totaled 2662 miles. 
The length of state telegraph lines was 9531 
miles. By means of radio-telegraph stations at 


se 


‘rates on Danish goods. 


fallen to 30,000. 


DENMARK 371 


Lyngby, Blaavand, Copenhagen, and Amager, 
Denmark is in touch with ships at sea and with 
the United States. 

Finance. The 1923-24 budget carried 
399,900,680 kroner for revenue and 362,147,031 
kroner for expenditure. Of the latter, 53,397,- 
554 kroner went toward meeting the interest 
and expenses on the state debt. In 1922 the 
total debt stood at 1,235,317,000 kroner; the 
1913 figure was 348,040,923 kroner. 

History. The cost of living as measured by 
retail prices gradually rose so that in 1921 it 
more than doubled that of the last pre-war 
year. Based on prices for 1913 considered as 
100, the index number for October, 1920, 
reached 403, but by October of the next year it 
had fallen back to 202. Wages, too, kept pace 
with prices up to 1921. The high degree of 
organization of both employers and employees 
in industry, about 280,000 workers belonging 
to the Combined Trade Unions made up of 
factory and agricultural workers, accounted 
for the marked stability. In the years following 
the War considerable unrest appeared among the 
transport workers, but this abated after 1921. 
Denmark followed in the wake of other 
countries of northern Europe in establishing 
elaborate agencies for social insurance in indus- 
try. Illness and unemployment pensions and 
old-age pensions were either in whole or in part 
state aided. The budget of 1923 carried 15,- 
346,000 kroner for pension charges alone. A 
comprehensive compensation act was passed in 
1916. The state contributed to the unemploy- 
ment fund of the trade unions. 

During the War, because of her proximity to 
the belligerents, Denmark’s position was pre- 
carious. Early in August, 1914, it was found 
necessary to fix prices and regulate exports to 
prove the country’s desire for a real neutrality. 
In the War atmosphere parties quickly came to 
terms, and the revision to the constitution 
which had long been agitated was agreed on. 
On June 5, 1915, the new constitution was 
signed by the King, and amendments were pro- 
mulgated on Sept. 10, 1920. Voting is univer- 
sal; proportional representation is employed; 
and the King may not declare war without the 
consent of Parliament. The sovereign power 
is vested in the King through his ministers. 

The tightening of the submarine campaign in 
1917 brought renewed hardships to the Danish 
population. Rationing was resorted to, and 
state and local agencies contributed extensively 
to poor and unemployment relief. Large sums 
had to be spent on military defense as well. 
The result was that the government was com- 
pelled to resort to loans to make up deficits 
appearing annually in the budget. The Danish pe- 
riod of reconstruction did not escape the diffi- 
culties which other countries experienced. The 
demobilization of the troops and the break in the 
foreign market augmented unrest. German com- 
petition, made possible by the low value of the 
mark, naturally added to the uncertain econom- 
ic conditions. The country’s foreign trade re- 
ceived a severe blow in 1922 when the United 
States emergency tariff imposed prohibitive 
By 1922, agriculture 
had almost reached the normal; eggs, butter, 
and bacon showed a remarkable recovery. Late 
in August, 1922, the figure of unemployed had 
But that the country was not 
to weather the depression of 1921-22 easily was 
shown when the Danish Landmandsbank, the 


DENNERT 


most important Danish banking institution, 
suddenly collapsed in September, 1922. Its in- 
terest in business built on the high price levels 
of the preceding years worked its undoing, with 
the result that it became incumbent on the goy- 
ernment to effect a reorganization. Ninety mil- 
lion kroner of the outstanding capital had to be 
written off, while the Danish National Bank 
was called on to contribute 30,000,000 kroner 
toward the bank’s new surplus. The result 
was that public confidence was diverted more 
and more from private banking and centred in 
the Danish National Bank. Of a piece with 
the economic distress was the renewed interest 
in emigration schemes. Plans were launched in 
1922 for the settlement of Danish colonies 
in Madagascar, Lithuania, and Central and 
South America. 

After a bitter political contest, a plebiscite 
in December, 1916, approved the sale of the 
Danish West Indies or Virgin Islands to the 
United States for $25,000,000. A further dim- 
inution of the Danish Empire took place in 
1918 when Iceland (q.v.) was granted its in- 
dependence; thenceforth Iceland and Denmark 
were connected only by a personal union under 
the Danish King. Greenland (q.v.) alone re- 
mained a colonial possession. In 1920 Den- 
mark regained part of the province of Schleswig 
which had been wrested from her by Prussia in 
1864. The Peace Treaty provided for two pleb- 
iscites in North and Central Schleswig respec- 
tively, and under an international administra- 
tion they were held in February and March, 
1920. The result was favorable for Denmark 
in North Schleswig, the vote being 75,000 for 
union, and 25,000 against; while in the Central 
district the natives decided by a vote of 51,000 
to 12,000 to remain a part of Germany. On 
Sept. 21, 1920, citizens of Schleswig took part 
in the Danish general elections for the first 
time. The parties returned to the lower house 
numbered 52 Liberals, representing the farm- 
ers; 18 Radicals, representing the small land- 
holders; 48 Socialists, representing the city 
workers; 27 Conservatives, sitting for the mid- 
dle class; 3 Trade party; 1 Schleswig (German 
party). The ministry therefore was formed by 
the Liberals. The Liberal Premier Neergaard, 
supported by a parliamentary bloc, remained in 
power during the troublesome reconstruction 
years, and was not overthrown until 1924, when 
parliamentary elections gave victory to the La- 
bor party despite the inclusion of a capital levy 
plank in its platform. After the Labor victory 
at the polls, a Labor Cabinet was formed under 
the premiership of Theodore Stauning. See 
ScANDINAVIAN LITERATURE; EXPLORATION; NaAv- 
IES OF THE WORLD. 

DENNERT, Eseryarp (1861- ). A Ger- 
man writer on nature and popular philosophy, 
who was born at Putzerlin near Staargard, 
Pomerania. He studied at the universities of 
Marburg and Bonn, and was successively assis- 
tant at the Botanical Institute of Marburg, di- 
rector of the Keplerbund, and editor of the na- 
ture department of the Deutsche Encyclopédie. 
Among his numerous works are: Moses oder 
Darwin (1907); Haeckels Weltanschauung nat- 
urwissenschaftlich beleuchtet (1908); Die Zelle 
ein Wunderwerk (1909); Die geschichtliche 
Entwicklung der Descendenztheorie (1910); 
Die Welt fiir sich und die Welt mit Gott 
(1913); Mehr Naturfreude fiir die Jugend 
(1914); Gibt es ein Leben nach dem Tode? 


DENNETT 372 


(1915); Gott, Seele, Geist, Jenseits (1916); 
Not und Mangel im Lichte der Entwicklung 
(1916); Der Staat als lebendiger Organismus 
(1920). 

DENNETT, Tyrer (1883- ). An Amer- 
ican author, born at Spencer, Wis., and edu- 
cated at Bates College and at Williams College. 
From 1914 to 1916, he was associate editor of 
The World Outlook. He directed the publicity 
of the Methodist centenary (1916-18), and in 
1919-20 held the same position in the Inter- 
Church world movement. He is also known as 
a lecturer on Asia, having traveled widely in 
the Orient and in Africa. He is author of The 
Democratic Movement in Asia (1918) and of 
A Better World (1920). 

DENNIS, Atrrep P. (1869- ). An Amer- 
ican diplomat, born in Worcester Co., Md., and 
educated at Princeton University. During the 
period 1894-1907, he was professor of history 
at Wesleyan University (Conn.) and at Smith 
College. In the latter year, he resigned because 
of ill health, and became engaged in the mer- 
cantile business. In 1918, he was commercial 
attaché at the American Embassy at Rome, and 
in 1921 held the same post in London. As a 
representative of the Department of Com- 
merce, he made investigations for Herbert 
Hoover in Central and Eastern Europe (1922). 
A student of political history and economics, 
he has made frequent contributions on those 
subjects to the Atlantic Monthly, the Yale Re- 
view, International Journal, Saturday Evening 
Post, ete. 

DE NOAILLES, Countess Anna (1876- ib: 
A French poet and novelist. She was born 
Princess de Brancovan, and married Count 
Matthieu de Noailles. Her poetry is character- 
ized by romantic naturalism, and she earned 
the title “Muse of the Gardens.” As a novelist 
also she is the apostle of sentiment and sensa- 
tion. Her poetic works include Le Coeur In- 
nombrable, L’Ombre des Jours, Les Vivants et 
les Morts, Les Eblouissements, and Les Forces 
Eternelles; her works of prose include three 
novels, La Nouvelle Espérance, La Domination, 
and Le Visage Eternel. 

DENTISTRY, Mopern. See RHEUMATISM, 
CHRONIC. 

DENVER. The capital of Colorado and the 
largest city between the Missouri River and the 
Pacific Ocean. The population rose from 213,- 
381 in 1910 to 256,491 in 1920 and to 272,031 
by estimate of the Bureau of the Census for 
1923. In 1916, after three years’ trial of the 
commission form of government, Denver went 
back to the mayor and council form. The new 
charter provided for a small council of nine 
men, and assigned wide powers of appointment 
and removal to the mayor. The library system 
was extended during the decade by the addition 
of branch libraries. After years of struggle be- 
tween the city and the Denver Union Water 
Company and its predecessors over franchises, 
rates and valuation, and projects for building 
municipally owned works, an agreement for 
purchase was made between the company 
and the city in 1918, and ratified by pop- 
ular vote. Zoning and city planning provisions 
were beinys put through in 1924, and a pro- 
gramme of paving carried on within the city 
and connecting Denver with all of the principal 
towns in a radius of several miles. The value 
of manufacturing increased from about $70,- 
500,000 in 1913 to $125,411,000 in 1924, and 


DERBY 


the number of establishments from 738 to 1147. 
According to the census figures of 1920 there 
were On an average 16,635 wage earners, an in- 
crease of 50 per cent over the figures for five 
years earlier. The value of the packing busi- 
ness increased during the 10 years by 234 per 
cent. 

DENVER, University or. An institution 
at Denver, Colo., under the auspices of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, founded in 1864. 
The enrollment of the university practically 
doubled between 1913, when it was 1159, and 
the year 1923-24, when it was 2188. The fac- 
ulty increased from 132 in 1918 to 150 in 1923- 
24, and the library from 38,000 to 50,000 vol- 
umes. Henry A. Buchtel, D.D., LL.D., was 
chancellor until 1921, and Heber Reece Harper 
became chancellor in 1922. During the interim 
Wilber D. Engle was acting chancellor. 

DEPAUW UNIVERSITY. A coeducation- 
al institution at Greencastle, Ind., under the 
auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
founded in 1837. DePauw grew steadily dur- 
ing the decade 1913-1923, increasing its student 
body from 1000 in 1913 to 1485 in the year 
1923-24, with 196 in the summer school of 
1923; it added 10,880 volumes to its library 
and thereby brought the total number of vol- 
umes in 1923 up to 58,880. The faculty was 
enlarged from 50 to 68. The equipment of the 
university was augmented by the erection of 
Rector Hall, a dormitory for women, and the 
Clem Studebaker Memorial Administration 
Building. The productive funds were increased 
from $1,300,000 to $3,930,000, and a campaign 
to add $1,000,000 more for endowment and 
$500,000 for increased equipment was nearing 
completion in 1924, President, George Rich- 
mond Grose, D.D., LL.D. 

DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELIN- 
QUENTS. See Cuitp WELFARE; MOTHERS’ 
PENSIONS; and JUVENILE CoUuRTS. 

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL (1834— ee 
An American politician (see Vout. VI). In 
1914, he was in favor of the repeal of the Pana- 
ma Canal tolls bill. He was violently opposed 
to pacifism from the outbreak of the War, and 
in 1915, on the occasion of the sinking of the 
Lusitania, urged drastic measures against Ger- 
many. After 1913 he published Some Views on 
the Threshold of Fourscore (1914), and Speeches 
and Literary Contributions at Fourscore and 
Four (1918). 

DEPTH BOMB. See Boms, DEPTH. 

DERBY, EpwaArp GrorGE VILLIERS STANLEY, 
seventeenth EArL or (1865- ). An Eng- 
lish statesman born in London. He was edu- 
cated at Wellington College, and later received 
valuable experience as lieutenant grenadier of 
the Guards during the period 1865-95, and as 
aide de camp to the Governor-General of Can- 
ada. He was a Lord of the Treasury (1895- 
1900), chief press censor in South Africa 
(1900), Financial Secretary to the War Office 
(1900-03), Postmaster-General (1903-05), mem- 
ber of Parliament from West Houghton Divi- 
sion of Lancashire (1892-1906), and Director- 
General of Recruiting (1915-16). During the 
War he had an admirable scheme for recruiting 
on the basis of voluntary service, but as the 
number of volunteers did not equal expecta- 
tions, the plan was abandoned. In February, 
1916, he became chairman of the military air 
service joint committee, from which office he 
resigned two months later, and in July of the 


er. ee ee ee eee eee 


ss: 


DERCUM 373 


same year, upon the formation of Lloyd 
George’s government, he accepted the secretary- 
ship of War. In 1918, he was appointed am- 
bassador to France, from which post he resigned 
in 1920. 

DERCUM, Francis XAVIER (1856- tis 
An American neurologist (see Vor. VI). He 
published Hysteria and Accident Compensa- 
tion (1916); An Essay on the Biology of Mind 
(1922); The Biology of Internal Secretions 
(1924). 

DESCAMPS, Baron Epovuarp (1847- iA 
A Belgian jurist (see Vor. VI). After 1913, 
he published, with others: Recewil interna- 
tional des traités du 19e siécle, vol. i, 1801-25 
(1914); Recewil international des traités du 
20e siécle, vol. vi, 1906 (1914). 


DESCAVES, Lucien (1861- ). A French. 
man of letters (see Vou. VI). His recent 
works include: Biribi (1911); Ateliers @ 


aveugles (1912); Philémon (1914); La Matson 
anawieuse (1916); Dans Paris bombardé (1919) ; 
La Saignée. 


DESCHAMPS, Apert. See PSYCHOLOGY, 
ABNORMAL. 

DESCHANEL, Pavut (Evuctne Lovis) 
(1856-1922). A French statesman and author 


(see Vor. VI). In January, 1920, he was 
elected President of France, but his health soon 
began to fail, and in May a singular accident 
happened when he was on a train near Mon- 
targis. He fell from the window, and though 
his physical injuries were not serious, he never 
recovered from the nervous shock, and fi- 
nally was obliged to resign the Presidency. 
Though he afterwards appeared in the Sen- 
ate for a short time, his career was practically 
over. 

DES MOINES. The capital of Iowa. The 
population increased approximately 46 per cent, 
from 86,368 in 1910 to 126,468 in 1920, and to 
140,923, by estimate of the Bureau of the Cen- 
sus, for 1923. Between 1914 and 1924, the 
State Capitol park was increased from 18 to 
83 acres by the razing of several city blocks, 
and a new municipal court and public safety 
building was erected on the river front civic 
centre. A diagonal boulevard, Keosauqua Way, 
was constructed, connecting the business dis- 
trict with the nortlwest residential section, and 
Fifth Avenue was widened and graded, at a 
cost for the two projects of more than $1,000,- 
000. Locations for new units of the public 
school system were purchased and a building 
programme was partially completed, involving 
a final cost of approximately $7,000,000. The 
city bought the water plant in 1919. Twenty- 
six banks reported clearings of $568,487,000 for 
1923; 400 factories, capitalized at $50,000,000, 
employed 10,000 persons and turned out $80,- 
000,000 worth of merchandise. 

D’ESPEREY, Louis FRANcHET (1856— ie 
A French marshal, born in Motaganem. He 
saw service in North Africa and elsewhere, and 
in 1914 was given command of the lst Corps 


in the 5th French Army. Here he did distin- 


guished service in attempting to hold back the 
German advance in the retreat from Mons, in 
September, 1914, and succeeded General Lan- 
zarae in command of the 5th Army before the 
first battle of the Marne. In this battle, he 
performed brilliant services. In 1916 he was 
given command of the group of Eastern armies 
in France. In 1917 he commanded the group 
of Northern armies, and in 1918 was made 


DETROIT 


commander-in-chief of the Allied Forces in Sa- 
lonica. He organized, with great skill, a gen- 
eral attack of the armies, and on December 15 
carried this out with success. This was fol- 
lowed by the surrender of Bulgaria. He was 
in charge of the Allied Forces in Eastern 
Turkey and the Balkans in 1919, and in 1921 
was created marshal. : 

DESSOIR, Max (1867- ). A German 
psychologist, born at Berlin. He was educated 
in the German universities and passed through 
the academic cursus honorum, becoming profes- 
sor at the University of Berlin in 1920. As 
editor of the Zeitschrift fiir Msthetik und al- 
Igemeine Kunstwissenschaft, he was one of the 
leaders in the empirical study of the principles 
of taste. He was also interested in the vari- 
ous phases of abnormal psychology and psychi- 
eal research, and published his findings in a 
volume on Jenseits der Seele (On the Other 
Side of the Soul, 1920). His Geschichte der 
Psychologie (1911) was translated into Eng- 
lish under the title of History of Modern Psy- 
chology. Among his other works are Hine Bib- 
liographie des moderen Hypnotismus (1890), 
Das Doppel-Ich (1896), Geschichte der neueren 
deutschen Psychologie (1903), sthetik und 
allegmeine Kunstwissenschaft (1906), and Phi- 
losophisches Lesebuch (1911). 

DESTROYER. See VesseL, NAVAL. 

DETLEFSEN, Joun A. (1883- ES cae 
American zoélogist born at Norwich, Conn. He 
was educated at Dartmouth and at Harvard. 
He was Austin teaching fellow of Harvard 
(1908-12) and was at the University of Illinois 
as assistant professor of genetics (1912-18), 


associate professor (1918-19) and_ profes- 
sor (1919- ). Professor Detlefsen wrote 
on genetics, especially in domesticated ani- 
mals. 


DETONATORS. See EXPLOSIVES. 

DETROIT. The 1914 area of the incorpo- 
rated city of Detroit in Michigan was 41.76 
miles. In 1924 it was 92.66 miles; 10 extra 
square miles of area were in process of annexa- 
tion. Within the city and entirely inclosed by 
the corporate limits are two independently in- 
corporated cities, Highland Park with a popula- 
tion of 56,000 and Hamtramck with a popula- 
tion of 75,000. ‘The Federal census of 1910 gave 
Detroit a population of 465,766 Highland Park, 
46,499, and Hamtramck, 3559. The Federal 
census of 1920 gave Detroit 993,729; Highland 
Park, 46,499, and Hamtrack, 48,615. Growth 
during the four years since the Federal census 
was taken has been fully as rapid. The figures 
for 1924 are based on estimates made by the 
Water Board, the gas company, and the R. L. 
Polk Directory Company, which makes a 
thorough canvass of the cities each year. The 
estimated population of Detroit in 1924 was 
1,250,000. The village of Oakwood had been 
annexed. Adjoining the corporate limits of the 
city were the following independent municipali- 
ties, all within 12 miles of the city hall: Grosse 
Pointe Park, 3000 population; Ecorces, 5500; 
River Rouge, 14,500; Ferndale, 12,000; Spring- 
wells, 8000; Lincoln Park, 7000; Pleasant 
Ridge, 1500; Redford, 5500; Royal Oak, 12,5003) 
Dearborn, 4500; and Brightmoor, 4000. 

Among many public works constructed since 
1914 are the new Belle Isle Bridge, costing 
$3,000,000; the nev public library, $3,000,000; 
and the Detroit Institute of Arts, now under 
construction, to cost about $3,000,000. From 


DETROIT 


1914. to 1924 the pumping capacity of the city 
water works was practically doubled, and a 
general installation of meters led to a more 
considerate and economical use of water. In 
1914 there were 917 miles of water mains; the 
1924 mileage is 1943 miles. During 1923 a 
new filtration plant was put in operation, with 
a capacity of 180,000,000 gallons daily, at a 
cost of $4,500,000. The per capita water con- 
sumption in 1923 was 141 gallons per day. On 
July 1, 1923, the Water Board estimated that 
it was supplying 1,248,900 persons with water. 
In 1914 the public works department reported 
227 miles of public sewers and 565 miles of 
lateral sewers. On Aug. 1, 1924, there were 
1169 miles of public sewers and 1924 miles of 
laterals. The police department was provided 
with a new headquarters building at a cost of 
$1,700,000. In 1914 the department had 1125 
uniformed men and 112 others in service. In 
1924 the uniformed force numbered 2387 and 
the office staff 138. The fire department in 1914 
employed 729 men; in 1924 the fire-fighting 
force numbered 1261; the total foree, 1467. 
Detroit had 51 public parks containing 1990 
acres; 59 playgrounds containing 219 acres; 66 
street playgrounds; 16 swimming centres; 46 
public tennis courts; 31 baseball diamonds; 15 
football fields, and other recreation facilities. 
The River Rouge improvements, including dredg- 
ing and new bridges, cost about $10,000,000. 
The first big freighter, with a cargo of iron, 
passed up to the Ford plant on July 2, 1923. 

The total value of Detroit’s manufactured 
products in 1914 was $400,348,000. In 1919 
the total value of the manufactures.of Detroit 
proper was $1,234,519,842. The total value of 
manufactures in the metropolitan district was 
$1,803,728,219. The total value of Detroit prod- 
ucts in 1923 was a little over $2,000,000,000. 
The metropolitan district includes the two cities 
of Hamtramck and Highland Park. In 1919 
there were 2176 manufacturing plants in the 
city proper, with a capital investment of $788,- 
329,200; 167,016 wage earners; 29,639 salaried 
officials, receiving salaries and wages aggregat- 
ing $297,884,461. In the metropolitan district 
there were 2256 establishments with capital of 
$1,230,470,739; salaried officials, 34,928; em- 
ployees 231,645, receiving $419,774,189 in sal- 
aries and wages. 

The banks of Detroit in 1914 had aggregated 
capital and surplus to the amount of $30,030,000 
and savings deposits of $88,704,876. On June 
30, 1924, the combined capital of State and 
National banks of the City was $33,950,000; sur- 
plus, $32,042,000; savings deposits, $308,568,- 
738; total deposits, $586,473,338; total re- 
sources, $713,766,686; total clearances of banks 
associated in clearing house in 1923, $6,691,- 
595,579. 

In April, 1922, the city of Detroit voted an 
authorization of the purchase of the street rail- 
way lines of the Detroit United Railway Com- 
pany for $19,850,000, with the full understand- 
ing that the price was excessive, but that the 
termination of 30 years’ dissatisfaction would 
be worth it. The city began operation of the 
lines on May 1. The traclage purchased was 
311 miles, and considerable valuable real estate 
and plant went with the purchase. The city 
added 72 miles of new line to the system, and 
service in 1924 was furnished by 1594 cars and 
6,463 employees. Paying $500,000,000 of the 
purchase price every six months, the city had 


374 


=, 


DE VALERA 


paid $4,700,000 of this debt up to the middle of 
1924, 

The assessed valuation of property in the city 
of Detroit in 1914 was $525,856,000; tax levy 
of 1914, $10,267,999; tax rate, $19.69 per $1000. 
Assessed valuation in 1924, $2,455,327,680; tax 
levy, + $51,476,676; tax rate, $20.96 per $1000. 
Bonded debt of 1914, $16,656,000; bonded debt 
of 1924, $157,428,430. 

In 1914, 7884 buildings were erected, valued 
at $28,427,140; 1915, 9006 buildings, $32,235,- 
550; 1916, 16,490 buildings, $51,067,110; 1917, 
12,108 buildings, $39,676,690; 1918, 7010 build- 
ings, $18,201,707; 1919, 21,473 buildings, $82,- 
995,071; 1920, 19,412 buildings, $77,737,365; 
1921, 17,615 buildings, $58,087,081; 1922, 25,460 
buildings, value, $94,615,093; 1923, 35,234 
buildings, $129,719,731. For the first six 
months of 1924, building permits for 25,620 
buildings aggregating $99,299,884. Summary 
for 10 years: 197,312 buildings; aggregate cost, 
$712,062,422. 

The census of persons of school age from 5 
to 20 years, inclusive, in the city of Detroit 
proper in 1914 was 133,339; the registration 
in the public schools was 69,086. In 1924 
the school census gave 284,693 persons of 
school age, and the registration in the public 
schools was 162,807. From 1914 to 1924 the 
Board of Education erected 36 elementary 
schools, 8 intermediate schools, and 5 high 
schools. The total increase of public schools 
since 1914 is 67 elementary schools, 5 intermedi- 
ate schools, and 4 High schools. The total cost 
of new school buildings and additions, 1914-24, 
was $30,454,903. The public expenditures for 
school purposes in 1914 amounted to $4,186,864; 
in 1924, $20,290,999. The value of the public 
school plant in 1914 was $9,325,673; in 1924, 
$54,729,427. 

DETROIT, UNIverRSity or. An institution 
under the auspices of the Roman Catholic 
Church, founded in 1875 at Detroit, Mich. The 
enrollment of the university increased rapidly, 
from 792 in 1918 to 1500 in the college and 
technical schools and 500 in the high school in 
the year 1923-24. The faculty was correspond- 
ingly increased from 69 to 165 members and the 
library from 18,000 to 38,000 volumes. A day 
school of commerce and finance, as well as night 
courses in journalism, short story writing and 
social service work, were added in 1922. The 
institution is conducted by the Fathers of the 
Society of Jesus, whose services, as well as 
those of several lay professors, are given gratis. 
About $350,000 toward a building fund had 
been gathered by the trustees at the end of 
1923. John P. MecNichols, S.J., Ph.D., suc- 
ceeded the Rev. William T. Doran, 8.J., as pres- 
ident in 1921. 

DEUSSEN, PaAux (1845-1919). A German 
philosopher and Orientalist (see VoLt. VI). He 
completed his Allgemeine Geschichte der Phi- 
losophie in 1917. His autobiography was pub- 
lished posthumously in 1922 by his widow, 
Erika Rosenthal-Deussen. 

DE VALERA, EDWARD (EAMONN ) 
(1882- ). An Irish Republican leader born 
in Charleville, County Cork, Ireland, and edu- 
eated at the Christian Brothers’ School (Charle- 
ville), Blackrock College, and the Royal Uni- 
versity of Ireland. He taught mathematics and 
languages at several of the Catholic Colleges 
of Ireland, and was generally well liked. In 
1916, three years after the founding of the Irish 


ane: 


DEVINE 


Volunteers, De Valera, always deeply interested 
in the cause of Irish freedom, threw himself 
whole-heartedly into the movement, and in the 
rebellion of that year commanded the insur- 
gents at Boland’s bakery, Dublin. Orders com- 
pelled him to surrender on April 30, and he 
was sentenced to death, but the sentence was 
later commuted to life imprisonment. He was 
released, however, in the general amnesty of 
June 15, 1917. What importance he _ had 
achieved as the surviving leader of the Easter 
Rebellion, as it was called, became recognizable 
in the large majority he received in his elec- 
tion for East Clare. Henceforth De Valera de- 
voted his entire time to the Sinn Feiners and 
at the convention of October, 1917, was elected 
President of the Irish Republic. In the follow- 
ing spring he was rearrested for the part taken 
in the agitation against “conscription” and in 
a plot for another rebellion coupled with a Ger- 
man invasion. In February of 1919, he escaped 
from the prison at Lincoln, England, and final- 
ly made his way to the United States, where 
he enlisted much sympathy from many of the 
Roman Catholic Irish and in German-American 
centres. He returned to Ireland in 1921, and 
negotiations for an Irish settlement were be- 
gun with the British government. In the same 
year, he became chancellor of the National Uni- 
versity of Ireland. See JRELAND, History. 

DEVINE, Epwarp Tuomas’ (1867—- y; 
An American leader in social work (see VoL. 
VI). In 1916, he was special agent at the 
American Embassy in Petrograd. Recent books 
published by him include: The Normal Life 
(1915), Disabled Soldiers and Sailors (1919), 
and Social Work (1921). 

DEVONPORT, Hupson EWBANKE KEARLEY, 
first Viscount (1856- ). An English poli- 
tician and business man, born at Uxbridge, and 
educated at Cranleigh School. He entered the 
firm of Kearley and Tonge, subsequently becom- 
ing a senior partner. In 1892, he entered Par- 
liament as Liberal member for Devonport 
(1892-1910). He was parliamentary secretary 
to the Board of Trade (1905-09), was chairman 
of the Port of London Authority (1909), first 
Food Controller (1916), and Secretary to the 
Sugar Commission (1917). He was created a 
baronet in 1908, was raised to the peerage in 
1910, and in 1917 was created a viscount. 

DEVONSHIRE, Victor CuristiAn WILLIAM 
CAVENDISH, ninth DUKE or (1868- ReLA 
British statesman educated at Cambridge. He 
entered Parliament in 1891. He was civil lord 
of the Admiralty in 1915-16, and Governor-Gen- 
eral of Canada 1916-21, and in 1922, he be- 
came Secretary of State for the Colonies. 

DEVORE, DANIEL BRApForD (1860— y 
An American soldier, born in Monroe Co., Ohio. 
He graduated from the United States Military 
Academy in 1885, and was commissioned 2d 
lieutenant in the same year. He served during 
the Spanish-American War as captain of yolun- 
teers and was commissioned captain of the Reg- 
ular Army in 1899. He rose to the rank of 
colonel in 1916 and in the following year was 
appointed brigadier-general. _He had charge of 
the training of troops in Illinois and com- 
manded the 167th Brigade in France, in 1918. 
In the following year he was commander of 
Camp Logan, Houston, Texas, and in 1920-21 
commanded the 10th Infantry at Camp Sher- 
man. From the latter date he was adjutant- 
general at Governor’s Island, at New York Har- 


er 


375 


DEWEY 


bor. His career included service in the Philip- 
pines, Panama Canal Zone, and as a member of 
the faculty of the United States Military 
Academy. 

DEWAR, Sir James (1842-1923). <A Brit- 
ish chemist (see Vor. VI). In 1915, he pub- 
lished (with G. D. Liveing) Collected Papers 
on Spectroscopy. The Copley medal of the 
Royal Society of London was awarded to him 
in 1916, and the Franklin medal of the Frank- 
lin Institute of Philadelphia in 1919. 

DE WET, CHRISTIAN RUDOLPH (1854- Te 
A South African military leader and statesman 
(see VoL. VI). He was one of the leaders in 
the rebellion in the South African Union which 
broke out in 1914. He was defeated at Mush- 
room Valley by General Botha on Nov. 12, 
1914, taken prisoner by Colonel Brits on Decem- 
ber 1, and sentenced to a term of six years and 
to pay a fine of £2000. He was released after 
one year’s imprisonment, however, giving a 
written promise to take no further part in 
politics. 

DEWEY, Evetyn (1889- ). An Ameri- 
can educational psychologist, and daughter of 
John Dewey. She was educated at Barnard 
College. She is the author of Schools of To- 
morrow (1915), New Schools for Old (1919), 
and Methods and Results of Testing School 
Children (1920). ‘In 1920, she became the di- 
(ee of the Psychological Survey of New York 

ity. 

DEWEY, Harry PINNEOo (1861- yo" An 
American clergyman, born at Toulon, Ill., and 
educated at Williams College and Andover The- 
ological Seminary. He was ordained in the 
Congregational ministry in 1887, and from that 
year until 1907 served as pastor in various 
churches. In 1907, he became pastor of Plym- 
outh Church, Minneapolis. He was trustee of 
a number of colleges and universities, among 
them Williams College, Andover Theological 
Seminary, and Straight University. From 1904 
to 1907, he was director of the Brooklyn 
Heights Seminary, the Long Island Historical 
Society and the Eye and Ear Hospital. He 
held at various times offices in a number of re- 
ligious bodies; for example, he became vice- 
president of the Congregational Education So- 
ciety in 1907, and of the American Missionary 
Association in 1914, He was a member of the 
National Service Committee of Congregational 
Churches 1917-19, and in 1921 became a mem- 


_ber of the National Council Commission on Mis- 


sions. In 1914, he was made director of the 
Northeast Neighborhood Settlement House in 
Minneapolis, and’ in 2912 of the Pillsbury Set- 
tlement Housé in the same city. 

DE Y, JouHn (1859- ). An American 
philosopher and educator (see Vor. VI). With 
the death of William James in 1910, Professor 
Dewey became the leader of the pragmatic 
school in the United States, and under his 
direction the emphasis of pragmatism was 
changed from that of religion and the will to 
believe to the practical problems of social re- 
construction. After the War he went on 
an educational mission to China and Japan. 
While in Tokio he delivered a series of lectures 
subsequently published under the title of MRe- 
construction in Philosophy (1920). In 1924 
Professor Dewey went on an educational visit 
to Constantinople. A frequent contributor to 
the New Republic, Professor Dewey did not at- 
tempt to draw much of a distinction between 


DEWING 


the immediate exigencies of social action and 
the more cultural aspects of philosophic in- 
quiry. Both in his Reconstruction and in his 
Iluman Nature and Conduct (1922) we meet 
with the notion that contemplative ideas (in- 
cluding the mystical belief in a transcendent 
Deity) are luxuries too great to be indulged in 
by the modern man because they tend to inhibit 
his impulses for action. The latter work, 
moreover, contains a remarkable discussion of 
the problems of social psychology, with particu- 
lar emphasis on the much abused topic of in- 
stincts. For reasons of social optimism, Pro- 
fessor Dewey rejects the realistic conception of 
preéxistent determinisms fatally controlling the 
course of human action; instead he regards 
both instincts and habits as existing only from 
the moment they come into play but with a re- 
troactive power of explanation. Such a_ so- 
lution opens up vistas of critical idealism, 
perhaps beyond the intentions of the pragmat- 
ic philosophy. Professor Dewey’s other works 
after 1914 include: German Philosophy and 
Politics (1915); Hssays in LEaperimental 
Logic (1916); Democracy and Education 
Metee and Oreative Intelligence (with others, 

917). 

DEWING, Tuomas Witmer (1851- i 
An American figure and portrait painter (see 
VoL. VI). At the death of Charles L. Freer, 
in 1919, the Freer collection of Dewing’s paint- 
ings passed to the National Gallery at Wash- 
ington, where a room in the Freer Gallery was 
given over to these works—oil paintings, pas- 
tels, silver points and screens. A lyric vision, 
and the exquisite texture of his painting, evoke 
about his figures an air of charm and tender- 
ness and mystery. 

DEXTRIN. See CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC. 

DIABETES. The decade 1914-24 witnessed 
the introduction of two radical departures in 
the treatment of diabetes, so that it is hardly 
too much to state that the disease as a social 
malady has been conquered. The innovations 
are respectively the Allen fasting treatment and 
the discovery at the University of Toronto of 
the organic preparation insulin, manufactured 
from the animal pancreas. In contrasting 
these new resources it may be stated that the 
Allen fasting treatment is both curative and 
able to arrest the progress of the disease when 
the pancreas remains able to function. Under 
favorable circumstances it is computed that all 
but about 8 per cent of the patients treated are 
benefited. The treatment itself is naturally a 
hardship, as the patient must remain in bed 
for some weeks, am. it. canuot be well carried 
out save in special institutions and under ex- 
pert care. The field of the insulin treatment 
is somewhat different. The patient igs in an 
advanced stage of the malady and menaced 
with death by diabetic acidosis. The injected 
pancreatic substance makes up for the defi- 
ciency of pancreas substance in the body, and so 
the patient may be kept alive indefinitely as 
long as he can receive these injections; he may 
even resume some of his former usefulness. He 
is not so restricted in his diet as the ordinary 
diabetic. As in the case of the fasting treat- 
ment, the insulin treatment is to be given only 
by those who are specially instructed, as there 
is no little danger to the patient from the un- 
skilled use of the remedy. See Foop anp Nv- 
TRITION. 

DIAGHILEV, Sercrez. See Barer. 


376 


DIAMONDS 


DIAMONDS. The diamond trade of the 
world by 1924 had come largely into the hands 
of a single large syndicate, including the De 
Beers Company and other mines, which was 
able to control the prices and production of the 
entire world. In 1922 in the course of its 33 
years the De Beers Company reported that it 
had paid out in dividends 114% times the par 
value of its capital stock, or $254,320,163 on 
a capital stock of $21,899,260. In this period 
the total weight of the diamonds produced 
would have amounted to 27,816 pounds or near- 
ly 14 tons. As in other industries the mining 
and cutting of diamonds was seriously inter- 
fered with during the period of hostilities and 
during the post-War period there resulted a 
number of interesting developments. Stones 
from Russia came upon the market at forced 
sale, but the London Diamond Syndicate traders 
made no effort to compete with such supplies. 
There was established, however, a Berlin jewel 
exchange where the jewels of Europe were traded 
in quite largely, and effort was made to control 
and stabilize the traffic in this way. 

The diamond industry in France had declined 
during and after the War, and while in a large 
measure controlled in London, nevertheless Am- 
sterdam and Antwerp continued as the leading 
markets for the cutting of gems. This was 
demonstrated by the fact that in 1923 dia- 
monds cut but not set aggregating 539,972 kar- 
ats, valued at $52,020,098, were imported into 
the United States, of which amount 313,895 
karats, valued at $29,017,358 came from Bel- 
gium; 202,101 karats, valued at $20,518,443 
from the Netherlands; 10,000 karats, valued at 
$976,543 from the United Kingdom and 9242 
karats, valued at $1,100,225 from France. 

The greater part of the diamonds imported 
into the United States are cut, principally in 
Antwerp and Amsterdam. The rough uncut 
diamonds in 1923 imported into the United 
States aggregated 200,222 karats with a value 
of $7,401,698, coming principally from Brazil 
and British Guiana. Brazil supplies the United 
States with the diamonds required for indus- 
trial uses. 

The Diamond Syndicate in 1923 had control 
of the principal diamond producing regions of 
the world, not only the South African product, 
but also having a working agreement to handle 
those produced in the Congo and Angola. 

The diamond mines of Angola, Portuguese 
West Africa, showed a remarkable development 
in 1916 over the time when prospecting began. 
These mines are in the Lunda district in the 
northeast corner of the Colony, just south of 
the Kasai diamond fields of the Belgian Congo. 
Prospecting began in 1916 in which year 809.30 
karats of diamonds were found, and by 1921 the 
output had reached 106,719.46 karats. The 
production of diamonds in South Africa held 
its own during the 10 years from 1914 to 1924, 
and the production as given in the Mineral 
Industry is indicated on next page. 

The Belgian Congo in 1915 produced 48,995 
karats which amount by 1919 had increased to 
275,000 karats, and in 1922 amounted to ap- 
proximately 250,000 karats. Here the chief 
source of diamonds is the Kasai Basin which is 
operated by the Société Internationale Fores- 
tiére et Miniére du Congo (or Forminiére) and 
its associated companies. As there was an im- 
proved market for diamonds in 1923 this organ- 
ization was able to produce about 250,000 kar- 


eel ee 


DIAMONDS 
PRODUCTION OF DIAMONDS IN SOUTH AFRICA 


Production from mines’ Alluvial diamonds 


Value Value 
Year Karats per Karats per 
karat karat 

SOG rents 4,944 946 41s 6d 206049 108s 9d 
BOL 2 hire Ail 2,653,089 37150 143 924 80 2 
TRUM RS 8 een 2113. 36 6 97,678 80 4 
To LG ets ers ye 2,170 348 toyed lal TOROeLOl Liar 2 
a, me Ree 2,710,041 49)" 2-182 /992 . 11310 
LO Seuy .47 1% 2,385,361 bd 5 148:348), 134,4'6 
Bh hoe eA ae 2,366,744 Aarons) 209.589 261 6 
UU: Si aistttd ss 2,012,456 -LOG, 738 221,460 220 6 
OMe Tee ts 671,483 68 16 Thies o vl LS 
POD 2 i. ite 465,634 B90 203. 925 0 Vs345)4 


ats, compared with 190,000 karats in 1922, in 
addition to Beceka Company producing between 
100,000 and 150,000 harats, the Kasai Mining 
Company about 30,000 and the Luebo about 13,- 
000 karats. The Diamang Company produced 
over 100,000 karats. This made the 1923 pro- 
duction of the Kasai Basin about 525,000 kar- 
ats, compared with 348,000 karats in 1922. 
While there were several diamond mines in 
Arkansas, working in connection with the peri- 
dotite, there had been no substantial develop- 
ments in the industry, although a number of 
stones had been found ranging from almost 
microscopic size up to 20% karats. 


DIAMONDS, Arto iciaAt. See MINERAL- 
OGY. 
DIAZ, ARMANDO, BARON (1861- ) a. An 


Italian soldier. He was educated at the mili- 
tary college of Turin and served in the Libyan 
War. He commanded a division on the Carso 
front after the entrance of Italy in the War, 
and was promoted commander of the 23d 
Army Corps which penetrated the Selo line on 
the Middle Carso in August, 1917. After the 
disaster of the Caporetto, when the German and 
Austrian troops penetrated the Italian line and 
forced it to retreat from the Isonzo to the 
Piave rivers, Diaz was appointed commander- 
in-chief to succeed General Cadorna. He made 
a brilliant defense and established his reputa- 
tion as one of the greatest generals of the War. 
By the end of June, 1918, he had forced back 
the enemy east of the Piave, and on October 27, 
he attacked across the Piave, and was success- 
ful all along the line. A week later Austria 
surrendered. He was made minister of war in 
the Mussolini Cabinet, in 1922. 

DIBELIUS, Martin (1883- ).0 | A>: Ger- 
man theologian and historian born at Dresden. 
He specialized on the literature and history of 
primitive Christianity and other religions. He 
studied at the universities of Neuchatel, Leip- 
zig, Tiibingen and Berlin and was professor of 
theology in Berlin from 1910 to 1915, later be- 
coming professor of New Testament theology at 
Heidelberg. His principal works are: Die Lade 
Jahwes (1906); Die Geisterwelt im Glauben des 
Paulus (1909); Urchristliche Ueberlieferung 
von Johannes dem Téufer (1911); Isitswethe bei 
Apulejus (1917); Formgeschichte der Evangel- 
fi (1919); Kommentar zum Jakobusbriefe 

1921). 

DIBELIUS, WILHELM (1876- ). A Ger- 
man philologist who specializes on English 
language and literature, born in Berlin. He 
successively held professorships in Posen, Ham- 
burg, and other cities before retiring to Godes- 
berg on the Rhine His principal works are 
John Copgrave und die englische Schiftsprache 
(1899), Englische Romankunst (1910), and an 
exhaustive study of Charles Dickens (1916). 


versity of Wisconsin. 


377 DIESCH-KAULFUSS 


DICKINSON, Asa Don (1876- ). An 
American librarian and editor, born at Detroit, 
Mich. He studied at the Columbia University 
Law School and the State Library School at 
Albany, N. Y. In the period 1903-12, he was 
successively connected with the Brooklyn Public 
Library, Union College Library (Schenectady, 
N. Y.), Washington State College Library, and 
others. In 1912-15 and 1916-18, he was on the 
editorial staff of Doubleday, Page and Com- 
pany, and later in the war service department 
of the American Library Association at Ho- 
boken, N. J., and Paris, France (1918-19). 
His work organizing the Punjab libraries for 
the Indian government was followed up by the 
publication of Punjab Library Primer, in 1917. 
Mr. Dickinson also published Europe at War 
(1914), The Kaiser (1914), and several chil- 
dren’s publications along a patriotic vein. 

DICKINSON, Hopart CurTier (1875- ). 
An American physicist, born at Bangor, Me. 
He was educated at Williams College and later 
gained the Ph.D. degree at Clark University. 
During 1900-01 he was an assistant at Wil- 
liams, but in 1903, entered the service of the 
United States Bureau of Standards, where in 
1916 he became chief of the division of heat 
and power. His original studies have included 
papers on thermometry, calorimetry, specific 
heats of liquids, heats of combustion and fu- 
sion, thermal properties of refrigerants, ther- 
mal conductivities, and internal combustion 
engines, 

DICKINSON, THomAs HERBERT (1877—- he 
An American writer, born at Randolph, Char- 
lotte County, Va. He studied at Ohio State 
University, Columbia University, and the Uni- 
During the War he was 
a member of the United States Food Adminis- 
tration (1917-18), and the American Relief Ad- 
ministration, Paris and New York (1919-22). 
He edited The Play-Book (1913-15), and sev- 
eral books on the drama. In addition to arti- 
cles in magazines, he has published The Case of 
American Drama (1915), Contemporary Drama 
a pt (1917), and The Insurgent Theatre 

O17). 

DICKINSON COLLEGE. An institution at 
Carlisle, Pa., founded in 1783. The number of 
students enrolled in the college increased from 
292 in 1914 to 523 in 1924, the number of 
teaching members of the faculty from 16 to 27, 
and the number of volumes in the library from 
30,000 to 33,000. The productive funds in- 
creased from $245,000 to $550,000 and the total 
income from $43,050 to $147,500. There was 
also a law school connected with the college 
which increased in membership from 119 to 218 
and in the size of its faculty from 7 to 10 mem- 
bers. President, J. H. Morgan. 

DICKSON, LEoNARD EUGENE (1874- y 
An American mathematician (see Von. VI). 
Among his later writings are: Algebraic In- 
variants (1915); Finite Groups (1916); His- 
tory of the Theory of Numbers (1919; vol. ii, 
1920); Trigonometry with Practical Applica- 
tions (1921); First Course in the Theory of 
Hquations (1921). 

DIESCH-KAULFUSS, Cart H., (1880- ). 
A German librarian, born in Sorau. He stud- 
ied at the universities of Tiibingen and Leipzig 
and was especially interested in modern litera- 
ture, the historv of the stage and the Reforma- 
tion. He is librarian of the state library of 
Berlin. Among his principal works are: Buch 


DIESEL ENGINE 378 
der Reformation (1917), and Deutsche Dich- - 


tung im Strome des Lebens (1921). 

DIESEL ENGINE. See INTERNAL-COMBUS- 
TION ENGINES; SHIPBUILDING, Propelling 
Machinery. 

DIET. Within the decade 1914-24 the dis- 
covery of the vitamines and other advances add- 
ed greatly to knowledge of dietetics. Some en- 
thusiast stated that nearly all ills of the body 
might be produced and cured by diet. If we 
include in the term everything introduced into 
the stomach, the statement is approximately 
correct. It is no longer possible to distinguish 
between food and drugs, for the end products of 
protein digestion are closely related chemically 
to certain active drugs. Some of the amino- 
acids are known to be stimulants of growth; 
they agree to this extent with growth-vitamines. 
The hormones at times present in the diet are 
of the same nature as those manufactured in 
the body itself and have the status of drugs. 
Some of the amino-acids formed in protein di- 
gestion are of no nutritive value when given 
alone. Gelatine has no food value as a substi- 
tute for the albumins, but it may be utilized 
in certain combinations. 

While autointoxication is still imperfectly un- 
derstood, we know that the action of intestinal 
bacteria on food can give rise to certain poison- 
ous products, and we can surmise that the be- 
havior known as conjugation, in which the split 
products of digestion may lose their poisonous 
properties by uniting with one another, may 
sometimes fail to take place. Surgeons attrib- 
ute many ills to intestinal stagnation from 
purely mechanical causes, and it is true that a 
short fast is of material benefit in many ill- 
nesses; the improvement which follows the use 
of a light or monotonous diet is still more ap- 
parent. If it is kept up too long, a diet poor 
in calories, vitamines, protein, mineral matter, 
etc., will lead to the development of numerous 
diseases. A disease may sometimes be con- 
trolled by diametrically opposite plans of diet; 
everything depends on the individual case. Ty- 
phoid fever, often the result of impure and 
germ-infested drinking water, has often been 
beneficially treated by semistarvation; at the 
other extreme, supposing of course that the di- 
gestive processes have not been greatly im- 
paired, equally good results have resulted from 
stuffing the patient with highly concentrated 
food. The latter course counteracts the great 
tendency to lose weight. The dietetic treatment 
of diabetes (q.v.) was revolutionized, and the 
application of the Allen fasting treatment has 
justly been regarded as a great triumph in 
therapeutics. In this resource the short fast 
has been followed by the use of a very light 
diet slowly increased in nutritive value. The 
introduction of insulin into the therapeutics of 
diabetes made possible the use of a more liberal 
diet. 

Acidosis, a form of autointoxication which is 
not to be confused with intestinal self-poison- 
ing, was shown to play an extraordinary part 
in the causation of disease. The readiness with 
which it can now be controlled by diet is one of 
the greatest recent advances in medicine. The 
condition develops in actual starvation and im 
diabetes, in which the carbon of the diet is im- 
perfectly utilized; it may also follow dietetic 
errors of excess. Acidosis, with its lowering of 
the normal alkaline reserves of the body, fol- 
lows on a diet consisting largely of so-called 


DILLON 


acid forming foods, some of which have always 
been regarded as staples. The use of a diet in 
which alkali formers predominate and even the 
addition of alkalies to ordinary diet often leads 
to great improvement. 

The beneficial results of the so-called basic 
diet, from which acid formers are largely omit- 
ted, are seen especially in the middle-aged and 
elderly, and such chronie conditions as high 
blood pressure and affections usually ascribed 
to excess of uric acid or slowing up of nutri- 
tion with accumulation of waste products in 
the body, respond remarkably well. In any 
ease of chronic disease or ill health of obscure 
origin in which there is reason to suspect the 
presence of diminished alkaline reserves, the 
basic diet, which entails no trouble or discom- 
fort, may forestall expensive cures at distant 
resorts and surgical intervention for the sup- 
posed results of focal infection. See Foop AND 
NUTRITION; VITAMINE OR VITAMINES. 

DIETRICH, Jomn HASSLER (1878— * 
An American clergyman, born at Chambers- 
burg, Pa., and educated at Franklin and Mar- 
shall College and at the Reformed Theological 
Seminary at Lancaster, Pa. He was ordained 
in the ministry of the Reformed Church in 1905, 
but before this he held various positions such 
as private secretary and manager of Life’s 
Fresh Air Fund. From 1905 to 1916, he held 
various pastorates, becoming in the latter year 
pastor of the First Unitarian Society in Minne- 
apolis. He is the author of: The Gain for Re- 
ligion in Modern Thought (1908); The Religion 
of a Sceptie (1911); Substitutes for the Old Be- 
liefs (1914); From Stardust to Soul (1916); 
The Religion of Evolution (1917); The Religion 
of Humanity (1919). 

DIFFENDORFER, RartpuH EvuGene (1879- 

). An American clergyman, born at Hayes- 
ville, Ohio, and educated at Ohio Wes- 
leyan University, Drew Theological Seminary 
and Union Theological Seminary. He was as- 
sistant secretary of the Epworth League from 
1902 to 1904, and from 1904 to 1916 was secre- 
tary of the Missionary Education Movement in 
the United States and Canada. The following 
year (1916-17), he was educational secretary 
of the Board of Home Missions and Church Ex- 
tension and of the Board of Foreign Missions 
of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He was 
associate secretary of the Centenary Commis- 
sion of the Board of Home Missions and Church 
Extension in 1918, and in 1919-20 served as 
director of the Home Missions Survey of the 
Inter-church world movement. In 1920, he was 
appointed secretary of the department of edu- 
cation of the Committee on Conservation and 
Advance of the Methodist Episcopal Chureh in 
Chicago. He is the author of: Ohild Life in 
Mission Lands (1904); Junior Studies in the 
Life of Christ (1904); A Modern Disciple of 
Jesus Ohrist—David Livingstone (1913) ; Thy 
Kingdom Come (1914); Missionary Education 
in Home and School (1917); The Church and 
the Community (1920). 

DIFFUSION OF GASES. See Cnuemistry. 

DILLON, Jonn (1851- ). An Trish pol- 
iticlan and agitator (see Vor. VII). In 1918, 
he succeeded Mr. Redmond as head of the Irish 
Nationalist party and was very bitter in de- 
nouncing England’s methods in coercing the 
Irish. During the War he was among those 
who favored Ireland’s share in the conflict, al- 
though he was opposed to compulsory service 


ti i itis eel 


DILNOT 379 


and the Munitions Department, and was not 
kindly disposed toward Lloyd George’s sugges- 
tions for settling the Irish question. 
~DILNOT, FRANK (1875- ). An English 
author and journalist, born in Hampshire. He 
was educated privately and began as a news- 
paper reporter in 1900 on the staff of the Cen- 
tral News, London, which he left two years later 
for the Daily Mail (1902-10). He was editor 
of the Daily Citizen, a British labor organ 
(1912-15), and thereafter was a correspondent 
for the Chronicle to investigate social and eco- 
nomic conditions in England. In 1916-19, he 
was president of the Association of Foreign 
Correspondents in America, and in the latter 
year, editor of the Globe. His publications, the 
majority of which give evidence of thorough in- 
sight into social and economic conditions in 
England, include: The Old Order Changeth: 
the Passing of Power from the House of Lords 
(1911), Lloyd George the Man (1917), The 
New America (1919), and England after the 
War (1920). His Lloyd George the Man had a 
second edition with three supplementary chap- 
ters in 1923 under the title Lloyd George. The 
undiscriminating admiration of the first edition 
has distinetly ebbed in the supplementary chap- 
ters. 

DINGLER, Huco ALBertT EMMANUEL HER- 
MANN (1881- ). A German mathematician 
and physicist, born in Munich and educated at 
the high school of Aschaffenburg and at the 
universities of Erlangen, Géttingen and Munich. 
He became. a member of the faculty of the Uni- 
versity of Munich in 1912. His works include: 
The Foundations for a Critique of the Exact 
Sciences (1907); The Boundaries and Aims 
of Science (1910); The Bases of Natural Phil- 
osophy (1913); The Elements of Physics 
(1920); Remarks on the. Theory of Relatiwity 
(1921). 

DINSMORE, CHARLES ALLEN (1860- a 
An American clergyman and Dante scholar (see 
Vou. VII). In 1920, Dr. Dinsmore gave up his 
pastorate at Waterbury, Conn., and became pro- 
fessor of spiritual interpretation of literature 
at the Yale Divinity School. In 1920, he was 
Carew lecturer at the Harvard Theological Sem- 
inary. His Life of Dante was published in 
1919. 

DINWIDDIE, Atsert BLEDSOE (1871- ). 
An American university president, born at Lex- 
ington, Ky., and educated at the University of 
Virginia and the University of Gottingen, Ger- 
many. He began his career with a teaching 
licentiate in the University of Virginia, in 1888, 
and held various teaching positions, principally 
in secondary schools, until 1896, when he was 
appointed professor of mathematics in South- 
western Presbyterian University. In 1906, he 
was called to Tulane University as assistant 
professor of applied mathematics and astrono- 
my. He was made associate professor in 1908 
and full professor in 1910. He was dean of the 
College of Arts and Sciences, director of the 
summer school from 1910 to 1918, and in 1918 
became president. He was also elected presi- 
dent of the American Association of University 
Professors, the Louisiana Council of Education, 
and other educational associations. 

DINWIDDIE, Epwin CouRTLAND 

). An American temperance 
(see Vor. VII). He directed the national 
campaign for the Constitutional Amendment 
for the prohibition of the liquor traffic in 1917, 


(1867- 


advocate © 


DISCIPLES OF CHRIST 


and was president of the International Congress 
against Alcoholism in 1920-21. 

DIPHTHERIA. The greatest advance since 
1914 in knowledge of this plague is contained 
in the application of the Schick test to school 
children, to determine the relative susceptibil- 
ity or immunity to infection. Many facts have 
come to light which contradict popular belief. 
Diphtheria has commonly been regarded as a 
disease of the tenement population, while scar- 
let fever. was believed to attack both social ex- 
tremes indifferently. The Schick test shows 
plainly that the prosperous enjoy no immunity 
from diphtheria and that the susceptibility to 
the infection among the well-to-do is about 
three times as great as among the indigent. 
This is offset by the recognition among the 
prosperous of the importance of segregation. 
The Schick test has also shown that heredity is 
a factor. 

In any case susceptibility and immunity are 
not lasting, and tests have to be repeated at 
comparatively short intervals. Susceptibility 
is apt to disappear after the age of two or three 
years. The Negro child is much more suscep- 
tible to the disease than some of the whites, 
e.g. the Italians. Immunization tests are suc- 
cessful in a proportion varying from 70 to 93 
per cent. Reports of results of the application 
of the Schick test vary much with the locality. 
Diphtheria was responsible for 20,000 deaths 
annually in the United States. Susceptibility 
exists in 85 per cent of all children tested. 

DIPLOMACY OF THE WAR. See War, 
DIPLOMACY OF THE. 

DIRIGIBLES. See ARONAUTICS, 

‘DIRIGIBLES, In Warrare. See STRATEGY 
AND TACTICS. 

DISARMAMENT. See WASHINGTON CoNn- 
FERENCE, and PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCES. 

DISARMAMENT CONFERENCE. See 
WASHINGTON CONFERENCE. 

DISCIPLES OF CHRIST. The fifth largest 
Protestant communion in the United States, 
congregational in organization. It was first in 
percentage of growth in 19238, reporting 4.2 per 
cent. It seeks to restore the union of the 
churches through a return to the plan outlined 
in the New Testament without human addition 
of creeds and formulas. The number of com- 
municants increased from 1,362,711 in 1914 to 
1,383,247 in 1923; the number of churches from 
9076 to 9533; the number of ministers from 
5592 to 6150; and the number of pupils en- 
rolled in the Sunday schools from 900,000 to 1,- 
170,148. In addition to varied types of home 
mission work among Negroes, Indians, Orient- 
als, Mexican-Americans, and immigrants, for- 
eign missions were maintained throughout the 
decade in Africa, China, India, Jamaica, Japan, 
Mexico, the Philippines, Porto Rico, South 
America (Argentina and Paraguay), and Tibet. 
The communion maintained 25 colleges in the 
United States, codperating through a board of 
education. The Men and Millions Movement 
was started in 1913 to secure $6,300,000 to 
equip mission stations and increase the endow- 
ment of the educational and benevolent institu- 
tions of the communion, to enlist 1000 workers 
for the mission field, and to start “every mem- 
ber” canvasses as the best plan for securing 
regular offerings for missions. The Movement 
was completed in 1918. In 1920 the six mis- 
sionary boards of the communion united under 
the title of the United Christian Missionary 


DISEASES OF PLANTS 380 


Society, with headquarters at St. Louis, Mo. 


DISEASES OF PLANTS. See PLANTs, 
DISEASES OF. 
DITRICHSTEIN, Leo (1867- ). Ag 


actor-playwright, born in Temesvar, Austria- 
Hungary. He was educated in Vienna and was 
naturalized as an American citizen in 1897. 
He made his New York début in Die Ehre, 1890. 
This was followed by: Mr. Wilkinson’s Widows, 
Trilby, Are You a Mason? and other plays. He 
is the author of numerous plays, among which 
are: Gossip (with Clyde Fitch, 1895); A 
Southern Romance (1897); The Last Appeal 
(1901); What's the Matter with Susan? 
(1904); The Ambitious Mrs. Susan (1907); 
The Million (from the French, 1911); The Con- 
cert (1911); Temperamental Journey (1912) 3 
The Great Lover (1915). 

DIVING SHELL. See ProJEcTILE. 

DIVISION. See ARMIES AND ARMY ORGAN- 
IZATION. 

DIVORCE. Whether because of some gen- 
eral demoralization or because of an awakening 
sense of what marriage ought to be, the strik- 
ing increase in divorcement during these years 
was not peculiar to any one country. In Eng- 
land, notwithstanding the narrow restriction of 
grounds and the prohibitive cost, the number of 
absolute divorces rose from 546 in 1906 to 972 
in 1916, and to 1629 in 1919, while the number 
of petitions for divorce, even more significant of 
the general trend, rose from 767 to 1163 and to 
5085. In Germany the increase in the number 
of divorces from 1918 to 1920 was from 13,344 
to 36,542; in Switzerland, from 1699 to 2241. 
In Sweden the number rose from 1098 in 1918 
to 1455 in 1922. Norway seemed to be the one 
exception to the rule, the number of divorces in 
1922 falling slightly below the figure for 1918, 
594, In France the ratio of divorces to mar- 
riages had become about 1 to 5: 7851 divorces 
in 1918-19, 11,514 in 1919-20. Japan was still 
conceded first place among the nations with a 
high divorce rate. As for the United States, 
the number of decrees rose from 72,062 for 1906 
to 112,036 for 1916, from a ratio of 84 per 
100,000 population to 112. This ratio rose by 
1922, according to the Department of Com- 
merce, to 136; while the number of marriages 
per 100,000 population fell from 1055 in 1916 
to 1033 in 1922. In 1916, desertion and cruelty 
accounted for 65.1 per cent of all divorces 


granted. In 1922 there was one divorce to 


every 7.6 marriages. 

United States. That phase of the divorce 
problem which received particular attention in 
the United States during the decade 1914-24 
was the need for uniformity of legislation. The 
various States, left to their own resources, had 
developed a confusing diversity of divorce leg- 
islation. In South Carolina, divorce was not 
allowed; in New Hampshire there were 14 rec- 
ognized grounds for a decree. Counting cer- 
tain duplications, there were in the United 
States 363 causes for divorce: in one State, 
New York, unfaithfulness alone; in others, for 
varied reasons down to mere bad temper. And 
the legal complications ensuing on. the remar- 
riage of divorced persons were correspondingly 
abundant and confusing: a marriage legal in 
one State was bigamy in others, and a child 
legitimate in one State was illegitimate in an- 
other. Recognition of the need for some meas- 
ure of uniformity in the divorce laws of the 
United States grew steadily. In 1913 at a con- 


DIVORCE 


ference of governors the movement to secure 
uniform divorce legislation was endorsed; and 
throughout the decade by many organizations 
in convention. But the question of State’s 
rights impeded action. In 1924, however, there 
was introduced in the Senate, a Federal bill 
calling for uniform regulation of marriage and 
divorce. In this, five causes: for absolute di- 
vorce were fixed: Adultery, cruel and inhu- 
man treatment, abandonment or failure to pro- 
vide, incurable insanity, and conviction for in- 
famous crime. The measure was referred to 
committee to await action at the next session 
of Congress. 

Other Countries. The tendency abroad dur- 
ing the period was markedly toward liberali- 
zation of divorce provisions. Spain and Italy 
(both predominantly Catholic countries), where 
divorce was not allowed, were in striking con- 
trast. In England, the report of the Royal Di- 
vorce Commission, presented in 1912, had rec- 
ommended an increase of both the causes of 
divorce and facilities for divorcement. Al- 
though this was steadily opposed by the Church 
of England, and several bills on the subject 
were defeated during the period, in 1923 a 
measure was got through by which the terms 
for a decree, infidelity, were at least made 
identical for men and women (previously, for 
women, cruelty or desertion as well as in- 
fidelity had been necessary). The prohibitive 
cost of divorce in England had been some- 
what eased by a Poor Persons’ Act, under 
which, if an individual did not object to be so 
classed, a decree might be obtained at a cheaper 
rate; but up to 1924 only one divorce court (in 
London) had been established and this condi- 
tion added greatly to the expense of securing a 
decree. On the continent there was an unmis- 
takable drift toward’ the adoption of mutual 
desire as a reason for the dissolution of mar- 
riage. In Austria and Russia this had been le- 
gal for Jews; in Holland, the principle was 
evident in a provision for divorce after five 
years of judicial separation; Belgium recog- 
nized as grounds “mutual and unwavering con- 
sent”; and in Portugal and Rumania mutual 
consent was accepted, subject to provisions. 
The new German, Austrian, and Russian legis- 
lation on the subject, in adopting mutual con- 
sent as a cause, endeavored specifically to pro- 
vide against an irresponsible attitude toward 
children or wife. The Scandinavian experiment 
was most noteworthy. As a result of a com- 
prehensive study of Scandinavian social legisla- 
tion, 1910-18, divorce legislation was adopted 
in Sweden in 1915, in Norway in 1918, and in 
Denmark in 1922, which definitely recognized 
mutual consent as the fundamental reason for 
the dissolution of marriage. Separation for a 
year, however, was required before the granting 
of the decree. Both parents were required to 
contribute to the support of children. The 
question of custody was left to be settled by the 
parents where possible and where there was in- 
volved no danger to the welfare of the child. 
For cases where divorce was desired by only 
one party, the grounds were liberal, including 
such as flagrant neglect, misuse of intoxicants, 
ete. The statistics previously given show that 


_ there was no increase from 1918 to 1922 in 


Norway under the new legislation, and in 
Sweden no greater than in other countries. 
The expedient adopted in Latvia, Lithuania, 
Czecho-Slovakia, and Jugo-Slavia, to stem the 


Ys 


} 
4 


—— 


DIX 


increase in divorce, was to make it more diffi- 
cult to marry and to grant dissolution of mar- 


riage for the asking; but that this was no sgolu-. 


tion seemed evident from the marked increase 
in the number of divorces in France under sim- 
ilar laws. 

DIX, Kurr WALTER (1878— ). A Ger- 
man pedagogue and writer on subjects of edu- 
cation, born in Greiz. He studied at the uni- 
versities of Dresden and Jena and has devoted 
himself to teaching and studying child psychol- 
ogy, child hygiene, ete. Among his works 
are: LHrziehung und Nervésitét im Kindesalter 
(1909); Kérperliche und geistige Entwicklung 
eines Kindes (1911-12); Kindeskunde (1911) ; 
Entwicklung der Denkakte (1921). 

DIXON, AmziI CLARENCE (1854— yo 
American clergyman and author (see Vor. VII). 
His later works include: Reconstruction (1919); 
The Birth of Christ, the Incarnation of God 


(1919); Why I Am a Christian (1921); High- 
er Critic Myths and Moths (1921). 
DIXON, JAMES Main (1856- yer An 


American teacher and author (see Von. VII). 
In 1920, he wrote, The Spiritual Meaning of 
Tennyson's “In Memoriam,” and Manual of 
Modern Scots. 

DIXON, RoLtanp BurracE (1875— yee An 
American anthropologist (see Vor. VII). He 
was professor at Harvard after 1916 and mem- 
ber of the American Commission to Negotiate 
Peace (1916-18) in Paris. He is a contributor 
to anthropological and ethnological journals 
and his most recent works include Oceanic 
Mythology (Myths of the Idonesian, Oceanian, 
Australian region, published in 1915), and The 
Racial History of Man (1923). 

DIXON, Roya (1885-— ). An American 
author, born at Huntsville, Tex., and educated 
at the Sam Houston Normal Institute and as a 
special student at the University of Chicago. 
After spending five years with the department 
of botany at the Field Museum of Chicago, he 
entered the literary field as a member of the 
Houston Chronicle staff. He has been a special 
contributor to the leading newspapers of New 
York, where he has lectured for the Board of 
Education. His interest and attention have 
been directed to immigration, as a director of 
publicity of the Commission of Immigrants in 
America, and as managing editor of The Immi- 
grants in America Review. His works. in- 
clude: The Human Side of Plants (1914); 
Americanization (1916); The Human Side of 
Animals (1918); Hidden Children (1922). 

DIXON, THomas (1864— ). An Ameri- 
can novelist and playwright (see Vou. VII). 
His photoplay, The Birth of a Nation, appeared 
in 1915, and he published Fall of a Nation 
(1916), The Way of a Man (1918), A Man of 


the People (1920), and The Man in Gray 
(1921). 

DIJIEMAL PASHA (AHMAD DJEMAL) 
(1875- ). A Turkish soldier and politician, 


born at Bagdad. After an excellent French ed- 
ucation, he entered the Turkish army, and soon 
became lieutenant-colonel. He acquainted himself 
with the Young Turkish Movement and was 
criticized for his obvious support. In 1911, 
after serving at Adana in Cilicia, he was made 
governor of his native town of Bagdad, and 
shortly after became Vali of Constantinople. 
About this time he resigned as commander of 
the Ist Corps at Constantinople, and devoted 
himself to politics, becoming Minister of Public 


381 DOCKS 


Works and shortly afterwards Minister of Ma- 
rine. These political activities brought upon 
him the personal antagonism of Enver Pasha. 
Djemal was opposed to any combination that 
included both Turkey and Germany; he became 
distinctly pro-French at the outbreak of the 
War. Thus it was because of his political be- 
liefs and influence that Enver Pasha sent him 
to Syria as commander-in-chief of the 4th 
Army. Upon being recalled in 1917, he was 
made commander-in-chief of all the troops ex- 
cept those at the Sinai front, an exception 
which immediately led to friction; as a result, 
Djemal, losing interest, abandoned military op- 
erations. In 1917, he returned to Constantino- 
ple and resumed his duties as Minister of Ma- 
rine, but opportunities for military and politi- 
cal power did not come his way, and on the 
downfall of Turkey in 1918, he fled to Germany 
and thence to Switzerland. Three years later 
he became miltary adviser to the amir of Af- 
ghanistan. 

DOBRUDJA. See BuLGARIA; RUMANIA. 

DOCKS. The construction of large merchant 
steamers and vessels of war in the period be- 
tween 1914 and 1924 developed the need for 
drydocks or, as they are sometimes called, grav- 
ing docks, of increased size and capacity. Un- 
der normal circumstances there would have 
been no such need but with the outbreak of the 
War in 1914 the necessity for such facilities 
was appreciated, particularly in the United 
States. Before the United States entered the 
War there was naturally an increase in its 
commerce, and at the same time the officers of 
the United States Navy appreciated that the 
construction of suitable drydocks was an essen- 
tial element in any scheme of naval prepared- 
ness. Accordingly as early as 1914 plans 
were discussed for additional drydocks locat- 
ed at various naval stations, while at the 
Panama Canal, and at certain leading ports, 
docks were constructed intended primarily 
for merchant shipping. When the United 
States actively joined the Allies in the War and 
took over for its transport service the former 
Gerntan liner, the Vaterland, renamed Levi- 
athan, it was apparent that no drydock in 
the United States was large enough for that 
vessel. 

Pearl Harbor Drydock. As early as 1908 
the United States Navy began the construction 
of a drydock at Pearl Harbor, Hawaiian Is- 
lands, which was completed and flooded on Aug. 
21, 1919. The plans for developing a small 
naval station located at this point involved the 
construction of a graving dock 589 feet long, but 
with the completion of the Panama Canal and 
the increased size of ships navigating the Pa- 
cific Ocean it was determined to increase its 
dimensions. Accordingly the dock was built 
1022 feet long, 138 feet wide at the coping and 
3914 feet in effective depth, there being 43% 
feet depth from top of coping to floor. This 
gave a clear water basin 1010 feet long and 
1010 feet wide at the bottom clearance. In 
1913 a seismic disturbance caused the collapse 
of the work under way, and after a technical 
investigation a modified plan of construction 
was adopted in 1915, and finished in 1919. A 
full report of this drydock, the history of its 
early construction, as well as the adoption of 
the new design is contained in the J’ransaction 
of the American Society of Civil Engineers, vol, 
lxx, page 223, 1916. 


DOCKS 382 


Norfolk Navy Yard Drydock. The United 
States Navy Yard at Portsmouth, Virginia, had 
its facilities increased by the construction of a 
drydock 1011 feet long, 144 feet wide at the cop- 
ing and 40 feet deep, which was opened in April, 
1919, after having been under construction since 
February, 1917. This work involved the exca- 
vation of 625,000 cubic yards and the placing 
of a total yardage of concrete of 185,000. The 
Norfolk Navy Yard also contained two dry- 
docks, built through the coéperation and finan- 
cial assistance of the United States Shipping 
Board during the War, which were completed 
in 1919, and formally inaugurated on October 
31, of that year, by the Queen of the Belgians. 

Commonwealth Drydock. In 1915 active 
work was begun on a large drydock at South 
Boston built by the Commonwealth of Massa- 
chusetts which was an important element in the 
port and harbor development of Boston. This 
dock at the time of its completion was the larg- 
est in the United States, being 1176 feet long 
and 149 feet, 9 inches wide. It could take care 
of a ship of 1150 feet in length with a beam 
of 115 feet and 45 feet draft. It had a capacity 
of 55,000,000 gallons, and was unwatered by 
three electric pumps, requiring about two hours 
for the operation. This dock cost the Common- 
wealth of Massachusetts over $3,000,000, and 
was purchased by the United States government 
under authority from Congress for $4,100,000, 
being formally taken over by the United States 
Navy and put in commission on Dec. 22, 1919, 
the battleship Virginia being the first vessel 
to use the dock. 

Balboa Drydock. In 1916 the new drydock 
at Balboa, at the Pacific terminal of the Pan- 
ama Canal zone, was completed with a length 
of 1000 feet, a width of 110 feet and a depth 
of 35 feet over the blocks at mean tide. This 
structure was one of the important works con- 
nected with the shipping facilities of the Pan- 
ama Canal, and made possible the docking and 
repair of steamers of considerable size. 

St. John, N. B., Drydock. The St. John 
Drydock and Shipbuilding Company in Novem- 
ber, 1923, opened its new drydock at St. John, 
N. B. This new dock was the largest of its 
kind in the world, having an extreme length of 
1225 feet and length over the blocks of 1150 
feet. It was so arranged that it could be used 
in two independent sections, one 650 feet long 
and the other 500 feet long. There was a pat- 
ent slipway 720 feet in length and a cradle 240 
feet long. The depth over the sill at high tide 
was 42 feet. The dock was provided with a 70- 
ton fixed crane and a 20-ton traveling crane. 

Drydock at Quebec. The Champlain dry- 
dock at Quebee, which had been under construc- 
tion since 1914, was completed in August, 1918. 
Situated on the south side of the St. Lawrence, 
and with a length of 1150 feet, a width of 120 
feet and depth over the sill of 34 feet at neap 
tide, and 40 feet at high water at spring tide, 
it was at the time of its completion one of the 
largest drydocks in the world, being able to ac- 
commodate the largest ships for which the port 
of Quebec had adequate deep water berths. 
This dock was divided into two compartments 
with an inner chamber 650 feet in length and 
an outer one 500 feet in length, the latter being 
closed by a rolling caisson, while the middle 
entrance was formed by a floating caisson. For 
emptying the dock three main pumps of the 
horizontal centrifugal type, designed to deliver 


DODD 


63,000 gallons a minute against the total head 
of 25 feet, were provided. These were operat- 
ed by electric power and could empty the dock 
in about two and a half hours. 

Floating Docks. In the period between 1914 
and 1924 there was also an increase in the size 
and capacity of floating docks which, it will be 
recalled, could be used at any convenient loca- 
tion, and could be moved from place to place if 
so desired. At the close of the War two large 
floating docks owned by Germany, and at the 
time the largest structures of the kind, passed 
into the possession of the British. Each of 
these had an overall length of about 700 feet 
and a lift of some 40,000 tons. The British 
Admiralty, however, decided that there was 
need of a still larger floating dock, and in No- 
vember, 1922, one was put under construction 
with a length of 960 feet, and a lifting capacity 
of 60,000 tons. This was built at the Walker 
Shipyard of Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth 
and Company, and was designed for the port of 
Southampton. This dock which, at the time of 
its completion, in 1924, was the world’s largest 
floating dock, was of the double sided, self- 
docking sectional box type, and consisted of 
pontoon and two parallel walls divided trans- 
versely by seven sections. When in position at 
Southampton it was moored by four steel booms 
110 feet long, hinged at one end to the dock and 
at the other extremity to four dolphins of re- 
enforced concrete. When submerged the dock 
contains some 80,000 tons of water to pump out 
which 14 motor driven centrifugal pumps 
were provided and with all in operation some 
four hours were required to remove the water. 
The British Government accordingly had with 
the Southampton and the two German docks 
three floating docks, each of which was capable 
of taking a large battleship, such as the Hood, 
and a distinct strategic and maintenance advan- 
tage was gained by the fact that all of these 
docks could be passed through the Suez Canal. 
It was rumored in 1924 that one of these float- 
ing docks was to be sent to Singapore, another 
to Malta, but no confirmation was available of 
such disposition. 

American Built Docks in France. At the 
mouth of the Loire River in France, during the 
War, engineers of the American Army con- 
structed a notable timber dock system which 
provided new berths for 10 vessels in addition 
to an existing series of docks adjoining, pre- 
viously constructed by the French. These docks 
were built of timber supported by wooden piles 
and were located on mud fiats. On their shore 
side were built long low classification sheds, and 
further inland a receiving yard, a departure 
yard for the handling of freight cars. There 
was provided specially designed timber rigging 
for the handling of ships’ cargoes, and heavy 
steel gantry cranes were erected also. 

DODD, LEE WILson (1879- ). An Amer- 
ican author and playwright, born at Franklin, 
Pa., and educated at Yale. He studied law at 
the New York Law School and was admitted to 
the bar in 1902, but gave up law five years later 
for literature, in which he made distinct accom- 
plishment, but has been criticized as being over 
novelistic. He is author of A Modern AIl- 
chemist (1906); The Return of Eve (1909) ; 
Speed (1911); The Middle Miles (1915); His 
Majesty Bunker Bean (1915); Pals First; The 
Book of Susan (1920) and Lilia Chenoworth 
(1922). / 


f 


ee 


DODD 


DODD, WILLIAM Epwarp (1869- ) 4 tAn 
American historian, born at Clayton, N. C., and 
educated at Virginia Polytechnical Institute 
and the University of Leipzig. While succes- 
sively holding the chairs of history at Randolph- 
Macon College (1900-08) and at the University 
of Chicago (1908- ), he wrote: Jeffersons 
Riickkehr zur Politik, 1796 (1900) ; Life of Na- 
thaniel Macon (1903); Life of Jefferson Davis 
(1907); Statesmen of the Old South (1911); 
and Woodrow Wilson and His Work (1920). 
In addition, he was editor and joint author of 
the Riverside History of the United States 
(1915) and of The Cotton Kingdom (in Chron- 
icles of America series), and co-translator of 
Lamprecht’s What Is History? (1905). 

DODECANESE. A_ group of 12° small 
islands, the Sporades, off the southwest coast of 
Asia Minor, among which, politically, Rhodes 
was included. Most of them, barren rocks, are 
uninhabited. Of their total population, 100,198 
in 1917, the greater part were Greek sponge 
fishermen inhabiting Rhodes and Cos. During 
the Libyan War between Italy and Turkey, the 
Italians occupied the islands, and by the Treaty 
of Lausanne of 1912, Italy was permitted to 
continue occupation only as a guarantee toward 
Turkish evacuation of ‘Tripoli. The Turks 
claimed to have fulfilled their obligations, but 
the Italians stayed on. After the War the 
question of the Dodecanese became a test of the 
sincerity of the Allies’ idealistic pretensions. 
On the one hand was the plain fact of the 
Greek nationality of the population; on the 
other, the Italian claim, frankly imperialistic, 
based on actual possession and on the recogni- 
tion of this possession in the secret Treaty of 
London in 1915, by which the Italian govern- 
ment had been induced to enter the War. In 
1919 the Greek Premier, Venizelos, effected a 
bargain with Tittoni, Italian foreign minister, 
by which the Dodecanese were to be turned 
over to Greece and Rhodes to Italy. The dis- 
position of the latter the Italians promised to 
submit to a plebiscite when Great Britain 
should promise to do similarly in the case of 
Cyprus. The Peace Treaty of Sévres in 1920 
transferred the islands from Turkish to Italian 
sovereignty, while a separate Greco-Italian 
treaty signed on the same day in accordance 
with the Venizelos-Tittoni agreement promised 
all except Rhodes, where a plebiscite was to be 
held, to Greece. Despite this pledge, Italy con- 
tinued in occupation of the disputed territory, 
and shortly afterward repudiated the agree- 
ment, on the ground that the Sévres Treaty had 
not been ratified. Events of the succeeding 
years once more brought the Dodecanese ques- 
tion before the attention of the world. The 
overthrow of Venizelos, the defeat of Greece in 
its Asia Minor adventure, and the rise of Ital- 
ian chauvinism under Mussolini, gave substance 
to the belief that Venizelos’ settlement was only 
too ephemeral and that Italy rather than 
Greece was to control the eastern Mediterra- 
nean. The soundness of these conjectures was 
confirmed when, regardless of self-determina- 
tion and the principle of nationalism, and in a 
spirit typical of the old diplomacy, the Great 
Powers in 1923 confirmed Italy’s hold on the 
islands. By article 15 of the Treaty of Lau- 
sanne, Turkey renounced all rights over the 
Dodecanese, Rhodes, and the island of Castel- 
lorizzo in favor of Italy. No mention was 
made of a plebiscite. See GREECE; ITALY. 


383 


DOHERTY 


DODGE, RAymonp (1871-— ). An Amer- 
ican experimental psychologist. He was edu- 
cated at Williams College and the University of 
Halle (Germany). In 1896, he was appointed 
professor of philosophy at Ursinus College, and 
the following year became associated with Wes- 
leyan University, and was made full professor 
in 1902. He was selected to conduct experi- 
ments on the psychology of nutrition at the 
Carnegie Institute laboratory (1913-14), and 
became the editor of the Journal of Haperimen- 
tal Psychology (1916) and of the Journal of 
Comparative, Psychology (1921). He is the au- 
thor of numerous scientific monographs and pa- 
pers on the psychology of language, vision, eye 
movement, and dynamic psychology in general. 

DODGE, WitLiAMmM DE Lertwicn (1867- Y 
An American artist born at Liberty, Va., who 
studied in Paris and Munich and entered first 
place in the examination for the Ecole des 
Beaux Arts. Mr. Dodge’s work as a mural 
painter is represented in New York by his deco- 
rations of the Empire Theatre, of the Waldorf- 
Astoria Hotel, and of other theatres and hotels. 
Among his principal works were the decora- 
tions of the Café de l’Opéra, Paris, The Folies 
Bergéres Theatre, murals for the Panama-Pa- 
cific International Exposition, and for the Flag 
Room at the capitol at Albany, mosaics for the 
Hall of Records, New York, “Signing of the 
Peace,” at Versailles, and “Taking of the Fort 
de Vaux.” 

DOFLEIN, Franz J. T. (1873- aes. 
German zodlogist born in Paris. He traveled 
extensively in the United States, West Indies 
and Mexico. He succeeded Weismann as _ pro- 
fessor of zodlogy at the University of Munich, 
in 1912, and became professor at Breslau in 


1918. Professor Doflein’s published works were 
on the protozoa, animal biology, and psy- 
chology. 

DOHENY, Epwarp LAURENCE (1856- F 


An American capitalist and oil producer, born 
at Fond du Lac, Wis., who spent his early years 
prospecting for gold with varying — success. 
Stranded in Los Angeles in 1892, he noticed a 
wagonload of pitch passing along the street and 
investigated the hole from which it was taken. 
He obtained a lease of a lot near-by, and at 225 
feet struck a gusher which started the Los An- 
geles oil field. After finding several other 
fields, and gaining several fortunes, he went to, 
Mexico in 1900 and organized the Mexican Pe- 
troleum Company with $10,000,000 capital, and 
obtained leases on about 1,000,000 acres of bar- 
ren land near Tampico. In four or five years, 
Tampico was a world oil centre. The control 
of such vast enterprises inevitably led Doheny 
into political activity. In Mexico, he was 
charged with being responsible for several rev- 
olutions, and he was a large factor in Califor- 
nia politics. He was prominent in the transac- 
tions in regard to the United States naval oil 
reserves, and was called to Washington to testi- 
fy before the investigating committee early in 
1924. His testimony revealed that he had lent 
to former Secretary of the Interior Albert B. 
Fall $100,000, and that a number of ex-cabinet 
members and other government officials had 
been employed by him in connection with the 
oil leases. 

DOHERTY, PuiLip JOSEPH - (1856- ).2 
An American lawyer, born at Charlestown, 
Mass., and educated at the School of Law, Bos- 
ton University. He practiced in Boston. from 


DOHSE 384 


1877 to 1908; in the latter year, he became at- 
torney to the division of safety of the Inter- 
state Commerce Commission; and in 1913, chief 
attorney. Beginning in 1884, he held various 
political offices, including member of the Mas- 
sachusetts House of Representatives, delegate 
to the Democratic National Convention, and 
chairman of the Democratic State Convention 
(1897). In 1896, he was Democratic candidate 
for Congress. He was appointed special assis- 
tant to the United States District Attorney in 
cases having to do with certain industrial ques- 
tions, and in 1909 served as special assistant 
to the ae General in the Mondou-N. Y. 
N. H. & H. R. R. case. In 1914, he was on the 
commission to investigate the finances of the 
New Haven Railroad. In 1918, he was ap- 
pointed manager of the Property Protection 
Section of the United States Railroad Adminis- 
tration, and the following year became attor- 
ney to the Valuation Bureau of the Interstate 
Commerce Commission. He is the author of 
The Liability of Railroads to Interstate Hm- 
ployees (1911). 

DOHSE, RicHarp (1875- ). A German 
historian, born at Lubz, Mecklenburg. He stud- 
ied at the universities of Munich, Marburg, 
Geneva and Rostock, specializing on modern 
languages and history. He traveled in France 
and Spain and was journalist, correspondent 
and editor of various papers. His principal 
works are: Colley Oibbers Bearbeitung von 
Shakespeare’s Richard III (1897); a volume of 
verse, Aus stillen Stunden (1902); Kunst fur 
die Jugend (1902); several books of verse in 
Low German (1902-14); Moderne deutsche Lit- 
eratur (1920); Deutsche Literatur von Anfang 
bis Hebbel (1921); and Das Niederdeutsche 
Drama (1921). 

DOISY, PELLETIER ( ?- ). A French 
airman who with Sergeant Besin flew from Par- 
is to Peking (1924) and has made some sensa- 
tional flights in the Orient. He also made a 
world’s record for altitude with 1500 kilograms 
of useful load for seaplanes. 

DOMBROWSKI, Ericn FrANz (1882- ae 
A German student of theoretical and practical 
economy, born in Danzig. He became a well 
known traveler and editor, and a lecturer at 
Danzig, Kiel, Berlin and Leipzig. He is the 
author of Zehn Jahre deutscher Kulturentwick- 
lung vor dem Kriege (1915), Das alte und neue 
System (1919), and Politische Képfe Deutsch- 
lands (1920). 

DOMINIAN, Leon (1880- ). An Amer- 
ican geographer, born at Constantinople, Tur- 
key. He was graduated at Robert College in 
1898 and during 1898-1900 studied at Liége. 
After two years of travel in Turkey, he came 
to the United States, and became an assistant 
on the United States Geological Survey in the 
Southwest, also serving as an instructor in the 
New Mexico School of Mines during 1904, after 
which he spent two years in Mexico. In 1907, 
he settled in New York City and devoted him- 
self to research and writing, but in 1912 went 
to Washington as a writer of geographical ar- 
ticles for the National Geographic Magacine. 
He became connected with the Department of 
State in 1918, serving it on various technical 
matters, especially with the American Peace 
Conference in France during 1919. Since 1921, 
he has been United States Consul in Rome. He 
served as a delegate to the 12th International 
Geographical Congress in Toronto in 1913 and 


DOUGHERTY 


to the 2d Pan-American Scientific Congress held 
in Washington in 1915. He is the author of 
The Frontiers of Language and Nationality in 
Hurope (1917). 


DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. See Santo 
DomInoo. 

DONAI.. See War IN Europe, Western 
Front. 

DONNAY, MaAvrice (1859- ). A French 


dramatic author (see Vor. VII), whose recent 
work includes: Alfred de Musset (1914); La 
Parisienne et la guerre (1916); L’Impromptu 
du paquetage (1916); Le Thédtre aux armies 
(1916). Premiéres impressions (1917); Lettres 
a la dame Blanche (1917); Pendant qwils sont 
a Noyon (1917); La Chasse &@ Vhomme (1919). 

DORGELES, ROLAND (1886- LEA 
French novelist, who came to the front with 
the publication of his war novels, Les Croix de 
Bois and Le Cabaret de la Belle Femme. In 
spite of the intensity of his subject, his style 
is that of a sober realism, which is in many 
ways the equal of the melodramatic pages of 
Barbusse’s Under Fire. His other works are: 
La Machine a finir la guerre (in collaboration 
with Régis Gignoux, 1916); La Boule les Ailes 
(1921); Saint Magloire (1921); Sous les Ailes 
de mon moulin (1922); Le Réveil des morts 
(1923). Les Croiw de Bois and Saint-Magloire 
were translated into English. 

DORR, RuEtTa CHILE (?- ). An Amer- 
ican author and social worker (see VoL. VII). 
She was war correspondent for a syndicate of 
21 newspapers during 1917-18, and became for- 
eign correspondent with headquarters at Prague 
in 1920. Her later books include Inside the 
Russian Revolution (1917), The Soldier’s Moth- 
er in France (1918), and Czecho-Slovakia 
(1921). 

DORSEY, Noaun Ernest (1873- ). An 
American physicist, born at Annapolis Junction, 
Md. He was graduated in 1893 from Johns 
Hopkins, where he was a fellow during 1896- 
97 and received his Ph.D. After serving as a 
research fellow at the Yerkes Observatory dur- 


ing 1899 he returned to Johns Hopkins and was 


an associate in physics until 1901, when he en- 
tered the service of the government as phys- 
icist to the Bureau of Soils in the Department 
of Agriculture. In 1903, he transferred to the 
Bureau of Standards, in which he attained the 
rank of physicist in 1917. In 1921, he as- 
sumed a consulting relation with the Bureau 
in addition to his private practice. His prin- 
cipal investigations have included the physics 
of the soil, absolute measurements in electricity 
and physics of the medical sciences, including 
applications of X-rays. Besides many articles 
contributed to scientific journals, he is the au- 
thor of Physics or Radioactivity (1921). 
DOTTIN, HENRI GeEorRGES (1863- A 
French philologist (see Vor. VII). His most 
recent works are Les anciens peuples de lEu- 
rope (1916) and La langue gauloise (1920). 
DOUGALL, Lity (18538- ). A Canadian 
novelist (see Vout. VII). Among her recent 
works are The Practice of Christianity (1914), 
and The Christian Doctrine of Health (1916). 
She was part author of Concerning Prayer 
(1916); Immortahty (1917); “The Spirt 
(1919); God and the Struggle for Ewmistence 
(1919); Arcades Ambo (1919), a volume of 
poems, and The Lord of Thought (1922). 
DOUGHERTY, Pavt = (1877- VexpAn 
American marine painter, born in Brooklyn, 


a 


DOUGHTY 


N. Y. He was graduated from the Brooklyn 
Polytechnic Institute and the New York Law 
School and studied art in Europe, spending 
much of his time in London, Paris, Florence, 
Venice and Munich. In 1906, he was elected 
an Associate of the National Academy and the 
next year he was made a full member. He is 
also a member of the National Institute of 
Arts and Letters. Mr. Dougherty’s marine 
paintings have been exhibited all over the 
United States and in many parts of Europe 
and include: “October Seas”; “The Road to 
Cayey”; “Lake Louise” (Metropolitan Museum, 
N. Y.); “Sun and Storm” (National Gallery, 
Washington); “Flood Tide” (Carnegie Insti- 
tute, Pittsburgh) ; “Storm Quiet” (Chicago Art 
Institute); “The Land and the Sea” (Corcoran 
Gallery, Washington) ; “Autumn Oaks” (Brook- 
lyn Institute Museum). Among Mr. Dougher- 
ty’s awards was the gold medal from the Pan- 
ama-Pacific International Exposition in 1915. 

DOUGHTY, ArTHUR GEORGE (1860- Ne 
A Canadian historian and archivist (see Vou. 
VII). In 1917, Doughty was attached to the 
Canadian Expeditionary Force War Archives 
Survey and in 1919 he accompanied the Prince 
of Wales as historian on his Canadian tour. 
Among his later works appear The Acadian Ea- 
iles (1915), A Daughter of New France (1916), 
and Notes on the History of Canada Prepared 
for the Visit of the Prince of Wales (1919). 

DOUGHTY, CHARLES MONTAGUE (1843- i 
An English explorer (see Vou. VII). His work 
in the period under review was devoted almost 
entirely to the writing of poetry and_ poetic 
drama. The Titans appeared in 1916 and Man- 
soul, or the Riddle of the World in 1920. 

DOUGHTY, Howarp WATERS (1871- if 
An American chemist, born at Baltimore, Md. 
He was educated at Johns Hopkins University, 
where he received his Ph.D. in 1905. During 
1905-06, he was instructor of chemistry at Mis- 
souri and during 1907-08, at Wisconsin, after 
which he went to Amherst, where he became 
full professor in 1913. His original investiga- 
tions have been chiefly in the field of organic 
chemistry, notably on derivatives of trimethyl- 
paraconiec and camphoronic acids and on the re- 
actions with various metals of compounds con- 
taining the trihalogen methyl group. 

DOUGLAS, Rozsert LANnctTon (1864- Ve 
An English art critic, lecturer, and author (see 
Vout. VII). Enlisting in the new army in 
1914, he became staff captain, War Office, 1916- 
17. After 1916, he was director of the Nation- 
al Gallery, Ireland. To the literature of Sie- 
nese art, as an authority on which he was best 
known, he contributed in 1914 an edition (sec- 
ond) of Histoire de Sienne. 

DOUMER, PaAuL (1857- ). A French 
statesman (see Vor. VII). He became minis- 
ter of state in 1917, and was minister of fi- 
nance during 1921-22. 

DOUMERGUE, Gaston’ (1863- i K glips' 
French statesman (see Vout. VII). He held the 
portfolio for the colonies through the minis- 
tries of Viviani and Briand until the Ribot 
Ministry of March, 1917, when he was sent to 
Russia to persuade the Kerensky government 
not to make a separate peace with Germany 
and Austria. He was elected the twelfth Pres- 
ident of France on June 13, 1924, the first 
Protestant to hold that office. 

DOURINE. See VetTEeRINARY MEDICINE. 

D’OVIDIO, Francesco (1843- ). An 


385 DRAKE 


Italian philologist (see Vor. VII). He has 
published, within the last years, L’avversione di 
Ruggiero Bonght alla triplice allianza (1915), 
Lrorigine della presente guerra (1915), and 
Benvenuto da Imola e la legenda vergiliana 
(1916). 

DOWLING, AUSTIN (1868- jee ea 
American archbishop, born in New York City. 
He graduated from Manhattan College in 1887, 
and after studying at St. Jolin’s Seminary and 
the Catholic University, was ordained to the 
Roman Catholic priesthood in 1891. He served 
as pastor in Warren, R. I., and from 1905 to 
1912 was pastor of Saints Peter and Paul Ca- 
thedral. He was consecrated Bishop of Des 
Moines in 1912 and Archbishop of St. Paul in 
1910; 

DOWNS, LAwrencE ALoystius (1872- j 
An American railway official, born in Greencas- 
tle, Ind. He graduated from Purdue Universi- 
ty in 1894 and in the following year began his 
railroad career with the Vandalia road. He 
occupied many important positions with the II- 


‘ linois Central Railroad until 1920, when he was 


elected vice-president and general manager of 
the Central of Georgia Railroad. He was the 
author of Development of Banking in Illinois 
(1914). 

DOYLE, Sir Artnur Conan (1859- y; 
A British novelist and spiritualist (see VoL. 
VII). After 1913, Sir Arthur lengthened his 
already long list of works with: The Case of 
Oscar Slater (1914); The Valley of Fear 
(1915); A Visit to Three Fronts (1916); His- 
tory of the British Campaign in France and 


Flanders, vols. i and ii (1915-20); Danger 
(1918); His Last Bow (1918); The Guards 
Came Through (1920). A New Revelation 


(1918); The Vital Message (1920), and The 
Wanderings of a Spiritualist (1921), were 
written in connection with his studies in the 
field of spiritualism. He lectured and debated 
on the subject of spiritualism in Europe and 
America, 

DRAFT ACT. See Unitep Srates, History. 

DRAFT TREATY OF MUTUAL AS- 
SISTANCE. See WASHINGTON CONFERENCE. 

DRAGE, GEOFFREY (1860- ). An Eng- 
lish sociologist (see Vor. VII). He was active 
during the War as a member of the Depart- 
mental Committees National Register (1915), 
vice-president of the Royal Statistical Society 
(1916-18), chairman of the Denison House 
Committee on Public Assistance (1916), and 
chairman of the Official Statistics Committee 
(1919). In 1916, he was attached to the War 
Office in the Military Intelligence Section, and 
in the following year was director of the In- 
vestigation Board of Agriculture. Among his 
later works may be mentioned: Ephemera 
(1915); Reorganization of Official Statistics 
and a Central Statistical Office (1916); Pre- 
war Statistics of Poland and Lithuania (1918), 
and The Cost of Public Assistance (1921). 

DRAINAGE RECLAMATION. See ReEc- 
LAMATION, 

DRAKE, Durant (1878- ). An Ameri- 
ean professor of philosophy. He was born at 
Hartford, and was educated at Harvard and 
Columbia Universities. In 1912, he joined the 
faculty of Wesleyan University, and in 1915 
became professor at Vassar. He was one of a 
group of seven who published the Essays on 
Critical Realism (1920). Among his other 
writings are: The Problem of Things in Them- 


DRAKE UNIVERSITY 386 


selves (1911); Problems of Conduct (1914); 
Problems of Religion (1916); America Faces 
the Future (1922). ; 

DRAKE UNIVERSITY. An institution a 
Des Moines, Iowa, founded in 1881. The stu- 
dent enrollment in 1913 was 1594, compared 
with 1750 in the year 1923-24, with 532 in the 
summer school of 1923. The faculty in 1913 
numbered 80, against 78 in the later year; this 
figure is exclusive of 19 officers of administra- 
tion. The library increased from 26,000 to 35,- 
000 volumes. Drake University Municipal Ob- 
servatory was built by the city of Des Moines 
in Waverland Park in 1921. Arthur Holmes, 
Ph.D., succeeded Hill M. Bell as president in 
1918 and was in turn succeeded by Daniel W. 
Morehouse, Ph.D., in 1922. 

DREIER, Mary ELizAspetH (1875- 3 
An American social worker, born in Brooklyn, 
N. Y., and educated in private schools, at home, 
and at the New York School of Philanthropy. 
From 1906 to 1915, she was president of the 
Woman’s Trade Union League, subsequently 
serving on the Executive Committee. From 
1911 to 1915, she was a member of the New 
York State Factory Investigating Commission, 
and in 1915 was appointed to the Board of Edu- 
cation by Mayor Mitchel. She resigned in or- 
der to give all her time to suffrage work, becom- 
ing chairman of the Industrial Section of the 
New York State Woman’s Suffrage Party and 
of the Americanization Committee of the New 
York State and New York City Woman’s Suf- 
frage Party, until 1918. In 1918, she was made 
chairman of the New York State Committee on 
Women in Industry of the Advisory Commis- 
sion of the Council of National Defense and of 
the Women’s Joint Legislative Conference. In 
1921, she also became a member of the Indus- 
trial Committee of the National Board of the 
Y. W. C. A., and of the Executive Committee 
of the New York State Council for the Limita- 
tion of Armament. 

DREISER, THEODORE (1871- Please 
American author and journalist (see Vou. VIT). 
His most important later works are: The T1- 
tan (1914); The Genius (1915); Plays of the 
Natural and Supernatural (1916); A Hoosier 
Holiday (1916); The Hand of the Potter 
(1919); Hey Rub-a-Dub-Dub, a book of essays 
and philosophy. From his first novel, he has, 
with each new book, been accused of immoral- 
ity. His works show a mind of titanic force 
dealing with dispassionate insight and compas- 
sion with the motives and forces that surround 
mankind. His extended newspaper work gave 
him an acute understanding of men and life, 
and also accounts for his careless, loose style 
of writing. 

DRESEL, Etiis Lorine (1865- ). An 
American diplomatist, born at Boston, Mass., 
and educated in private schools in the United 
States, Switzerland and Germany, and at Har- 
vard University. He practiced law in Boston 
from 1892 to 1915, then went to Berlin as at- 
taché of the American Embassy, and until 1917 
was special representative of the State Depart- 
ment there. On the declaration of war by the 
United States, he was sent to Berne in the same 
capacity. He organized the Central Committee 
for American Prisoners, and was the _ repre- 
sentative in Switzerland of the American Red 
Cross and of the War Trade Board. He became 
first secretary of the Legation in 1918, and in 
the same year, attaché to the Peace Conference 


DRINKWATER 


in Paris. He was named honorary counselor 
to the American Embassy in 1919, but did not 
enter upon his duties, being appointed Ameri- 
can commissioner to Germany in the autumn of 
the same year. As plenipotentiary of the 
United States government, he signed the peace 
treaty with Germany on Aug. 25, 1921. In No- 
vember of the same year, he became chargé d’ 
affaires in Berlin. 

DRESSER, Horatio Wirtis (1866- yi 
An American author prominent in the New 
Thought movement. He was born at Yar- 
mouth, Maine, and educated at Harvard Uni- 
versity. He began his career in 1879 as tele- 
graph operator and railroad agent in Califor- 
nia. He returned to Boston, however, and tried 
a variety of occupations, finally becoming, in 
1896, editor and publisher of the Journal of 
Practical Metaphysics, and, in 1899, of the 
periodical entitled The Higher Law. His writ- 
ings, which are mostly philosophical, include: 
The Power of Silence (1895); The Perfect 
Whole (1896); In Search of a Soul (1897) 


’ 


. Methods and Problems of Spiritual Healing 


(1899); Education and the Philosophical Ideal 
(1900); A Book of Secrets (1902); Health and 
the Inner Life (1906); A Physician to the 
Soul (1908); A Message to the Well (F010); 
Human Efficiency (1912); The Religion of the 
Spirit in Modern Life (1914); Handbook of 
the New Thought (1917), and The Victorious 
Faith (1917). He edited On the Threshold of 
the Spirit World (1919); A History of the New 
Thought Movement (1919); The Open Vision 
(1920); The Quimby Manuscripts (1921), ete. 

DRESSLER, Witty Osxar_ (1876- Ne 
A German writer on art and interior decora- 
tion, born in Berlin. His principal works are: 
Mobel im Zimmer der Neuzeit (1901); Moderne 
Silbergerdte (1902); Geschichte des Porzellans 
(1904); Kunstgewerbe oder angewandte Kunst 
in Beziehung zur kiinstlerischen Kultur (1910) ; 
Neugestaltung der Verwaltung der Kunstange- 
legenheiten im Reich und in den Bundesstaaten 
(1917); Der Eckstein in der Wirtschaft von 
den Werkleuten vergessen! (1921). 

DRIESCH, Hans A. §S. (1867- yoeeeoy 
German biologist and philosopher (see Vot. 
VII). In 1921, he became professor at the 
University of Leipzig. His. writings after the 
War were largely concerned with speculative 
and metaphysical problems. Professor Driesch 
was also very much interested in psychical re- 
search and served on committees investigat- 
ing various spiritistic mediums. His published 
works after 1914 include Leib und Seele (1916) 
Wirklichkeitslehre (1917), 
und Denken (1920). 

DRINKWATER, JoHN (1882- }s5 can 
English poet, playwright, and critic, born at 
Leytonstone, Essex. He was educated at the 
Oxford High School and served for 12 years as 
insurance clerk. He then turned his attention 
to theatrical enterprises and became manager 
and producer to the Pilgrim Players, who later 
developed into the Birmingham Repertory The- 
atre Company. His first volume of poems ap- 
peared in 1908 and his first play, Cophetua (in 
verse), in 1911. After several volumes of 
verse, he published studies in criticism, among 
them Critical Studies of William Morris 
(1912); Swinburne (1913). Since then he has 
devoted himself to the writing of plays of 
which Abraham Lincoln (1918), is the best 


? 


and Wissenschaft 


ee 


DROP BOMBS 


known to Americans. It is a chronicle play and 
shows sympathetic insight into the personality 
of the great American. Other plays are Loyal- 
ties (1919); Mary Stuart (1921); Seeds of 
Time (1921); Oliver Cromwell (1921); Pre- 
Iludes (1922), and Robert E. Lee (1923). The 
last mentioned play was viewed as a comple- 
ment to his Abraham Lincoln, but was not so 
successful. 

DROP BOMBS. See Bomprna or VESSELS 
BY AIRCRAFT; ORDNANCE. 


DRUMMOND, Sir Eric. See LEAGUE or 


NATIONS. 
DRURY, FRANCIS KEESE WYNKOOP 
(1878- ). An American librarian, born at 


Ghent, N. Y., and educated at Rutgers College 
and the University of Illinois. From 1899 to 
1903, he was assistant librarian at the Gard- 
ner A. Sage library at New Brunswick, N. J.; 
then went to the University of Illinois library, 
becoming acting librarian in 1907 and assistant 
librarian in 1909. In 1919, he was appointed 
assistant librarian in Brown University library, 
and became assistant professor in the same uni- 
versity in 1920. In 1918 and 1919, he was em- 
ployed in the American Library Association 
War Service. He is known as a compiler and 
editor. Following are his published works 
(compilations): List of Serials in the Univer- 
sity of Illinois Library (1911); Technical and 
Scientific Serials in the Library of Providence 
(1920); Some of the Best Dramas (1917); 
Plays of To-Day (1921). 

DRURY COLLEGE. A nonsectarian college 
founded at Springfield, Mo., in 1873. The num- 
ber of students increased from 276 in 1914 to 
411 in 1924, the faculty from 21 to 25, and 
volumes in the library from 30,000 to 33,000. 
The productive funds rose from $258,165 to 
$850,000, and the annual income from $51,550 
to $85,535. Thomas W. Nadel succeeded James 
G. McMurtry as president. 

DRYDOCKS. See Docks. 

DUAL NATIONALITY. See Japan, His- 
tory. 

DUANE, Wittram (1872- ). An Amer- 
ican physicist, born at Philadelphia, Pa. He 
was graduated at Pennsylvania in 1892; and 
received his Ph.D. at Harvard in 1897. During 
1907-13, he worked as an investigator at the 
Curie radium laboratory in Paris, then re- 
turned to Harvard, where in 1917 he became 
professor of biophysics. His principal investi- 
gations have been studies on the velocity of 
chemical reactions, short electrical waves, ra- 
dium emanations and induced activity, alpha 
rays of radium, heat effects of radioactive sub- 
stances, ionization, and absorption and emission 
spectra of X-rays, on all of which topics he has 
published valuable papers. During the War, 
he was chairman of the committee on X-rays in 
the Section on Physical Sciences of the National 
Research Council. 

DUBOIS, CuARLeS GILBERT (1870- dW 
American banker and business man, born in 
New York City, and educated at Dartmouth. 
Upon leaving college he entered business with 
the Western Electric Company in New York 
and within a little over a decade became secre- 
tary and supervisor of the company’s branch 
houses; and in 1919, became president. He 
was comptroller of the American Telephone and 
Telegraph Company (1907-18) and of the 
American Red Cross, Washington, D. C. (1917- 
18). He has held the presidency or director- 


387 


DUGGAR 


ship of many leading trust companies and bank- 
ing corporations in the United States. 

DUBOIS, LOUIS ERNEST, CARDINAL 
(1856- ). A French ecclesiastical prelate. 
He was born at Saint Calais, Sarthe, and was 
ordained priest in 1879. He was curate at 
Saint-Benoit du Mans in 1895, and passed rapid- 
ly through the various grades of the Catholic 
hierarchy. He was Bishop of Verdun in 1901, 
Archbishop of Bourges in 1909, Archbishop of 
Rouen in 1916, and Archbishop of Paris in 
1920. He became Cardinal in 1916. Cardinal 
Dubois was a Knight of the Holy Sepulchre and 
a member of the Academy of St. Thomas Aqui- 
nas. His writings included a number of biog- 
raphies and historical chronicles. 

DU BOIS, Wittram Epwarp BurRGHARDT 
(1868- ). An American editor and author, 
born at Great Barrington, Mass., and educated 
at Harvard and the University of Berlin. Dur- 
ing the period 1896-1910, he was editor of the 
Crisis and has since given indication of his 
keen interest in the advancement of the Negro, 
in his writings: The Suppression of the Slave 
Trade (1896); The Philadelphia Negro (1899) ; 
Quest of the Silver Fleece (1911); The Negro 
(1915); Darkwater (1920). He edited the 
Atlanta University Studies of the Negro Prob- 
lem (1897-1911). 

DU BOSE, Horacze MELLARD (1858— We 
An American Methodist Episcopal bishop, born 
in Choctaw County, Ala., and educated at 
Waynesboro Academy, Mississippi, and with 
private tutors. He was licensed to preach in 
the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1876, and 
three years later was ordained. He was a 
member of the Mississippi Conference from 
1877 to 1880, and held various pastorates from 
1881 to 1890. From 1890 to 1894, he was edi- 
tor of the Pacific Methodist Advocate in San- 
Francisco; served in various pastorates for the 
next three years, and became secretary of the 
Epworth League and editor of the Epworth Era 
in 1898. From 1910 to 1915, he was again pas- 
tor, and from 1915 to 1918 was book editor for 
the Methodist Episcopal Church of the South, 
and editor of the Methodist Quarterly Review 
in Nashville. He was elected bishop in 1918, 
being stationed at Berkeley, Cal. He was a 
member of the Lcumenical Conference which 
took place in 1901. 

DUGGAN, STEPHEN PIERCE (1870- P. 
An American author and political scientist, 


‘born in New York City and educated at the 


College of the City of New York and Columbia 
University. He was associate professor and 
professor of political science at the College of 
the City of New York (1896- ); and director 
of the Institute of International Education 
(1919- ), the National Commission for Men- 
tal Hygiene, and the Council on Foreign Rela- 
tions. He published The Eastern Question—A 
Study in Diplomacy (1902), A History of Edu- 
cation (1916), and The League of Nations 
(1919). 

DUGGAR, BENJAMIN MINGE (1872- ). 
An American educator (see VoL. VII). From 
1917 to 1919, he was acting professor of biolog- 
ical chemistry at the Washington University 
Medical School. He edited the department of 
physiology in Botanical Abstracts for 1917, and 
was editor for the Annals of the Missouri 
Botanical Garden from 1913. Professor Dug- 
gar wrote Mushroom Growing (1915), and con- 
tributed many articles to botanical magazines. 


DUGUIT 388 


DUGUIT, PirrReE (1859- ). A French 
jurist, born at Libourne, and educated at the 
law faculty of the University of Bordeaux. He 
remained in the uni,ersity as a member of the 
faculty, and achieved an international reputa- 
tion as a sociological jurist. He was the au- 
thor of a number of books and articles on pub- 
lic and private law, of which the most notable 
is the Traité de Droit constitutionnel (3 vols, 
2d. ed., 1924). 

DUHAMEL, GEORGES (1894— ey aA 
French man of letters, born in Paris. A man 
of prolific talent, he revealed his capacities 
quite early. With Jules Romains and Charles 
Vildrac, he represented what has been called 
the “unanimist” school; that is to say, a con- 
ception of literature analogous to the collectiv- 
ism of a Durkheim in philosophy. Duhamel’s 
Civilisation won the Prix Goncourt in 1919. 
His works. include: L’Homme en Téte; Selon 
ma Loi; La Lumiére; Des Légendes; Notes sur 
la Technique poétique; Propos critiques; Com- 
pagnons; Paul Claudel; Le Combat; La Vie des 
Martyres (1918); Dans VOmbre des statues; 
Civilisation (1918); Les Poétes et la poésie; 
La Recherche de la grace; La Possession du 
Monde; Entretiens dans le tumulte; Les 
Hommes abandonnés; La Miason des athlétes ; 
La Journée des Aveux. 

DULUTH. A city and lake port in Min- 
nesota. The population rose from 78,466 in 
1910 to 98,917 by the census of 1920 and to 
106,289 by estimate of the Bureau of the Cen- 
sus for 1923. Morgan Park, a model city for 
workmen, was built during the 10 years be- 
tween 1914 and 1924 by the Minnesota Steel 
Company for its employees, within. the lmits 
of Duluth. It was served by complete sewer 
and water systems and concrete paved roads, 
and had a central playground and hospital. A 
plan was made for the establishment of primary 
and secondary civic centres near the lake front, 
and the cutting of several diagonal streets. 
McDougall Terminal warehouse opened new 
lines of lake traffic served by special refrigera- 
tor carriers, 

DUMAS, GEorcES (1866- ). A French 
psychologist, born at Ledignan (Dept. of Gard), 
and educated in Paris at the Ecole Normale. 
He passed both the aggrégation and the doc- 
torate in philosophy, and took the degree of 
doctor of medicine. He taught philosophy at 
the college of Chaptal and later became lec- 
turer on psychology at the Sorbonne as well as 
chief of the psychological laboratory in the Fac- 
ulty of Medicine. He was a frequent contribu- 
tor to the Journal de Psychologie, the Revue 
Philosophique, and the Revue de Paris. On the 
death of Ribot he took over the editing of the 
long projected Traité de Psychologie. The first 
volume of this treatise, with contributions from 
30 leading psychologists, appeared in 1923. 
Professor Dumas’s chief interests were in the 
psychology of affective states. His published 
works include: Tolstoi et la Philosophie de 
Vamour; Les Etats intellectuels dans la mélan- 
colie; La Tristesse et la Joie; Psychologie de 
deux Messies positivistes (August Comte et St. 
Simon); Le Sourire; Névrose et psychose de 
guerre chez les Austro-Allemands (1918). 

DU MAURIER, Geratp (1873- ) FAD 
English actor born at Hampstead, and educated 
at Harrow. His first stage appearance was at 
the age of 20 at the Garrick Theatre, London. 
Two years later he joined Herbert Tree in 


DUNLAP 


Shakespearean repertory and also in his fath- 
er’s play Jrilby. Among his successes are his 
parts in Peter Pan; The Admirable Crichton; 
Little Mary; What Every Woman Knows, and 
his leading parts in Conan Doyle’s Raffles and 
McCutcheon’s Brewster’s Millions. He wrote 
the play, A Royal Rival, produced by Lewis 
Waller; also Charles I and Charles IT, with the 
coéperation of his brother, Guy Louis Busson 
du Maurier, and The Dancers which was pro- 
duced in New York during the 1923-24 season. 

DUMUR, Lovis (1864— y. PAST MTrencn 
novelist, born at Geneva, Switzerland and edu- 
cated at the University of Geneva and at the 
Sorbonne. His earlier works contained amus- 
ing descriptions of Genevese Calvinism. After 
the War, he developed a patriotic war novel 
with recitals of German atrocities. His works 
include Un Coco de génie (1902); Les trois 
Demoiselles du pére Maire (1909); Le Cen- 


tenaire de Jean-Jacques (1910); L’Ecole du 
dimanche (1911); Nach Paris! (1919); Le 
Boucher de Verdun (1921); Les Défaitistes 
(1923). 


DUNAJEC RIVER. See War IN EUROPE, 
Eastern Front. 

DUNCAN, GeorcE BRAND (1861-— ya pat 
American soldier, born in Lexington, Ky. He 
graduated from the United States Military 
Academy in 1886 and was commissioned 2d 
lieutenant in the same year. During the Span- 
ish-American- War he served as captain of 
volunteers. He was appointed captain in 1899. 
He rose through the successive grades, becom- 
ing colonel in 1916. In the following year he 
was appointed brigadier-general N. A., major- 
general in 1918, and brigadier-general U. 8S. A. 
in 1920. He served in the Philippines as a 
member of the General Staff from 1914 to 1917. 
From the latter year to 1919 he was with the 
American Expeditionary Forces in France as 
commander successively of the 26th Infantry, 
Ist Division, and the Ist Brigade, Ist Division. 
He commanded the 77th Division from May to 
August, 1918, and the 82d Division during the 
Meuse-Argonne offensive. He was awarded dec- 
orations by the British and French governments. 

DUNHAM, James Henry (1870- in 
American clergyman and educator, born at Bed- 
minster, N. J., and educated at Princeton Uni- 
versity, Princeton Theological Seminary, the 
University of Berlin and the University of 
Pennsylvania. He was ordained in the Pres- 
byterian ministry in 1896, and until 1912 was 
pastor of the First Church at Mt. Holly. In 
1914, he began his work as educator, teaching 
in the Haverford (Pa.) School and holding the 
position of professor of ethics in the College 
of Liberal Arts and Sciences at Temple Univer- 
sity, Philadelphia, in 1914-15. In 1920, he was 
appointed student counsellor on the Federal 
Board of Vocational Education. He is the au- 
thor of Freedom and Purpose—The Psychology 
of Spinoza (1916), and John Fourteen (1917). 

DUNKERS, or DUNKARDS. See Bretu- 
REN, CHURCH OF THE. 

DUNLAP, KnicutT (1875- ). One of the 
leading American experimental psychologists. 
He was born at Diamond Spring, Cal., and was 
educated at the University of California. In 
1906, he joined the faculty of Johns Hopkins 
University, becoming full professor in 1916. 
He was president of the American Psychologi- 
cal Association for the year 1922. His works 
include: A System of Psychology (1912); 


7 


DUNN 


Outline of Psycho-biology (1914); Personal 
Beauty and Racial Betterment (1920); Alysti- 
cism, Freudianism and Scientific Psychology 
(1920); Outlines of Psychology (1923). 
DUNN, Artruur WILLIAM (1868-— Des: Am 
American educator, born at Galesburg, Ill., and 
educated at Knox College and the University of 
Chicago. He began his career as instructor in 
English and lecturer in sociology at the Uni- 
versity of Cincinnati (1896-98). He was also 
extension lecturer from 1896 to 1900, and from 
the latter year until 1910 headed the depart- 


ment of history and civics in the Shortridge 


High School, Indianapolis. From 1906 to 1910 
he was director of civic education in the public 
schools in the same city; in 1910-11, he was 
civic secretary of the City Club of Philadel- 
phia; in 1911-14, he served as executive secre- 
tary of the Public Education Association, New 
York City; and from 1914 to 1921, he held the 
office of specialist in civic education in the 
United States Bureau of Education. In 1920, 
he was appointed special] adviser to the United 
States Navy in the civic education of men on 
shipboard, becoming, in the following year, as- 
sociate national director of the Junior Red 
Cross, and being advanced to the position of 
national director in 1921. He is the author 
of: The Community and the Citizen (1907); 
The Teaching of Community Civics (with oth- 
ers; 1915); Social Studies in Secondary Edu- 
cation (1916); Citizenship in School and Out 
(with Hannah Margaret Norris; 1920); Com- 
munity Civics and Rural Life (1920); Com- 
munity Civics for City Schools (1921). 
DUNN, SamvurEt OraAcE (1877- ieee) 
American transportation specialist (see VoL. 


VII). He wrote American Transportation Ques- 
tion (1912); Government Ownership of Rail- 
ways (1913); Railway Regulation or Owner- 


ship? (1918). He also contributed articles to 
periodicals and lectured frequently on transpor- 


tation subjects. 


DUNNING, Witt1Am ARCHIBALD (1858- 
1922). An American educator and_ political 
scientist (see Vor. VI1). He published The 
British Empire and the United States (1914), 
and a History of Political Theories (3 vols., 
1902-20). 

DUNSANY, Epwarp JoHn Moreton Drax 
PLUNKETT, eighteenth Baron (1878- leno 
Irish author and playwright, born in London 
and educated at Eton and Sandhurst. He 
served in the South African War with the Cold- 
stream Guards. In the recent War, he was 
Captain of the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers and 
was wounded in 1916. Many of Dunsany’s 
works are laid in the Golden Age of Spain and 
are saturated with the romantic spirit of me- 
dieval gloom and colored adventure. Though 
apparently ‘approved of by the public, he has 
been characterized by sceptical critics as too 
volatile and entirely wanting in genuine na- 
tional spiritedness. His publications include: 
The Gods of Pegana (1905); Time and the 
Gods (1906); The Sword of Welleran (1908) ; 
A Dreamer’s Tales (1910); Tales of War 
(1918); Unhappy Far-off Things (1919); 
Tales of Three Hemispheres (1920); The Chron- 
icles of Rodriguez (1922). Among his plays 
are: The Glittering Gate (1909); King Argi- 
menes (1911); The Gods of the Mountain 
(1911); The Golden Doom (1912); The Tents 
of the Arabs (1914); A Night at an Inn; 
If (1921). 


389 


DURKHEIM 


DUPRE, Marcen (1886- ). A famous 
French organist, born at Rouen. Under his 
father’s instruction, his progress was so rapid 
that at the age of 12 he became the regular or- 
ganist at St. Vivien. Later he entered the 
Paris Conservatoire, where he carried off the 
first prize for piano in 1905. In 1914, he won 
the Prix de Rome with the cantata Psyché. 
His meteoric rise to fame began in 1916, when 
he took Vierne’s place at Notre Dame during 
the latter’s protracted illness. In 1920, he 
created a sensation by playing from memory, in 
10 recitals, all the organ works of Bach. Im- 
mediately after that event he made a sensation- 
ally successful tour of England. On Nov. 18, 
1921, he made his American début with the 
inauguration of the great organ in the Wana- 
maker Auditorium in New York, exhibiting at 
the same time his marvelous powers of im- 
provisation, 

DURALUMIN. An alloy of Aluminium 
and Magnesium. See ALUMINIUM; Moror VE- 
HICLES. 

DURAND, E. Dana (1871- ). An Amer- 
ican statistician (see Vou. VII). He was em- 
ployed by the United States Food Administra- 
tion from 1917 to 1919, and was adviser to the 
food minister of Poland from 1919 to 1921. In 
1921, he was chief of the Eastern European Di- 
vision of the United States Bureau of Foreign 
and Domestic Commerce. He contributed arti- 
cles on economic and political subjects to many 
economic journals, and in 1915 published The 
Trust Problem. 

DURAND, Ettas Jupan (1870-1922). An 
American botanist, born at Canandaigua, N. Y. 
He graduated from Cornell University in 1893 
and was assistant botanist in the experiment 
station at that university (1895-96) and in- 
structor in botany from 1896 to 1910. In the 
latter year, he was appointed assistant profes- 
sor of botany at the University of Missouri, and 
during the years from 1918 to 1922 was 
professor of botany at the University of Min- 
nesota. 

DURHAM, HENRY WELLES (1874— i 
An American civil engineer, born in Chicago. 
He graduated from the School of Mines at Co- 
lumbia University in 1895, and was engaged on 
surveys with the United States Geological Sur- 
vey, and with the United States Nicaragua 
Canal Commission and with the Isthmian Canal 
Commission. From 1900 to 1904, he was as- 
sistant engineer in charge of construction of 
the New York subway, and was resident engi- 
neer in charge of municipal improvements in 
Panama, from 1904 to 1907. From the latter 
date to 1912, he was in charge of the surveys 
and construction of the Cape Cod Canal, and 
from 1912 to 1915 was chief engineer of high- 
ways for Manhattan Borough. He was a mem- 
ber of the New York National Guard and 
served on the Mexican border in 1916. He was 
appointed major of engineers in 1917 and was 
given command of the 4lst Engineers, which he 
commanded in France. For a time he was in 
charge of forestry operations in France and 
later was in charge of road maintenance. He 
was honorably discharged in October, 1919. In 
1920-21 he was engaged in making plans for 
the sanitation of several cities in Peru. He 
wrote Street Paving and Maintenance in Euro- 
pean Cities (1915). 

DURKHEIM, Emie (1858-1916). 
philosopher (see VoL. VII). 


A French 
He published a 


DUSE 390 


number of brochures on the War and was hon- 
ored by the French government with the cross 
of the Legion of Honor. He died in 1916, grief- 
stricken by the killing of his son at the front. 
The sociological method of approaching phil- 
osophic problems, which he founded, was con- 
tinued by a host of disciples, among whom may 
be mentioned Bougle, Hubert and Mauss. 

DUSE, ELronora (1859-1924). An Italian 
actress (see Vout. VII). While on an Ameri- 
can tour which began in the latter part of 
1923, she became seriously ill with a cold and 
general nervous breakdown, and died at Pitts- 
burgh, Apr. 21, 1924. Her last appearance at 
the Metropolitan Opera House in New York 
was an ovation, every seat and all the standing 
room being occupied. Not only was great 
grief caused by her death in her native land, 
Italy, but artistic circles throughout the world 
mourned and paid tribute to probably the great- 
est actress of her time. 


DUST EXPLOSIONS. See CHEMISTRY, 
ORGANIC. 
DUTCH EAST INDIES’ (NETHERLANDS 


InpIA). The Dutch possessions in the Malay 
Archipelago. They have a total area of 733,- 
642 square miles, and a population, by the cen- 
sus of 1920, of 49,350,834. The 1905 census fig- 
ure was 38,070,782. In 1920 there were 169,355 
Europeans, 48,112,706 natives, and 878,986 oth- 
er Orientals, mostly Chinese and Arabs. By 
administrative divisions, the 1920 population 
was divided among Java and Madura (34,984,- 
171), and the Outer Possessions, ite. the Island 
of Sumatra (5,852,135), Riau-Lingga Archipel- 
ago (223,122), Banea (154,141), Billiton (68,- 
582), Borneo, West Coast (605,402), Borneo, 
South and East Districts (1,020,599), Island of 
Celebes (3,108,337), Molucca Islands (622,671), 
Timor Archipelago (1,146,660), Bali and Lom- 
bok (1,565,014). New Guinea was _ included. 
Populations of the leading cities in 1920 were 
Batavia, 2,787,000; Soerabaya, 2,460,000; Sem- 
arang, 2,737,000. The great mass of the na- 
tives were Mohammedan in faith. Education 
made steady advances. In 1922 there were 508 
public and private schools serving Europeans 
and people associated with them. Total atten- 
dance was 89,382, and expenditure on educa- 
tion amounted to 14,186,399 guilders, a guilder 
equaling $.40. There were also 13,138 native 
schools, with an attendance of 947,015, main- 
tained at a cost of 19,594,992 guilders. 

Industry. The majority of the population 
worked on the land. Total area in use for pri- 
vate agriculture in the whole territory in 1920 
was 7,576,000 acres, of which 3,010,000 were in 
Java; 1,358,900 acres were in lease and 1,651,- 
000 privately owned. Europeans held most of 
the land leases in Java. Sugar remained the 
crop of greatest economic importance, and in 
1920, 183 factories were serving the industry. 
The following table indicates the condition of 
native activities before and after the War as 
shown in exports, in metric tons: 


1913 1918 1921 1922 
pupare lots. 1,471,423 1,540,100 1,677,137 1,435,808 
Colfee ..... 26,019 7,300 43,683 57,360 
AUTO. @ Se 26,548 29,958 35,863 41,552 
Tobacco 87,832 8,050 46,214 52,087 
Rubber 7,087 44,096 73,505 104,942 
Gopra son). :- 229,339 68,578 311,571 339,465 
Tor Paste atiaty: 6 2,153 11,584 13,547 15,457 


Native cultures were rice, maize, cassava, pota- 
toes, coconuts. The live stock industry also 


DUVENECK 


flourished. The government largely controlled 
the mines. In 1921, the principal coal mines in 
Java, Sumatra, and Borneo yielded 1,212,665 
tons; the tin mines yielded 27,700 tons; and the 
principal mineral oils, 2,361,509 tons. The oil 
fields were controlled by the Royal Dutch and 
Shell Companies. Gold was worked in Sum- 
atra and diamonds in Borneo. 

Trade. Total imports, both government and 
private, exclusive of specie, for the years 1913, 
1921, and 1922, were 463,702,000, 1,192,963,000, 
and 756,391,000 guilders. Exports, similarly, 
for 1913, 1921, and 1922, were 671,434,000, 1,- 
190,799,000, and 1,142,217,000 guilders. The 
1920 export amounted to 2,263,447,000 guilders. 
The Dutch East Indies’ great importance as a 
market for manufactured goods and a source 
of raw materials was being recognized by for- 
eign commercial houses. In particular, British, 
Japanese, Swedish, Belgian, Danish, and Ger- 
man interests were active. Imports from the 
United States for 1913, 1920, and 1923 were 
valued at $3,358,164, $59,018,190, and $12,089,- 
786. Exports to the United*States were valued 
at $4,995,150, $167,416,000, and $54,889,400. 
Shipping entered in 1913 was 6253 steamers of 
5,046,000 tons and 2664 sailing vessels of 192,- 
000 tons; in 1921, 9603 steamers of 5,359,737 
tons and 6656 sailing vessels of 371,896 tons. 
Chief ports were Tanjong Priok (for Batavia), 
Soerabaya, Semarang, Cheribon, and Tegal in 
Java; Padang and Belwan Deli -in Sumatra; 
Balikpapan in Borneo, Macassar in Celebes. 

Communications. In January, 1921, there 
were 1989 miles of railway both state owned 
and private; 1721 miles in 1913. Of the for- 
mer, 1690 were in Java and 299 in Sumatra. 
Government telegraph and cable lines were 14,- 
748 miles, compared with 12,319 in 1913. 

Government. Superior administration was 
in the hands of the governor-general. A coun- 
cil of five with power of a legislative and ad- 
visory nature sat for the whole territory. In 
1917 a Volksraad or people’s council was 
erected, with powers to discuss the budget and 
advise the government. Made up of some 40 
members, it included Europeans, natives, and 
foreign Orientals. The 1913 and 1923 budgets 
showed revenues of 305,573,000 and 614,080,000 
guilders and expenditures of 317,810,000 and 
806,942,000 guilders. Deficits were covered by 
loans. The public debt on Jan. 1, 1923, was 
761,683,000 guilders. Extraordinary expendi- 
tures of the decade 1913-23 went toward the 
improvement of the Outer Possessions and the 
encouragement of industries. Revenues came 
largely from sales of opium in India, import, 
export, and excise duties, land revenues, coal, 
and income taxes. The Dutch East Indies con- 
tinued peaceful during the decade and Dutch 
neutrality during the War assured the colony 
an unchecked prosperity. Progress was steady 
in the development of the Outer Possessions. 

DUTCH NATIONALISTS. See Sovurn 
AFRICA, UNION oF. 

DUTCH REFORMED 
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, 


CHURCH. See 


DUVENECK, FRANK (1848-1919). An 
American painter, sculptor, and etcher (see 
Vout. VII). Known as one of the finest tech- 


nical painters of the United States, he was, up 
to the time of his death, Jan. 3, 1919, an active 
figure in American and English art circles. 
During his later years, after a long period of 
study and of teaching in Florence, he served 


ee 


— 


DVORSKY 391 


as instructor in the Art Academy of Cincin- 
nati. His ‘Whistling Boy,’ reminiscent of 
Hals, and “Forget-me-not Girl,” after the man- 
ner of Rembrandt, also his “Portrait of Pro- 
fessor Loeffts,’ were generally held to be his 
finest works. 

DVORSKY, Micuet. See HOFMANN, JOSEF. 

DYER, WALTER ALDEN (1878- ). An 
American author and journalist, born at Ros- 
lindale, Mass., and educated at Amherst Col- 
lege. He began on the staff of the Springfield 
Union (Mass.) in 1901, and for the next six 
years edited various publications, subsequently 
becoming managing editor of Country Life in 
America (1906-14). He has contributed innum- 
erable articles to magazines, and has written 


DYNAMOS 


many publications which include: The Lure of 
the Antique (1910); The Richer Life (1911); 
Pierrot, Dog of Belgium (1915); Creators of 


Decorative Styles (1917); Handbook of 
Furniture Styles (1918); Sons of Liberty 
(1920). 


DYER, Sir WILLIAM TuRNER THISTLETON 


(1843- ). An English botanist (see VoL. 
VII). From 1908 to 1916, he was representa- 


tive of the University of Oxford at the Glouces- 
tershire Education Committee, and from 1909 
was a member of the University of Bristol. 
DYES. See CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC. 
DYNAMIC GEOLOGY. See Gronoey. 
DYNAMOS. See ELectric POWER STATIONS 
AND GENERATING APPARATUS. 


EK 


ARLHAM COLLEGE. A_ coedu- 

cational institution at Richmond, 

Ind., founded in 1859. The student 

enrollment increased from 413 in 

1914 to 510 at the beginning of 

1924, the faculty from 32 to 42 
members, and the number of volumes in the 
library from 19,000 to 30,000. The yearly in- 
come increased likewise from $25,118 in 1914 
to $108,537 in 1924. President, David M. 
Edwards, Ph.D. 


EARTH, Acer or. See GEOLOGY; -PHySICcs. 


EARTH INDUCTION COMPASS. See 
NAVIGATION. 
EARTHQUAKE, JAPANESE. See JAPAN, . 


Effects of Harthquake, and History. See also 
EARTHQUAKES. 

EARTHQUAKES. About noon on Sept. 1, 
1923, Tokyo, Yokohama, Nagoya, and many vil- 
lages and pleasure .resorts of Japan were al- 
most entirely wiped out, in the greatest earth- 
quake disaster of history. Earthquake, fire, and 
sea-wave took a toll of 200,000 lives and hundreds 
of millions of dollars in property over an area 
of about one square degree dwarfing into insig- 
nificance each of the long list of similar disas- 
ters in the past for which Japan, the most 
seismic region of the globe, is noted. 

The Japanese Islands lie in a series of island 
festoons fringing the Asiatic Continent, with 
their convexities facing the Pacific. Outside 
these festoons, and not far from them, are long 
narrow troughs in the sea floor, running parallel 
to the trend of the island groups. The troughs 
are the downward, and the island festoons the 
upward, curves of great folds in the crust of 
the earth; in many cases the folding movement 
is still going on. Stresses accumulate until 
suddenly relieved by faulting. The convex side 
of the festoon slopes more steeply than the other. 
The Japan Sea to the West is shallow, but on 
the Pacific side, between the Japan coast and 
the Kurile Islands, the earth’s crust in one 
place plunges down into the great Tuscarora 
Deep nearly 27,000 feet, within 110 to 240 miles 
of the coast. The earthquakes of Japan follow 
a rule which is general in such cases: they 
are most numerous and violent on this steep 
slope. The epicentre of the 1923 quake appears 
to have been under Sagami Bay, the floor of 
which underwent great changes, or in the Uraga 
Channel; the focus was probably shallow. 

The first and greatest shock came at 11.58.44 
A.M.; there were no foreshocks to give warning. 
An unusually large number of aftershocks were 
recorded, 1039 in the five days following the 
quake, implying that the faulting movement 
had a pronounced vertical component. The 
greatest aftershocks were those on Sept. 2, 1923, 
and Jan. 14, 1924. In Tokyo, 12 square miles 
were swept by the fire that followed the quake. 
Modern reinforced concrete structures especially 
designed to withstand earthquakes came through 
with a fine showing; the better constructed 
brick buildings also survived both quake and 
fire, although in general the brick buildings 


proved unusually dangerous. From 1914 to 
1921, 199 earthquakes, some semi-destructive, 
originated around Tokyo, but the immediate 
neighborhood of Tokyo was quiet. This fact led 
Omori to forecast a commencement of seismic 
activity in the latter district after the others 
had become quiet, since they are all in the same 
seismic zone; in 1922 he predicted the occur- 
rence of severe shocks within six years. 

An earthquake of truly appalling magnitude 
took place on Dec. 16, 1920, near Pingliang, 
Kansu, China. The region was thickly popu- 
lated; many of the people lived in caves in the 
hillsides, and were buried alive by the land- 
slides; others slept on clay platforms under 
which fires were kept burning, and such of these 
as escaped being dropped into the fires were 
left to die of the cold. The estimates of deaths 
vary from 100,000 to 1,000,000. The tremor 
was felt in Tokyo, 1000 kilometers away. 

In the diastrous shock in Central Italy, Jan. 
13, 1915, the ratio of deaths to population was 
the highest ever recorded. Thirty thousand 
people perished, including 97 per cent of the 
population of Lapelle, and 90 per cent of the 
11,000 inhabitants of Avezzano. Yet the shock 
was by no means of the first order of magni- 
tude, and the destruction was chiefly due to the 
faulty construction of buildings. A strong tec- 
tonic quake, registered all over the globe, was 
associated with the eruption of Sakura-jima, 
Jan. 12, 1914; the epicentre was near the vol- 
cano, and the quake was of a character entirely 
different from that of the usual local volcanic 
quake. 

The more important of the great number of 
other earthquakes which occurred during the 
decade 1914-24 were: 1914, May 9, Sicily; 100 
lives lost; Linera_ totally wrecked. 1916, 
Alaska, a severe quake, but the region af- 
fected was almost entirely uninhabited. 1917, 
June 7, San Salvador nearly destroyed; Dec. 
25-29, Guatemala laid in ruins. 1918, Feb. 
13, Swatow, China, several hundred perished; 
Oct. 11 and 22, Porto Rico, 150 lives lost, and 
a great deal of property destroyed; Apr. 21-23, 
considerable damage to property in southern 
California. 1919, Apr. 28, San Salvador partly 
destroyed; Nov. 27, several villages destroyed 
in western Asia Minor, and many lives 
lost; June 29, Central Italy shaken. 1920, 
May 14, heavy damage in Central Italy; Sept. 
7, Carrara and surrounding territory suffered 
heavily, with 100 towns damaged or destroyed, 
and hundreds perished; January, southern 
Mexico; February, Transcaucasia, many villages 
destroyed; June 22, Los Angeles, Cal., consid- 
erable property damage. 1922, Jan. 31, a severe 
shock occurred off the California coast, result- 
ing in minor damage at several points; Nov. 11 
and afterward, Chile, many lives and much 
property lost. 1923, near Lou-ho-hien, China, 
1000 lives lost; May and Sept., Persia; disas- 
trous shocks, Dec., Columbia and Ecuador; 
Sept., Calcutta, little damage. 1924, Mar. 14~ 
15, five Costa Rican towns destroyed, with con- 


392 


EAST AFRICA PROTECTORATE 393 


siderable loss of life; Apr. 14, southeast of 
Mindanao, a severe quake. 

During 1915-23, inclusive, the average annual 
number of earthquakes reported from the con- 
tinental United States was 106. Many of these, 
particularly in the Mississippi Valley region, 
were widespread, but little or no damage re- 
sulted from any of them. See SEISMOLOGY and 
GEOLOGY. 

EAST AFRICA PROTECTORATE. See 
Kenya Coiony. 

EAST PRUSSIA. See 
Hastern Front. 

EASTON, FLoreEnNcE (1884— ye A OBrit- 
ish dramatic soprano, born at  Middles- 
brough-on-Tees, Yorkshire. She was educated 
in Toronto, Canada, where, at the age of 10, 
she made her first public appearance as a 
pianist. Subsequently she studied singing at 
the Royal Academy of Music in London and 
with E. Haslam in Paris. In 1903, she made 
her début as Cio Cio San with the Moody- 
Manners Opera Company at Covent Garden. 
The next year Savage engaged her to sing 
Kundry for his production of Parsifal (in Eng- 
lish), which he took on an extended tour of 
the United States, and in 1906-07 she returned 
under the same ‘manager, singing in Madame 
Butterfly. From 1907 to 19138, she sang lead- 
ing roles at the Royal Opera in Berlin and 
from 1913 to 1915 at the Stadtheater in Ham- 
burg. At the same time, she appeared at Co- 
vent Garden in the Wagner and Strauss per- 
formances. From 1915 to 1917, she was a member 
of the Chicago Opera Company, and then went 
to the Metropolitan Opera House, New York, 
where she immediately became one of the prime 
favorites. In 1904, she married Francis Maclen- 
nan, the tenor. 

EATON, JAMES SuIrRLEY (1868- yur An 
American railway specialist, born in Nashville, 
Tenn. He graduated from Marietta College in 
1889 and for several years was traveling audi- 
tor of the Southern Railway. He served as ex- 
pert in the adaptation of the electric tabulating 
machines for railroad accounting, and from 
1899 to 1903 was statistician for the Lehigh 
Valley Railroad. After serving as railroad edi- 
tor for the Wall Street Journal, he became rail- 
way statistician. He lectured in the Tuck 
School at Dartmouth and on railroad trans- 
portation at New York University. He wrote 
Railroad Operation (1900); Education for Effi- 
ciency in Railroad Service (1910); Railroad Ex- 
pense Handbook (1911). From 1917 to 1920, he 
was examiner for the Federal Trade Commission. 

EATON, WALTER PricHARD- (1878— yi 
An American author and critic, born at Malden, 


WAR IN EUROPE, 


Mass., and educated at Harvard. During the — 


period 1900-08, he was successively reporter on 
the Boston Journal, a member of the dramatic 
department of the New York Tribune, and 
dramatic critic of the New York Sun. He was 
dramatic critic of the American Magazine 
(1909-18), and instructor at the School of 
Journalism of Columbia University. He is the 
author of many juvenile stories and publications 
on the theatre, which include: The American 
Stage of To-Day (1908); At the New Theatre 
and Others (1910); Barn Doors and Byways 
(1913); Plays and Players (1916); In Berk- 
shire Fields (1919); On the Edge of the Wilder- 
mess (1920). 

EBERLE, ABASTENIA St. LEcER (1878- 2 
An American sculptor, born in Webster City, 


ECKERT 


La. She studied modeling with Frank Vogan 
in Canton, Ohio, and at the Art Students’ 
League, New York, with George Grey Barnard. 
She was elected an Associate of the National 
Academy in 1921. Her first sculptures were 
copies of old gravestones in the cemetery at 
Canton. In New York, she found her inspira- 
tion in the life of the East Side, which she has 
interpreted with a great deal of sympathy. 
Some of her sculptures, “The Girl on Roller 
Skates” and “Mowgli,” are in the Metropolitan 


Museum, N. Y. “Little Mother’ is in the 
Chicago Art Institute. Others are at the 


Worcester Art Museum, Carnegie Institute and 
other centres. She has exhibited in Europe 
with success. 

EBERLE, Epwarp WALTER (1864— ty 
An American naval officer, born at Denton, 
Texas, and graduated from the United States 
Naval Academy in 1885. He served on the 
Oregon in the Spanish-American War, in the 
Philippine insurrection in 1899, and commanded 
the Atlantic torpedo fleet from 1911 to 1913. 
He was superintendent of the United States 
Naval Academy from 1915 to 1919, and prac- 
tically rebuilt its general organization and edu- 
cational system. During 1921 and 1922 he was 
commander in chief of the Pacific fleet, with 
rank of admiral, and the administrative ability 
which he showed in this post, as well as in the 
many other important places which he had filled 
throughout his career, led to his appointment in 
1923 as Chief of Naval Operations in the United 
States Department at Washington. 

EBERT, Friepricu (1871—‘' ). A Ger- 
man statesman, born at Heidelberg. After an 
elementary education, he learned the saddler’s 
trade, became a journeyman, and finally settled 
in Bremen. He was actively interested in the 
Social Democratic party, edited the Bremer 
Volkszeitung in 1893,and was trade-union secre- 
tary to the Bremen Burgerschaft in 1900. It 
was not till 1905, when he was appointed to the 
Executive Committee of the Social Democratic 
party, that he became widely prominent in poli- 
tics. He was sent to the Reichstag in 1912, 
and was an influential member of his group. 
He strong advocated that the working people 
should defend their country, and tried to ob- 
tain a concerted action of all Socialists. He 
also tried to reconcile the German and Russian 
interests, but failed. He attended the confer- 
ence of Socialists at Stockholm in 1918. A 
strong opponent of the Spartacists, Bolshevists 
and Communists, he did more perhaps than 
any one else to restore order to the country and 
to suppress insurrections during the revolution 
in 1918. He was elected first president of the 
Reich on Nov. 12, 1919, and his term of office 
was afterwards extended to 1925. He had a 
strong influence on the intellectual leaders of 
Germany, many of them becoming converted to 
the republican idea through contact with him. 

ECKERT, Curistian L. M. (1874- yee 
German economist, born at Mainz and educated 
at the universities of Munich, Berlin and Gies- 
sen. In 1900, he became law assistant; in 1901, 
he was called to the University of Berlin as 
lecturer in political science. The same year he 
was appointed to fill a similar position in the 
Handelshochschule (School of Commerce) in 
Cologne, and in the following year he was made 
professor of political science in Cologne. In 
1904, he was called to the University of Bonn. 
In 1917, he was made Geheimer Regierungs- 


ECKLES 


Rat (Privy Councillor), and in 1919-20, first 
director of the University of Cologne, which had 
just been founded His numerous works in- 
elude: Der Fronbote im Mittel-Alter (1897) ; 
John Ruskin (in Schmollers Jahrbuch XXVI1; 
1902); Deutsche Seefahrten nach Siidamerika 
(in Schmollers Jahrbuch; 1904); Peter Corne- 
lius (1906); Bildungsfrage des Journalisten- 
standes (1913); Die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung 
des Wehrbeitrages, Recht und Wirtschaft (1914) ; 
Wirtschaftliche und financielle Folgen des Frie- 
dens von Versailles (1921). He contributed 
many scholarly articles to leading periodicals, 
and edited Rothschilds Taschenbuch fur Kauf- 
leute (58th ed., 1920). 

ECKLES, CLARENCE HENRY (1875- ): 
An American professor of dairy husbandry, born 
in Marshall Co., Ia. He graduated from the 
Iowa State College in 1895, and took post- 
graduate courses at the University of Wisconsin 
and in Germany and Switzerland. After a 
year as assistant in dairy husbandry in the 
Iowa State College, he became professor of dairy 
husbandry at the University of Missouri, re- 
maining there until 1919, when he was ap- 
pointed chief of the dairy husbandry division 
of the University of Minnesota. He wrote 
Dairy Cattle and Milk Production (1911), 
Dairy Farming (1916), and also wrote many 
bulletins on agricultural subjects and lectured 
on these subjects in many States. 

ECOLOGY. See BoTAny;: ZooLoey 

ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. See 
MOLOGY, ECONOMIC. 

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. See GEoLoey. 

ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY. Sce Zobdxoey. 

ECUADOR. A South American Republic 
on the northwest coast between Colombia on the 
north and Peru on the south. Its area is 
estimated at 116,000 square miles, but because of 
still unsettled boundary disputes it cannot be 
definitely fixed. A maximum claim put the area 
as high as 276,000 square miles. The estimated 
population was 2,000,000. Quito, the capital 
city, had 80,000 inhabitants. Other large cities, 
with their populations, were Guayaquil, 96,000; 
Cuenca, 30,000, and Riobamba, 10,000. 

Industry. Cacao was the principle crop; 
the total number of trees was between 80,000,000 
and 100,000,000, with an annual yield of 42,000 
metric tons. Exports of cacao beans in 1922 
amounted to 45,018 metric tons compared with 
38,224 metric tons in 1912. Coffee was increas- 
ing in importance, with an annual production 
from 6,000 to 10,000 metric tons. The exporta- 
tion of tropical fruits such as oranges, bananas, 
and pineapples to the countries to the south was 
also important. The production of cotton, len- 
tils, rice, sugar, and tobacco was increasing; 
ivory nuts and rubber were important forest 
products, although the output of lumber showed 
a great decrease toward the end of the period 
1914-24, Annual exports of Panama hats were 
valued about $600,000. The only mining of 
importance was carried on by one gold mining 
company whose output in 1922 was $877,646 in 
the form of concentrates. The oil fields of 
Santa Elena, worked by British companies, were 
producing 50,000 barrels by 1922 and even more 
in 1923. In 1922 exports were $12,033,904 and 
imports $8,726,594; the United States took 40 
per cent of the exports and furnished 46 per cent 
of the imports. Cacao constituted 76 per cent 
of all exports. Principal imports were textiles, 
foodstuffs, and hardware. Ecuador in 1924 


ENTO- 


394 


ECUADOR 


was still suffering from economic depression aft- 
er the inflation of 1920, and its foreign trade 
showed little permanent gain during 1914-24. 
Total exports in 1912 were $13,689,696 and im- 
ports $10,354,564. The country had only a few 
small manufacturing plants. 

Communications. Little building of rail- 
ways was done in the period 1914-24. Several 
short lines were projected and partially com- 
pleted, notably those from Ambato to Curaray 
and from Quito to Esmeraldas. In 19238, 400 
miles were in operation and 200 miles more 
were under construction. Wireless telegraph 
stations were erected at Quito, Guayaquil, and 
Esmeraldas. 

Education. After 1915 the educational 
organization underwent a series of changes. 
New curricula were introduced in the primary 
schools in 1916 and in the normal schools in 
1917. In 1922, the 1718 schools in operation 
were attended by 108,920 pupils as compared 
with 70,000 in 1911. There were secondary 
schools in all the provinces but Esmeraldas, and 
universities at Cuenca, Guayaquil, and Quito 

Finance. The government budget continued 
to show annual deficits, so that in Dec. 31, 
1922, the public dept was 70,101,412 sucres as 
compared with 40,625,000 sucres in 1914. The 
budget for 1913 carried revenues and expendi- 
tures at $9,921,000; in 1921, revenues were $7, 
927,697, and expenditures $10,437,720. Interest 
and amortization of the foreign debt were steadily 
accumulating because of the fall in revenues. 
There was serious talk in 1922 of accepting the 
United States Standard Oil Company’s offer of 
a loan of $23,000,000. In 1923, the government 
accepted an English syndicate’s loan of $18,- 
000,000. This was to be guaranteed by customs 
receipts and was to be applied to the payment 
of the government’s indebtedness of 17,579,393 
sucres to the local banks in 1922 and for the 
interest due on railway bonds. Up to 1914, 
exchange was maintained at par (1 sucre= 
$0.487). The outbreak of the War caused the 
suspension of the gold conversion of paper, and 
with the continuing unfavorable trade balance, 
the value of the sucre steadily fell. From 1917 
on, the government attempted to fix a legal ex- 
change rate but an open-market rate prevailed 
In December, 1923, the official rate was 4.0 
sucres to the dollar, and the street rate, 5.9 
sucres. 

History. Internal affairs were turbulent 
well into 1915 under President Plaza. Under 
President Baquerizo, 1916-20, the administra- 
tion was busied with fiscal affairs, in which the 
demands of the Guayaquil & Quito Railroad Com- 
pany, the leading holder of the foreign debt, 
played a prominent part; the country was also 
involved in difficulties with the belligerent na- 
tions. The Allies protested against Germany’s 
use of the Galapagos Islands as coaling stations, 
and in spite of official disclaimers Ecuador’s 
neutrality was questioned. In 1917, however, 
diplomatic relations with Germany were severed 
and Ecuador thus technically became a member 
of the Allied and Associate Powers. Up to 
1924 it had not joined the League of Nations. 
By the treaty of 1916, a boundary commission 
was appointed to adjust the frontier between 
Ecuador and Colombia; the work was finished in 
1919. The work which was commenced under 
General Plaza in the cleaning up of Guayaquil in 
1913 was renewed in 1918 under Colonel Gorgas 
and came to a satisfactory conclusion two years 


——— 


. school. 


EDDY 


later. In 1920 it was officially reported that 
the danger of yellow fever had been eliminated 
not only in Gnayaquil but in several adjacent 
provinces. In 1920 an unsuccessful attempt was 
made by a British company to purchase the 
Galapagos Islands with a view to exploiting 
their valuable guano deposits. The president 
of Ecuador for 1920-24 was Dr. José L. Tamayo; 
for the term 1924-28, Dr. Gonzalo 8. Cordoba. 

EDDY, SuERwoop (1871- ). An Ameri- 
can author and a secretary of the Young Men’s 
Christian Association, born at Leavenworth, 
Kan., and educated at Yale. As a national sec- 
retary of the Y. M. C. A., he worked in an 
honorary capacity among students in Japan, 
Korea, China, India, the Near East and Russia. 
Besides works published in England and India, 
he wrote: The Awakening of India (1911); 
The New Era in Asia (1913); The Students of 
Asia (1915); Suffering and the War (1916); 
With Our Soldiers in France (1917); Hvery- 
body’s World (1920). 

EDGAR, WILLIAM CROWELL (1856- Fs 
An American editor and publisher, born at La- 
Crosse, Wis., and educated at a St. Louis high 
He became manager (1882) and editor 
(1886) of the Northwestern Miller, and subse- 
quently president of the Miller Publishing Com- 
pany. For his part in the relief given to Rus- 
sian peasants in 1891, he was decorated by the 
Emperor of Russia. During the War he assisted 
in the Belgian Relief movement and aided Her- 
bert Hoover in the organization of the American 
milling industry. His publications include: 
Story of a Grain of Wheat (1903); Brief in Be- 
half of American Millers (1913); Food Control 
and Food Fallacies (1917); England During the 
Last Months of the War (1918); Rhymes of a 
Doggerel Bard (1921). 

EDISON, Tuomas AtLvaA (1847- pPosAn 
American electrician and inventor. His work 
in the decade was devoted chiefly to the perfection 
and improvement of inventions already made. 
At the outbreak of the War he designed, built 
and operated successfully benzol plants, carbolic 
acid plants, and plants for the making of aniline 
salt and other products. In July, 1915, he was 
appointed president of the Naval Consulting 
Board, and in this capacity performed valuable 
service to the government, for which he made 
many more inventions. He created lively in- 
terest and discussion, in 1923, by the publica- 
tion of a questionnaire which he was accustomed 
to submit to college students who applied to him 
for employment. It comprised questions of wide 
scope on almost every possible subject, and was 
designed to test the general knowledge of the 
applicants. Its usefulness as such a test was 
much discussed in the public press. 

EDMUNDSON, GEorGE (1848- ys OA 
English clergyman and historian (see VOL. 
VII). In 1922, he published A History of Hol- 
land (Cambridge Historical Series), and The 
Journal, Travels, and Labours of Father Samuel 
Fritz, in the River Amazon, 1686-1723. The 
latter was translated and edited from the orig- 
inal Spanish manuscript for the Hakluyt So- 
ciety. 

EDSON, KATHERINE Puinips (Mrs. CHARLES 
FARWELL Epson) (1870- ). An American 
social worker and feminist, born at Kenton, 
Ohio, and educated in private schools. She de- 
voted her life to problems of public health and 
industry, and to woman’s rights. From 1910 
to 1916, she was a member of the State Board 


395 EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 


of the California Federation of Women’s Clubs. 
In 1912, she served on the Charter Revision 
Commission of Los Angeles, and in the same 
year became a member of the Progressive party’s 
State Central Committee of California, serving 
for four years. Well known as an arbiter in 
labor disputes, she was responsible for the Min- 
imum Wage Bill which the California Legisla- 
ture passed in 1913. From 1916 to 1920, she 
was a member of the executive committee of the 
Republican State Committee, and subsequently 
a delegate to the Republican National Conven- 
tion (1920), and a member (1920-24) of the 
executive committee of the Republican National 
Committee. In 1921, she became a member of 
the advisory committee of the Conference on 
the Limitation of Armaments. She has also 
been member of the executive committee of the 
National League for Woman’s Service, and 
executive officer of the Industrial Welfare Com- 
mission. 

EDSTROM, Davin (1873- yo A BCU DtOT. 
writer, lecturer and teacher who came to the 
United States in 1880 from Hvetlanda, Sweden, 
where he was born. At 21 he decided to study 
art, and worked his way to Stockholm, where 
he attended the technical schools and the Royal 
Academy of Fine Arts as a pupil of Borjison. 
He then went to Florence and Paris, where he 
studied with Injalbert. He has exhibited in 
most of the leading cities of the United States 
and Europe and is best known for his meta- 
physical sculptures, “Fear,” ‘Pride,’ “Envy,” 
CCalihany.) tne. Cry> of * Poverty. 7. An )argist 
of versatile moods, .Edstrom always shows in 
his work the psychic character of his subject. 
He has made portrait busts of many important 
persons. 

EDUCATION. See EHpucATION IN THE 
UNITED STATES; paragraphs on Hducation in 
the articles on the separate states and on for- 
eign countries; and UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES. 

EDUCATION, AGRICULTURAL. See 
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 

EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 
The report of the United States Commissioner 
of Education published in 1923 gives the sta- 
tistics of attendance in elementary schools for 
1919-20. The enrollment in public kindergar- 
tens was 481,266 and in private kindergartens 
29,683, making a total of 510,949. In the 
elementary schools including the primary and 
grammar grades there were 18,897,661 pupils 
in the public schools and 1,485,561 in the private 
schools, totaling 20,383,222. Of those who at- 
tended the public schools, 21.8 per cent were in 
the first grade, 13.8 in the second grade, and 
only 8.2 in the eighth grade. The statistics 
for the last few years of the decade 1914-24 
showed that the public elementary schools were 
making it possible for pupils to progress more 
uniformly than previously. In 1911, the en- 
rollment in the first grade had been 23.5 per 
cent of the total, and only 6.4 were in the 
eighth grade. 

The average number of days that schools 
were in session in 1919-20 was 161.9. This is 
an inerease of more than 17 days over 1900. 
The average number of days that each pupil 
attended in 1919-20 was 121.2; in 1900, 99. 
The average child therefore was in school 22 
days more in 1920 than in 1900. The per cent 
of children 5 to 18 years of age enrolled in 
school in 1919-20 was 77.8. This was an in- 
crease of nearly 5.5 per cent since 1900. At- 


EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 396 


tendance in 1920 was more general among chil- 
dren 11 years of age than among those of any 
other age. About 94 per cent of all children 
11 years old were in school in 1920, against 
63 per cent of those 6 years old. The revenue 
receipts were income from permanent funds and 
lands, $26,486,735; local taxes and appropria- 
tions, $758,896,451; State taxes and appropria- 
tions, $134,278,753; and from all other sources, 
$50,908,896; making a total revenue of $970,- 
570,835. The total expenditure per capita of 
population in 1920 was $9.80. In 1910 the per 
capita expenditure was $4.64; in 1900, $2.84. 
The total expenditure per pupil in average at- 
tendance in 1920 was $64.16. In 1910 it was 
$33.26 and in 1900 $20.21. The average total 
expenditure per day for each pupil attending in 
1920 was $.396. In. 1910. it was $211; in 
1900 $.14. The average annual salary of teach- 
ers in 1920 was $871. In 1910 it was $485, and 
in 1900, $325. 

Attendance in Secondary Schools. During 
the school year 1919-20, 186,862 students were 
enrolled in public high schools and 184,153 in 
private high schools and academies; total, 2,371,- 
015. There was also a total of 59,309 students 
enrolled in the preparatory departments of high- 
er institutions. In 1920 over ten per cent of 
those who were enrolled in school were in the 
high school, while in 1900 only 3.3 per cent 
were in the high schools. The per cents in the 
various classes in high school were for the 
first year, 41.6; second year, 26.0; third year, 
17.9, and fourth year, 14.5. These proportions 
between the four classes had remained almost 
constant from 1912. 

Teachers in the Public Schools. The 
teachers in the public elementary schools in 
1920 included 63,024 men and 513,222 women, 
a total of 576,246. It is estimated that the 
private schools employed as teachers 6322 men 
and 38,977 women, totaling 45,299. The public 
high schools employed 32,386 men and 69,572 
women, totaling 101,958. The private high 
schools employed 5698 men and 9248 women, 
totaling 14,946. 

Costs of Elementary and Secondary 
Schools. The expenditures for school sites, 
buildings, furniture, libraries and apparatus in 
1920 was $153,542,852. ‘The salaries for super- 
intendents, principals and teachers was $613,- 


404,578. For all other purposes the expenditure 
was $269,203,779. This made a total of $1,036,- 
151,209. 


American Education Week. From 1919 one 
week each year was designated as American 
Education Week. The President issued a proc- 
lamation which was printed in full or in part 
by practically every newspaper in the country. 
The purpose was to arouse and consolidate the 
sentiment of the American people on their re- 
sponsibility toward the children. Evidence was 
collected by the United States Bureau of Ed- 
ucation and the National Education Association 
indicating that more than 1,000,000 sermons and 
addresses were delivered on the various subjects 
suggested for consideration during the week. 
Clubs of all kinds made education a part of their 
programme. The American Legion furnished 
speakers at many civic meetings, and motion 
picture houses throughout the country gave ac- 
tive support to the movement. [Extensive use 
was also made of the radio. One feature of 
Education Week was the invitation extended to 
parents to see the school in action. Thousands 


EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 


of foreign-born parents thus had their first 
glimpse of the American schoolroom. In many 
cities evening sessions of the school were held 
so that parents might come directly from office 
or factory. 

Educational Investigations and Surveys. 
During the period between 1914 and 1924 many 
educational investigations and surveys were 
conducted by States, cities, townships, and pri- 
vate institutions. The first to attract wide at- 
tention was conducted in the City of Baltimore 
in 1911. Before this, legislative bodies had 
from time to time examined the schools for the 
purpose of determining the effectiveness of legal 
provisions. The Baltimore Survey made use of 
investigators trained in the field of education. 
The report concerned itself with the evaluation 
of existing educational methods within the city 
and also attempted to suggest remedial meas- 
ures. Later experience effected a vast improve- 
ment in the methods of investigation. Stand- 
ards were set, and it became possible to rate 
many features of a school system in terms which 
could be verified. A list of investigations would 
be very lengthy. Their significance is indicated 
by the fact that such surveys were conducted in 
Vermont, Maryland, Delaware, Ohio, Kentucky, 
Indiana, and Texas. Other States investigated 
phases of their work. Among these were an in- 
vestigation of rural schools in the State of New 
York; teacher-training in the State of Missouri; 
and higher education in Colorado. Among the 
cities surveyed were New York, Philadelphia, 
Baltimore, Cleveland, Salt Lake City, and Port- 
land, Ore. Investigations were conducted by the 
Carnegie Foundation, the General Education 
Board, the United States Bureau of Education, 
and various other agencies. The staffs for such 
work consisted largely of staff members of 
teachers’ colleges and normal schools. 

The earlier surveys were almost invariably 
the outcome of dissatisfaction on the part of 
those interested in the schools. Results were 
not entirely desirable. Later investigations 
were concerned with the educational policies to 
be adopted by either State or city. The out- 
comes of some of them were remarkable. Busi- 
ness methods of boards of education were im- 
proved, school building programmes adopted, 
and more effective financial and educational 
methods for the conduct of the schools approved. 
One important outcome was a demand for more 
definite knowledge concerning the various el- 
ements of cost in the public school systems. 
Various subjects in the school had been en- 
riched and,new studies and departments added 
with no adequate knowledge of what these 
changes meant in the way of increased financial 
responsibilities. Cities added kindergartens 
and junior high schools to their elementary 
schools and regular high schools without know- 
ing what these additions would cost. States 
had in some cases undertaken to guarantee to 
every one who was qualified an education be- 
ginning with the grades and ending with the 
college and university. The mounting costs of 
education caused school officials no end of anx- 
iety. Each year saw increasing indebtedness, 
and in the later years it became more difficult to 
raise additional funds. Some cities had to re- 
sort to the expedient of paying current expenses 
by means of long term bonds. 

School officials, facing these difficulties, found 
themselves without the detailed information 
necessary for an answer. In 1921 a group of 


3 
E 
; 
4 
| 
| 


ee 


ee 


EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 397 


persons interested in educational research ap- 
pointed a committee to draw up a plan and ask 
support for an educational finance inquiry. As, 
an outcome of the work of this committee the 
American Council on Education received con- 
tributions from the Commonwealth Fund, the 
General Education Board, the Carnegie Corpora- 
tion and the Milbank Memorial Fund. The 
Council then appointed an Educational Finance 
Inquiry Commission which was given full respon- 
sibility for the conduct of the inquiry and whose 
chairman was Prof. George D. Strayer of Teach- 
ers College, Columbia University. The com- 
mission was composed of prominent educators. 
This body employed a staff of investigators. 
The report of the commission is contained in 
fifteen volumes published by the Macmillan Com- 
pany, New York City. It indicates that in the 
ten-year period ending in 1920 the total educa- 
tional expenditures of the entire country nearly 
doubled for capital outlay, nearly trebled for 
interest, and increased about two and one-half 
times for current expenses. It was stated that 
in spite of its rapidly mounting cost, education 
was receiving a noticeably smaller proportion of 
total government expenses than formerly. To- 
tal government funds devoted to education de- 
creased about one-third; national, about one- 
fourth, and State, about one-fifth. On the other 
hand, the total local educational expenditures 
increased about one-ninth. The report stated 
that educational expenditures for the country 
as a whole each year exceeded the educational 
revenues, leaving a deficit which was 3 per 
cent of these revenues in 1910, and 5 per cent 
in 1920. Large numbers of school districts were 
bonded for approximately the full value of their 
school property. The average ratio of such debt 
to school property, however, was well under 
50 per cent, although rising rapidly. 

In the State of New York the commission 
studied the costs of instruction in various sub- 
jects. The cost in a sample city will suffice to 
show the character of the work undertaken. 
In this city the English in grade one cost $34.43; 
health instruction, $4.52, and fine and practical 
arts, $9.74. In grade four English cost $20.48; 
arithmetic, $8.90; social sciences, including his- 
tory and geography, $8.90; health education, 
$6.59; and fine and practical arts, $8.55. For 
the first six years the total cost of teaching 
English was $158.08, while the total cost per 
pupil for all instruction in these six grades was 
$349.04. The expenses for the seventh and 
eighth year increased the total expense to 
$481.40. If the cost of instruction and super- 
vision in the special subjects be added to the 
class room teaching, the total expense for the 
first six years is $395.32, and for the eight 
years. of the elementary course, $570.67. The 
total cost per pupil of kindergartens in New 
York City was $74.75; for the ungraded classes, 
$133.40, 

Illiteracy. No subject connected with edu- 
eation received more attention in the later 
years of the decade than that of illiteracy. It 
was first brought to the attention of the Amer- 
ican people in a pronounced way by the illiteracy 
statistics for the army. These were much 
higher than the figures given in the 1910 cen- 
sus. The 1920 census showed an improvement 
of 1.7 per cent in the illiteracy situation. This, 
however, is not consoling when it is remembered 
that there were more than 5,500,000 persons in 
our population 10 years of age or over who 


EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 


could neither read nor write. The census re- 
port showed that 1,242,572 native whites were 
illiterate. This was 2 per cent of the total 
native white population. Of the foreign-born 
whites 1,763,740 were illiterate, or 13 per cent 
of the total foreign-born white population. Of 
the Negroes, 1,842,161 were illiterate; this was 
22.9 per cent of the total Negro population. 
In Texas 33.8 per cent of the foreign-born white 
population were illiterate, and of the Negro 
population in Louisiana 38.5 per cent. The 
illiterate population represented 6.0 per cent of 
the total 10 years of age and over in 1920, the 
corresponding percentages for the last four pre- 
ceding census years being 7.7 in 1910, 10.7 in 
1900, 13.3 in 1890, and 17.0 in 1880. Connecti- 
cut was the only State showing an increase in 
the proportion as well as the number of illit- 
erates. Five States, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, 
Utah, and Washington, and the District of 
Columbia had only three-tenths of 1 per cent 
illiteracy. 

New Departures in Elementary Education. 
It would be difficult to predict the extent to 
which some of the innovations in elementary 
education will influence the schools of the fu- 
ture. Four changes in educational procedure in 
the decade 1914—24 seemed to have won a foot- 
hold. 

Junior High Schools. Studies of school at- 
tendance beginning in 1907 called attention to 
the remarkable dropping off of students between 
the elementary and high school and in the first 
year of the high school. A study of the reasons 
for this led to the belief that the lack of codr- 
dination between the elementary school and the 
high school was largely responsible for this con- 
dition. Almost none of the subjects studied in 
the elementary school were continued in the 
high school. Between the two institutions was 
a sharp cleavage in organization as well as in 
teaching methods. The last year of the elemen- 
tary school was largely devoted to a review of 
the work of the school. These and other con- 
siderations led school officials to formulate plans 
for the organization of a new element in the 
school system, which came to be known under 
various names, most commonly junior high 
school. This school usually cares for the chil- 
dren of the seventh, eighth and ninth elemen- 
tary school years. The effort is made to have 
the courses of study include a wider range of 
subjects than under the other form of organiza- 
tion. This is for the purpose of giving boys and 
girls the opportunity to explore various fields 
and to determine their fitness for such work as 
will follow in the high school, which under this 
plan is known as the senior high school. The 
junior high school, or intermediate school as 
some prefer to call it, had fulfilled reasonable 
expectations. Increasing numbers of such 
schools were organized, and most cities were 
making provisions for them in their new build- 
ing programme. 

The Platoon School Organization. This form 
of school organization was designed to meet the 
newer conditions which exist especially in the 
larger cities. It was extensively employed in 
the schools of Detroit. Typical platoon schools 
have 20 to 28 sections or classes of 40 pupils 
each. The buildings provide a gymnasium, an 
auditorium, open air play rooms, special rooms 
for music, art, literature, science, and library, 
and “home rooms” which correspond to the 
usual class rooms. The standard school day is 


EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 


six hours long, a three-hour session in the morn- 
ing and a three-hour session in the afternoon. 
The usual morning session is from 8.30 to 11.30, 
and the afternoon session from 12.30 to 3.30. 
Some schools have a somewhat longer noon hour. 
With the exception of pupils of the first grade 
and those especially excused, all pupils remain 
in school six hours and are busy during this 
entire period. The school membership is di- 
vided into two groups or platoons. While one 
group is engaged in the “home room” or reg- 
ular room, the other group is attending classes 
is the special rooms. Thus half of the pupils 
are in the “home rooms” at any given time and 
the other half are engaged in special activities. 
For ‘Shome room” activities the school day of 
6 hours is divided into four periods of 90 
minutes each. Each platoon has “home room” 
work for 90 minutes in the morning and 90 
minutes in°the afternoon. 

For special room activities, the 6-hour day 
is divided into twelve 30-minute periods. Each 
platoon is engaged in special activities during 
6 of these twelve 30-minute periods each day. 
Each pupil spends 90 minutes of the morning in 
the “home room” under the control of the 
“home room” teacher and the remaining 90 min- 
utes of the morning in the special activities, 50 
minutes in 3 separate special rooms. In 
the afternoon, he again spends 90 minutes in 
the “home room” and the remaining 90 minutes 
in 3 special rooms. The number of special 
room activities possible in a platoon school is 
determined by the number of classes or groups 
of pupils involved. If there are 20 classes, the 
school must house 800 pupils, or 400 in each 
platoon. This requires 10 “home rooms” to 
care for 400 pupils. The remaining 400 pupils 
may be provided for in special rooms. The cost 
of buildings for the platoon schools is somewhat 
greater per pupil in the 20-section schools and 
a little less in the 28-section schools than in 
the traditional schools. The capacity of the 
school building is increased by more than 40 
per cent by the platoon organization. The per 
capita cost of instruction is about the same in 
both types of schools. 

The Dalton Laboratory Plan. Following 
1890 many efforts were made to provide individ- 
ual instruction in the class room. Some of these 
plans were widely advertised and were intro- 
duced into various school systems. Jn 1924 
scarcely an evidence existed of the earlier at- 


tempts. Greatest attention was given the Dal- 
ton Plan. The originator of this plan, so far as 


it applies to public school work, is Helen Park- 
hurst. It was first tried with a group of crip- 
pled children in 1919. The next year it was 
introduced in the Dalton, Mass., High School. 
Miss Parkhurst spent the summer of 1921 in 
England, where she conducted a model school 
according to the “Dalton Laboratory Plan,” and 
her lectures were published. From that time 
Miss Parkhurst’s plan received increasing at- 
_ tention throughout England, and a large num- 
ber of the schools there were in 1924 organized 
in accordance with her ideals. In New York 
City Miss Parkhurst was conducting a school 
called the Children’s University School. <A large 
number of people visited this school. It was 
estimated in 1924 that several thousand schools 
of different sizes in the United States were or- 
ganized according to the Dalton Plan, and -va- 
rious cities and communities were considering 
the advisability of adopting the organization. 


398 


EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 


Miss Parkhurst’s book, Education on the Dal- 
ton Plan, had been translated into several lan- 
»guages, and she had been invited by various 
foreign countries to aid in the reorganization 
of some of their schools. 

The Dalton Laboratory Plan may be applied 
in the high school and in the elementary school 
from the fourth grade up. For convenience the 
different parts of the curriculum are divided 
into major and minor subjects. The former 
group includes mathematics, history, science, 
English, geography, foreign languages, etc.; the 
latter, music, art, handiwork, domestic science, 
manual training, gymnastics, ete. Miss Park- 
hurst advises that the plan be introduced with 
major subjects first. Each subject is then di- 
vided into what would correspond to 20-day 
periods or jobs, and the pupil accepts the jobs 
assigned for his class for a month as a contract. 
Each child has in his possession a complete out- 
line of the work which he will be required to 
do for four weeks. These outlines, made by the 
teachers, are explicit. The children are graded 
much as they would be in a regular public 
school and are always identified with forms or 
grades. At the opening of school in the fall 
the child receives the assignment or jobs that 
he is supposed to do in the next 20 school days, 
or 4 school weeks. Having accepted his con- 
tract, the child is free to approach his work in 
any way he may choose. No classes are taught 
as in the ordinary school procedure. A child 
may, for example, choose to do all of one sub- 
ject during the first few days and to leave the 
other subjects untouched. He knows exactly 
how much he must do, and he knows at the end 
of each day of study how far he has progressed. 
He must complete the entire contract before he 
can receive other jobs, but he may receive the 
next contract whenever he has completed the 
jobs called for in the contract under considera- 
tion. If, therefore, he is able to accomplish the 
work planned for four weeks in three weeks he 
immediately goes to the next contract. If he 
cannot complete it in the four weeks he may 
have a longer time. In this way each child 
progresses at his own rate. 

The different classes or forms meet occasional- 
ly, perhaps two or three times a week, for group 
conferences with their teachers. Aside from 
these group meetings the teachers deal with in- 
dividuals, and the pupils call for help when they 
need it and are required to report on progress 
in accordance with their assignment. The rooms 
in which the teachers meet the children are 
called laboratories instead of class rooms. In 
the Children’s University School is no such 
furniture as in an ordinary schoolroom. Since 
the children do not recite as an entire class, 
there is no need for a large number of seats or 
desks in a room. They come to the laboratory 
for the purpose of consulting the books there, or 
to consult with the teacher. 

A system of charts or graphs designed by 
Miss Parkhurst makes it possible for the teacher 
as well as the child to know just where he 
stands. The teachers therefore are able to as- 
sist the children in properly apportioning their 
time. It is claimed that children very soon 
learn to apportion their time in the most ef- 
fective way. 

The Nursery School or Pre-kindergarten. 
During the later years of the period various 
changes had been taking place in the kinder- 
garten. Froebel and his followers introduced 


EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 


much that was symbolic in the ordinary kinder- 
garten procedure. For a long time there was 
almost complete divorce between the kinder- 
garten and the first grade. Later, however, the 
scientific study of the physical and mental de- 
velopment of young children brought about a 
change in the kindergarten. In the kindergar- 
ten itself greater attention is given to the ex- 
ercise of the abilities which belong to children 
of that age and which are important in further 
school progress. Although reading and _ the 
other school subjects are not directly taught, 
the kindergarten child of to-day comes to the 
first grade better prepared to undertake these 
subjects than the child who has had no such 
training. A significant outcome of the study 
of young children was the formation of a new 
type of school called the Nursery or Pre-kinder- 
garten School. In such schools children from 
two and a half years up are received and given 
such training and exercise as they require. 
These schools should not be confused with the 
institutions formed to take care of the young 
child in order that the mother may be permitted 
to work. The nursery school receives children 
from all kinds of homes, and its justification is 
its educational value. Elaborate researches 
were being made in several universities in 1924, 
and there were enough schools of this type to 
indicate their importance. How expensive such 
schools would be remained to be demonstrated. 
Expense seemed likely to handicap their de- 
velopment seriously in the public school system. 

The Hershey Industrial School. Late in 
1923 Mr. M. S. Hershey announced that he had 
turned over to the Hershey Industrial School 
five years before a fund amounting to approx- 
imately $60,000,000. This placed the school 
next to Girard College in Philadelphia as the 
richest orphanage in the United States. The 
school was formally opened in 1910 in Hershey, 
Pa. Its enrollment in 1924 was 120. It was 
expected to have at least 1000 pupils in a few 
years. Mr. Hershey has restricted enrollment, 
first, to orphans of Dauphin, Lebanon, and Lan- 
caster Counties; secondly, to those born else- 
where in Pennsylvania, and thirdly, to those 
from any part of the country. It is stated that 
an effort will be made to have the life of the 
Each child is 
The aim is to 


children as homelike as possible. 
allowed to select his own trade. 
make each one self-supporting. 
Measurements in Education. In _ recent 
years there has been marked progress in the 
measurement of educational achievement. As 
long as there was a belief in faculty psychology 
definite measurements were not essential. A 
child might, for example, have great difficulty 
with arithmetic and as a consequence make very 
little progress in this subject; the earlier con- 
ception of psychology justified the belief that 
this child was gaining from his studies in other 
ways than measurable progress in arithmetic. 
Consequently, the more disagreeable and the 
more difficult the subject might be, the greater 
would be the benefit that would come from the 
study. The newer psychology at first denied 
the existence of transfer in training. Whatever 
results were obtained in the study of arithme- 
tic, according to this theory, would be meas- 
ured in the arithmetic itself. The prevailing 
notion at present is that there will be a trans- 
fer of training in so far as the situations under 
consideration are similar. It is therefore desir- 
able to measure the amount of improvement in 
14 


399 


EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 


any given subject. A large number of scales 
or standards were developed for the purpose of 
measuring achievement in school subjects. In 
general the instruments of measurement may be 
divided into two groups. In one group may be 
found the examinations or tests that have been 
given to a great number of school children scat- 
tered throughout the country. From the results 
of these examinations the tests have been stand- 
ardized, usually by determining what the me- 
dian or average child is able to do in the test. 
Certain tests in arithmetic and spelling may be 
considered as typical of this group. In other 
subjects where the quality of the result is im- 
portant the standards were developed by ob- 
taining the judgment of a large number of com- 
petent individuals on various samples of work. 
Such samples, when properly arranged and 
evaluated, become the scale or standard by 
which others may be ranked. English composi- 
tion, penmanship and drawing are fields in 
which such scales or standards were developed. 
Seales and standards of the types indicated 
came into very general use in the public schools 
of the country. To a large extent they took the 
place of the examinations formerly set by some 
central office. They served for determining the 
promotion of children, and later were used in 
connection with other measurements to deter- 
mine the efficiency of the teaching. Considerable 
attention was being given to tests that would 
locate a student’s particular difficulty. Most of 
these were in the field of arithmetic. 

The Federal Education Bill. An _ educa- 
tional bill was before Congress in 1924. This 
bill was similar to those under consideration for 
several years preceding. It provided for a 
cabinet member for education, and for an ap- 
propriation of $100,000,000 to be expended by 
the different States in improving educational 
facilities. The bill was being supported by 
more than 20 national organizations. 

Vocational Education. Vocational educa- 
tion continued to receive much attention. The 
enthusiasm which earlier led cities to vote large 
sums of money for vocational education, when 
they did not know what form this training 
should take, no longer existed. It may be 
doubted whether the appeals which won Fed- 
eral acts in relationship to vocational education 
would have been effective in 1924. Still, a large 
number of carefully planned and scientifically 
conducted experiments and investigations were 
being carried on in the United States in the field 
of vocational education. The War and the expe- 
riences which came with the training of dis- 
abled veterans cast doubt on the possibility of 
general vocational training. At the same time 
the efficiency of specific training was pretty 
thoroughly demonstrated. In the course of sev- 
eral months of intensified training men had been 
able to secure a better grasp of the trades than 
was possible in a much longer period of un- 
specialized work. Two Federal acts had pro- 
nounced influence on vocational education in 
America. The first of these, known as the 
Smith-Lever Act, became operative in 1914. 
This law provided for codperative agricultural 
extension work, instruction and practical dem- 
onstration in agriculture and home economics 
for persons not attending or resident in the 
agricultural colleges. The appropriations pro- 
vided by this act go to the State agricultural 
colleges which are required to make plans for 
the work subject to the approval of the Secre- 


EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 


tary of Agriculture. The general plan for con- 
ducting this work consists in first locating ex- 
tension agents in several counties of the State 
to carry on demonstrations, advise the farmers 
and stimulate them to better work; secondly, 
the organization of boys’ and girls’ clubs, large- 
ly in connection with rural schools, to conduct 
some simple agricultural home economics proj- 
ect; thirdly, the organization of a staff of spe- 
cialists in agriculture and home economics as a 
part of the faculty of agricultural colleges. 
These specialists go about the State and assist 
the extension agents. This law provides $10,- 
000 annually for each State for its agricultural 
college. In addition there was available in 1924 
an annual appropriation of $4,100,000 which 
must be met with an equal appropriation from 
the States. The Federal funds are allotted to 
the various States according to the proportion 
which the rural population of each State bears 
to the total rural population of the United 
States. Both the fund received from the Fed- 
eral government and the equal fund from the 
State government to balance it must be expended 
on extension schemes approved by the United 
States Department of Agriculture. 

A second important Federal act relating to 
vocational education was the establishment of 
the Federal Board of Vocational Education in 
1917. This board was to coiperate with State 
boards in case the State adopted the provisions 
of the act. The act provided for aid for salaries 
of teachers in vocational subjects, the amount to 
be met by the State; Federal supervision of 
work and expenditures, and investigations to be 
conducted by the Board in the several fields of 
vocational education. The amount of Federal 
funds available for each of the specified pur- 
poses was to vary until the school year 1925-26. 
From that time on, the amount available for 
agricultural education would be $3,027,000; for 
trade, household economics and industrial edu- 
cation, $3,050,000; for teacher-training, $90,- 
000; for investigation, $200,000. In 1918, 
1741 schools with a total of 164,186 students 
qualified for Federal aid under the Smith- 
Hughes Act. In 1923 the number of schools had 
increased to 5700; the students, to 536,528. In 
1923, 2673 agricultural schools had 71,298 stu- 
dents; 1634 trade or industrial schools had 325,- 
889 students, and 1393 home economics schools 
had 139,341. Pupils in vocational  teacher- 
training institutions numbered 20,738. The ac- 
ceptance of the provisions of the Smith-Hughes 
Act required legislative action on the part of 
the different States This apparently stimulated 
the States to further action, particularly in ref- 
erence to continuation education. 

Continuation Education. Continuation edu- 
cation was compulsory in several States in 1924. 
The period during which persons must attend 
these schools or classes varied. In some States 
the law operated between the ages of 14 and 
16 and in others between the ages of 16 and 
18; in still others it is effective between the 
ages of 14 and 18. Where these schools are es- 
tablished, employed minors within the ages 
specified, who have not finished 4 years of sec- 
ondary school work, are usually required to at- 
tend 8 hours a week for 36 weeks each year. 
Such classes are held not less than 4 nor more 
than 8 hours a week. These part-time continua- 
tion classes have to a large measure taken the 
place of evening schools. 

Teacher Training. The report of the United 


400 


EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 


States Commissioner of Education for 1919-20 
showed that the enrollment in the normal 
schools and teachers’ colleges included 19,110 
men and 116,308 women, totaling 135,418. The 
graduates from these institutions in 1920 were 
2151 men and 18,861 women, a total of 21,012 
qualified to teach. The total receipts for the 
371 institutions reporting was $31,355,389. 
Prior to 1920 few teacher training institutions 
had more than a two-year course, and such 
institutions as gave degrees on the completion 
of four years’ work were usually connected with 
universities. In 1924 several normal schools 
had been or were being converted into teachers’ 
colleges with courses of study of three and in 
some cases four years. The normal schools of 
New York State had three-year courses, and it 
was proposed to make them four-year courses 
at the earliest opportunity. The same condi- 
tion obtained in some of the other States, nota- 
bly California and Missouri. Several others, 
including Massachusetts, Louisiana, Pennsyl- 
vania, and Texas, were conducting extensive in- 
quiries into the workings of their teacher train- 
ing institutions. A Committee on Standards of 
the American Council on Education defines the 
normal school or teachers’ college as “an insti- 
tution of higher education with two-year, three- 
year and four-year curricula designed to afford 
such general and technical education as will fit 
students to teach in elementary and secondary 
schools.” The committee suggests the following 
standards for teacher training institutions: 

1. The requirement for admission should be 
the satisfactory completion of a four-year course 
of study in a secondary school approved by a 
recognized accrediting agency, or the equivalent 
of such a course of study. 

2. The requirement for a diploma should be 
the satisfactory completion of at least 60 semes- 
ter hours, and the requirement for graduation 
with the baccalaureate degree the satisfactory 
completion of at least 120 semester hours. 

3. Each course of study leading to a diploma 
or degree should be recognized separately and 
only if the following conditions are met: (a) 
Two-year courses of study leading to diplomas 
should have a minimum enrollment of 80 stu- 
dents fully matriculated according to the pro- 
visions of standard 1 above; (b) Four-year 
courses of study leading to baccalaureate de- 
grees should have a minimum enrollment of 
100 students fully matriculated according to 
the provisions of standard 1 above, exclusive 
of any other students. 

4. The faculty of a normal school or teachers’ 
college should consist of at least eight heads of 
departments devoting full time to the work of 
the institution. With the growth of the stu- 
dent body the number of full-time teachers 
should be increased so as to preserve a ratio 
of teachers to students of approximately 1 to 
12, exclusive of teachers giving full time to 
elementary and secondary instruction in train- 
ing departments. 

Teaching schedules exceeding 16 hours per 
week per instructor, or classes (exclusive of 
lectures) of more than 30 students, should be 
interpreted as endangering educational effi- 
ciency. 

The Visiting Teacher. In every school 
system may be found children who do not make 
satisfactory progress. They are not truants, 
because the well organized attendance divisions 
assure their presence in the school rooms; 


EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 


neither are they delinquents or defectives. 
They are the victims of some type of maladjust- 
ment in the school system or home. To meet 
the needs of children who are misfits, some 
schools were employing persons with the title 
of visiting teachers or home and school visitors. 
A visiting teacher locates the difficulties that 
may exist and then attempts to adjust condi- 
tions so as to enable the child to make more 
profitable use of the school. She codrdinates 
the efforts of the school, the home, and various 
independent agencies such as social settlements, 
civic organizations, parent-teachers’ associa- 
tions and others of similiar character. 

The first visiting teachers, or home and school 
visitors as they are sometimes called, were em- 
ployed during the school year 1906-07 in Bos- 
ton, New York, and Hartford. In each place 
the movement was supported by private funds. 
In 1924 at least 28 cities in 15 States had visit- 
ing teachers. The cities finally assumed res- 
ponsibility for the support and control of the 
work. California was the only State in 1924 
providing for home and school visitors. The 
Home Teacher Act in that State makes it “per- 
missible for boards of education to employ a 
home teacher for every 500 units of average 
daily attendance.” A national organization 
called the National Association of Visiting 
Teachers and Home and School Visitors had 
headquarters in New York City. 

American Council on Education. The 
American Council on Education was the cen- 
tral organization in which the greatest national 
educational associations were represented. Its 
general object was to promote and carry out 
codperative action in matters of common inter- 
est to the associations and to the institutions 
composing them. It has three classes of mem- 
bers, constituent, associate, and institutional. 
The constituent members are 16 national edu- 
cational associations. Each is represented by 
three delegates who vote as a unit at meetings 
of the council through a designated person. As- 
sociate members are educational or scientific 
organizations having interests related to the 
work of the council. Associate members may 
send one representative each to the meetings of 
the council without the right to vote. Institu- 
tional members are colleges, universities, and 
professional and technical schools contributing 
not less than $100 a year to the treasury of the 
council. Each may be represented at meetings 
of the council by one delegate without the right 
to vote. In February, 1921, it had 16 constit- 
uent members, 12 associate, and 122 institu- 
tional. The budget for 1922 provided for the 
expenditure of $27,117.61. Among the projects 
receiving attention from the various com- 
mittees of the council were Federal legislation, 
international educational relations, education 
for citizenship, the training of women for pub- 
lic service, colleges of liberal arts, and standard- 
ization. The council was instrumental in bring- 
ing about an investigation of the cost of educa- 
tion and of public resources available to sup- 
_port it. Headquarters are in Washington, D. C. 

Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement 
of Teaching. A summary of the seventeenth 
annual report of the president of the Carnegie 
Foundation for the year ending June 30, 1923, 
states that during the 17 years of its existence 
the Carnegie Foundation distributed $9,939,676 
in retiring allowances and pensions to 1020 
persons. Of this sum $787,000 was paid to 


401 


EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 


former teachers of Harvard University, $677,- 
000 to former teachers of Yale, $592,000 to for- 
mer teachers of Columbia, and $460,000 to for- 
mer teachers of Cornell Universities. The re- 
mainder went to 85 different institutions. 
There were then operative 396 retiring allow- 
ances and 246 widows’ pensions, 63 of them 
granted during the preceding year, entailing an 
annual expenditure of $1,022,790. The average 
allowance paid was $1593. The maximum al- 
lowance had been fixed at $3600. The total 
resources of the Carnegie Foundation amounted 
to $26,376,000, of which $15,192,000 belonged 
to the permanent general endowment, $8,914,- 
000 to a reserve fund to be spent in the retire- 
ment, during the next 60 years, of teachers in 
associated institutions, $1,277,000 to the en- 
dowment of the Division of Educational Inquiry, 
and $628,000 to a reserve fund to be expended 
in aiding universities and colleges to adopt 
the new plan of contractual annuities. The 
Teachers’ Insurance and Annuity Association of 
America, which was established by the Founda- 
tion through a gift of $1,000,000 to provide in- 
surance and annuity protection for college teach- 
ers without overhead charges, had written for 
teachers in 355 different institutions 1519 in- 
surance policies covering $7,928,000 of insur- 
ance and 1175 annuity contracts providing $1,- 
496,000 annual income at retirement. 

The General Education Board. The Gen- 
eral Education Board was incorporated by Act 
of Congress, Jan. 12, 1903. The charter stated 
that the general object of the corporation is 
“the promotion of education in the United 
States of America, without distinction of race, 
sex, or creed.” The funds of the institution 
were derived from the benefactions of John D. 
Rockefeller. The report for the year ending 
June 30, 1923, showed assets amounting to 
$128,667,091.53. The income for the year was 
$15,899,897.42, and the disbursements were $6,- 
659,672.94. 

From the Board’s foundation to June 30, 1923, 
was appropriated for various educational pur- 
poses a dotal of $106,214,284.38. Of this 
amount $56,517,617.39 had been paid. This 
left nearly $50,000,000 appropriated but un- 
paid. In making payments thus far the Board 
had used $12,234,785.24 from its principal 
funds and $44,282,832.15 from income. In De- 
cember, 1919, Mr. Rockefeller gave $50,000,000 
to the Board, “the principal and income of 
which might, at the discretion of the Board, be 
used for the increase of teachers’ salaries.” 
The report states that “the appropriations dur- 
ing the last four years for the purpose of in- 
creasing teachers’ salaries have practically ex- 
hausted the gift in question.” Exclusive of 
appropriations to schools of education and med- 
icine, the Board had appropriated to general 
college and university endowments in 291 in- 
stitutions a total of $57,662,493.50 from its es- 
tablishment to July 1, 1923. When the institu- 
tions met the conditions under which these 
appropriations were made, more than $200,000,- 
000 was to be added to the funds of the institu- 
tions concerned. The report indicated a change 
in the policy of the Board. It stated that 
“during the last two years the Board has grad- 
ually come to the conviction that its possibilities 
of usefulness in this direction (increasing en- 
dowments of colleges) are drawing to an end. 
The financial resources of higher institutions 
have been greatly augmented. Internal prob- 


EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 


lems affecting organization, administration, and 
instruction have arisen. It would therefore 
seem to be opportune for the Board to devote 
its attention to other phases of education.” 

Institute of International Education. This 
institute was established in February, 1919, by 
the Carnegie Endowment for International 
Peace. As stated by one of its directors, the 
general aim is to develop international good- 
will by means of educational agencies and to 
act as a clearing house of information and ad- 
vice for Americans concerning things educa- 
tional in foreign countries and for foreigners 
concerning things educational in the United 
States. The institute pays the traveling ex- 
penses of professors on sabbatical leave who 
are willing to lecture in foreign universities and 
have been invited to do so. The institute also 
entertains distinguished visitors and commis- 
sions on their arrival in the United States. 

Rhodes Scholars. The system of Rhodes 
scholarships was founded by the will of Cecil 
John Rhodes. Provision was made for support- 
ing at Oxford University, for a period of three 
years each, about 176 selected scholars. The 
United States is entitled to send two students 
from each State. Candidates must be between 
19 and 25 years of age and have completed at 
least two years of college work. The will out- 
lines the bases of selection as scholarship, char- 
acter, interest in out-of-door sports, interest in 
one’s fellows, and capacity for leadership. 
During 1921, 407 American college and univer- 
sity men were applicants for appointment. 
Thirty-two were appointed. 

The Alumni Association of the Rhodes Schol- 
ars completed a survey of the work of the Amer- 
ican Rhodes Scholars in attendance from 1904 
to 1914. The report showed that 351 men were 
appointed during this period. The occupations 
of 301 of these are classified as education, 114; 
law, 72; business, 38; social and religious work, 


23; government service, 15; graduate students, 


10; scientific work, 10; literary and editorial, 8; 
medical, 7, and miscellaneous, 4. 

The American Oxonian, the official. magazine 
of the Alumni Association, presented a statis- 
tical study of the records of the scholars com- 
piled by Prof. R. W. Burgess of Brown Uni- 
versity. More than 500 American Rhodes Schol- 
ars had been appointed. They represented 172 
American universities and colleges, only 39 of 
which had been represented by as many as 5 
scholars. Only 14 per cent of the scholars had 
had less than a full college course; 19 per cent 
had done graduate work. “Americans succeed 
best at Oxford in those subjects of study which 
are not based on previous preparation, while the 
record of English students is exactly the other 
way.” The record of the American Rhodes 
Scholars was particularly good in competition 
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and in 
law. Most of the Ph.D’s awarded at Oxford 
had been given to American Rhodes Scholars, 
and of the seven Firsts in Jurisprudence 
awarded in the entire university in 1923, five 
were taken by American Rhodes Scholars. 

Scholarships under La Verne Noyes 
Foundation. The will of La Verne Noyes pro- 
vided that the income from his estate should 
be used for educating men who served in the 
United States army and navy, or their descend- 
ants. The trustees of the foundation made al- 
Ictments for 30 scholarships for nurses who 


served with the army or navy of the United . 


402 


- to H.M.S. Hindustan. 


EDWARD 


States. They also announced the allotment of 
230 other scholarships to be distributed among 
22 universities and colleges during 1923-24. 
Another 100 scholarships were to go to North- 
western University and 40 to Lewis Institute in 
Chicago. The total was 400 scholarships. It 
was announced that ex-service men and women 
desiring to avail themselves of these scholar- 
ships should make application to the college or 
university of their choice. 

University Centre of Research in Wash- 
ington. According to the articles of organiza- 
tion, “the purpose of the University Centre of 
Research in Washington, D. C., shall be to pro- 
mote and facilitate research in archives, li- 
braries, and other collections located in the 
District of Columbia on the part of students in 
the graduate departments of American and 
foreign universities and of others.” The ac- 
tivities of the University Centre were limited 
to history, political science, economies and sta- 
tistics, and international law and diplomacy, 
up to 1924. It was expected that there would 
later be opportunity for investigators in all 
fields of learning. The University Centre is not 
an institution in the ordinary sense of the word. 
It is rather an organization for the purpose of 
rendering aid, especially information on the lo- 
cation of desired material, to investigators in 
certain fields. It makes no charge for its serv- 
ices. See also LAw, Progress or, Reformation 
in Legal Education. 

EDWARD, (ALBERT CHRISTIAN GEORGE 
‘ANDREW PATRICK DAvID), PRINCE OF WALES 
(1894— ). The eldest son of King George 
V and Queen Mary of England, born at White 
Lodge, Richmond Park. The Prince began to 
prepare for the navy when he was eight years 
old; in 1907, entered Osborne and in 1909 the 
Royal Naval College at Dartmouth. Upon be- 
coming a midshipman, the Prince was appointed 
In October of 1912, 
he entered Magdalen College, Oxford, as a 
freshman, but his university career was cut 
short by the outbreak of the War and on 
Aug. 7, 1914, he was gazetted a 2d lieutenant 
in the Grenadiers Guards and shortly after- 
ward joined the Ist battalion at Warley Bar- 
racks, Essex. During the War he served as 
aide-de-camp to Sir John French, with the 
Expeditionary Force in Flanders and in France, 
later with the Mediterranean Expeditionary 
Force in Egypt and subsequently on the Italian 
front. At the time of the Armistice he was 
serving with the Canadian Corps, and in the 
early part of 1919 became attached to the 
Australian Corps in Belgium. The Prince 
visited Canada and the United States in 1919, 
on the H.M.S. Renown, and in the next year 
went to New Zealand and Australia by way of 
the Panama Canal. Upon his arrival in Eng- 
land in October, 1920, he was given a magnif- 
icent reception and a banquet at Buckingham 
Palace. Just a year later, he made a visit to 
India on the Renown and in 1923, another hasty 
visit incognito to his ranch in Canada. 

Since birth, the Prince has been the object of 
the preparation and enthusiasm that befitted 
one some day to be the monarch of the British 
Empire. His career has been characterized by 
its democratic simplicity, all the more enhanced 
perhaps by the charming personality of the 
Prince himself, which has made him _ the 
cynosure of admiration not only at home but 
abroad. 


? 
nS 


EDWARDS 403 EGYPT 
EDWARDS, ALFRED GEORGE (1848— ). 47,465 Protestants, 107,531 Roman Catholies, 
An English clergyman, the first Archbishop of and 59,581 Jews. The country had 238,661 


Wales, born at Llanymawddwy, and educated 
at Jesus College, Oxford. He was ordained 
curate of Llandingat, Carmathen, in 1874, be- 
coming headmaster of the college, Landovery, 
a year later. He became vicar and rural dean 
of Carmathen in 1885, bishop of St. Asaph in 
1889, and in 1920, after the disestablishment of 
the Welsh Church, was created Archbishop of 
Wales. His publications include: The Church 
in Wales (1888), Common-Sense Patriotism 
(1894), and Landmarks in Welsh Church His- 
tory (1912). 

EDWARDS, CLARENCE RANSOM (1859— "2 
An American soldier, born at Cleveland, Ohio. 
He was graduated at the United States Military 
Academy in 1883, and entered the United States 
Army as second lieutenant in the 23d Infantry. 
By successive promotions, he attained the rank 
of major-general and was retired in that grade 
in December, 1922, after 40 years of service. 
He participated in the campaigns in the Philip- 
pines, serving as adjutant-general on General 
T. W. Lawton’s staff in 1899. In 1902, he was 
made chief of the Bureau of Insular Affairs, 
on account of his intimate acquaintance with 
conditions in outlying possessions. He retained 
this office until 1912, when he returned to the 
line and during 1915-17 was in command of the 
United States troops in the Panama Canal 
Zone. Later, he had charge of the Department 
of the Northeast, where he organized in 1917 
the 26th Division; he was in France during 
1917-18 serving on front line duty. On his re- 
turn to the United States, he was assigned to 
the command of the First Corps area with head- 
quarters in Boston. He was given the Croix de 
Guerre with palm and made an officer of the 
Legion of Honor. 

EELS, BREEDING PLACE or. See FISHERIES. 

EGAN, Maurice FRANCIS (1852-1924). An 
American scholar and diplomat (see Vou. VII). 
From 1907 until 1918, he was United States 
Ambassador to Denmark. In addition to pub- 
lishing The Ivy Hedge (1914), and Ten Years 
on the German Frontier (1919), he has been a 
prolific contributor to Century, Atlantic Month- 
ly, Yale Review, etc. 

EGERTON, HucH Epwarp = (1855— “ 
An English historian (see Vor. VII). He pub- 
lished British Foreign Policy in Europe (1917), 
and British Colonial Policy in the 20th Cen- 
tury (1922). 

EGYPT. A kingdom in northeastern Africa 
since Feb. 28, 1922, when the British protector- 
ate terminated. The total area of Egypt proper, 
including the Libyan Desert, the region between 
the Nile and the Red Sea, and the Sinai pen- 
insula, is about 350,000 square miles; but the 
cultivated and settled area, ie. the Nile Valley 
and Delta, is but 12,226 square miles. The 
population for this section was, by the 1917 
census, 12,750,918; this made a density of 1061 
per square mile, an increase of 12.6 per cent 
over the last decennial census. The increase 
for 1897-1907 was 14.9 per cent. The estimated 
population in 1922 was 13,551,000. The largest 
towns had the following populations in 1917: 
Cairo, 790,939 (654,476 in 1907); Alexandria, 
444,617 (332,246 in 1907); Port Said, 75,192 
(49,884 in 1907); Suez, 30,996; Tanta, 74,195; 
Mansura, 49,238; Zagazig, 41,741; Asyit, 
51,431. The 1917 census showed 11,623,753 
Moslems, 856,670 Orthodox Christians (Copts), 


foreigners and 452,263 nomads. Of Moslems, 
947 per 1000 were illiterate in 1917; Orthodox 
Christians, 829; Catholics and Protestants, 531; 
Jews, 562, and others, 934; total, 921. Educa- 
tion made no advance in the period 1914-22. 
The total of native and foreign schools was 
reduced from 8720 to 6501. The native ele- 
mentary schools, called “Maktabs,” for the 
most part under the control of the provincial 
councils, decreased from 7590 to 5463. The 
total number of students was 537,270 and 511,- 
671 respectively. Although the total of male 
students diminished, the number of female stu- 
dents increased almost 24 per cent. The total 
number of girls was 79,573 at the beginning 
and 99,402 at the end of the period. Egyptian 
schools in 1921-22 numbered 6175, of which 
there were only 282 schools for girls. Egypt 
had, besides “‘Maktabs,” colleges of medicine, 
law, engineering, and agriculture, a military 
institution, special technical schools, secondary 
schools, higher primary schools, ete. Besides 
native schools, there were British, American, 
French, Greek, Italian, and other foreign schools. 
Much of the native agitation against British 
rule crystallized about the failure of the British 
to increase the facilities for education. After 
40 years of British domination, it was pointed 
out, 92 per cent of the men and 99 per cent of 
the women were still illiterate. The British 
policy had been directed almost exclusively 
toward the furtherance of secondary education, 
and even here the equipment was inadequate. 
Because of the failure to found a state uni- 
versity, the natives sought instruction at the 
university of El-Azhar (Cairo), the chief centre 
of Moslem orthodoxy, and the anti-occidental 
spirit which resulted was inevitable. The edu- 
eation charge in the budget remained low con- 
stantly, the proportion in 1922-23 being only 
3.8 per cent of the total expenditure. 
Agriculture. In 1920-21, the cultivable 
area of Egypt was reckoned at 8,129,055 fed- 
dans (1 feddan=1.038 acres), of which 2,774,- 
686 were uncultivated. About 37 per cent of 
the population was engaged on the land. The 
cultivation of cotton was the most important 
single activity; 1,465,136 feddans were sown 
with it, in 1922, as compared with 1,723,094 in 
1912. The yield in 1922-23 was 578,682,000 
pounds. The government frequently had to take 
measures to restrict the acreage because of the 
neglect of food crops. For the years 1921-23, 
for example, only one-third of each holding 
could be planted in cotton. In 1921-22 1,462, 
221 feddans under wheat yielded 40,643,000 
bushels, compared with a yield of 35,731,000 
bushels in 1913-14; barley, 361,231 feddans and 
11,985,000 bushels (12,050,000 bushels in 1913— 
14) ; maize, 2,027,000 feddans; and millet, 259,- 
490 feddans. Thus the food crops steadily de- 
clined in the face of the growing cotton culture. 
In 1921-22, 62,608 feddans wcre under sugar 
cane, as compared with 50,029 in 1912: In 1913 
the sugar export amounted to 5,133 metric tons, 
valued at £79,068, and this increased in 1923 to 
37,550 metric tons, valued at £1,057,767. In 
1913, 690,644,548 pounds of raw cotton, valued 
at $127,310,414, were exported; in 1923, 740,- 
162,120 pounds valued at $232,231,771. To sup- 
plement the Assuan dam for the reclaiming of 
waste areas, a large irrigation project was an- 
nounced in 1920. This was to include a dam at 


EGYPT 


Gebel Aulia, near Khartum, with a storage ca- 
pacity of 2,000,000,000 cubic meters, or twice 
that of Assuan, for the service of at least 2,- 
000,000 acres of waste land. 

Mining and Manufacturing. Principal 
mineral products in 1921 were, in metric tons, 
phosphate rock, 122,024; manganese iron ore, 
55,065; petroleum, 178,284. The increase in the 
last was particularly marked, for up to 1912 
petroleum was hardly produced at all. In 1913 
the output was only 12,700 tons. The manufac- 
ture of cigarettes, the leading industrial activ- 
ity, visibly declined after 1913. In 1923 the 
amount of tobacco imported for the making of 
Egyptian cigarettes was 6,667,715 kilos; this 
was more than 1,500,000 kilos below the 
1913 figure. In 1913, 493,716 kilos of ciga- 
rettes were exported; in 1923, only 187,914 kilos. 
Imports from China became important durin 
tig W ar. 

Trade. For 1913, imports were $139,047,323; 
,1920, $382,053,600; 1921, $219,256,537; 1922, 
$196,736,078; 1923, $212,348,853. Exports for 
1913 were $157,993,704; 1920, $320,501,479; 
1921, $143,606,445; 1922, $221,172,538; 1923, 
$273,836,564. The year 1922 was ‘the first to 
show a normal condition since 1913 and a favor- 
able trade balance was restored. In both 1920 
and 1921 there were heavy adverse trade bal- 
ances, but for 1922 the foreign trade showed a 
favorable surplus of $24,436,460; in 1923, $61,- 
487,711. In 1913 this had been about $19,000,- 
000. Cotton continued in the place of leading 
prominence, its exports totaling 90 per cent of 
the entire export trade. Next in importance 
were cottonseed, refined sugar, cottonseed cake, 
cigarettes, onions, eggs, ete. Leading imports 
in 1923 were cotton and cotton textiles ($77,- 
490,581); metal, metal goods, and machinery 


($25,126,267); wheat and wheat flour ($9,- 
966,302), .coal ($7,616,438), tobacco ($5,949,- 
082), building materials ($7,857,279). The 


fluctuations in flour imports showed something 
of the part cotton played in Egyptian economic 


life. Imports for 1913 were $10,000,000; 1920, 
$24,000,000; 1921, $25,000,000; 1922, $8,000,- 
000; 1923, $10,000,000. The restrictions on 


eotton-planting, begun in 1921, account for the 
smallness of the 1922 figure. In 1913 Great 
Britain was the leading country of origin of 
Egyptian imports; it sent 30.5. per cent of the 
whole. The United States ranked ninth with 
1.9 per cent. In 1922, the proportions were: 
Great Britain, 34 per cent; United States, 3.8 
per cent. In 1923 the percentages were 33 and 
3.7, respectively. The last two figures for the 
United States were a distinct falling off from 
the 1920 and 1921 proportions of 10.6 and 15.1. 
Proportions by countries of destination of Egyp- 
tian exports were, for 1913, Great Britain, 43.1 
per cent, and the United States, 7.8 per cent; 
for 1923, Great Britain, 48 per cent, and the 
United States, 12.4 per cent. In 1919 and 1920, 
the United States proportions were 22 and 30 
per cent. The American purchases of raw cot- 
ton were significant. In 1913, 66,712,453 pounds 
($12,188,240) were purchased; in 1923, 106,871,- 
384 pounds ($33,357,798). Transit trade totaled 
$18,462,978 in 1923 and $10,342,144 in 1913. 
Reéxports were $6,878,635 in 1923 and $2,885,- 
473 in 1913. Alexandria handled 90 per cent of 
the total trade in 1913 and 90 per cent in 1923. 
Port Said and Suez handled 8.4 per cent in 
1913 and 8.2 per cent in 1923. In the conver- 
sions in this list, the following rates of ex- 


404 


EGYPT 


change, based on the average annual fluctua- 
tions, were employed: 1913, Egyptian £ = $4.99 
or normal value; 1920, £EH = $3.75; 1921, 
£E = $3.95; 1922, £E = $4.54; 1923, £E = $4.69. 

Communications. No important railroad 
construction was accomplished during the period 
1914-24 except the continuation of the line from 
Salhia to Quantara, which joined with the line 
across the Sinai peninsula to Jerusalem by a 
bridge over the Suez Canal. The bridge was 
removed in 1921 because it obstructed the Canal 
traffic. In 1924 a railway 217 miles long was 
begun, from Kassala to Port Sudan. Total 
mileage on Mar. 31, 1922, of state-owned rail- 
ways (single and double track) was 2319 miles. 
In 1919 a Ministry of Communications took 
over control of all railway, telephone, telegraph, 
post-office, ports, and lighting facilities. Cairo 
and Assuit had wireless stations, and an air 
station was located at Cairo. 

Finance. In 1912 revenues were placed at 
£E15,900,000, and expenditures at £E15,400,000. 
During the War, deficits were evident for the 
first time in the country’s financing, the 1914— 
15 preliminary budget showing an adverse bal- 
ance of £K1,460,000. The fall in prices during 
the year, left the very large deficit of £E15,- 
600,000. In 1921-22, the accounts had been re- 
stored to their normal relationship, with an ex- 
penditure of £E37,747,000 and a revenue of 
£E41,803,000. For the fiscal year 1923-24, the 
budget estimates were £E34,905,000 revenues and 
£E34,355,000 expenditures. The reserve fund in 
1923 amounted to £E2,190,000. In 1922 the 
amount of the public debt was £E92,761,540. 
The 1923-24 budget carried £E4,616,509 for debt 
service. The National Bank, the bank of issue, 
had in circulation in January, 1924, notes to 
the value of £E33,326,000. The gold reserve in 
January, 1924, was £K3,340,000. 

Economic Conditions. The break in the cot- 
ton market in 1914 was only temporary, for the 
quick recovery of 1915, due to increased war 
demands, ushered in a five-year period of un- 
precedented prosperity. Cotton prices by 1920 
were 10 times as high as those of the last pre- 
war period, with the result that it was possible 
for traders to invest great sums in foreign se- 
curities out of their profits. The peasants 
(fellahin) suffered because of the neglect of 
food crops, and the cost of living in the high 
year 1920 trebled the figures of 1914. The in- 
crease in the cost of living may be illustrated by 
the following 1914 and 1919 prices: mutton, per 
oke, from $.50 to $1.50; veal, $.40 to $1.00; butter, 
$.50 to $2.50; frying oil, $.25 to $2. The govern- 
ment was compelled to purchase wheat abroad 
for sale at home at nominal prices, and sub- 
sidies to meet the increased cost of living began 
to play an important part in the budget. This 
figure was £E2,500,000 in 1922-23. The fall in 
cotton prices in 1921 brought real suffering. 
Labor agitations increased and strikes were 
frequent, particularly among dock laborers and 
street railway employees. Index of cost of liv- 
ing, based on the figure of 100 for 1914, was, 
for 1921, 180; 1922, 147; 1923, 133; February, 
1924, 135. 

History. On Dec. 18, 1914, the empty 
suzerainty of Turkey was factually terminated 
when the British Foreign Office declared Egypt 
a British protectorate. On the following day the 
reigning khedive, Abbas Hilmi, was deposed, and 
his uncle Hussein Kamil was set on the throne 
with the title Sultan of Egypt. The British 


EGYPT 405 


rule thus inaugurated did not terminate until 
Feb. 22, 1922. Martial law was at once de- 
clared, and the meeting of the Legislative As- 
sembly was postponed. Under the high com- 
missionerships of Sir H. MeMahon (1915-16), 
who succeeded Lord Kitchener, and Sir R. Win- 
gate (1916-19), Egypt was put on a war foot- 
ing. By 1915 some 40,000 British troops had ar- 
rived in the country. The problems of the govern- 
ment increased in difficulty in the face of strong 
pro-German and pro-Turkish agitation and newly 
roused nationalistic aspirations. The growth of 
a powerful British bureaucracy which seemed to 
eliminate all hope of real native participation 
in the government, and the failure of the Legis- 
lative Assembly to convene, were particularly 
responsible for increasing the impatience of the 
educated Egyptian. Other equally serious 
grounds of complaint against British rule were 
the cruel treatment of native soldiers, the censor- 
ship of opinion, the suppression of native news- 
papers of the free movement suspected of na- 
tionalistie sympathies, and of political discus- 
sion in the state schools; and finally, the heavy 
requisitions of animals and produce imposed on 
the fellahin during the War. The democratic 
hopes held out by the Allies induced a section 
of the more moderate Nationalists to hope for 
a favorable hearing at the British Foreign 
Office, and two of their leaders, Zaghlul Pasha 
and Adli Pasha Yeghen, repeatedly made efforts 
to present their case. The refusal of the Brit- 
ish to entertain these appeals and the subse- 
quent deportation of Zaghlul Pasha on Mar. 
9, 1919, to Malta, at the order of the puppet 
Sultan, Ahmed Fuad (1917- ), poured oil 
on the flames with the result that the ensuing 
disturbances took on serious proportions. Par- 
ticipation was universal, the fellahin, much to 
the surprise of the British, joining with the 
educated classes in the disorders, and the Copts 
taking sides with the Mussulmans. Riots broke 
out at Cairo and Tanta in March, 1919, and 
British soldiers, firing into the mobs, killed 
many. Railway lines were torn up, and Cairo 
was isolated as a result of the cutting of tele- 
graph wires; Alexandria was the scene of popu- 
lar disturbances; a British detachment was be- 
sieged by fellahin in Assuit; the Arabs were 
breaking in from the west. Lord Allenby, ap- 
pointed as special high commissioner in March, 
1919, vainly attempted pacification but was met 
by a strike of officials at Cairo, again with a 
result of bloodshed. Zaghlul Pasha, now a pop- 
ular hero, was permitted to return from Malta, 
but the political strike continued, and trans- 
portation was broken off. In April, 1919, 
Rushdi Pasha was invited to form a govern- 
ment once more, but after two weeks his min- 
istry, unable to handle the situation, resigned. 
Meanwhile Zaghlul had repaired to Paris to 
place his country’s case before the Peace Con- 
ference. But he was never given a hearing, for 
President Wilson, on behalf of the United 
States, had recognized the British Protectorate 
within a short time of his arrival. In Decem- 
ber, 1919, a British mission, headed by Lord 
Milner, finally arrived in Egypt, only to be boy- 
cotted universally Disorder prevailed, and the 
heads of El-Azhar university threw the weight 
of their influence on the Nationalist side.  Af- 
ter four months the mission returned to’ Eng- 
land to take up its discussion with Zaghlul and 
the other members of the Egyptian delegation 
at Paris. The result of these meetings was the 


EGYPT 


so-called Milner-Zaghlul Agreement. Its most 
important points were the recognition of Egypt 
by Great Britain as a constitutional monarchy 
with representative institutions, and a guarantee 
to Great Britain of special rights made neces- 
sary by her interests in Egypt, including the 
right to defend Egyptian territory, to maintain 
a military force on Egyptian soil, to name a 
British financial adviser to supervise the debt 
service and a judicial adviser in the Ministry 
of Justice Others provided for the calling of 
a constituent assembly, the creation of a legisla- 
ture with ministerial responsibility, religious 
toleration, and protection of the rights of for- 
eigners. The problem of the Sudan remained 
unsolved. The agreement was unfavorably re- 
ceived by the Egyptian Nationalists, who took 
umbrage at the provisions made for the finan- 
cial and judicial advisers, the maintenancg of 
a British military force, and the failure he 
mission to specify directly that the protectorate 
was ended. The Milner report was submitted 
to the British Parliament on Feb. 18, 1921. 
Meanwhile a new Egyptian ministry, headed by 
Adli Pasha, proceeded to the selection of a 
delegation to treat with Great Britain concern- 
ing a new understanding. Zaghlul Pasha re- 
fused to serve on this delegation except on the 
acceptance of certain preliminary conditions, the 
abolition of martial law, the independence of 
Egypt as the basis of the negotiations, and the 
appointment of the majority of the delegates by 
the Egyptian people. These conditions were re- 
fused, and Zaghlul took a hostile attitude toward 
the new government; in this he was supported 
by most of the Nationalists, who sought the 
calling of the Legislative Assembly for the pur- 
pose of carrying on the negotiations. Riots 
again took place in Cairo and Alexandria in 
May, 1921, with the result that the British sup- 
pressed Nationalist newspapers and arrested agi- 
tators. In Alexandria, in particular, the casual- 
ties were heavy; Greeks, among the foreign 
population, suffered severely. The Egyptian 
delegation, headed by Adli Pasha, remained in 
London from August to November, 1921, but 
the discussions ended in no tangible results, 
partly because of the Egyptian refusal to tol- 
erate a British military force and partly because 
Winston Churchill, who had succeeded Lord 
Milner as Secretary of the Colonies, was less 
willing to recognize the necessity for self govern- 
ment. The winter of 1921 saw a renewal of 
disorders. The arrest and removal of Zaghlul 
Pasha and 56 followers, first to Suez and then to 
the Seychelles Islands, whence Zaghlul was 
later transferred to Gibraltar before his release 
on Mar. 30, 1923, was followed by street 
fighting and another political strike on the 
part of government officials, together with 
the adoption of a policy of passive resist- 
ance, on Jan. 23, 1922 The seeming impasse 
and the visit of Lord Allenby to England to coun- 
sel the termination of the protectorate forced the 
hand of the British government, with the re- 
sult that in February, 1922, Lloyd George made 
a unilateral declaration incorporating the termi- 
nation of the protectorate, the abolition of mar- 
tial law, security for the communications of 
the British Empire in Egypt, defense of Egypt 
against foreign aggression, protection of foreign 
interests and of minorities in Egypt, and guar- 
antees of British interest in the Sudan. On 
Feb. 28, 1922, the protectorate was officially 
terminated; on March 16 the Sultan Ahmed 


EGYPT 


Fuad was officially proclaimed king as Fuad I. 
On March 14 the English House of Commons ap- 
proved the government’s Egyptian policy by a 
vote of 202 to 70. Under Rushdi Pasha a com- 
mission set to work to formulate a constitution. 
The new constitution promulgated in May, 1923, 
after many stormy preliminary sittings of the 
commission, contained the following provisions: 
Egypt is declared a sovereign, free, independent 
state with an hereditary, monarchical, and con- 
stitutional government; Islam is established as 
the national religion and Arabic as the official 
language; compulsory free education for both 
sexes is assured; legislative power is vested in 
the King in consultation with the Senate and the 
Legislative Assembly; the King may declare war 
and make peace through a cabinet; parliamen- 
tary assent is needed for the declaration of offen- 
sive war, and all treaties of peace and alliance 
aré:‘ineffective without parliamentary ratifica- 
tion; the ministry is responsible to the Parlia- 
ment; two-fifths of the senators are renominated 
by the King, and the remainder are elected; 
the assembly is elected by universal manhood 
suffrage; the rights of the Egyptian Debt Com- 
mission and the Capitulations are not to be 
affected by legislation. Representation of racial 
minorities, greater freedom for women, the pre- 
dominant position claimed by England in re- 
gard to Egyptian foreign relations and 
the military protection of the Suez Canal, all 
points of sharp contention, were not included in 
the constitution, nor was the question of the 
Sudan settled. The Zaghlulists continued in op- 
position because of the failure of the constitu- 
tion to incorporate a bill of rights. The un- 
settled internal affairs led to frequent changes 
of ministries. Sarivat Pasha resigned on Noy. 
30, 1922, after holding office since March l. 
Tewfik Nessim Pasha, his successor, was com- 
pelled to resign on Feb. 5, 1923, because of his 
willingness to relinquish the Egyptian claim 
to the Sudan. After a month of political bar- 
gaining a new ministry was formed by Yehia 
Ibrahim Pasha on March 15. The turbulence 
in polities indicated with what dissatisfaction 
Egyptians still looked on the settlement. Fem- 
inism and a rampant nationalism which would 
accept nothing but complete independence were 
the order of the day, and rioting and outrages 
were only too frequent. The Egyptian govern- 
ment patterned an ineffectual attempt at re- 
taliation after the methods of the British admin- 
istration and instituted a rigorous censorship 
on May 31. The return of Zaghlul and the re- 
newed activities of his executive committee made 
the campaign preceding the preliminary elec- 
tions of September 27 bitter. Zaghlul’s_ pro- 
gramme called only for Egyptian independence, 
and the wholehearted support which his party 
received showed how thoroughly the country, 
especially the rural districts, subscribed to the 
sentiment. As a result of the balloting conduct- 
ed in September, November, and January, 1924, 
the Nationalist party was returned with an 
extraordinary majority, 176 seats out of a total 
of 214. On January 17 Yehia Pasha resigned; 
and on January 28, Zaghlul, the outcast and 
political exile, saw his work crowned with suc- 
cess by the offer of the Premiership. He at 
once accepted, and in the first days of February 
he was installed in office amid great rejoicings. 
One of his first acts was to interrupt Howard 
Carter’s excavations at the tomb of Tutankh- 
amen (q.v.) and to put the work under the con- 


406 


EINSTEIN 


trol of the Egyptian Department of Antiquities. 
In July, 1924, it was reported that Mr. Carter 
had been: invited to resume his work in 1925. 
See ARCH ZOLOGY. 

EIGHT-HOUR DAY. See Hours or LAzor. 

EIGHT-HOUR LAW. See Lasor ArsiTrRA- 
TION. 

EINHORN, Max (1862- ). An Ameri- 
ean physician and pioneer in gastroenterology, 
born in Grodno, Russia. After graduation from 
the gymnasium at Riga he received the degree of 
M.D. from the University of Berlin in 1884, 
migrating shortly afterwards to the United 
States. Having established himself as a gastro- 
enterologist in New York, he was made profes- 
sor of medicine in the New York Postgraduate 
School and Hospital and a visiting physician to 
the German Hospital. In connection with his 
special work in gastroenterology, he has devised 
many new forms of apparatus either for diag- 
nostic or therapeutic work, which are known by 
his name. One of the most recent and _ best 
known of these is the Einhorn duodenal bucket. 
In addition to being an assiduous contributor 
to periodical literature, he has written several 
standard textbooks, as follows: Diseases of the 
Stomach (1896); Diseases of the Intestines 
(1900); Practical Problems of Diet and Nutri- 


tion (1905); Lectures on Diatetics (1914); 
The Duodenal Tube (1920). 
EINSTEIN, Atserr (1879- ). A great 


German-Swiss physicist and author of the spe- 
cial and general theories of Relativity (see 
RELATIVITY), born at Ulm, Wiirttemberg. LEin- 
stein spent his youth in Munich, where his 
father controlled electro-technical works. He 
studied at the University of Zurich and sup- 
ported himself by teaching at the Technische 
Hochschule. Einstein’s next few years were 
years of painful struggle and gradual advance- 
ment. Tutor at Schaffhausen from 1900-01, he 
returned to Zurich for a year, and then became 
examiner of patents at the federal patent office 
in Berne. It was while earning his living as 
a government employee that EHinstein published 
his special theory of relativity as a solution 
for the paradoxes of the Michelson-Morley ex- 
periment (1905). This theory embraced at the 
time only the interrelationships of space and 
time measurements, and it was while working 
out the problems and implications set by this 
theory that Einstein was led in the next 10 
years to generalize his conception so as to in- 
clude gravitational phenomena, and subsequently 
electromagnetism as well. In the meantime, 
having become a Swiss citizen, Einstein was 
called in 1909 to teach at the University of 
Zurich, and in 1911, to the University of Prague. 
The next year, however, he returned to the 
Technische Hochschule in Zurich with the title 
of full professor. By this time Einstein’s repu- 
tation had spread throughout the scientific 
world, and in 1913 he was invited to lecture 
before the Prussian Academy of Science. The 
next year he received a research professorship 
without restrictions from the Kaiser Wilhelm 
Institut fiir Physik and the University of 
Berlin. 

The outbreak of the War found Einstein 
formulating specifically the general theory of 
relativity and indicating certain empirical tests. 
A revision of the complicated mathematical cal- 
culations enabled the theory in 1919 to account 
for the displacement of the perihelion of Mer- 
cury within 1 second of actual observations, 


A 


EINSTEIN 


where the theory of Newton had left a dis- 
crepancy of 42 seconds. ‘The eclipse of the sun 
in May, 1919, as observed in Brazil also con- 
firmed the deflection of the sun’s rays in the 
neighborhood of the solar mass as predicted by 
the theory. Einstein now leaped into world 
fame over night, and was saluted as the great- 
est physicist since Newton. He visited Eng- 
land, the United States, Italy, and France, and 
in each country received great ovations and 
honors. On his return to Germany, Einstein 
busied himself with the problems of the quantum 
theory of radiation, upon which he had published 
papers dating back to 1907. The phenomena 
covered by this theory concern the behavior of 
sub-atomie masses and fall at present outside 
the range of the relativity principle which pro- 
vides continuous and invariant equations for 
systems of large masses. Quanta form there- 
fore the next objective of the Relativity theory, 
but it has seemed to many scientists doubtful 
whether the Einsteinian principle could be ex- 
tended to such phenomena without considerable 
modification. In his extra-scientifie life, Ein- 
stein was a fairly typical European intellectual. 
In politics, he was a liberal with socialistic 
sympathies. During the period of political effer- 
vescence in Germany, he suffered from persecu- 
tion at the hands of reactionary and anti- 
Semitic partisans, and threats against his life 
were reported. While he was in the United 
States, he took a public interest in the activities 
of Jewish Zionists. 

Einstein’s published works include, in addi- 
tion to numerous papers contributed to learned 
_ periodicals, the following books: The WSpecial 
and General Theory of Relativity (Eng. trans., 
1920); Sidelights on Relativity (Eng. trans., 
1922) ;, The Meaning of Relativity (containing 
the Princeton lectures delivered 1921); The 
Principle of Relativity (a collection of essays by 
Einstein and others, 1923); Untersuchungen 
diber die Theorie der “Brownschen Bewegung” 
(1922). See Puysics, Relativity. 

EINSTEIN, Lewis (1877- ). An Ameri- 
ean diplomat and author, born in New York, 
and educated at Columbia University. His first 
diplomatic post was as third secretary at the 
American Embassy in Paris (1903-05), and 
since that time he has been at the embassies of: 
London (1905-06); Constantinople (1906 and 
1908); Peking, China (1909); Costa Rica 
(1911-13), as envoy extraordinary and minister 
plenipotentiary; Constantinople (1915), as spe- 
cial agent of the State Department; Bulgaria 
(1915-16), as American diplomatic representa- 
tive in charge of British interests; and Czecho- 
Slovakia (1921-— ), as envoy extraordinary 
and minister plenipotentiary. His works in- 
clude: Luigi Pulci and the Morgante Maggiore 
(1902); The Relation of Literature to History 
(1903); American Foreign Policy by a Diplo- 
matist (1909); Inside Constantinople (1917) 3 
Prophecy of the War; Tudor Ideals (1921). 

EISELEN, Freperick CARL (1872- ‘i 
An American university professor, born at Mun- 
delsheim, Germany, and educated at the gym- 
nasium in Landsberg, Germany, at New York 
University, Drew ‘Theological Seminary, the 
University of Pennsylvania, Columbia Univer- 
sity and the University of Berlin. In 1902, he 
was appointed professor of Semitic languages 
at the Garett Biblical Institute, becoming dean 
in 1919. In 1918, he was made professor of 
Biblical literature in Northwestern University. 


407 


ELECTRIC FURNACES 


He is the author of: Sidon—A_ study in 
Oriental History (1907); A Commentary on the 
Minor Prophets (1907); Prophecy and the Pro- 
phets (1909); The Worker and his. Bible 
(1909); The Christian View of the Old Testa- 
ment (1912); Books of the Pentateuch (1916) ; 
The Psalms and Other Sacred Writings (1918) ; 
er Prophetic Books of the Old Testament 
( 1922.) 

EISELSBERG, FREIHERR ANTON, BARON 
von (1860- ). An Austrian surgeon known 
especially as a teacher of surgery, born at 
Steinhaus. He received his medical degree from 
the University of Vienna. In 1893, he was ap- 
pointed professor of surgery in the University 
of Utrecht, Holland, and in 1896 resigned to ac- 
cept the corresponding chair at Kdénigsberg. 
In 1901, he was made professor of surgery in 
the University of Vienna. He has written com- 
paratively little, his only considerable work he- 
ing his Krankheiten der Schilddriise (1901). 
In 1918, appeared his Festschrift, which marked 
the 25th year of professorial activity; this com- 
prised Vol. ex of the Archives fiir klinische 
Chirurgie, of which he is co-editor, and is made 
up wholly of papers by numerous prominent 
surgeons who were formerly his pupils. 

EISNER, Kurt (1867-1919). A German 
Socialist and publicist, born in Berlin. He be- 
came a journalist, and was many times im- 
prisoned on account of the extreme radical 
character of his writings. From 1898 to 1905, 
he was a member of the editorial staff of Vor- 
waerts in Berlin; he was subsequently on So- 
cialist papers in Niirnberg and Munich. Dur- 
ing the War he turned against his party because 
it supported the War, and in 1918 was charged 
with treason at Munich for inciting munitions 
workers to strike, but he was released. On 
November 7 of the same year, he held a mass 
meeting in Munich which led to the overthrow 
of the Bavarian monarchy and the creation of 
a revolutionary government with Eisner as presi- 
dent. His policy was extreme. He supported 
the Workmen’s and Soldiers’ Councils, and was 
opposed to the centralizing policy of the Berlin 
government. He finally agreed, however, to the 
reéstablishment of the federal system and the 
election of a National Constituent Assembly. 
But in the meantime, a Bavarian Assembly had 
been elected. This fortified the fears of the re- 
actionaries, who already hated Eisner  suffi- 
ciently. As he was going to open the Assembly 
on Feb. 21, 1919, he was assassinated by Count 
Arno, and Munich was plunged for a time into 
a state of Bolshevism. See Bavaria. 

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 
TRUCKS. See Moror VEHICLES. 

ELECTRIC BOILERS. See BOoILERs. 

ELECTRIC CRANES. See Etxctric Mo- 
TORS IN INDUSTRY. 

ELECTRIC DRIVE. See SHIPBUILDING. 

ELECTRIC FURNACES. The application 
of electric furnaces was becoming more general 
and the construction of the furnaces stand- 
ardized in 1924. Three classes may be recog- 
nized, resistance, arc, and induction. The re- 
sistance furnace employs a nichrome or calorite 
conductor like that used in household heating 
devices, maintained at a high temperature by 
suitable current, usually alternating current. 
A furnace which will hold 1500 pounds of brass 
employs 300 kilowatts. Temperatures up _ to 
1800°F. may be obtained. Are furnaces also 
use alternating currents as a rule, because of 


AND 


ELECTRIC GENERATORS 


the preference for a transformer for the supply 
to a motor-generator set. A notable example 
of an are furnace is that of the United States 
Naval Ordnance plant which holds 40 tons of 
steel and takes 3300 kilowatts normally in 
the form of three-phase currents at 110 volts. 
Its maximum current is 21,200 amperes per 
phase. The transformers are supplied with 
6600 volts, three-phase. The induction fur- 
nace was the last developed. It is made in 
small sizes for scientific work and _ then 
usually works at very high frequencies. In 
the larger sizes, for metals such as copper or 
brass, it works at frequencies as low as 8.5 
cycles. In this type of furnace the molten 
metal itself forms the secondary of a trans- 
former, and the voltage is induced in it by an 
iron core running through the centre of a 
circular pot. They are manufactured for as 
high a rating as 300 kilowatts at 2200 volts on 
the primary. The repulsion induction furnace 
is a special form in which the secondary is so 
placed with respect to the primary that the 
leakage flux keeps the molten metal flowing by 
the eddy currents induced in it. 


ELECTRIC GENERATORS. See STEAM 
ENGINES AND TURBINES. 
ELECTRICITY, Tueorres or. See CHEM- 


ISTRY. 

ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER. See 
MUNICIPAL OWNERSHIP. 

ELECTRIC LIGHTING. Striking achieve- 
ments in the field of electric lighting in the 
period 1914-24 were: the great improvement 
in the efficiency of the incandescent lamp and 
the increase in the intensity of illumination 
used in general practice. In these 10 years 
the old favorites, the carbon lamp and the 
metallized filament lamp, had practically dis- 
appeared from the market, and the tungsten 
filament lamp reigned supreme among incandes- 
cent lamps and also superseded the are lamp 
in new installations except for display effects. 
In 1919 the manufacture of the metallized fila- 
ment lamp was abandoned, and in 1923 only 
7 per cent of the lamps made were of the carbon 
filament type, the remainder were . tungsten 
lamps. These lamps, known to the trade as 
Mazda, are made in two styles. In one, the 
Mazda B lamp gives 8 to 12 lumens per watt, 
in the C type the bulb is filled with an inert gas 
such as nitrogen, or, more recently, argon. The 
B lamp is about three times as efficient as the 
old carbon lamp, and the C lamp about four 
times as efficient. The C lamp was at first made 
only in the largest sizes; later it was made in 
all but the smallest standard sizes. 

On account of the changes in the shape of the 
filament and in the distribution of the direc- 
tion of the light from these newer lamps, it is 
no longer possible to compare lamps by the 
candle power, which is an intensity in a definite 
direction. Therefore the illuminating engineer 
has adopted a definite quantity of light as the 
standard of comparison and has called it the 
lumen. A lumen is most easily understood as 
the amount of light that would fall on a sheet 
of paper one foot square placed so that all 
parts of it were just one foot distant from a 
eandle of one candle-power. Thus lamps are 
now sold on the basis of the light they give in 
all directions instead of in only one direction, 
as formerly. A point source of light of one 
candle-power gives 12.56 lumens. The average 
Mazda B lamp gives 8 to 12 lumens per watt, 


408 


ELECTRIC LIGHTING 


and the Mazda C from 12 to 18 lumens per 
watt. The old carbon lamp gave about 3.4 lu- 
mens per watt. Statistics show the growth of the 
use of incandescent lamps and the improvement 
in their efliciency: 

1913 1923 


Total lamps sold in 
year 
Aggregate wattage . 
Aggregate lumens .. 
Average lumen per 
MESS Ess cee 6.3 


105,000,000 225,000,000 
4,700,000,000 12,400,000,000 
29,500,000,000 150,750,000,000 


12.1 


The effect of this improvement on the pocket- 
book of the consumer is demonstrated by the 
total expenditure for electric lighting in the 
United States in 1923; this was $600,000,000: 
for the new high efficiency lamp. If lamps of 
the low efficiency type common 15 years ago had 
been used the bill would have been three times 
as much. The improvement of the incandescent 
lamp in the last 15 years means a saving of 
$1,200,000,000 per year. New York City alone 
pays a bill of $700,000 annually for current for 
lighting its 2800 miles of streets. 

Scientific measurements of the prevailing in- 
tensities of artificial illumination and of the 
most desirable intensities has shown that a very 
great increase is desirable, profitable, and, in 
some cases, necessary to the preservation of the 
eye-sight of the nation. Thus in school rooms 
an illumination of three foot-candles used to be 
considered good, but now eight foot-candles is 
recommended. Investigations in the industries 
have shown that by multiplying prevailing in- 
tensities three times, the production of a factory 
may be increased 20 per cent. There is also a 
very close relation between industrial accidents 
and quantity of illumination, and it is accepted 
that an increase in intensity in dangerous loca- 
tions very definitely decreases the chances of 
accidents to industrial workers. 

The Illuminating Engineering Society devel 
oped a Code of Standard Practice in Illumination 
which has had a beneficial effect in improving 
methods, and several States have adopted codes 
for the regulation of the illumination of fac- 
tories, streets, schools, etc. By an agreement 
between manufacturers of lamps and electric 
lighting companies, the number of special volt- 
ages for incandescent lamps was reduced to three 
standards, 110, 115, and 120. All standard 
lamps are made for these voltages. A great 
deal of scientific work was done on the design 
of fixtures for incandescent lamps, and the 
name of lumenaire was officially given to such 
devices. The main requirements are to direct 
the light uniformly in a desired way (down- 
ward) and to eliminate glare. Enclosed lumen- 
aires are now the usual practice, and some sort 
of reflecting surface above or inside the lumen- 
aire is used to throw the light downward where 
it is usually desired and most needed. In the 
scientific study of illumination new. measuring 
devices have been developed, and various forms 
of illuminometers are in use. By these, the il- 
lumination at any place may be read as easily 
as the page of a book. 

While the tungsten filament lamp is much 
richer in blue and green than the older types of 
lamps, it still falls far short of daylight in 
its color content. The gas-filled or C type is 
better than the vacuum lamp on account of the 
higher temperature of its filament. To over- 
come the defect in color a special lamp is man- 


= 7 _ 


to mine hoists. 


ELECTRIC MOTORS 409 


ufactured in which the bulb is tinted a bluish- 
green, which absorbs the excess of red and yel- 
low of the filament and thus gives a reduced 
amount of light with a better distribution of 
tolors. This is known as the daylight lamp. 
By means of outside screens a real reproduction 
of daylight may he obtained with this lamp. 
This is found useful in matching colored cloths, 
and physicians employ it in examinations of 
inflamed internal membranes, as in the nose and 
throat. 

To facilitate the making of moving pictures at 
night with better color effect than ‘that given 
by the mercury lamp, a very large size of tung- 
sten incandescent lamp has been developed 
which takes 30,000 watts, 1000 times as much 
as the usual lamp in the home; it gives a pro- 
portionate quantity of light. The high intensity 
gas-filled lamp has been adapted, by giving the 
filament a special shape which approximates a 
point source, to use in stereopticons and moving 
picture machines for projection purposes. It 
is rapidly superseding the are lamp on account 
of the reduced fire hazard. Consult Croft, 
Practical Electrical Illumination and Standard 
Lighting (New York). 

ELECTRIC MOTORS IN INDUSTRY. 
The steel mills of the United States were 
gradually superseding their steam and gas en- 
gines by electric motors in the decade 1914-24. 
At the end of that time, 5,000,000 horse power 
of electric motors were in use in American steel 
mills, in sizes up to 8000 horse power. The 
most striking application was that of driving 
enormous rolling mills by direct connected elec- 
trie motors. This had become standard prac- 
tice. The majority of motors are of the three 
phase induction type, which includes the largest 
motors; but some direct current motors of 4000 
horse power are in use. These motors start, 
stop, and reverse the rolls by electric control 
and are noted for their quick responses to the 
control. In some special cases, where a variable 
speed is required, the Scherbius system of speed 
control is used. In this a large induction motor 
is used to drive the load, and its secondary elec- 
tric circuits are connected to a polyphase al- 
ternating current commutator motor, which in 
turn drives an induction generator connected to 
the same electric mains as the principal motor. 
By electrical control of the commutator motor, it 
is made to take more power from the secondary 
of the load motor, which therefore decreases in 
speed. This power is returned to the line by 
the induction generator. By adjusting the 
power taken by the commutator motor, the 
speed of the main induction motor may be con- 
trolled through a wide range without wasting 
the energy as would be done with rheostats. 

Mining. The mining industry showed a 
notable trend toward the substitution of elec- 
trical machinery for steam engines and the use 
of purchased power instead of isolated plants. 
In the year 1923 electrically operated mine 
hoists aggregating 40,000 horse power were in- 
stalled. Eighty per cent of these were for al- 
ternating currents. “he sizes of motors ranged 
from 100 horse power to 2000 horse power. 
In 1924 the mining industry ranked second in 
the United States in the aggregate capacity of 
electric motors in use, with its 2,890,000 horse 
power and third in the consumption of electrical 
energy from central stations. 

Mine Hoists. The most usual application is 
All new hoists are electrically 


ELECTRIC MOTORS 


driven, and many old steam driven hoists are 
being changed over to electric. Installations 
are of three kinds: 

(a) Direct drive of the hoist by a large three- 
phase induction motor taking power from the 
supply lines. This is the simplest and cheapest 
arrangement but puts a variable load on the 
electrical system. An example is that of the 
Tennessee Coal and Iron Company at Muscoda, 
Ala., in which an 1800 h.p., 2200 volt three- 
phase motor superseded a steam engine in 
hoisting a load of 27,000 pounds up a slope 
of 5000 feet at a speed of 2700 feet per min- 
ute. For lowering, the motor is reversed elec- 
trically. 

(b) A direct control motor is used to drive 
the hoist, and this is supplied from an alternat- 
ing current-direct current motor generator set 
operating on the Ward-Leonard system, by 
which the control of the speed is most conven- 
iently and economically accomplished. The.set 
has a three-phase synchronous motor, which by 
its good power factor assists in the voltage reg- 
ulation of the distribution system. For exam- 
ple, the Vandalia Coal Company of Indiana has 
a number of such sets in which an 800 h.p., 
500 volt direct current motor drives the hoist 
through gearing, and this motor receives its 
power from a motor-generator set having a 
synchronous motor operating from the alter- 
nating current supply lines and driving a suit- 
able direct current generator. By changing the 
field current of this generator the speed of the 
hoist motor is regulated. 

(c) The Ilgner-Ward-Leonard System, in 
which the motor generator set contains an in- 
duction motor, a fly-wheel, and a direct current 
generator. A speed controller so regulates the 
set as to cause it to take a fairly uniform 
amount of power from the supply lines while 
delivering a very variable power to the hoist 
motor. An example is the Cleveland Cliffs 
Mining Company of Michigan. The duty is to 
raise 12,000 pounds of iron ore per trip, up a 
lift of 2700 feet at a speed of 1800 feet per min- 
ute. One 900 h.p. direct current motor drives 
the hoist and is supplied by a motor-generator 
set having a 30-ton fly wheel. The hoist motor 
takes, at most, 1700 h.p. from the set, a large 
part of which is supplied by the fly wheel, so 
that the peak demand on the supply lines is 
only 960 h.p. 

The very general application of electric mo- 
tors to hoists, cranes, loaders, etc., has resulted 
in important changes in the design and a great 
development in the machinery and its applica- 
tion. These devices have been built in much 
larger sizes than previously. One example of 
the magnitude which such apparatus has reached 
is the Baltimore and Ohio coal loader at Curtis 
Bay, Md., near Baltimore. This loader will un- 
load 8000 tons of coal per hour from coal cars 
and deliver it to the hold of a ship at a some- 
what slower rate. The coal is conveyed along 
the pier by eight parallel belts driven by elec- 
tric motors, all controlled by one operator on 
the bridge of the pier. The coal is transferred 
automatically to transverse belts which drop 
it into the vessel alongside the pier. To fill the 
spaces between the hatches in the hold of the 
vessel a trimmer is used. This trimmer throws 
the coal a distance of 50 feet, if necessary, and 
each trimmer handles 100 tons per hour. By 
this means a vessel has been loaded with 9500 
tons in 9.5 hours; this task would have required 


ELECTRIC POWER STATIONS 410 


200 men for 25 hours if hand trimming had 
been used, 

Electric Cranes. Electric cranes were being 
built in 1924 in very large sizes as well as small 
and were equipped with alternating current 
motors or direct current motors specially adap- 
ted for the purpose. An electric crane of un- 
usual magnitude has been built for service in a 
shipyard. It has a maximum height of 230 
feet, a length of boom of 300 feet and a hoist of 
170 feet. It is capable of lifting loads of 350 
tons. Several motors aggregating 300 h.p. are 
used for the various movements, all controlled 
from a central point. 

Electric Shovels. Electric shovels were re- 
placing the familiar steam shovels and were 
built in larger sizes than the steam shovels. 
A large size shovel is rated at 300 tons, has a 
bucket capacity of 8 cubic yards, and can be 
filled and emptied in 45 seconds. One man 
controls all the operations by means of two 
controllers, one for each hand, and foot pedals. 
It contains four direct current motors for work- 
ing, aggregating from 500 to 600 h.p. These 
direct current motors are supplied by a motor 
generator set in the cab consisting of a three- 
phase alternating current synchronous motor 
for 4000 volts driving a 250 volt direct current 
generator of suitable capacity. 

Electric Drills. The enormous activity in 
the oil industry made it worth while to develop 
a standard electric-driven drill in which it is 
possible to use a three-phase alternating current 
motor of from 50 to 100 h.p. to drive the drill 
by means of gearing and chain drive. The mo- 
tor can take power from a cheaply installed 
transmission line tapping a main transmission 
system. 

Brush Shifting Motor. A new adjustable- 
speed polyphase motor was brought out, known 
as the brush shifting motor, in which the speed 
may be nicely controlled within a wide range 
by shifting the brushes. Its most general ap- 
plication was for blowers in power plants. 

Clock Motor. An interesting development 
was the clock motor, a small synchronous mo- 
tor for actuating clocks. It is connected with 
the alternating current mains of a central sta- 
tion in a customer’s house, and as the frequency 
of the system is kept constant the clock runs at 
constant speed and repeats the time of a master 
clock in the power house. Averaged over 24 
hours it will keep excellent time, but it may 
run a second to the minute fast or slow for 
short periods. 

Position Indicator. The position indicator 
is a similar device, a repeater which has had an 
important application on shipboard. It consists 
of one master and several repeater synchronous 
motors whose fields are supplied with single- 
phase alternating current and whose three-phase 
stators are connected in multiple and located at 
distant points. At whatever point in its an- 
gular position the master is set the several re- 
peaters will show accurately, and if the circuit 
is broken and reéstablished the repeaters will 
adjust themselves correctly. Consult Annett, 
Electrical Machinery (New York) and the books 
referred to under Erectric Powrr STATIONS 
AND GENERATING APPARATUS. 

ELECTRIC POWEK STATIONS AND 
GENERATING APPARATUS. The business 
of the electric central. stations increased in the 
interval between 1914 and 1924 at a rate almost 
equivalent to a doubling every five years, so that 


ELECTRIC POWER STATIONS 


these stations in 1924 supplied 57 per cent of the 
energy used in all the industries of the United 
States and had a capitalization of $5,000,000,- 
000. This is indicated by the following statis- 
tics of central stations: 


1913 
7,000,000 


1923 
Capacity in kilowatts .. 22,000,000 
Output, millions of kw. 

DTS le eee Ys coir y yh oe itine 16,800 52,000 
Peis eh Se $337,000,000 $1,200,000,000 


The principal users of the output of the cen- 
tral stations were: 


1923 iy Ve Millions 

of kw. hrs. 
Iron and steel industry ..... 4,956,000 8,115 
Nigbobaaker! boxe bbichaenid meld) ALI te 2,890,000 A113 
Chemical \jndustry }\.\ 25 24)\.e «2 2,197,000 6,074 


This growth in the use of electric power ex- 
erted an important economic influence by in- 
creasing the production and decreasing the cost 
of manufacture as a result of the increased sub- 
stitution of mechanical power for manual labor. 
Census figures show that in all the industries of 
the United States the gross production per year 
amounted to $3400 per employee with the use of 
3.5 h.p. of mechanical power per employee, 


while in Great Britain the production was $1200 


and the power 1.6 h.p. per employee. All other 
countries fell below Great Britain. With the 
increasing cost of coal it was found more 
economical to generate the electric energy in 
large central stations where the coal can be 
used most efficiently and where codperation 
makes the load more steady, or, in technical 
phraseology, where the load factor is better. 
The same cause has resulted in a very notable 
increase in the number and size of the hydro- 
electric stations. These are generally operated 
in a system containing steam stations, and the 
load is allocated by a load dispatcher so that 
the most economical stations (hydro) operate 
all the time, and the less economical only carry 
the peak loads. 

Generators. The most striking development 
in electric generating apparatus was the steady 
growth in number and size of steam turbo- 
generator sets and the practical extinction of 
the slow speed engine-driven sets. In 1914 a 
unit of 30,000 kilo-volt-amperes (40,000 h.p.) 
was considered noteworthy; in 1923. several 
units of 62,500 kva. (84,000 h.p.) were construc- 
ted. With the increase in capacity there has 
also been a steady increase in the steam pressure 
and temperatures used in the turbines. Thus 
from 215 pounds gauge and 150°F. superheat, 
practice has advanced to 600 pounds and 725° 
maximum temperature, making it possible to 
obtain one kilowatt-hour at the bus bars for 
17,000 in the full B.t.u., giving an overall 
efficiency about 20 per. cent. 

Many improvements were made in the design 
of the electric generator itself so that this great 
increase in power capacity is obtained with only 
a small increase in the dimensions and weights. 
Modern generators weigh much less per kilowatt 
than those of 1914. This was made possible by 
pushing the peripheral speed up to about 25,- 
000 feet per minute, by the use of mica insula- 
tion on the armature and asbestos on the fields, 
and by improving the ventilation. 
of 98 per cent and higher are common in these 
generators. A notable change in practice was 


Efficiencies - 


J 


STEAM TURBINES 
2? ET 


THE 70,000 KVA THREE-ELEMENT TURBINE GENERATOR IN THE COLFAX STATION OF THE 
DUQUESNE LIGHT COMPANY 


PHOTOGRAPHS FROM WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC AND MANUFACTURING COMPANY 


RADIAL FLOW SURFACE CONDENSER USED WITH STEAM TURBINE IN HUDSON AVENUE 
STATION OF BROOKLYN EDISON COMPANY 


ELECTRIC MACHINERY 


F 


Installation of Seven-Radiator Type of Oil-insulated Self-cooled Transformer at Outdoor Substation of 
the Duquesne Light Company at Brunot’s Island 


PHOTOGRAPHS FROM THE WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC AND MANUFACTURING COMPANY 


Rotor for 62,500 Ky-a Generator (the largest built up to 1924) installed in the Hudson Avenue Station of the 
: Brooklyn Edison Company 


ELECTRIC POWER STATIONS 4II 


the rapidly increasing use of closed circuit ven- 
tilation. The air for cooling purposes, after 
passing through the generator and carrying off 
the heat, is sent through a radiator like that 
used on an automobile, except that the water 
cools the air, or the air is passed through a 
spray of water to which it gives up its heat, 
and then is returned in closed ducts to the gen- 
erator to be used over again. The advantage of 
this is that no dust nor dirt is carried into the 
generator to clog its air ducts. 

The development of a successful voltage regu- 
lator had a marked effect on the design of large 
alternating current generators; freed from the 
requirement of good inherent regulation in the 
machine, the designer has freer hand in his 
design and can economize in material. There 
was a steady trend toward 60 cycles as the 
standard frequency. It is now possible to ob- 
tain synchronous motors and converters of 
large sizes which will operate entirely satisfac- 
torily at this frequency, so that the principal 
reason for choosing 25 cycles has disappeared. 

As a result of the increase in the size of the 
generating units and particularly the increase 
in length, the type of set using a vertical shaft 
went out of favor and the horizontal shaft came 
into universal use. The improvements in the 
efficiency of these generating sets was so rapid 
that it was the rule to scrap a perfectly good 
set after a few years’ use and buy a new and 
larger one, because the new one would require 
so much less coal in a year that the saving in 
cost of coal would more than pay the interest on 
the cost of the new set. Some of these large 
sets use $1,000,000 in coal each year, so that a 
saving of 10 per cent is substantial. This is 
what is meant by obsolescence. 

A feature of the development of steam tur- 
bines was the two cylinder machine in which 
the turbine is divided into two parts, one for 
high pressure steam and the other for low 
pressure steam. Each part has its own genera- 
tor, connected in parallel electrically, but inde- 


pendent physically. The same steam passes - 


first through the high pressure turbine and then 
through the low pressure part to the condenser. 
This design is particularly desirable with the 
reaction type of turbine which has a tendency 
to be long and clumsy in dimensions. 

In the design of power stations a change to 
be noted was- the smaller number and larger 
capacity of the units as a result of the greater 
reliability of the newer machines and also of 
economic conditions. Central stations cultiva- 
ted off-peak load customers, such as those that 
use power many hours per day, and therefore 
improve the load factor of their stations; that 
is, they raised their average all-day load to ap- 
proach more nearly their maximum peak load. 
On account of the very good efficiency of large 
size units, as compared to smaller sizes, and a 
new business policy on the part of the central 
stations resulting in more reasonable rates, the 
isolated plant is becoming more and more rare. 
Almost all recent new buildings and industries 
obtain their electrical energy from a_ public 
service company instead of installing an inde- 
pendent generating plant. The growth of hydro- 
electric stations was very great because of the 
high cost of coal. Many a station of this type 
which some years earlier faced. bankruptey 
showed a good profit in 1924, and many new 
stations were built, although the  cost:.of..con- 
struction was almost double the 1914 figure. 


ELECTRIC POWER STATIONS 


The size of generating units used increased 
rapidly. In 1916 the largest water-wheel gen- 
erators in service were of 18,000 kw.; 1921, 232,- 
000 kw., 1922, 45,000 kw., and 1924, 65,000 kw. 
The operating speeds were increased each year 
so that a 60,000 kw. machine of 1924 was not 
much larger than an 18,000 kw. machine of 
eight years previous. 

Circuit Breakers. With the growth in the 
size of units and the increase in station capac- 
ities it was necessary to develop new, larger, 
and more powerful circuit breakers or switches 
to open up the circuits in case of trouble or 
short-circuits. The type breaking the circuit 
under oil became universal in alternating cur- 
rent systems, and these were developed and con- 
structed to cut off successfully short-circuits 
taking thousands of amperes at thousands of 


volts. Some circuit breakers installed were 
capable of interrupting 1,500,000  kilo-volt- 
amperes, and the manufacturers stated their 


willingness to construct breakers capable of in- 
terrupting 3,000,000 kva. (4,000,000 h.p.) 

Control and Protection of Circuits. In 
1914 the practice of protecting generators by in- 
serting reactors or inductance coils in series 
with them to limit the current which would flow 
on short-circuit was new and not general. In 
1924 every large station had several of these de- 
vices designed to limit the current to a certain 
definite maximum value. Some stations con- 
nected these in the generator leads as well as in 
the feeders; the latter was the more usual con- 
nection. The control and protection of large 
distributing systems was furthered by the de- 
velopment of relays accomplishing innumerable 
purposes indicated by their names, overload re- 
lay, low voltage relay, reverse current relay, 
time relay, etc. These were ingenious elec- 
tromagnetic devices designed to open large cir- 
cuit-breakers when any one of these various 
phenomena occurred. One of the notable de- 
velopments in electrical engineering is the in- 
crease in number and kinds of relays and their 
applications. A new type of switching equip- 
ment came into general use, the truck type safe- 
ty switch. This is an oil switch mounted on a 
rolling truck and so arranged that when the 
switch is open, the switch and its truck may be 
rolled out into an open passageway, so that it 
is left entirely disconnected from all potential 
and is safe and convenient for inspection and 
repair. The phase balancer is a machine which 
was developed and installed in some large power 
systems. It is a special form of synchronous 
motor connected to the lines of a polyphase sys- 
tem; its function is to maintain a balanced load 
on the different phases of the generators even 
if the load on the system is very unevenly dis- 
tributed between phases. This results in better 
voltage regulation and better generator effi- 
ciency. 

As a matter of good economic policy it was 
found desirable to interconnect ail neighboring 
power systems, so that in case of an overload 
or an accident in one system, energy might be 
supplied by another. In the case of systems of 
the same frequency this is done by transformers, 
but with two systems of different frequencies, 
eg. 60 and 25, a frequency converter must be 
used. This may consist of two machines of like 
power on the same shaft, one having 10 poles 
for 25 eyeles and the other 24 poles for 60 cy- 
cles, but this is an expensive arrangement... A 
new set was developed in 1923 consisting of a 


ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION 412 ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION 


37,000 kva. induction motor with 14 poles for 
the 60-cycle system and a 25,000 kva. 25-cycle 
synchronous motor with 10 poles. The induc- 
tion motor takes power at 60 cycles and tends 
to run at 514 revolutions per minute but is 
held to 300 revolutions by the other machine. 
Thus the secondary of the induction motor gen- 
erates power at 25 cycles, slip frequency, which 
may be turned into the 25-cycle system along 
with the power developed by the synchronous 
machine’ In case the demand is in the opposite 
direction the frequency of that system becomes 
slightly less than 60 cycles, and the induction 
motor becomes an induction generator and de- 
livers power at the frequency of the system, 
while the 25-cycle machine operates as a normal 
synchronous motor. 

Bibliography. Among the more _ notable 
works on electric power stations and generating 
apparatus published between 1914 and 1924 were 
Croft, Central Stations (New York, 1920); 
Fernald and Orrok, Engineering of Power Plants 
(New York, 1920); Gebhardt, Steam Power 
Plant Engineering (New York, 1912); Langs- 


ing in 1924 was the movement for the construc- 
tion of a super-power transmission system, a 
forward-looking scheme for the combination of 
all producers and users of mechanical power 
in a given geographical district of the United 
States into one large electrical network. The 
advantages sought are reliability, secured by 
the ability of the various power houses to help 
each other out in case of accident to one; 
greater economy, through the use of most effi- 
cient stations all the time and the less efficient 
only when actually needed; better load factor, 
from less variable demand made by a greater 
number and variety of users in the system; 
shutting down of wasteful stations; reduction 
in the cost of fuel by concentrating the load at 
those places where fuel can be obtained most 
conveniently, and utilization of water power 
wherever practical. The plan contemplated 
several districts at first and a final interconnec- 
tion of these districts as they spread toward 
each other. California was the heart of the 
first district where it went into actual opera- 
tion. Here the plan was well under way in 


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LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF MODERN STEAM TURBINE AND ELECTRIO GENERATOR 


dorf, Principles of Direct Current Machines 
(New York, 1916); Lawrence, Principles of Al- 
ternating Current Machinery (New York, 1916) ; 
Morecroft, Continuous Current Circuits and Ma- 
chines (New York, 1923); Morecroft, Alterna- 
ting Current Circuits and Machines (New York, 
1924); Rushmore and _ Lof, MHydro-Electric 
Power Stations (New York, 1918); Weingreen, 
Electric Power Plant Engineering (New York, 
1922). 

Consult also the following journals for spe- 
cial articles in this field: Transactions of the 
American Institute of Electrical Engineers 
(New York); Electrical Journal (Pittsburgh, 
Pa.); Hlectrical World (New York); General 
Electric Review (Schenectady). 

ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION 
AND DISTRIBUTION. The most striking 
subject of discussion in transmission engineer- 


1924, for on account of the scarcity of coal, the 
generation of power was in the hands of a few 
corporations which could codperate readily. 
Another interesting district was that of the 
North Atlantic States. Here it was proposed to 
install a 250,000-volt transmission line from 
Boston to Washington through New York, 
Philadelphia and Baltimore, with possible 
branches to the coal fields of Pennsylvania. It 
was proposed that all the large generating 
plants in this district should connect up to the 
system and supply power, and that all the small 
plants of individual factories be shut down, 
since they could save money by buying from 
the large system. In his report to the Secretary 
of the Interior, W. 8S. Murray estimated that 
10,000,000 h.p. was used in the industries in 
this district, and 7,000,000 h.p. used by the 
railroads; that the load factor of this power 


ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION 413 


was about 15 per cent and that by combination 
this load factor could be raised to 50 per cent 
or 60 per cent. This meant that the 17,000,000 
h.p. in use could be replaced by 6,000,000 h.p. 
properly located and controlled, and that 30,- 
000,000 tons of coal could be saved each year 
and the railroads relieved of the congestion 
caused by the useless and uneconomic transpor- 
tation of this coal. The same authority es- 
timated that it would cost about $1,250,000,000 
capital to accomplish the change and that the 
resultant saving would be $300,000,000 per year, 
or 24 per cent on the investment. This was for 
only one geographic district. The difficulty was 
to get so many different interests together and 
assure to each its share of the saving or gain. 


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Elevation of a high tension 
line tower with strings of in- 
sulators, ring shields, and con- 
ductors. 


Transmission Lines. The most important 
accomplishment of the period in transmission 
engineering was the adoption of 220,000 volts as 
a working potential for transmission lines and 
the practical operation of two such lines. Pre- 
viously 165,000 was the highest potential used 
in regular practice. The two lines installed 
were both in California. The Southern Cal- 
ifornia Edison Company had a line 240 miles 
long installed and planned in 1924 to extend it. 
Incidental to the use of 220,000 volts as a work- 
ing potential, the manufacturing companies 
built transformers for 1,000,000 volts for lab- 
oratory purposes to test out the apparatus to 
be used in the 22,000 volt lines. Transformers 
in sizes up to 16,000 kva., built for commercial 
purposes, were arranged with 130,000 volt high- 
tension windings for a Y connection on 220,000 
volts with the neutral grounded. The line -it- 
self used large steel towers, eight to the mile, 
carrying the three conductors in a horizontal 


ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION 


plane, hanging from strings of suspension in- 
sulators. Each string of insulators was pro- 
tected by a static shield consisting of a metal 
ring surrounding and concentric with the in- 
sulators. This ring was connected to the con- 
ductor and reduced the potential strain on the 
insulators by giving the electrostatic field a 
more uniform distribution. Authorities dis- 
agreed as to whether an overhead ground wire 
or lightning arresters were of any benefit on 
lines of this high potential. In the Southern 
California line the conductors were 0.95 inch in 
diameter, were stranded aluminium cable with 
a steel core, and were spaced 210 inches apart. 
Experimental research indicated that with con- 
ductors of about 1 inch in diameter the loss 
from corona would not be important. The 
duplicate lines of 6 conductors were carried on 
2 lines of steel towers so that the minimum 
clearance above ground was 30 feet. The in- 
sulators were of the disc suspension type, 13 in 
each string, and shielded with rings. 

The outdoor type of switching station became 
usual rather than exceptional. With the in- 
crease in the potential used the space required 
for the switches, circuit breakers, and lightning 
arresters became so great that it was expensive 
to put them in a building, and they could all 
be made water-proof. Oil-cooled transformers 
and water-cooled oil-insulated transformers con- 
tinued to lead the air-cooled in number of ap- 
plications and were improved by the addition 
of a device known as the oil conservator, a 
reservoir attached to the oil tank and above it 
so that the transformer tank proper was al- 
ways full and completely sealed from the at- 
mosphere. This reduced oxidation of the oil, 
moisture in the oil and the danger of explosive 
gases. The increase in length of transmission 
lines raised a serious problem in the regulation 
of the voltage and the power factor of the sys- 
tem. This was met by the use of synchronous 
condensers with relays controlling the field ex- 
citation to hold the voltage and power factor at 
predetermined values. In a 220,000 volt line it 
was proposed to place such a device in circuit 
every 100 miles. Single units of this character 
of 30,000 kva. were placed in service. The use 
of the static condenser for alternating current 
distribution circuits grew considerably. These 
were oil-insulated static condensers connected 
to the end of a distribution system to improve 
the power factor and voltage regulation of the 
system. They operated at about 2200 volts, and 
if the voltage of the system were much less than 
this, auto-transformers were used to step up 
the voltage. 

The oxide film lightning arrester was brought 
into quite general use. It consists of a num- 
ber of units in series, depending on the voltage 


of the system, each unit constructed of two con- 


ducting plates separated by a short space filled 
with oxide of lead in the form of a powder, 
paste or pellets. Ordinarily this material is 
non-conducting, but an excess potential breaks 
through and allows a discharge current. This 
current heats the material in the small area 
through which it flows, and this heat changes 
the character of the material at that particular 
point into an insulator, thereby healing up the 
punctured spot. These are used for voltages up 
to 135,000. 

The transmission of energy by underground 
cables, as in large cities, was improved by the 
use of improved insulating materials, resulting 


ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 


in the successful operation of cables at much 
higher potentials. In 1914 the highest voltage 
was 13,000, but in 1924 three conductor cables 
for 33,000 volts had been installed and single 
conductor cables for 44,000 and 66,000 volts 
were in use. See ELectTRIc SUBSTATIONS. 

Bibliography. Consult Baum, Atlas of the 
United States of America Power Industry (New 
York); Meyer, Underground Transmission and 
Distribution (New York); Peek, Dielectric 
Phenomena in High Voltage Engineering (New 
York) ; Reyneau and Seelye, Economics of Elec- 
trical Distribution (New York). 

ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. In 1914 the 
New York Central; the New York, New Haven, 
and Hartford; the Northern, the Butte, Anacon- 
da and Pacific, and the New York terminal of 
the Pennsylvania Railroad were the outstanding 
accomplishments In the succeeding 10 years 
were added to this list the Norfolk and Western, 
1915; Pennsylvania Railroad (Philadelphia), 
1915; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, 1916; 
Bethlehem (Chili), 1918; Paulista (Brazil), 
1920, and the Vera Cruz-Mexico City, under con- 
struction in 1924. These were equipped by 
American manufacturers, and so were the Paris- 
Orléans in France and the Spanish Northern. 
Numerous roads of lesser importance were also 
equipped with electric locomotives. The ma- 
jority of these installations were fitted with 
the high voltage (2400 or 3000) direct current 
system; the Norfolk: and Western and _ the 
Pennsylvania used the alternating current 
system. 

The Norfolk and Western is typical of the 
alternating current roads. This covers the di- 
vision from Bluefield, W. Va., to East Vivian; 
the service consists of hauling coal trains of 
3250 tons up a 1.25 per cent grade at a speed of 
14 miles per hour, requiring 3200 h.p. at the 
locomotive. Twelve electric locomotives of 264 
tons replaced 33 steam locomotives of the Mal- 
let type. The electric locomotives take current 
at 11,000 volts, 25 cycles, single-phase, from 
an overhead trolley. This is converted to three- 
phase currents by a phase converter on the lo- 
comotive and supplied as such, at a suitable 
voltage, to the three-phase induction motors 
which drive the locomotive. The merit of the 
combination was that the three-phase motors 
are more efficient than single-phase motors; they 
are constant speed motors which will regenerate 
power on down-grades automatically at a def- 
inite speed and thus act as brakes; finally, by 
means of this converter a single overhead trol- 
ley may be used to supply three-phase motors. 
The St. Paul Railway put into operation a sec- 
tion of 440 miles in Montana in 1917 and a 
second section of 220 miles in Washington in 
1920. The first includes the heavy mountain 
grades of 2 per cent 
an;overhead trolley operating at 3000 volts di- 
rect current, from which the electric locomotives 
of 290 tons take current. These locomotives 
are capable of hauling trains of 2500 tons up 
the grades at 16 miles per hour, giving 3000 
h.p. continuously, and each locomotive makes 
the entire run of 440 miles without change or 
lay-off. The train crews are changed in the 
middle of the run. The locomotives also use 
regenerative electric braking when descending 
grades; that is, the electric motors act as gen 
erators, hold the train at a desired speed, and 
return the energy of the descending train to 
the line to be used elsewhere This railroad 


414 


Both are equipped with: 


ELECTRIC SHIP PROPULSION 


takes its electric energy from existing public 
utility companies, which in turn derive it main- 
ly from water power. In Norway and Sweden 
the single-phase system was considerably ex- 
tended, and in Italy the three-phase system was 
further developed and extended. 

Among .urban street railways the rapid and 
general adoption of the light weight or one-man 
safety car was the outstanding feature. This 
is a very light car of moderate passenger capac- 
ity, usually having two motors of 20 h.p. The — 
car doors are arranged to open and close auto- 
matically, interlocking with the control of the 
motors so that the car cannot be started until 
all. doors are safely closed. With this pre-.| 
caution it is safe for one man to act both as 
motorman and conductor; this reduces the cost 
of labor, and the light weight reduces the power 
required. | 

The development of the automatic substation 
was an achievement of the period, and the in- 
crease in its use was phenomenal. It was em- 
ployed in many applications and industries, but 
its most general and important field was the 
electric railway. This is a substation for the 
conversion of the high-voltage alternating-cur- 
rent power of the transmission line to the low- 
voltage direct-current power of the trolley or 
third rail. The station contains transformers, 
converters, and switches, operated by relays so 
that the machinery is started up just when it 
is needed and shut down when the demand has 
ceased, without the intervention of any human 
labor. The relay controls all the operations. 
An inspection of a few minutes each day is all 
the human attention the station requires. See 
ELECTRIC SUBSTATIONS. 

Some interesting tests were made at Erie, Pa., 
in the fall of 1923 to determine the maximum 
current which can be collected from an overhead 
trolley and the limit to the power of a locomo- 
tive on such a system. Currents of 4000 to 
5000 amperes were collected at speeds of 50 to 
60 miles per hour from two No. 000 wires by one 
pantograph trolley pressing upward at a pres- 
sure of 35 to 40 pounds. With 3000 volts on 
the trolley this is equivalent to about 20,000 
h.p. per locomotive. 

Consult Morison, Railroad Electrification 
(New York); Richey, in Transactions of the 
American Institute of Electrical Engineers (New 
York) ; General Electric Review (Schenectady) ; 
Electric Railway Handbook, (New York). See 
RAPID TRANSIT. 

ELECTRIC SHIP PROPULSION. The 
art of propelling ships by electric motors had 
practically its entire development since 1913, 
when the first vessel so equipped, the American 
collier Jupiter, was put into commission. She 
had two 3000 h.p. three-phase induction motors 
on twin propeller shafts deriving their power 
from one steam turbo-generator of 5450 kilo- 
watts At the time of the Naval Disarmament 
Conference, the United States had built and 
under construction 20 electrically propelled ves- 
sels, mostly of the largest size, 30,000 tons each. 
Many of these were discontinued, but the U.S.S. 
New Mexico, Tennessee, California, Maryland, 
Colorado, and West Virginia were completed. 
These battleships were in commission in 1924. 
Each of them had four propeller shafts and four 
motors aggregating 32,000 h.p. Under construc- 
tion were some airplane carriers having 180,000 
h.p, of electric: motors per ship. The battleships 


ali use changeable pole induction motors capable 


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ELECTRIC SHOVELS 415 


of operating at two different speeds, usually 16 
and 21 knots. As an example, the Maryland 
had two electric generators of 13,000 kilowatts 
each, driven by steam turbines at 2000 revolu- 
tions per minute. Her four propeller shafts 
were each driven by an induction motor rated 
at 7000 h.p. at 175 r.p.m. with 24 poles for 
21 knots speed, and 1700 h.p. at 118 r.p.m with 
36 poles for 16 knots. One of the important 
advantages of electric propulsion for such ves- 
sels is the ability to reverse any propeller with 
full power at a second’s notice. Steam turbines 
alone cannot be reversed so quickly or with so 
much power. The ability to operate convenient- 
ly and efficiently at two different speeds is an- 
other point in its favor, and the light weight 
and good efficiency obtained by the use of the 
high speed turbines is a third. Over 45 ships, 
ageregating 550,000 h.p., had been equipped for 
electric drive up to 1924. 

A development particularly adapted to freight 
vessels was the use of Diesel engines driving 
electric generators which in turn drive the mo- 
tors on the propeller shafts. The Diesel engine 
is difficult to start, to reverse and to build in 
large sizes. With the electric system any num- 
ber of units may be used, connected into an 
electric system, and the engines may run con- 
tinuously in-the same direction, the stopping 
and reversing being done at the motors. 

ELECTRIC SHOVELS. See ELectric Mo- 
TORS IN INDUSTRY. 

ELECTRIC SUBSTATIONS. The develop- 
ment of apparatus for substations kept pace 
with other advances. Synchronous converters 
were built, of larger capacity and for higher 
speeds, and the weight per kilowatt decreased. 
The improvement in 60-cycle converters was 
notable; by 1924 there could hardly be any 
prejudice against them. The substation for 
converters or motor-generator sets was revolu- 
tionized; it was made independent of all labor 
for attendance. By the development of ingen- 
ious relays, these automatic substations start 
up when needed; the machines are brought up 
to speed, synchronized with the supply system, 
and connected to the load circuit. This idea 
was first put into effect in 1916, and in 1924 
hundreds of such stations were in operation, in 
sizes up to 4000 kilowatts and for voltages up 
to 3000 on the direct current side. This idea 
was first introduced in the electric railway sys- 
tems (see ELEcTRIC RAILWAYS) and was so 
successful that it was adopted for industries, 
mines, and even small isolated water power 
plants forming part of a system. Thus it is 
possible to place a water power station in some 
out-of-the-way place where hydraulic develop- 
ment is cheap, have it feed current into a sys- 
tem when power is desired, and yet have it re- 
quire no attendants in the station An inspec- 
tor visits these stations regularly and tests 
them out; that is all the attention required. 
A water power station of this character for 
7500 kilowatts capacity was installed near Lit- 
tle :Falls,-N, Y. 

ELECTRIC THEORY. See CHEMISTRY. 

ELECTRIC WELDING. The uses of elec- 
trie welding became so important during the 
War that the United States government fostered 
a special organization to study and develop the 
art. Under this stimulation research was car- 
ried on, new methods devised, and new applica- 
tions found. A large part of the repair work 
on the German steamers interned in 1914 and 


ELIOT 


taken over by the United States in 1917 was 
done by electric welding. Ships were built in 
which welding was substituted for riveting. 
Electric generators were devised which so reg- 
ulated the current as to give a uniform char- 
acter of weld. While most of the welding was 
done with direct current, alternating current 
could also be used. 


ELECTROMETALLURGY. See ELeEcrrio 
FURNACES. f 

ELECTRON, ELECTRONIC THEORY. 
See Puysics. 

ELEMENTS. See CHEMISTRY; PuysICcs. 


ELEVATED RAILWAYS. See 
TRANSIT. 

ELIOT, Str CHARLES EDGECUMBE (1864- }. 
An English diplomat and Orientalist (see VOL. 
VII). He was British High Commissioner in 
Siberia in 1918, and in 1919 was» appointed 
British Ambassador to Japan. He _ published 
Hinduism and Buddhism (1921). 

ELIOT, CHARLES WILLIAM (1834- yi 
An American educator (see Vout. VII). He fa- 
vored the League of Nations and was a strong 
supporter of President Wilson and his admin- 
istration. In his writings and lectures he has 
stressed in particular his condemnation of the 
standardization of education and industry. He 
was presented with a medal for distinguished 
service by the National Council of Civie Reform 
in 1923. He published The Road Toward Peace 
(1915), and A Late Harvest (1924). 

ELIOT, SAMvUEL ATKINS, JR. (1893- SE 
An American author born in Denver, Colo., and 
educated at Harvard University. He studied 
the German and English theatres and went on 
the stage with Miss Horniman’s Repertory Com- 
pany in England. In 1914-15, he was play 
reader and stage manager for Winthrop Ames 
in New York. In the latter year he joined the 
Washington Square Players; in 1916-17, direct- 
ed the Indianapolis Little Theatre and in 1917- 
18, the Cincinnati Art Theatre.. He wrote books 
on the theatre and made many translations from 
Wedekind. His works include Little Theatre 
Classics (3 vols., 1918-21), Hrdgeist (1914), 
Pandora’s Bow (1914), and Tragedies of Sex 
(1923). The three last are translations. 

ELIOT, THomMAs STEARNS (1888- ye @tAn 
American poet and critic, born at St. Louis 
He studied at Harvard, the Sorbonne and Ox- 
ford. From 1913 on he made his home in Lon- 
don. He first attracted attention with his 
Poems (1920), a thin sheaf of 63 pages contain- 
ing some of the best pieces of the decade. He 
was preéminently an ironist and his mocking, 
possibly only clever, poems stirred and an- 
tagonized the modern literary world. The 
Waste ‘Land (1922), a poem of little more than 
100 lines, was at first bitterly contested: 
by some it was put down as an important 
achievement, by others as a plain hoax. But 
the former opinion seemed the more nearly cor- 
rect, for in spite of its obscurities, pedantries, 
and often perverse symbols, the Waste Land 


RAPID 


with its feel. of the essential aridity of the 


modern life and its fine poetical passages, was 
a memorable work. Mr. Eliot’s critical studies 
were considered by some even more noteworthy 
than his poetry. His Sacred Wood (1920) 
shows the first English attempt, since Matthew 
Arnold, to formulate a thoroughgoing esthetic 
creed applicable to literature and life. In 1922 
he became the editor of the Criterion, a finely 
balanced periodical devoted to the arts. 


ELISAVETPOL 416 


ELISAVETPOL. See AZERBAIJAN. 

ELIZABETH. A manufacturing and resi- 
dential city of New Jersey. The population 
rose from 73,409 in 1910 to 95,783 in 1920, and 
to 103,947, by estimate of the Bureau of the 
Census, for 1923. An ordinance was adopted 
in 1922 zoning the city into three residential, 
three business, and three industrial districts. 
A city planning commission was engaged in de- 
véloping in 1924 a comprehensive plan for fu- 
ture growth. The city had 238 manufacturing 
establishments, six banks, and two savings banks 
in 1924, 

ELIZALDE, Rarart Hector (1873- )s 
A South American diplomat, born at Guayaquil, 
Ecuador, and educated at the National College 
of San Vicente del Guayas and the University 
of Guayas. Before being appointed envoy ex- 
traordinary and minister plenipotentiary to the 
United States and Cuba in 1916, he served his 
country at various South American embassies, 
assisting in the settlement of the boundary line 
between Ecuador and Colombia. He is the au- 
thor of Labores Diplomdticas (1912), Organiza- 
cién de Partidos Politicos (1913), and Riqueza 
Obliga (1914). 

ELLIOTT, EDWARD (1874- 7) HAN 
American lawyer, professor and banker, born at 
Murfreesboro, Tenn, and educated at the univer- 
sities of Princeton, Berlin and Heidelberg. 
From 1898 to 1915 he was successively instruc- 
tor in Latin and jurisprudence, preceptor in 
the department of history, politics and econom- 
ics, and professor of politics at Princeton Uni- 
versity. He was also dean of the college from 
1909 to 1912. In 1913, he went to the Univer- 
sity of California as lecturer on international 
law, and from 1916 to 1920 was professor there. 
From 1917 to 1920, he was director of the Fed- 
eral Reserve Bank of San Francisco, and in 1921 
became vice-president of the Security Trust and 
Savings Bank of Los Angeles. He is the author 
of the following works: Die Staatslehre John 
C. Calhouns (1903); The Biographical Story of 
the Constitution (1910); Selected Documents in 
International Law (1914); American Govern- 
ment and Majority Rule (1915); State Bank 
Membership in the Federal Reserve System 


(1919). He also contributed articles to -pe- 
riodicals. 

ELLIOTT, Howarp (1860- ). An Ameri- 
can railway official (see Vor. VII). In 1913, 


he was appointed president of the New York, 
New Haven and Hartford Railroad Company, 
serving until 1917, when he resigned and was 
appointed chairman of the Commission on In- 
tercorporate Relations for that road. In 1918, 
he was appointed president of the Northern Pa- 
cifie Railway, serving until 1920, when’ he was 
appointed chairman of the board of directors. 
During the War, he was a member of the spe- 
cial committee on national defense of the Amer- 
ican Railway Association. He was a member 
of the executive committee of the Louisiana 
Purchase Exposition and was a member of the 
American Railway Association and other asso- 
ciations and societies. 

ELLIS, Henry MHavetock (1859- ): 
An English psychologist and author (see VoL. 
VIT). Among his later works are: The World 
of Dreams (1911); The Task of Social Hygiene 
(1912); Impressions and Comments (1914. 
Second series, 1920); Hssays in. War-time 
(1916); The Philosophy of Conflict and Other 
Essays (1919); Little Essays of Love and Vir- 


EMMET 


tue (1922); Kanga Creek, an Australian Idyll 
(1922); The Dance of Life (1923). 

ELLIS, WILLIAM THOMAS’ (1873- ). 
An American journalist and author (see Vou. 
VII). In 1917, he spent six months in Russia 
and in the year following was correspondent on 
the Persian, Caucasus, Rumanian and French 
fronts He was special correspondent of the 
New York Herald and associated newspapers in 
the Balkans (1919) and represented the Chicago 
Daily News and associated newspapers at the 
Conference on Limitation of Armament at 
Washington, D. C. (1921-22). 

ELLWOOD, CHartes ABRAM (1873- VK 
An American sociologist (see Vout. VII). He 
published The Social Problem (1915, 1919), An 
Introduction into Social Psychology (1917), 
and The Reconstruction of Religion: A Sociolog- 
acal View (1922). 

ELMIRA COLLEGE. An institution for 
women at Elmira, N. Y., founded in 1855. It 
practically doubled in size during the decade 
1914-24. The student enrollment increased 
from 234 to 500, the teaching staff from 22 to 
43, and the library from 11,000 to 20,000 vol- 
umes. The endowment grew from $134,572 to 
$776,644 and the annual income from $76,635 
to $265,650. Ten new buildings were erected, 
including one large and several smaller dormi- 
tories, a large dining commons, a faculty house, 
and a dean’s house. The campus was enlarged, 
and a library building, the first unit of which 
was to cost $150,000, was in course of construc- 
tion in 1924. Frederick Lent, Ph.D., D.D., 
LL.D., succeeded A. Cameron MacKenzie, D.D., 
LL.D., as president. 

EMBRYOLOGY. See Zod Loey. 

EMERGENCY FLEET CORPORATION. 
See SHIPBUILDING; SHIPPING. 

EMERSON, Joun (1874- ). An Ameri- 
ican playwright and producer born at Sandusky, 
Ohio, and educated in Chicago and New York. 
He acted and produced plays for Daniel Froh- 
man, William Harris, the Shuberts, Clyde Fitch 
and others until 1910. He wrote and played in 
The Conspiracy (1912) and Step Lively (1913). 
He wrote and produced motion pictures for 
D. W. Griffith, Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pick- 
ford, Constance Talmadge and others until 
1922, and later formed the Emerson-Loos Com- 
pany, writers and producers of motion pictures. 

EMERTON, EpuHraim~ (1851- ye0An 
American historian (see Vor. VII). He became 
president of the Cambridge Historical Society 
in 1921. Since 1914 he has published Begin- 
nings of Modern Europe (1917), The Defensor 
Pacts of Marsiglio of Padua (1920), and 
Learning and Living, essays (1921). 

EMERY, Henry Crospy (1872-1924). An 
American economist (see Vou. VII). In 1916, 
he went to Russia to make a study of the com- 
mercial, industrial and financial conditions there 
for the Guaranty Trust Company of New York 
City, and was returning in March, 1918, when 
he was taken prisoner in the Aland Islands by 
the Germans. On Oct. 22, 1918, he was re- 
leased, and arrived in the United States on 
November 10. In 1921, he was made manager 
of the Peking, China, branch of the Asia Bank- 
ing Corporation with headquarters in New York. 
While on the way to San Francisco from Shang: 
hai, on board the steamship President Lincoln, 
he died of pneumonia, Feb. 6, 1924. 

EMMET, WititiAm LERoy  (1859- i} 
An American electrical engineer and inventor, 


a —— 


EMMONS 


born at New Rochelle, N. Y. He graduated 
from the United States Naval Academy in 1881, 
left the navy in 1883, but rejoined it during 
the Spanish-American War. He was with the 
General Electric Company from 1892. He made 
important inventions in steam turbines, re- 
ceived the Edison medal in 1919, and the Elliott 
Cresson medal in 1920. He was a member of 
the Naval Consulting Board in 1915, and chair- 
man of the committee on submarines. He wrote 
Alternating Current Wiring and Distribution 
(1894), and contributed articles to the technical 
magazines on electrical and mechanical subjects. 

EMMONS, WitirAm Harvey (1876- ys 
An American geologist, born at Mexico, Mo. 
He was graduated at Central College in 1897, 
and received his Ph.D. at the University of 
Chicago in 1904, After serving as an aid in 
the United States Geological Survey during 
1904-06, he returned to the University of Chi- 
cago, where he remained until 1912, having 
been advanced to the associate professorship of 
economic geology in 1909. After that time he 
was professor of geology and head of the de- 
partment at Minnesota, and director of the 
Minnesota State Geological Survey. His prin- 
cipal investigations have been concerning a 
genetic classification of minerals, the ore de- 
posits of various mining districts in Nevada, 
Montana, Colorado, Maine, and New Hamp- 
shire. He has published important reports in 
the United States Geological Survey series, on 
regionally metamorphosed ore deposits and the 
segregated veins, as well as petroleum geology. 
He served on the United States Geological Sur- 
vey as assistant geologist during 1906-10 and as 
geologist, 1910-15, and was, besides, an associate 
editor of Hconomic Geology. 


EMPLOYERS’ LIABILITY. See Work- 
MEN’S COMPENSATION. 
EMPLOYMENT BUREAUS. See Lapor 


LEGISLATION. e 

ENDOCRINOLOGY. See Sercrerions, In- 
TERNAL. 

ENELOW, HymMAn Gerson _ (1876- ip 
A Russo-American rabbi born in Russia, and 
educated at the universities of Chicago and 
Cincinnati, and the Hebrew Union College, Cin- 
cinnati He became rabbi of Temple Emanu-El, 
New York, in 1912. During the War he served 
overseas as commander and general field sec- 
retary of the Jewish Welfare Board (1918-19). 
Among his works may be mentioned: Aspects 
of the Bible (1911); The Jewish Life (1915); 
The Synagogue in Modern Life (1916); The 
Faith of Israel (1917); The War and the Bible 
(1918); The Adequacy of Judaism (1920); The 
Jew and the World (1921). 


ENEMY ALIENS. See UNITED STATES, 


History. 
ENGEL, CAruL (1883- ). An American 
musicologist and composer, born in Paris. 


While studying philosophy and literature at the 
University of Strasbourg, he also pursued the 
course in music with Professor Jacobsthal. In 
Munich, he studied composition with L. Thuille 
and musicology with Professor Sandberger. He 
came to the United States in 1905, where he 
soon became known as an ardent advocate and 
exponent of futurism, contributing to American 
and English periodicals. From 1909 to 1922 
he was editor and musical adviser for the Bos- 
ton Music Company. In 1922, he succeeded 
O. G. Sonneck as chief of the Music Division of 
the Library of Congress. His compositions, all 


417 


ENGLAND 
ultra-modern, consist of smaller pieces for 
piano, piano and violin, and songs. He is the 


author of Alla Breve: 
(1921). 

ENGEL, EpuArp (1875- ). A German 
writer born at Stolp in Pomerania. He stud- 
ied Sanskrit and medieval languages at the Uni- 
versity of Berlin, but later devoted himself to 
modern literature, especially German. He ed- 
ited a selection of Byrons Tagebiicher (1904), 
and wrote on the Shakspeare-Bacon problem, 
Shakspeare-Ratsel (1904). His later works 
are: Geschichte der deutschen  Literatun 
(1906) ; Geschichte der deutschen Literatur des 
19. Jahrhunderts und der Gegenwart (1908) ; 
Goethe, der Mensch und das Werk (1911); 
Deutsche Stilkunst (1911); Deutsche Meister- 
prosa (1912); Hin Tagebuch: 1914-19 (1920); 
Die Weisheit Goethes (1920). He later edited 
a popular history of German literature and a 
popular edition of Goethe’s works. 

ENGELHARDT, Emit (1887- YHA 
German clergyman and writer who was born in 
Nundorf. Most of his works are concerned with 
the cultural position and future of Germany, 
among them being: Die Zukunft des Auslands- 
deutschtums (1916); Auf deutschen Vorposten 
(1916); Fichtes Hrziehungsgedanken und die 
deutsche Volkshochschule (1918); Tat und 
Freiheit, ein Fichtebuch (1918); J. G. Fichte, 
ein deutscher Mensch und Denker (1919); Fich- 
tes Briefe an Braut und Gattin (1920); Hr- 
léser Liebe (1920); Minne und Liebe (1920) ; 
Rabindranath Tagore (1921). 

ENGERT, T. Joseru (1882- ). A Ger- 
man professor of philosophy and _ pedagogy. 
Since his début with Der naturalistische Monis- 
mus Haeckels (1907), he has written a number 
of works dealing with religious problems and 
with the War, among them, Vom Sinn des 
deutschen Krieges 1916). 

ENGINE, Stream. See SteAM ENGINES AND 
TURBINES. 

ENGINEERING 
DAMS. 

ENGINEERS, Mititary. See ARMIES AND 
ARMY ORGANIZATION. 

ENGINES, Marine. See SHIPBUILDING. 

ENGLAND. See GREAT BRITAIN, 

ENGLAND, Cuurcu or. This denomina- 
tion is represented in the United States by the 
Protestant Episcopal Church. It is the estab- 
lished church of England, and the King of Eng- 
land is the supreme governor, with the right 
to fill vacant archbishoprics and_ bishoprics. 
For administrative purposes the country is di- 
vided into two provinces, the Convocation of 
York and the Convocation of Canterbury, each 
under the control of an archbishop. In 1914 
Parliament provided for the disestablishment of 
the church in Wales, which was delayed on ac- 
count of the War until Mar. 31, 1920. Under 
the Church Enabling Act of 1919 a National 
Assembly of the Church was established, to de- 
liberate on all church matters except its spirit- 
ual doctrines and the duties of the ministry. 
The act carried with it the power to establish 
three houses composed of bishops, clergy, and 
laity, to which members were elected in 1920. 
The membership of the church fell from 2,359,- 
599 in 1915 to 2,220,194 in 1923, and the num- 
ber of pupils in the Sunday schools from 2,541,- 
000 to 2,233,111. The income from voluntary 
offerings in 1914 was between £7,000,000 and 
£8,000,000, as compared with an income in 


From Bach to Debussy 


FOUNDATION. See 


v 


ENGLAND 


1923 of £6,862,948. The number of clergymen 
remained about the same. A controversy arose 
in the church during the period, over the action 
of two African missionary bishops in joining 
and taking communion with nonconformist mis- 
sionaries at Kikuyu in 1914. Accusations of 
heresy were made, but the missionaries were 
upheld by the report in the following year of 
the Central Consultative Body of the Church, 
to which the matter was referred. 

ENGLAND, GeEorGE ALLAN (1877- ». 
An American author born at Fort McPherson, 
Neb. He was graduated from Harvard in 1902, 
and a year later published Underneath the 
Bough (1903). Other works of his include: 
The Story of the Appeal (1914); The Air Trust 
(1915); The Great Crime (1917); Their Son 
(1919); The Flying Legion (1920). 

ENGLISH HISTORY. See GREAT BRITAIN. 

ENGLISH LITERATURE. See _ LITERA- 
TURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN. 

ENNEKING, Joun JosepH (1840-1916). 
An American landscape painter. He was born 
in Munster, Ohio, and studied in Munich and 
chiefly with Bonnat and Daubigny in Paris. In 
1876 he settled in Boston, where he was closely 
associated with George Fuller and George Inness. 
Especially after 1882 his art became increas- 
ingly subjective. He had a facility in catching 
and reproducing atmospherie conditions in 
his canvases. This facility is illustrated in 
his treatment of November twilights and forest 
scenes. Ralph Davol said of him, “Enneking 
was a modern romanticist combining qualities 
ot the impressionist, luminist and_ tonalist. 
He divided tones into their primary elements 
and obtained color vibrations by laying on fresh 
paint in gentle juicy pounces with a narrow 
brush, carefully tucking in the edges of his 
strokes to preserve a delicate, volatile play of 
light.” He is represented in the Museums of 
Worcester and Boston and in many New Eng- 
land private collections. 

ENTOMOLOGY, Economic. The importance 
of insect control in the United States and the 
prevention of the enormous loss which the 
country pays each year as tribute to insect 
supremacy was recognized by the Federal and 
State governments in the making of liberal ap- 
propriations. Inasmuch as the free productive 
agricultural land was practically exhausted, the 
country must depend upon reclamation work for 
an extension of crop area, on a more intensive 
agriculture, and on elimination of the loss by 
insect pests and plant diseases in order that 
production may keep up with the increase in 
population. The work in economic entomology 
has kept pace with the sciences in invention and 
in the adaptation of scientific knowledge to its 
use. The chemist, engineer, electrician, and other 
scientists have been called upon to aid in solving 
the problems of insect control. The work ac- 
complished in the United States has laid a 
firm foundation. To a number of the leading 
educational institutions of the country, which 
have given courses that have prepared the stu- 
dent in the sciences that are fundamental in 
the work and the technical knowledge, belong 
much of the credit for what has been accom- 
plished. 

The losses caused annually by insect pests in 
the United States are estimated by entomological 
authorities to reach the enormous sum of $2,- 
000,000,000. While many factors complicate the 
problem, it is the general conclusion that in an 


418 


ENTOMOLOGY 


average year with no unusual attack the loss 
caused to crops is about one-tenth of the total 
production. The indirect losses caused by 
insect-borne diseases reach a large sum. The 
loss of productive labor in the United States 
through the sickness and death resulting from 
malaria is figured at $100,000,000, or more, 
and from all insect-borne diseases at over $350,- 
000,000. With the introduction of new pests 
from abroad and with the rise and spread of 
other native insects, this loss may be expected 
to increase unless the status quo can be main- 
tained through the application of preventive and 
control measures by the hand of man. 

During recent years new pests of vast eco- 
nomic importance have been unwittingly intro- 
duced from abroad and become established, in- 
cluding the pink bollworm, European corn 
borer, Japanese beetle, Oriental peach moth, 
pine shoot moth (#vetria buoliana), European 
earwig, European red mite (Paratetranychus 
pilosus), satin moth (Stilpnotia salicis L.), and 
others. A second class, consisting of earlier in- 
troduced pests which have continued to spread 
and increase in importance includes the gipsy 
moth, brown-tail moth, cotton boll weevil, al- 
falfa leaf weevil, Argentine ant, Mexican bean 
beetle, pear thrips, and citrus blackfiy. Others, 
which may be referred to as a third class, have 
risen and assumed alarming prominence, such as 
the potato leaf hopper, beet leaf hopper, pea 
moth, apple red bugs, and camphor thrips, and 
the fruit-tree leaf roller. To a fourth class be- 
long untold numbers of pests of no less im- 
portance that are threatening to enter our bor- 
ders, of which the Mediterranean fruit fly is 
the most important. Other pests, such as the 
codling moth, San José scale, Hessian fly, chinch 
bug, spring grain aphid, corn rootworm, boll- 
worm, cotton leaf worm, army worm, the grass- 
hopper, cabbage worm, Colorado potato beetle, 
citrus white fly, grain weevil, and others, con- 
tinue their ravages, and, though they may at 
times be checked by climatic conditions and nat- 
ural enemies, necessitate eternal vigilance on 
the part of the American agriculturist. 

In combating these pests the entomologists 
have adopted strategic means of every kind, and 
the resulting advance in preventive and control 
measures has been epoch making. Resorting to 
legislative means, Congress enacted the Federal 
Plant Quarantine Act of Aug. 20, 1912, which 
immediately became effective as to certain 
quarantines, and is administered by the Federal 
Horticultural Board, consisting of five mem- 
bers appointed by the Secretary of Agriculture. 
A quarantine against insect pests and diseases 
of plants from abroad has been established and 
maintained, inspectors having been stationed at 
every port of entry by land and sea. It would 
not be surprising, with the opportunities af- 
forded, if, in spite of this vigilance, now and 
then a foreign pest should make its entry un- 
detected, for they are often exceedingly elusive 
in the method of their introduction. However, 
with the exception of the pink bollworm, which 
gained entrance from Mexico before its lodg- 
ment there was discovered, no important pest 
is known to have become established in the 
United States since the enforcement of the act. 
Not the least important work of that Board 
are the quarantines established and maintained 
within the United States against the spread of 
a number of our most important pests. The 
investigational and control work is carried on 


"a! 


-” 


ENTOMOLOGY 419 


by the Federal government through the Bureau 
of Entomology and the Horticultural and In- 
secticide and Fungicide Boards. In the States 
the work is conducted by the experiment sta- 
tions, State entomologists, and, in several in- 
stances, by crop pest commissions. The Fed- 
eral Bureau of Entomology, of which Dr. Le- 
land O. Howard is chief, administers the work 
through its several divisions. In 1924 it had 
83 field stations in 382 States and Territories 
and three foreign countries. The State experi- 
ment stations have conducted investigations on 
hundreds of projects and have maintained vigi- 
lance and afforded local aid in control. The 
interstate spread of pests has been prevented to 
a large extent through State regulations re- 
quiring that nursery stock be free from infesta- 
tion, and these are enforced by rigid State 
inspection. 

Pink Bollworm. In November, 1916, the oc- 
currence of the pink bollworm in the Laguna 
district of Coahuila, Mexico, within 200 miles 
of the Texas border, was discovered, and an 
embargo was placed upon the importation of 
Mexican cotton. It was found the following 
year that the larve had been introduced in 
carloads of cotton seed shipped from Mexico be- 
fore the quarantine in November, 1916, infesta- 
tions being found at points in several counties 
in Texas and Louisiana. The infested areas 
were at once quarantined, and eradication work 
was pressed with vigor under appropriations 
by Congress, apparently with success, as the 
last pink bollworm in the United States, aside 
from the Mexican border, was found in 1922. 
In order to prevent its entrance, houses have 
been erected at ports of entry on the Mexican 
border for the fumigation of freight cars from 
Mexico where they may have served as carriers 
of cotton and cotton seed, and all cotton from 
abroad has been fumigated in large cylinders 
with hydrocyanic acid gas in vacuum in order 
to destroy any larve present. The pest has 
been introduced into Brazil, as well as Mexico, 
with seed, it being estimated to have caused a 
loss of $27,500,000 in Brazil in 1918. It was 
introduced into the Hawaiian Islands about 
1908 and was discovered in Porto Rico in 1921, 
where it has spread throughout the island. 
This moth, which originated in India and is 
now a source of great loss in Egypt, whence it 
has spread to other cotton-producing countries, 
and which constitutes one of the greatest 
menaces that have ever come to the American 
eotton industry, had not previously been known 
to occur in America, although prevalent in 
practically all of the other cotton-producing 
regions of the world, in all of which it has 
caused widespread destruction. 

European Corn Borer. Late in the year 
1917 the widely distributed European and 
Asiatic pest Pyrausta nubilalis Hubn., a moth 
whose larva is a borer, was discovered to have 
become established in an area approximating 
100 square miles in several counties in eastern 
Massachusetts, where it caused serious injury 
to corn and particularly to sweet corn. The in- 
vestigations which have followed show that the 
pest had been introduced from Europe in broom 
corn. This borer attacks all of the corn plant 
above ground except the leaf blades, its most 
serious injury being caused by the second brood 
larve, a large percentage of which, after hatch- 
ing, immediately enter the ear, their injury re- 
sembling that of the well-known corn earworm. 


ENTOMOLOGY 


The pest winters as a partly grown larva in the 
stems of plants, finishing its feeding and pupat- 
ing in its burrow in the spring. In addition to 
corn, it attacks large-stemmed weeds, dahlias, 
gladiolus, and other cultivated plants. It has 
spread from Massachusetts into New Hampshire, 
and infestations have since been found in the 
vicinity of Schenectady in the Hudson Valley 
in New York, in northeastern Pennsylvania 
and southwestern New York, in Ohio in the 
vicinity of Lake Erie, and in southern Ontario. 
The destruction of cornstalks to a point below 
the ground level is an important measure in 
checking its ravages. 

Japanese Beetle. The green beetle Popillia 
japonica was introduced from Japan with nurs- 
ery stock and became established near Riverton, 

. J., where it was discovered in the summer 
of 1916. The beetle attacks the foliage of many 
kinds of fruits, vegetables, and ornamental 
plants, and the larve feed on the roots of 
plants and on decaying vegetable matter. In- 
vestigations of its biology and control have been 
conducted, and a quarantine has been established 
to aid in preventing its dissemination. It has, 
however, continued to spread, and by the fall of 
1922 an area of 773 square miles had become 
infested. 

Oriental Peach Moth. The Oriental peach 
moth, which attacks the terminal twigs of the 
peach, plum, and cherry, stunting their growth, 
and also infests the fruit of the peach, was first 
discovered in the District of Columbia in 1916 
and is known to have spread as far north as 
Connecticut. It is supposed to have been intro- 
duced with flowering cherry trees from Japan. 

Pine Shoot Moth. The destructive pine 
shoot moth was found in 1914 to have been 
introduced from Europe and to have become 
established in 10 localities in three States from 
Massachusetts to Pennsylvania, and the follow- 
ing year it was recorded from 20 localities in 
nine States, in none of which except on Long 
Island had it lasted for longer than two years. 

Gipsy Moth. The gipsy moth was _ intro- 
duced by accident from Europe into Massa- 
chusetts about 1861. Work against it has been 
carried on since the early ’90’s, at first by the 
State of Massachusetts alone and since 1901 by 
the Federal government and the States, but it has 
continued its spread. Encouraging results have, 
however, been obtained in work with native 
and introduced parasites. Investigations have 
shown that the natural spread of this moth, the 
female of which is wingless, is accomplished 
mainly through young caterpillars’ being car- 
ried by high winds. The pest in 1914 was en- 
tering the eastern border of New York State 
in the course of its spread, and it was proposed 
to establish a barrier zone some 25 miles wide 
extending from Long Island Sound northward 
and up the Hudson Valley to the Canadian bor- 
der. More recent accidental introductions of 
the pest on nursery stock have been successfully 
eradicated, except that of 1910 in New Jersey, 
where work was under way in 1924. 

Brown-tail Moth. The brown-tail moth is 
another defoliating pest which was accidentally 
introduced into the United States, near Boston, 
from Europe. Since its introduction, about 
1892, it has spread as far north as Nova Scotia 
and covers practically all of New England. 
The moth takes its name from the tuft of golden 
brown hairs at the tip of the abdomen. In the 
early fall the young caterpillars spin tents at 


ENTOMOLOGY 420 


the end of twigs, incorporating leaves, in which 
they spend the winter, these tents being very 
conspicuous after the leaves fall. In the spring 
the caterpillars leave the tents and feed on the 
foliage until June, when their development is 
completed. In addition to its injury from 
defoliation, it is a source of great annoyance 
from the .hairs of the caterpillar, which break 
off at molting time and, being carried through 
the air, produce a painful rash. Its control is 
aided by cutting off and removing the tents in 
winter, by the application of arsenate of lead, 
and by parasites, many of which also attack the 
gipsy moth. 

Cotton Boll Weevil. The boll weevil, which 
entered Texas in the vicinity of Brownsville 
about 1892, has continued its spread and by 1924 
had occupied practically all of the old cotton- 
growing area of the United States. Appro- 
priations made by Congress for investigations 
and control work with it have amounted to 
nearly $1,500,000. As a result of extensive in- 
vestigations for its control, a highly toxic, finely 
divided calcium arsenate has been prepared, 
which is applied in a dust with high powered 
dusting mavhines constructed for the purpose. 
Its application in a dust is quite generally em- 
ployed and in molasses to a less extent. A new 
method developed in Florida which combines 
dusting and the removal of the squares until 
the weevils have largely emerged from hiberna- 
tion, followed by dusting, was being tested in 
several States. In 1913 it was discovered that 
a wild cotton-like plant which grows in canyons 
in Arizona is the host plant of a new variety of 
the cotton boll weevil. The danger from this 
form lies in the possibility of its spreading into 
the cotton fields in the irrigated districts of the 
vicinity and becoming a destructive pest. 

Alfalfa Leaf Weevil. This European insect, 
accidentally introduced into the United States 
and first discovered in Utah in 1904, continued 
to spread and by 1924 had become the source 
of considerable injury in Colorado, Idaho, and 
Wyoming, as well as in Utah. Appropriations 
by Congress led to control work, in which par- 
ticular attention was given to the introduction 
of parasites, as high as 25 per cent of the weevil 
larve having been killed in 1916 by the increase 
of parasites introduced from Europe. 

Argentine Ant. This enemy of field crops, 
fruits, stored products, household supplies, etc., 
which was first discovered in the United States 
at New Orleans in 1891, continued to spread, 
and colonies were known to be established as 
far distant as Alabama and Texas. 

Mexican Bean Beetle. The bean beetle, 
which originated in Mexico but has occurred 
endemically in the southwestern United States 
for 75 years, appeared near Birmingham, Ala., 
in July, 1920, spread rapidly, and became of 
great economic importance as an enemy of 
beans of all kinds through its defoliation of 
the plants. 

Pear Thrips. The pear thrips, which for 
many years has been the source of serious in- 
jury to deciduous fruits through attacking the 
blossom, particularly of pears, prunes, and 
cherries, in the Santa Clara Valley, Cal., and 
later appeared in British Columbia, was discov- 
ered in New York State in 1911 and has become 
of considerable importance in the Hudson River 
Valley fruit belt. In 1915 it appeared in 
Maryland and was a source of injury to an 
orchard in the vicinity of Baltimore. 


ENTOMOLOGY 


Mediterranean Fruit Fly. This destructive 
enemy of no less than 80 different subtropical 
fruits and vegetables, especially citrus fruits 
and particularly the orange, was first discovered 
in Hawaii on the Island of Oahu in 1910. Since 
that time it has increased rapidly and spread 
into other islands. Control work has led to the 
introduction of a number of parasites, several 
of which are responsible for a considerable re- 
duction in its infestation. This fruit fly has 
been the most serious drawback to fruit growing 
in the countries where it is established, its in- 
troduction into Bermuda many years ago having 
resulted in the destruction of the fruit growing 
industry of that island. In order to combat 
and aid in preventing its introduction into the 
United States on the mainland, several emer- 
gency appropriations have been made by Con- 
gress, and all means for prevention are being 
employed by the inspection service of the Federal 
Horticultural Board, the Plant Quarantine Act 
having made it possible to establish and main- 
tain a quarantine against it. 

Codling Moth. Investigations of this in- 
sect, which is responsible for the greater part 
of our wormy apples and pears, causing a loss 
estimated at $20,000,000 annually, led to the dis- 
semination of information as to the proper dates 
to apply arsenicals. 

Peach Borer. This destructive borer in the 
lower trunk of the peach tree in 1924 was being 
effectively controlled by the use of paradichloro- 
benzine placed about the trunk and kept covered 
with soil for several weeks. The gas escaping 
from the chemical enters their galleries in the 
tree and destroys the borers. 

Other Insects. Among other insects which 
have been introduced or become of great eco- 
nomic importance are the European red mite, 
first discovered in Canada in 1915 and a source 
of injury through its attack upon the leaves 
of the apple, plum, etc., in the northeastern 
United States; the European earwig, which first 
appeared in Rhode Island in 1911 and in Wash- 
ington State in 1915 and is a source of injury 
to garden plants and flowers; the popular de- 
foliating satin moth, from Europe, which was 
first discovered near Boston, Mass., in July, 
1920; the Australian tomato beetle, first ob- 
served in Mississippi in 1921; the camphor 
thrips, first discovered in Florida in 1912; the 
ea moth, which is increasing in importance in 
Visconsin; the sweet potato weevil, which was: 
first discovered in this country in 1875 but 
which began to spread and increased in im- 
portance about 1920; the fruit-tree leaf roller, 
which has increased in importance due to its 
resistance to insecticides; the potato leaf 
hopper, which causes tipburn of the potato, and 
others. 

Control Measures. A notable advance has 
taken place in the knowledge of biological, in- 
secticidal, mechanical, and other means of in- 
sect control. Search has been made and para- 
sites of a considerable number of pests have 
been discovered and introduced from foreign 
lands. New insecticides have been discovered, 
and others have been adapted for more efficient 
control. Notable among the new insecticides 
is paradichlorobenzine, which has been success- 
fully used in the control of the peach tree 
borer. The lubricating oils have been found to 
form emulsions that are highly effective against 
seale insects on citrus, the San José scale, ete. 
New forms of arsenicals have been perfected, 


ee See SS lle eee eee! eee 


Se ee 


a 


ENVER PASHA 


notably calcium arsenate in dust form, as em- 
ployed in combating the boll weevil, Bordeaux 
oil emulsion spray for citrus insects, ete. 
Nicotin applied in a dust form has proved very 
effective as a means of control of the walnut 
aphid and a large number of other pests. Borax 
has been found to be effective, economical, and 
practical in the destruction of fly larve in 
horse manure, and hellebore is also effective 
for this purpose. Corrosive sublimate has been 
found to be highly effective against root mag- 
gots. New methods of preparation and applica- 
tion of cyanide gas for combating citrus pests 
have been developed. New mechanical develop- 
ments include tests of the use of the airplane 
in applying dusts for control of the boll weevil, 
gipsy moth, etc. New machines for the applica- 
tion of sprays and new hand and power dusters 
have been invented or improved, and numerous 
mechanical devices have been developed. 

Apiculture. Investigations of bee diseases, 
the greatest handicap with which the beekeeper 
has had to deal, resulted in a number of dis- 
coveries of great importance. <A disease of the 
brood which has often been mistaken for one 
of the foul broods and to which the name “sac- 
brood” is given has been found to be due to a 
filterable virus. The deadly Isle of Wight dis- 
ease of the adult bee, occurring in Great Britain 
and on the Continent, was discovered to be 
caused by the mite Acarapis woodi in the 
trachee, and an embargo has been placed upon 
the importation of bees in order to prevent its 
introduction into the United States. 

ENVER PASHA (1881-1922). A Turkish 
soldier, born at Abana. He dabbled in the 
Young Turk movement for his own ends, and 
sought to bring about a revolution (1908) in 
the Macedonian mountains against the Sultan, 
‘thus bringing into effect the old constitution of 
1876. In spite of his victorious entry into 
Constantinople and the reduction in the Sul- 
tan’s revenues and property, Enver Pasha re- 
ceived only a position as military attaché in 
Berlin, where he became quite pro-German. 
During the Italo-Turkish War he took com- 
mand of Benghasi and wrote a book on the 
period called Tripoli. In February, 1913, he 
brought about a coup d’état during the peace 
negotiations. He shot the War Minister, Nazim 
Pasha, and shared the power of the government 
with the Young Turk Committee. In January 
of the following year, he appointed himself 
major-general and minister of war. 

Upon the outbreak of the War in 1914, En- 
ver assumed complete control, allied himself 
with the Germans, and when the collapse of 
Turkey came he fled to Germany. He was con- 
demned to death in 1919, but with the help of 
friends, managed to remain hidden, and later 
to escape to Russia, where it was reported that 
he became imbued with an idea to recover the 
Ottoman Empire in mid-Asia. However, both 
Constantinople and Moscow were against him, 
and in a skirmish with the Bolshevists in July, 
1922, he was shot and killed. 

ENZYMES. See CHEMISTRY, PHYSICAL, 

EPIDEMICS. See INFLUENZA. 

EPILEPSY. Experience with epilepsy in 
soldiers during the War confirmed the _ belief 
that all manifestations which come under this 
head may have a common origin; yet it became 
increasingly difficult to distinguish between 
primary and secondary or symptomatic epilepsy. 
Cranial injuries were found able to give rise to 


421 


ERB 


any or all of the clinical expressions of the 
disease; in some cases the malady does not ap- 
pear until more than a year after the injury. 
Nor did it appear necessary for the sufferer to 
have a strong hereditary predisposition to the 
disease; as a matter of fact the medical selec- 
tion of troops automatically eliminated many 
degenerate individuals. 

Within the years 1914-24 attempts were made 
to bring epilepsy within the domain of psycho- 
analysis on the ground that the disease had a 
subeonscious mental factor. Dr. Pierce Clark 
of New York published many articles to show 
that these patients are sometimes improved by 
psychoanalysis. The most sensational advance 
in connection with epilepsy was the introduction 
of the synthetic drug luminal, allied in composi- 
tion with veronal. The public was cautioned 
not to expect too much from this innovation, 
but it seems certain that it could very largely 
replace bromides with none of the severe con- 
stitutional effects of the latter. The dose, which 
is small, need not be increased to hold its effect ; 
indeed, it is too powerful to warrant any at- 
tempt to increase it. Since 1920 this drug was 
very thoroughly tried out; most reports were dis- 
tinctly favorable. It may also be used to spare 
bromides and .thus diminish the likelihood of 
bromide intoxication. 

EPIRUS, NorTHern. See ALBANIA. 

EPISCOPAL CHURCH. See PROTESTANT 
EpiscopaL CHURCH. 

EPSTEIN, Jacos (1880- ). An Ameri- 
ean sculptor, active chiefly in London. He stud- 
ied with George Gray Barnard in New York and 
at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris. He was 
an experimentalist in style in his early work, 
much of which was purely abstract in character. 
In his sculptured portraits he treated each sitter 
in a style corresponding with his character. 
Of extraordinary technical resourcefulness, he 
follows the traditions of dramatic sculpture by 
working with ridges and bosses rather than by 
the architecture of his planes. He is peculiar 
in the vehement violation of actuality in the 
individual head. His principal works include 
the monument to Oscar Wilde in the cemetery 
of Pére Lachaise, Paris; 18 nude figures outside 
the office of the British Medical Association ; 
“Christ,” a very radical conception which caused 
much controversy; “The Sun God”; a series of 
powerful portrait heads, including Admiral Lord 
Fisher (Imperial War Museum, London); the 
bronze “American Soldier,’ Metropolitan Mu- 
seum, New York; several versions of Mrs. Ep- 
stein; the Duchess of Hamilton, and a number 
of others in the collection of John Quinn, New 
York. Consult the monograph by B. Van Dieren 
(London, 1920). 

ERB, NEwMAN (1850— ). An American 
railway official, born in Breslau, Germany. In 
1853, he came with his parents to the United 
States. He was educated privately and in the pub. 
lic schools of St. Louis. For several years he prac- 
ticed law, serving as general attorney for sev- 
eral railroads. From 1886 to 1898, he was 
president of the Western Telegraph Company. 
He was president and receiver of several im- 
portant railroads in the West and South. He 
constructed and was president of the St. Louis, 
Memphis and Southeastern Railroad and was 
president and director of the Wisconsin Central 
Railroad in 1908-09. He was president of the 
Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad and the 
Iowa Central Railroad for several years and 


ERDMAN 


was a director and official in many important 
corporations, chiefly connected with railways. 

ERDMAN, CHARLES ROSENBURY (1866- ie 
An American theologian born at Fayetteville, 
N. Y., and educated at Princeton University, 
and the Princeton Theological Seminary. He 
was ordained in 1891, and after serving various 
pastorates, returned to the seminary at Prince- 
ton as professor of practical theology in 1906. 
He has been a delegate to Presbyterian conven- 
tions and world assemblies, and is the author 
of The Ruling Elder (1904); Sunday After- 
noons with Railroad Men (1907); Coming to 
the Communion (1912); Gospel of John, an 
Exposition (1916); The Gospel of Mark, an E«a- 
position (1917); The General Epistles (1918) ; 
The Acts (1919); Matthew (1920); Luke 
(1921). 

ERDMANN, Benno (1851-1921). A Ger- 
man philosopher (see Vout. VIII). The veteran 
Kantian scholar died in January, 1921. His last 
work, Grundziige der Reproduktionspsychologie 
(1920), concerned itself with the movement of 
thought and imagination. 

ERIE. A manufacturing and summer resort 
city of Pennsylvania, and a port on Lake Erie. 
The population rose from 66,525 in 1910 to 93,- 
372 in 1920, and to 112,571, by estimate of the 
Bureau of the Census, for 1923. Presque Isle 
Peninsula, including about 2500 acres of land 
which formed a protecting arm before the har- 
bor, was set aside as a State park by the State 
of Pennsylvania, and various plans were pro- 
posed for developing it. City planning and zon- 
ing were highly developed. A grade crossing 
programme entered into by the city and the rail- 
roads was to include the erection of a new union 
dépot. A stadium seatine 25,000 was under con- 
struction in 1924, by public subscription. In 
1921 a high pressure reservoir was built; in 
1924 an interceptor sewer with a disposal plant 
was being constructed. 

ERITREA. An Italian colonial possession 
in Africa on the west coast of the Red Sea. 
Area, about 45,800 square miles; native popula- 
tion in 1920, 402,793. Europeans numbered 
4681; of these 4283 were Italian. Asmara, 
the seat of government, had 14,711 inhabitants, 
2500 of them Europeans; Massawa, the leading 
port, 2645, with 360 Europeans. The export 
trade by sea comprised dried hides, palm-nut 
seeds, tinned meats, salt, mother-of-pearl, conch 
shells, flaxseed, rubber, and tanning materials; 
the sea-borne import trade, wines, cotton and 
cotton goods, mineral oils, cement, sugar, cof- 
fee, fats, and soap. Imports in 1912 were val- 
ued at $3,637,000; in 1919, $9,120,000, based on 
an average value of the lira at $0.114; in 1921, 
$4,730,000, on a lira value of $0.04. Exports 
for 1912, 1919, and 1921 were $1,750,000, $4,674,- 
000, and $1,204,000. The transit trade in 1921, 
. principally with Abyssinia, was valued at $1,112,- 
618 in imports and $1,132,840 in exports. At 
Massawa 204,400 tons of shipping entered in 
1912, and in 1921, 354,256 tons. After 1912, 65 
miles of railway were completed from Asmara 
to Cheren. In 1922 work was under way on a 
line of 54 miles from Cheren to Agordat. At 
Massawa and Assab wireless stations were es- 
tablished to keep the colony in constant com- 
munication with Italian Somaliland and Italy. 
For 1922-23 the colonial budget balanced at 
27,548,737 lire, or $1,377,400 at the average 
rate for 1922 of $0.05. In 1912 governmental 
costs were about $1,250,000. The railways 


422 


ERNST 


were opening up a cotton area computed at 100,- . 
000 acres. Efforts to attract Italian settlers 
proved unsuccessful, because the highlands, the 
only areas suitable for European colonization, 


were already weil filled by. Abyssinians. The 
colony was not yet self-supporting. 

ERIVAN, ARMENIAN REPUBLIC OF. See 
ARMENIA. 

ERMAN, HeEtnricH (1857- ). >A Ger- 


man jurist, born in Berlin, and educated at 
the universities of Leipzig and Berlin. In 1883, 
he was appointed professor at Lausanne, and 
was subsequently professor of Roman law in 
Geneva. He was made honorary professor at 
Lausanne in 1902, and later at Miinster-in- 
Westfalen. His written works include contribu- 
tions to periodicals and the following books: Zur 
Geschichte der rémischen Quittungen und Solu- 
tionsakte (1883); La Restitution des frais de 
proces en droit romain (1852); Servus vicarius, 
Vesclave de Vesclave romain (1896); Recht und 
Prator (1903); Bedeutung der Bodenreform fiir 
eine aufstrebende Stadt (1907); Behandlung 


der Aktionen in den nachklassischen Rechts- 
biichern (1908); Grundziige fiir ein Krieger- 
heimstdtte-Gesetz (1916). 

ERMATINGER, Emi. (1873 YOM 


Swiss author and professor at the technical 
high school of Zurich, born at Schaffhausen. 
He studied law and philosophy at Swiss uni- 
versities, but later devoted himself to teaching 
and writing. He is the author of a volume of 
verse (1900), and of several novels, among them 
Weggefdhrten (1902) and Der Weg ins Leben 
(1909), but he is best known for his critical, 
biographical and historical works, which are: 


Antike Lyrik in modernem Gewande (1898) ; 
Die Weltanschauung des jungen Wieland 
(1907); Gottfried Kellers Leben, Briefe und 


Tagebiicher (1915); Die deutsche Lyrik in ihrer ~* 
geschichtlichen Entwicklung von Herder bis zur 
Gegenwart (1921). He is also the editor of the 
complete works of Gottfried Keller. 

ERNLE, RowLAnp EpMUND PROTHERO, first 
Baron, (1852- ). An English economist, 
born at Clifton-on-Teme. He was graduated 
from Balliol College, Oxford, in 1873, and was 
connected with that university as fellow and 
proctor until 1884. In 1913, he was appointed 
a member of the Royal Commission on Rail- 
ways and in 1915-16 was a member of impor- 
tant committees on the production of food. 
From 1894 to 1899, he edited the Quarterly Ke- 
view, and from 1916 to 1919 was president of 
the Board of Agriculture. His writings include: 
Pioneers and Progress of English Farming 
(1887); The Psalms in Human Life (1903); 
The Pleasant Land of France (1908); English 
Farming, Past and Present (1912). 

ERNST, Pavut_ (1866- ). A. German 
writer of essays, dramas and fiction, born at El- 
bingen. He studied at the universities of Géttin- 
gen, Tiibingen, Berne and Berlin. In his first 
efforts, the one-act plays Luwmpenbagasch and Im 
chambre separée (1898), he was influenced by the 
naturalism of Arno Holz, but later found him- 
self in the volume of poems Polymeter, the two 
one-act tragedies Wenn die Blitter fallen and 
Der Tod (1899), and the volume of fiction, Sechs 
Geschichten (1900). After a sojourn in Italy 
he published some translations, Altitalienische 
Novellen (1902), selections from Des Knaben 
Wunderhorn and a special edition of Arnim’s 
Isabella von A/gypten (1903). He has since 
written a number of novels—Die Prinzgessin des 


ERSKINE 


Ostens, Der schmale Weg zum Glick (1903), 
Der Tod des Cosimo (1912); Die Hochzeit 
(1913); Saat auf Hoffnung (1915), Die Taufe 
(1916), Der Nobelpreis (1917)—a volume of 
short stories, Komdéddiantengeschichten (1920), 
and a drama, Preussengeist (1915) His book 
of essays, Der Weg eur Form (1906), and Der 
Zusammenbruch des Idealismus (1919), attracted 
much attention. 

ERSKINE, Joun (1879- jacob 
can university professor of English (see Vot. 
VIII). He published: The Moral Obligation of 
the Intelligent, and Other Poems (1915); The 
Shadowed Hour (1917); Democracy and Ideals 
(1920); The Kinds of Poetry (1920); The Lit- 
erary Disciple (1923). In addition, he has ed- 
ited several publications and held the educational 
directorship of the American Expeditionary 
Forces. 

ERVINE, Sr. JOHN GREER (1883- Vy 
An English dramatist and novelist, born at Bel- 
fast, Ireland. His first play, The Magnanimous 
Lover (1907), possessing a distinctly moral 
flavor,» was produced at the Abbey Theatre, 
Dublin, in 1913. Two years later he was 
manager of the same theatre. During the War 
he was a lieutenant in the Royal Fusiliers and 
was wounded (1918) in France He is the 
writer said by Arnold Bennett to be “probably 
unequaled by any other playwright” in England, 
who had in his work “combined great skill, fine 
ideas and perfect sincerity with immense popular 
success.” He wrote the following plays, all of 
them produced either in Dublin, London, or New 
York: Mixed Marriage (1910), a four-act play; 
Jane Clegg (1911), produced at the Gaiety 
Theatre, London, in 1912, and later in New 
York; John Ferguson (1914); Mary, Mary, 
Quite Contrary, in which Mrs. Fiske appeared 
in New York in 1923; The Wonderful Visit 
(with H. G. Wells). Among his other publica- 
tions are: Four Irish Plays; The Ship; Hight 
o’Clock, and Other Stories (short stories); four 
novels, Mrs. Martin’s Man, Alice and a Family, 
Changing Winds, The Foolish Lovers; a political 
study, Sir Edward Carson and the Ulster Move- 
ment, and The Lady of Belmont (1924), a play 
in five acts. 

ERZBERGER, Matrnuias (1875-1921). A 
German politician, born at Butthausen (Wiirt- 
temberg). He began his career as a_ school- 
teacher, then was a journalist, becoming a mem- 
ber of the staff of the Deutsches Volksblatt 
(Stuttgart) in 1896. His political career be- 
gan in 1903, when he was elected to the Reichs- 
tag as representative of the Catholic Centre 
party. During the War he at first made ex- 
travagant efforts to increase German annexa- 
tions, but later became just as active in further- 
ing peace negotiations. It was he who in- 
stigated the “Peace Resolutions” drawn up by 
the Reichstag in 1917; and when, in 1918, he 
succeeded Bethmann-Hollweg as Secretary of 
State, he conducted the Armistice negotiations, 
and signed the agreement on November 11. 
Upon becoming Finance Minister of the Reich in 
1919, his worst troubles began. On account of 
a legal controversy with Dr. Helfferich, the Na- 
tionalist leader, he was forced to resign; and, 
although he was returned to the Reichstag in 
1920, he abstained from politics for a time. 
This same year he published a pamphlet justify- 
ing his war policy, but this did not overcome 
the animosity of his opponents, the Conserv- 
atives and National Liberals who criticized him 


Ameri- 


423 


ESTHONIA 


not so much for his peace negotiations as for 
his financial policy, which hit capital and landed 
interests. His supporters were the Catholic 
working classes. The culmination of the at- 
tacks upon him was his assassination on Aug. 
26, 1921. 

ESENWEIN, JosepH Bera (1867- iF 
An American editor, born in Philadelphia, and 
educated at Albright College, Millersville 
Normal School, Lafayette College, Richmond Col- 
lege and the University of Omaha. He was presi- 
dent of Albright Collegiate Institute in 1895-96, 
and in the following year held the position of 
educational director of the Y. M. C. A. at Wash- 
ington Heights, New York City After a year 
of foreign travel, he became professor of Eng- 
lish in the Pennsylvania Military College at 
Chester, subsequently giving up teaching (1903) 
to become manager of the Booklovers’ Mag- 
azine. ‘Two years later he was made editor and 
manager of Ilippincott’s Magazine, a position 
which he held until 1914. In 1915 he became 
editor of The Wmter’s Monthly, Springfield, 
Mass. He is known both as a lecturer and 
writer. His published works, besides articles 
contributed to Charles Dudley Warner’s Library 
of the World’s Best Literature, include: Songs 
for feapers (1895); Modern Agnosticism 
(1896); Feathers for Shafts (1897); Writing 
the Short Story (1909); Lessons in the Short 
Story (1910); Short Story Masterpieces (1912) ; 
Writing the Photoplay (1913. Rev. ed., with 
Arthur Leeds, 1919); The Art of Public Speak- 
ing (1915); Writing for the Magazines (1916) ; 
Children’s Stories and How to Tell Them 
(1917); Russian Short Story Masterpieces (2 
vols., 1919). 

ESHER, REGINALD BALIOL BRETT, second 
Viscount (1852- ). An English politician 
and author, born in London, and educated at 
Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was 
a member of Parliament from Penryn and Fal- 
mouth (1880-85), secretary to the Office of 
Works (1895-1902), chairman of the War Office 
Reconstitution Committee (1904), a permanent 
member of the Committee of Imperial Defense 
(1905- ), and from 1909 to 1913 was clair- 
man of the Territorial Force Association of the 
City of London. King Edward VII appointed 
him one of the editors of The Correspondence 
of Queen Victoria (1907). Among his publica- 
tions are: Footprints of Statesmen (1892); To- 
ay and To-morrow (1910); Influence of King 
Edward, Essays (1914); After the War (1918) ; 
The Tragedy of Lord Kitchener (1921). 

ESKIMOS. See ArasKa, Natives; ETHNOG- 
RAPHY, Northern Peoples. 

ESPERANTIDO. See INTERNATIONAL LAN- 
GUAGE. 

ESPERANTO. See 
GUAGE. 

ESTHONIA. A republic on the Baltic Sea, 
made up of the former Russian government of 
Estland, the northern part of Livland, the is- 
lands Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, and Muhumaa, and 
parts of the Petseri district of the Pskov gov- 
ernment and the Gdowski district of the Petro- 
grad government, Esthonia became a republic 
on Feb. 24, 1918, after the Bolshevist coup détat. 
By treaty with Russia on Feb. 2, 1920, and by 
an agreement with Latvia, her sister republic to 
the south, Esthonia’s political borders were ex- 
tended to coincide with her ethnographic limits. 
The area is put at 18,000 square’ miles, 
and the population, according to the census of 


INTERNATIONAL LAN- 


ESTHONIA 


1922, at 1,110,538. Of these, 95 per cent were 
Esthonians and the rest Germans, Russians, 
Jews, Finns, Swedes, and Letts. The capital, 
Reval, had 160,000 in 1917, and in 1923, 126,- 
543 inhabitants. Narva, the chief manufactur- 
ing centre, was credited with a population of 
27,975. . Five-sixths of. the population were 
Lutherans, and the rest were Greek Orthodox 
and Roman Catholics. 

Industry. The great proportion of the pop- 
ulation was busied on the land. Up to the pas- 
sage of the land reform bills of 1919, property 
was concentrated. mostly in the hands of the 
Baltic barons and the clergy, of German de- 
scent; native Esthonians were merely farm 
hands or small peasant proprietors. By the bill 
of Oct. 10, 1919, an ambitious programme was 
projected for the almost complete confiscation 
of these large estates and their allotment among 
the peasants and soldiers. Some indemnity was 


424 


ESTHONIA 


considerable may be adduced from the importa- 
tion in 1920 of 24,012 long tons, through Reval 
and Narva, for Russia; 1921, 189,900 long tons; 
and 1922, 55,271 tons. These importations in- 
cluded salt, leather, paper, ironware, lead and 
copper goods, coal, and chemicals and drugs, 
mainly from Germany and Sweden. During 
1922, 3172 vessels of 223,114 tons entered the 
Esthonian ports of Reval, Narva, Pernau, Port 
Baltic, Hapsal, Kunda, Arensburg, Loksa, and 
Rohukala. The total length of railways in 1922 
was 971 miles, including 605 miles of Russian 
broad gauge and 366 miles of narrow gauge. 
Education. Elementary education was free. 
In 1922 there were 1221 elementary schools, 221 
higher schools, 70 gymnasia, several normal 
schools, a technical school at Reval, and a state 
university at Dorpat. The last, reopened in 
1919, had, in 1921, 2775 students. The minor- 
ity nationals, Germans, Russians, Swedes, and 


provided for, but the basis was not to be the Letts, were guaranteed instruction in their 
real value but the size of the land tax. By 1922 mother tongues. 
the report was that 22,000 additional small Finances. In 1922, expenditures were 5,510,- 


farms had been created, averaging 40 to 55 
acres. Lack of capital for buildings and dete- 
rioration of farm stocks imposed almost in- 
superable difficulties on the realization of the 
programme. Of the total area of 10,851,500 
acres, forest land, owned by the state, comprised 
20.1 per cent; fields, 22.9; meadows, 24.5; pas- 
tures, 17.5; untillable land, 15. The acreage 
under various crops and the harvests of 1922 
and 1923, compared with the average for five 
pre-war years, 1910-14, are given as follows: 


PRINCIPAL CROPS 


300,000 Esthonian marks and the revenues 
5,065,300,000 Esthonian marks. In 1923 the 
budget deficit was estimated at 700,000,000 
Esthonian marks or about 10 per cent of the 
total expenditures of 6,775,000,000 marks; for 
1924 it was estimated at 423,000,000 marks or 
6 per cent of expenditures, which included 435,-_ 
000,000 marks, about $1,250,000 for payment of 
foreign debts. The Esthonian mark was worth 
371 to the dollar in December, 1923. The for- 
eign debt was about $19,600,000, end of 
1923, the United States holding $13,800,000 of 
Esthonia’s bonds, France 10,000,000 francs, and 


ree Baek 2 EpeOuCHOD Wath OU sear Great Britain £251,000. The internal debt was 
1922 19238 1910-14 1922 1923 $300,000. 

(average) History. The Russian Revolution brought 

Rye .... 892,000 426,100 6,702 5.079 6,808 with it a state of uncertainty in Esthonia which 

Oats . peHri Oe Bin BOP pet Aba Herat was not dispelled until late in 1920. Some 

BAUS hie HES on 34's potas iene tae? sentiment inclined toward the Allies; the Baltic 

tee 186,600 178,600 27,701 25,932 24,659 lords were openly friendly to Germany. A 
ax an 


flaxseed 59,200 75,600 25,400 # 17,400 @ 18,300 @ 
4 Metric tons. 


Live stock in the country in 1922 numbered 
192,200 horses, 505,810 heads of cattle, 261,- 
040 swine, and 530,290 sheep and goats. There 
were textile, hemp and rope, paper, metal, and 
shipbuilding works, but up to 1923 these were 
languishing because of deterioration and lack of 
capital. 

Trade. The following table shows that trade 
was improving. In 1920, exports were valued 
at $17,544,278 and imports at $19,931,218. The 
figures for 1922 and 1923 in detail were: 


republican government, proclaimed on Feb. 24, 
1918, enjoyed but a brief career before it was put 
to flight by the German troops who entered the 
country as a result of the Brest-Litovsk Peace 
Treaty, captured Reval from the Bolshevists, 
and restored the Baltic land barons under Ger- 
man protection. A provisional government, set 
up by the native moderate elements, was dis- 
regarded, and German occupation continued un- 
til the end of the year. During May, 1918, the 
Esthonian National Council was accorded pro- 
visional de facto recognition by Great Britain, 
France, and Italy. By the Russo-German treaty 
of August, 1918, Esthonia’s independence was 


IMPORTS AND EXPORTS 
(Thousands of dollars) 


Imports Exports 

1922 1923 1922 1923 

Noodstufts spe «cee ein cit ieee 4,509 6,5 7.Geetoodstufis ica. ane eee cet ae ha pierce 3,822 3,008 
Textiles cube ee eee. chteni ee 2,064 GUcommllax and coon wane. eee 4,589 6,438 
Machinery and metals .......... 1,467 GEO SOMEWVIOOd LOCUS an tenets oie miert ene emcee 2,549 4,049 
Coagl¥ Aore eT BaSeSiee marae ete bebe 0 S02 1,182 2720 Paper “industry? 26. USE a 1,169 ab ira bak 
Ghemicals*andearig sar pave weieecieny-,° 382 1:93) Gestone, earth? tot.nndere teehee e eee 290 281 
Allee OtHEPS Sy. whit oe elena ieee eiLeeaas sos. 6,834 Zea OO meal OGHELS . veya ie le iassks Reichel Ree 1,698 653 
Total ‘sass cel Se eke eietete le 0A ais 16,438 26,700 Total aee7eee tie ORS eee 14,117 16,140 


Principal countries of origin of imports 
41; United States, 3.7: Sweden, 3.2 
Britain, 34.1 per cent; Germany, 10.7; Sweden, 10.0; Latvia, 


(1923): Germany, 51.0 per cent; Great Britain, 19 7; Russia, 
Principal countries of destination of exports (1923): Great 
8.1; Russia, 6.7; United States, 1.3. 


By the Russo-Ksthonian treaty, goods in transit 
for Russia were to be admitted unhampered by 
an import or transit duty. That this trade was 


recognized, but when the Germans withdrew 
their troops after the Armistice of November, 
1918, Soviet forces once more poured in, to be 


ETHICS 


driven out by local troops with Finnish and 
British aid. The exiled KEsthonian leaders re- 
turned to their wWar-ridden country, and on 
May 19, 1919, the National Assembly declared 
Esthonia a sovereign and independent nation. 
Hostilities with Russia continued until Dee. 
31, 1919. Affairs were complicated by the threat 
of a German movement on the Baltic states and 
by the intervention of Allied armies on the 
northwest coast of Russia in the autumn of 
1919. The United States, in an endeavor to 
gain Esthonia’s support against the Bolsheviks, 
offered the country a loan of $50,000,000, a con- 
siderable portion of which was taken. The Rus- 
sian succession states, Finland, Lithuania, Lat- 
via, and Esthonia, wearied of the contlict, and 
an armistice was signed at Dorpat on Dec. 31, 
1919. The Russo-Esthonian treaty of Feb. 2, 
1920, put an end to hostilities. The terms were 
remarkably favorable to Esthonia. The coun- 
try’s independence was unreservedly recognized 
and guaranteed by Russia; Esthonia received 
15,000,000 gold rubles, all Russian public prop- 
erty in Esthonia, and exemption from any share 
in Russian debts. A Constituent Assembly on 
June 15, 1920, prepared the country’s new con- 
stitution. A single house, popularly elected on 
the basis of proportional representation and 
controlled by the initiative and referendum, 
was set up. The cabinet, whose premier was 
designated the State Head, was to be elected by 
and responsible to the Assembly. The State 
Court of Justice was to be elected by the As- 
sembly too. The Assembly, in 1921, had 22 rep- 
resentatives of the Labor party, 29 of Socialist 
parties, and 5 Communists, together constitut- 
ing the majority bloc; 21 Agrarians, and the 
rest Populists, Christians, Balts, and Russians. 
By the Land Act, the church was separated 
from the state and its extensive holdings con- 
fiscated. On June 26, 1921, the Supreme Coun- 
cil of the League of Nations accorded the coun- 
try de jure recognition; shortly afterward, on 
September 22, it was admitted to the League; 
recognition by the United States was delayed un- 
til July 27, 1922. In May, 1923, the election 
of the second parliament returned a majority 
bloc of the bourgeois and peasant parties with 
the result that M. Paetz, leader of the Peasants’ 
League, was entrusted with the formation of a 
government. 

Russia’s consistently friendly policy toward 
her succession states was further evinced by the 
series of discussions among the Baltic: States, 
including Esthonia, in October and November, 
1921, and March and December, 1922. These 
meetings agreed on arbitration of disputes, con- 
firmation of existing frontiers, agreement on 
customs, consular, and economic matters; a 
common economic policy toward Russia, and 
radical disarmament plans involving the cutting 
of the Russian Red army to 200,000. In 1923, 
it appeared for a time that Esthonia was pre- 
pared to join with Finland and Poland in an 
alliance aimed at Russia. But peace was main- 
tained, so that all energies, in 1923 and 1924, 
were devoted to the solution of domestic prob- 
lems. An indication of stability was the near- 
ly balanced budget of 1924 and the payment of 
an interest charge of 262,538,500 marks on the 
United States debt. 

ETHICS. From many sources we are per- 
suaded that the story of the ten years 1914- 
1924 will be incorporated in history as the 
crisis of the industrial revolution. This means 


425 


ETHICS 


that it was a time of great moral struggle for 
those who. were alive to the issues. It is not 
surprising then that ethical theory was in con- 
fusion, and further that genuine insights were 
awaiting intellectual formulation. The present 
writing can only be an inventory of these in- 
sights with as much clarification as “leaps to 
the eye.” 

The moral struggle was a continuation and 
interpretation of the efforts of human minds 
to bring intellectual clarity to focus on the two 
ever-present aspects of the ethical problem, the 
theoretical and the practical. The theoretical 
problem had arisen from the conflict of science 
and the cultural tradition, first evidenced in the 
controversy between religion and science which 
continued throughout the last century. These 
ten years showed a decisive reformulation of 
the problem Dogmatic religion had split into 
two parties, one of which had fraternized with 
science and the other of which had found its 
place in the subject matters of scientific disci- 
plines such as psychology and anthropology. 
Free religion, the engendering faith and guard- 
ian of human culture still faced the old prob- 
lem. Partly artist, partly prophet, and partly 
saint of an intelligent mysticism, it still de- 
manded credentials of the invading scientist. 
A new religion, if it came, as some claimed it 
would, must announce doctrines which could 
stand independent but tolerant of the scientific 
spirit. 

This pointed out the station and duty of 
ethics: To abstract and judge the issue be- 
tween these two. Very little that was new 
could be pointed out as the product of any such 
activity, but there were beginnings in the shape 
of demands for a formal ethics at once rigor- 
istic and comprehensive enough to command 
the respect of the parties to the dispute. Per- 
haps the best evidence of such a demand was 
the body of writings on the theory of value or 
Werttheorie in America and in Germany. 
Value was a new term in philosophic literature. 
It was indicative of two movements not wholly 
unrelated to the crisis of the industrial revolu- 
tion One was a tendency away from the older 
moralistic tradition which used the term “good.” 
This was seen to carry with it too much out- 
worn and inapplicable connotation. It was 
practically abandoned. The new term came, 
significantly enough, from economics. It was 
generalized and combined with a _ concept, 
“worth,” which still retained respect because 
or in spite of its moral significance. The felic- 
ity of the combination of “value” and “worth” 
was largely due to its fitness to symbolize ob- 
jective rigor and concrete immediacy. Austrian 
and German writers like Meinong, Rickert and 
Husserl emphasized its objective aspect; hence 
their label Werttheorie, while American writers 
such as Urban, Perry, Picard and Prall, stressed 
the aspect of concreteness and variety so well 
symbolized in the term “value.” There was 
something of the speculative and critical in the 
temper of this sort of endeavor, and esthetics, 
social science, and ethics might hope for clari- 
fication and consequent advantage from this 
source. However, the formulations were more 
promising than productive of understanding. 

The body of theory arising from the practical 
problem set by the industrial revolution was 
voluminous and varied. It was concerned with 
political, economic, and _ social programmes. 
Owing to the work of social and artistic move- 


ETHICS 426 


ments such as the pre-Raphaelites, industry had 
been recognized as something like a cancerous 
growth in the body politic, and the search for 
an attitude with which to confront it had led 
to practical plans on a small scale like the pre- 
scriptions of a physician. A peculiar form of 
social service had been named the case method; 
social diagnosis and therapeutics were applied. 
But the malignant growth assumed larger pro- 
portions and the plans became the programmes 
of the social engineer. Physicians’ prescriptions 
gave way to blue prints of society, theories like 
Graham Wallas’ The Great Society. Now this 
sort of attitude and thought is what an older 
generation called material ethics, In so far as 
it is ethics, it is the conversion of scientific 
law into hypothetical commands, or the use of 
‘natural and social conditions” as means to a 
human end, the good life. Its aim is the pru- 
dential control of affairs. As is apparent, it 
draws on science. Especially it demands and 
encourages work in the humanistic sciences, an- 
thropology, psychology, social geography, eco- 
nomics, and political science, and these are not 


lacking, at least nominally. They may be 
lumped together as sociology or theories of 
human nature. Their technique was copied 


from the older physics with entities selected 
from the flux of human experience and projected 
on a vast canvas, which had been prepared by 
Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, the panorama of 
Man in a State of Nature. The economic man 
and the noble savage of the seventeenth and 
eighteenth century literature were the points 
of reference. Impulses, instincts, unit charac- 
ters, institutions, nations and races were enti- 
tized as individuals with purposive drives need- 
ing organization, authority and sovereign gov- 
ernments to make them civilized. These elab- 
orations had reached their maximum in these 
ten years and were the stage scenery of our 
drama of social life. 

Some of these sources of the structural ele- 
ment and the uses to which they were put are 
interesting. Freud’s suppressed ideas, atoms 
of human nature in the psychic vortex, were 
renovated and transposed to physiological sys- 
tems, and we thus had theories of sublimation 
in esthetics, in penology, and in the analysis of 
social revolutions. It was then claimed that a 
behavioristic ethics was complete, the Ethics 
of Hercules. Then we had another section of 
social background coming from anthropology; 
Levy-Bruhl, Hobhouse, and Westermarck item- 
ized the mores and customs of primitive societies 
and by analogy found the right and wrong of 
conduct formulable in terms of conformity or 
non-conformity with contemporary accepted ta- 
boos and restrictions. Marxian doctrines, the 
economic interpretation of history in particular, 
had led to both a new evaluation of history 
and the promulgation of utopian schemes for 
the reorganization of society. A reaction to 
this last had combined a great many other 
fragmentary intuitions of human progress de- 
rived from Darwinian and Bergsonian evolu- 
tionary theories-into a far-reaching ethics of 
development closely allied to the traditional self- 
realization ethics of fifty years ago. 

All these, as was pointed out above, were 
blue prints for social engineers. Perhaps the 
hardest approach to an intellectual vantage 
point from which to envisage them was made by 
the pragmatists who were frankly preaching an 
ethics of expediency Blue prints for them were 


ETHNOGRAPHY 


modes of analysis to be referred to in concrete 
situations as aids in organizing and finding a 
way through the practical problems of an in- 
dustrial society. None of them were absolute 
but relative to the particular end which an in- 
dividual or community took seriously. If one 
asked what was the criterion of end, how one 
could choose between rival purposes, the prag- 
matists answered with Aristotle that a good man 
would know; though in other connections a 
biologico-psychological doctrine of survival and 
sublimation of complexes was the answer to the 
query. The pragmatic ethics influenced the 
theory of law more perhaps than any other field 
—social expediency would be the apology of the 
prince for the laws which he sanctioned, and the 
professor of jurisprudence would criticize ex- 
isting laws from that hasis.. One can see how 
this conclusion would not be satisfactory as a 
solution of the problem. It was leading to the 
restating of the question which only a formal 
ethics could answer. <A definite word on the 
theory of value was awaited to crystallize opin- 
ion regarding the good of society. But then, 
others were skeptical and put the question 
whether ethics was a science of value or the 
art of living. An observation from this point 
of view is significant. Social engineers, when 
they are men, seek a prophet. Souls as well 
as society need salvation. See also SocraL Psy- 
CHOLOGY. 

Bibliography. Bernard Bosanquet, Social 
and International Ideals (1917); C. C. Bouglé, 
Legons de Sociologie sur Vévolution des valeurs 
(1922); Lucius M. Bristol, Social Adaptation 
(1915); Richard C. Cabot, Social Work (1919) ; 
Thomas Nixon Carver, Human_ Relations 
(1923) ; George C. Cox, The Public Conscience 
(1922); Zenas Clark Dickinson, Economic Mo- 
tives (1922); George S. Fullerton, 4 Handbook 
of Ethical Theory (1922); Leonard T. Hob- 
house, The Rational Good (1921); Edwin B. 
Holt, The Freudian Wish (1915); Alexius Mei- 
nong, Zur Grundlegung der allgemetnen Wert- 
theorie (1923); Maurice Picard, Values Im- 
mediate and Contributory (1920); David Wight 
Prall, A Study in Theory of Value (1921); 
Edward A. Ross, The Principles of Sociology 
(1920); Wilbur M. Urban, Valuation and its 
Laws (1917); Thorstein Veblen, The Place of 
Science in Modern Civilization (1919); Graham 
Wallas, The Great Society (1914), Our Social 
Heritage (1921). 

ETHNOGRAPHY. The War naturally had 
a profound effect on the prosecution of European 
field studies and publications, and this accounts 
for the disproportionately greater amount of 
American work during the period 1914-24 which 
demands notice. The most useful general work, 
however, is of German origin, Buschan’s Jllus- 
trierte Volkerkunde in its revised and greatly 
augmented third edition (1922), the work of a 
whole group of collaborators under Buschan’s 
editorship. 

North America. The advance made by 
Americanist studies can be roughly gauged by 
comparing Clark Wissler’s The American Indian 
(2d ed, 1922) and L. Farrand’s earlier Basis 
of American History. Precisely because of the 
general sanity of Farrand’s outlook and the es- 
sential agreement of these authors as to the in- 
dependent. development of the American Indian 
and his racial homogeneity, the great gaps in 
knowledge that Wissler’s predecessor had to 
contend with stand out in sharp relief. In spite 


ETHNOGRAPHY 


of much good pioneer work elsewhere, the Es- 
kimo and the Northwest Coast Indians were 
practically the only subdivisions thoroughly 
known in North America at the beginning of 
the twentieth century. Since then intensive field 
work has made California, the Plains region, 
and the Southwest equally well known and added 
materially to information on the remainder of 
the continent. 

A novel departure consists in the  ever- 
increasing linguistic syntheses of the last dec- 
ade, which are of more than philological inter- 
est since they suggest hitherto unsuspected af- 
filiations or migrations. R. B. Dixon and A, 
L. Kroeber may be said to have led the way by 
reducing the number of Californian stocks, 
which hitherto had been set at over twenty. 
Their basic communication (American Anthro- 
pologist, vol. xvi, pp. 647-655) united Wintun, 
Maidu, Yokuts, Miwok and Costanoan in a 
larger Penutian family, while Shasta, Karok, 
Pomo and Yuma were put into another major 
Hokan family. A subsequent monograph by 
the same authors on Linguistic Families of 
California (1919) recognized but a solitary iso- 
lated tongue, Yuki, all others falling into the 
Penutian, Hokan, Shoshonean, or Algonkian 
stock. 

This radical result was obtained by accepting 
E. Sapir’s proof of the Algonkian relationship 
of Wiyot and Yurok, and of the Hokan affilia- 
tions of Yana (American Anthropologist, vol. 
xv, pp. 617-646; University of California Publi- 
cations in American Archeology and Ethnology, 
vol. xiii, No. 1). Sapir, by virtue of his philo- 
logical training, stood as the leader of the syn- 
thetizers. He revived Brinton’s theory of a Uto- 
Aztecan stock uniting the Shoshonean and Na- 
hua languages (Journal de la Société des Amér- 
icains de Paris, 1914, pp. 379-425) and com- 
bined the Athabaskan, Tlingit, and Haida into 
one Nadene family. In short, he broke definitely 
with the traditional classification current since 
Powell and aimed at a grouping as comprehen- 
sive as possible. On the other hand, he did not 
go to the extremes of P. Radin, who in The 
Genetic Relationship of the North American In- 
dian Languages (University of California Pub- 
lications, vol. xiv, pp. 489-502) affirms that 
all of these form one grand stock. 

It should be noted that protests against 
Sapir’s Algonkian conclusions were made by T. 
Michelson, while Boas voiced doubts as to the 
legitimacy of synthetizing languages in the man- 
ner characteristic of the new school. Without 
denying the occurrence of historical connection 
between such groups as Tlingit and Athabaskan, 
Boas insists that we are dealing not with di- 
vergence from a common ancestral tongue but 
with a development comparable to accultura- 
tion. He admits that in the absence of histor- 
ical knowledge it might be very hard to estab- 
lish the connection between Armenian and Eng- 
lish, but holds that where such information is 
lacking no sound inferences as to genetic unity 
ean be drawn (American Anthropologist, vol. 
xxii, 1920, pp. 367 et seq.). 

The International Journal of American Lin- 
guistics, founded by F. Boas, P. E. Goddard, 
W. Thalbitzer, and C. Uhlenbeck, continued pub- 
lication of both concrete and theoretical studies. 

Southwestern United States. Archsologically, 
the outstanding achievement lay in the rigorous 
application of stratigraphic methods, which were 
used most extensively in the Southwest. The 


427 


ETHNOGRAPHY 


leaders in this field were N. C. Nelson (Pueblo 
Ruins of the Galisteo Basin, 1915) and A. V. 
Kidder (Pottery of the Pajarito Plateau, 1915, 
and “Notes on the Pottery of Pecos,” in Ameri- 
can Anthropologist, 1917, pp. 325-360), who 
have independently established a relative chronol- 
ogy mutually corroborative in its main outlines. 
Thus, the black and white earthenware is now 
recognized as the oldest pottery of the area, and 
the introduction and decay of a glazed decora- 
tion have been fixed in the series of stages and 
the art traced to the Little Colorado as its 
centre. A. V. Kidder’s and S. J. Guernsey’s 
joint paper on Archeological Explorations in 
Northeastern Arizona (1919) was_ especially 
noteworthy as determining a basket-making cul- 
ture akin to that of Grand Guleh, Utah, ante- 
cedent to the Pueblo culture, and representing 
the first steps in that direction. While the sites 
investigated displayed coiled basketry, pottery 
was rare or lacking, cultivation was limited to 
a single variety of maize and failed to include 
beans, the turkey was not yet domesticated, 
cloth was absent, and there were no substantial 
habitations. The spear-thrower occurred, but no 
bow had been discovered. Abalone shells point 
to a trade connection with California. Other 
interesting studies on this region are The Aztec 
Ruin (1919) by E. H. Morris, who suggests the 
cafions north of the San Juan River as the lo- 
eality of the nascent Pueblo culture; and W. 
Hough’s Exploration of a Pit House Village 
(Proceedings of the United States Museum of 
Natural History, vol. lv, 1919). 

Besides these systematic researches in the 
Southwest there was much local excavation that 
may ultimately lead to broader conclusions L. 
Spier’s The Trenton Argillite Culture (1919) 
may be singled out for the careful examination of 
a much disputed site; Spier did not deal either 
with the uppermost layer connecting with the 
historical tribes of the region nor with the low- 
est, relatively ancient stratum; but he described 
the intermediate deposits, which are lacking in 
pottery and altogether reveal no affinities with 
any known culture. In his Handbook of Ab- 
original American Antiquities (1919) William 
H. Holmes, the dean of American archeologists, 
summarizes the results of his life-long studies, 
presenting the accepted view of American schol- 
arship as to such basic problems as the sup- 
posedly palwolithic remains found in the New 
World. 

Northern Peoples. Turning to studies of peo- 
ples still extant, D. Jenness, a member of 
Stefansson’s expedition, has published a scien- 
tific study of The Life of the Copper Eskimo, a 
hitherto little-known group, while Thalbitzer’s 
The Ammassalik Eskimo (1914) deals with a 
subdivision of the Greenlanders. Thalbitzer de- 
rived the Greenlanders from the northern and 
western parts of Hudson’s Bay but sought the 
American home of all the Eskimo rather in 
Alaska than in the central region of their habi- 
tat. The tribes of coastal British Columbia, 
while looming less prominently in the literature 
than in the decade preceding, were represented 
by several notable works, such as F. Boas’s 
Tsimshian Mythology and Ethnology of the 
Kuwakiutt (31st and 35th Annual Report of the 
Bureau of Ethnology). The former contains a 
suggestive inquiry into the extent to which 
native custom is reflected in tradition. For a 
rapid survey of the Northwest Coast culture, 
with special emphasis on the southern tribes, 


ETHNOGRAPHY 428 


two short papers of E. Sapir may be specially 
recommended. Jhe Social Organization of the 
West Coast Tribes (Transactions of the Royal 
Society of Canada, 1915, pp. 355-374) and Van- 
couver Island Indians (Hastings’s Encyclopedia 
of Religion and Ethics). 

Passing to the Eastern Woodland area, F. G. 
Speck’s papers on Family Hunting Territories 
(1915) and The Family Hunting Band as the 
Basis of Algonkian Social Organization (Amer- 
ican Anthropologist, 1915, p. 289 et seq.) defi- 
nitely established the prevalence of individual 
land ownership among hunting tribes, a con- 
clusion he later corroborated by other studies in 
the same general area. A. B. Skinner published 
a full volume of Folklore of the Menomini In- 
dians and a paper on the Associations and Cere- 
monies of the Menomini Indians (1915), to 
which might be added another on Medicine Cere- 
mony of the Menomini, Iowa and Wahpeton 
Dakota (1920), since the two last-named tribes 
have culturally as much affinity with the Cen- 
tral Algonkians as with the Prairie aborigines. 
P. Radin’s The Winnebago Indians (39th Annual 
Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1923) is one 
of the most complete monographs of any tribe 
extant, especially along the lines of religious 
usage; and The Autobiography of a Winnebago 
Indian (1920,, edited by him, is an interesting 
human document presenting native culture from 
the native point of view. 

Plains Indians. Thanks to the intensive re- 
searches prosecuted during 1914-24, the Plains 
area became one of the best known in the world. 
It is now fairly clear that the southern tribes 
have very intimate relations with the Central 
Algonkian Woodlanders, while the northern 
tribes represent more definitely the popular con- 
cept of the Plains Indian. To our knowledge of 
material culture within the area Wissler has 
made by far the most striking contributions, 
which are in part embodied in his two general 
books on The American Indian and Man and 
Qulture; of his special papers may be cited 
Riding Gear of the North American Indians and 
Costumes of the Plains Indians (both in the 
Anthropological Papers of the American Museum 
of Natural History, 1915). Under the auspices 
of the American Museum of Natural History 
two protracted series of investigations were un- 
dertaken on the ceremonial activities compre- 
hended under the heads of Sun Dance and Age 
Societies; the results are summarized in R. H. 
Lowie’s Plains Indian Age Societies: Historical 
and Comparative Summary (1916) and L. Spier’s 
The Sun Dance of the Plains Indians: its Devel- 
opment and Diffusion (1921). Both discussions 
demonstrate the complexity of primitive ritual 
and illustrate the processes of ceremonial accre- 
tion. 

Several Plains tribes hitherto inadequately 
described were thoroughly studied, at least in 
part of their cultural manifestations. Thus G. 
B. Grinnell published a two-volume work on 
The Cheyenne Indians (1923). G. L. Wilson’s 
Agriculture of the Hidatsa Indians (1917) of- 
fered one of the most detailed economic studies 
of a primitive people, while R. H. Lowie’s 
studies on the social life, societies, religion, art, 
and material culture of the Crow Indians (An- 
thropological Papers, American Museum of Nat- 
ural History, 1912-23) constitute an approxi- 
mately complete survey of Crow culture. Con- 
siderable light was shed on the Pawnee, Mandan, 
Hidatsa and Kiowa by the ceremonial studies 


ETHNOGRAPHY 


mentioned above, and additional information 
was contributed on such relatively familiar 
tribes as the Blackfoot and Dakota. Much’ val- 
uable information was added to our knowledge 
of the last-mentioned people in F. Densmore’s 
Teton Sioux Musie (1918). F. LaFlesche’s The 
Osage Tribe (1922) constitutes the first instal- 
ment of a scientific account of a virtually un- 
known people. A remarkable comparative study 
by R. F. Benedict on The Vision in Plains Cul- 
ture (American Anthropologist, 1922, pp. 1-23) 
traced the variations of the visionary experience 
as a cultural phenomenon within this area and 
proved among other things that the vision- 
quest is by no means predominantly a feature 
associated with puberty. 

Another region that became incomparably bet- 
ter known is the Southwest. This was due 
largely to the enthusiasm of Elsie Clews Par- 
sons, who was rapidly working toward a syn- 
thesis of the sociological and religious culture 
of all the Pueblo peoples. Some of her numer- 
ous papers, published in the American Anthro- 
pologist, the Memoirs of the American Anthro- 
pological Association, and the Anthropological 
Papers of the American Museum of Natural 
History, are Notes on Zuni, Notes on Acoma 
and Zunt (1918), and Laguna Genealogies 
(1923). She also edited (1920) the earlier 
Notes on Cochiti by Father N. Dumarest, per- 
haps the clearest and most concise trustworthy 
account of any Pueblo tribe, exhibiting the char- 
acteristic matrilineal descent, the tribal men’s 
society of rain-producers impersonating gods, the 
curing fraternities admitting women to member- 
ship. 

A. L. Kroeber’s Zufii Kin and Clan (1918) is 
remarkable for the detailed, genealogically docu- 
mented investigation of relationship terms and 
the heterodox views advanced on the clan or- 
ganization, which is said to be of subordinate 
importance, while the matriarchate is reduced 
to female house ownership. A posthumous 
paper by H. Haeberlin (Baessler-Archiv, vol. 
vi, 1921, pp. 1-35) showed that Pueblo pottery 
designs are simply plaitwork patterns trans- 
ferred to earthenware without a realization of 
the greater freedom possible with the new ma- 
terial. The nomadic Southwesterners have not 
been wholly neglected, as is shown by P. E. 
Goddard’s Myths and Tales from the San 
Carlos Apache, 1918. 

California. A third region that has been in- 
tensively investigated is California, the results 
being virtually all recorded in the University of 
California Publications in American Archeology 
and Hthnology. A. L. Kroeber, assisted by E. W. 
Gifford, T. T. Waterman and others, has been 
the organizer of this survey, and his more gen- 
eral conclusions may be gleaned from his essays 
on Californian Culture Provinces (1920) and 
Elements of Culture in Native California (1922). 
A series of papers partly of comparative char- 
acter are united in the Mrs. Hearst Memorial 
Volume (1923) issued by the same institution. 
Gifford’s work was mainly along the lines of 
social organization, his paper on Clans and 
Moieties in Southern California (1918) definitely 
demonstrating the occurrence of these units, 
while various of his studies on kinship terms 
were among the most detailed available. T. T. 
Waterman’s Yurok Geography (1920), though 
primarily devoted to place names, contained 
much other information, especially on property 
rights. 


ETHNOGRAPHY 


Among the general comparative investigations 
covering the continent none probably rivaled R. 
I’. Benedict’s The Concept of the Guardian Spirit 
in North America (1923). Extending the Plains 
researches already noted, the author showed that 
throughout North America the vision was the 
dominant religious fact. In addition she in- 
dicated the varying combinations into which this 
phenomenon entered and characterized the sev- 
eral geographical provinces. Finally must be 
mentioned American Indian Life (1922), the 
joint labor of twenty scholars rallied under the 
editorship of Mrs. Parsons. This is a unique 
attempt to delineate in short-story form but 
with complete fidelity to truth the life of a large 
number of distinct tribes. See also INDIANS, 
United States. 

Central and South America. In Mexico, be- 
tween 1914 and 1924, there was considerable ac- 
tivity, thanks to the energy of Dr. M. Gamio and 
his associates, who had concentrated on both 
archeological excavation and a high linguistic 
reconnaissance. The Maya cultures were studied 
most intensively by H. J. Spinden and S. G. 
Morley, who arrived at concordant conclusions 
as to the chronology of the area, which seems 
to have displayed a considerable advancement 
about the beginning of our era. Spinden sum- 
marized the information concerning this region 
in a concise handbook on Ancient Civilizations 
of Mexico and Central America (1917), and 
Morley provided An Introduction to the Study 
of the Maya Hieroglyphs (1915), in which the 
principles of Maya arithmetical notation were 
set forth in an elementary way. The same 
author’s book on The Inscriptions at Copan 
(1920) was of a more technical character. 

Among the most significant contributions to 
culture-history were P. Rivet’s studies of New 
World metallurgy, especially the two papers 
published with the collaboration of H. Arsan- 
deaux, Contribution @ VEtude de la Métallurgie 
Mexicaine (Journal de la Société des Américan- 
istes de Paris, vol. xili, pp. 261-280 et seq., 
1922) and their Nowvelle Note sur la Métallurgie 
Mexicaine (L’Anthropologie, 1923, pp. 63-83). 
Aboriginal Mexico had formerly been credited 
with the knowledge of smelting copper but not 
with that of deliberately alloying it with tin 
to make bronze. The production of bronze in 
Peru was established in 1915 by C. W. Mead’s 
Prehistoric Bronze in South America, which 
demonstrated both by documentary Spanish 
records and by a review of archeological finds 
that bronze was made intentionally within the 
ancient Inca empire. However, it was supposed 
that this development was restricted to Peru 
and its immediate neighbors. Rivet’s work 
proved by chemical analysis that bronze was 
also, though. to a lesser extent, intentionally 
produced by the ancient Mexicans, while its 
complete absence in Colombia indicated that 
there an independent centre of metallurgy 
evolved and that Mexico was influenced by Peru 
via maritime connection. The reactions of a 
modern textile expert to the products of ancient 
Peruvian Joom-work were recorded in detail in 
M. D. C. Crawford’s Peruvian Teatiles (1915) 
and Perwian Fabrics (1916). 

A summary of the mythologies of this entire 
region was provided by H. B. Alexander in The 
Mythology of all Races: Latin-American (1920). 
Theodor Koch-Griinberg in his Indianermarchen 
aus Siidamerika attempted to trace connections 
between the tales of the two major subdivisions 


429 


ETHNOGRAPHY 


of the western hemisphere (Journal of American 
Folk-Lore, 1922, p. 329 et seq.). Most valuable 
Comparative Lthnological Studies in several vol- 
umes have been published since 1918 by Baron 
Erland Nordenskiéld of the Géteborg Museum, 
on data supplied partly by his own observations 
in Bolivia and the Gran Chaco, and partly by 
the utilization of the extant literature. 

Asia. A notable event was the founding of a 
new quarterly, Man in India (1921), edited by 
Sarat Chandra Roy, with the collaboration of 
many scholars within and outside of India. <A 
noteworthy ethnographic work was A. R. 
Brown’s The Andaman Islanders (1922). These 
natives appear far more diversified than had 
been realized. Those of Great Andaman and of 
Little Andaman speak quite unintelligible, 
though structurally related, tongues, and there 
are subdivisions characterized by appreciable 
distinctions in both speech and custom. Brown 
definitely corroborated Man’s statements as to 
the lack of the clan, totemism, and a classifica- 
tory kinship system. Comparison with other 
Negrito peoples indicated that the primeval 
Negritoes were hunters conversant with the use 
of the bow but more familiar with work in 
bone, wood, and shell than with stone tech- 
niques. Pottery and the outrigger canoe are 
probably later acquisitions of the Andamanese 
but antedated the segregation of their two major 
subdivisions. Since their settlement in the 
Andamans there is practically no evidence of 
alien influence. 

Assamese officials continued the valuable se- 
ries of books on their native wards, those by 
J. R. Hutton on The Sema Nagas (1922) and by 
J. P. Mills on The Lhota Nagas (1923), merit- 
ing special consideration. Much new work was 
done in the Philippines. An exceedingly thor- 
oughgoing Study of Bagobo Ceremonial, Magic 
and Myth (1917) by L. W. Benedict not only 
gave a detailed descriptive account but also es- 
tablished interesting historical connections be- 
tween the culture of the Indo-Iranians and Min- 
danao, while the influences of China and of Is- 
lam were appraised as relatively slight. R. F. 
Barton’s Ifugao Law (1919) gave a vivid and 
circumstantial account of the definite juridical 
code in vogue among an all but anarchistic 
tribe in Luzon. The mythology of a Philippine 
people was discussed from a comparative angle 
in Fay Cooper Cole’s Traditions of the Tingwian. 
In earnest of a fuller description Mrs. J. B. M. 
McGovern offered a popular report of life 
Among the Head-hunters of Formosa (1922), 
where women cultivate the soil and enjoy un- 
usual prestige, acting as both priests and chiefs. 

Except in so far as Russian sources hitherto 
inaccessible may be concerned, the Siberian lit- 
erature remained somewhat weak in monographic 
contributions as compared with the classical 
works of W. Bogoras and W. Jochelson early 
in the century. Bogoras’s Tales of Yukaghir, 
Lamut and Russianized Natives (1918) appeared 
in English, and several good articles on the 
aborigines were included in Hastings’s Hncy- 
clopedia of Religion and Ethics. A most useful 
handbook of the social and religious customs 
was issued by M. A. Czaplicka under the cap- 
tion Aboriginal Siberia. The same author also 
produced a work on The Turks of Central Asia, 
in which the South Siberians of the Bronze and 
early Iron Age were identified with Turks, a 
conclusion adopted by B. Laufer. The home 
of the Turks seems to have lain in southern 


ETHNOGRAPHY 


Mongolia, while the country now called Turkis- 
tan was peopled by Iranians. 

For a number of classical studies in Asiatic 
culture-history we are indebted to B. Laufer. 
His work on The Beginnings of Porcelain in 
China (1917) is one of the most illuminating 
contributions to our knowledge of cultural dy- 
namics. In it the Chinese are shown as ancient 
potters but originally ignorant of glass; as bor- 
rowing the glazing technique from the West, 
but then developing it independently in con- 
junction with pottery, and finally as a result 
of centuries of experimentation producing por- 
celain. Laufer’s Sino-Iranica (1919) traces the 
cultural connections between China and western 
Asia and establishes the definite borrowings 
made by and from the supposedly isolated 
Chinese. In a brief paper on The Language of 
the Yitiechi or Indo-Scythians, Laufer argued 
that these must be classed as of Indo-Germanic 
stock. 

Africa. ©. Meinhof’s and D. Westermann’s 
linguistic investigations were followed by others, 
of which Sir Harry Johnston’s Comparative 
Study of the Bantu and Semi-Bantu Languages 
gave a survey of not less than 274 distinct 
languages. A. Drexel advanced some radical 
hypotheses, notably the genetic affinity of Bornu 
with Sumerian (Anthropos, vol. xiv—xv, pp. 
215-2745) vol.” xviexvii; > pp? © 73-108); “but 
these awaited confirmation. A useful distribu- 
tion map was given by H. Haberlandt in the 
second edition of Buschan’s IJllustrierte Vélker- 
kunde (1922). A considerable amount of ex- 
cellent material was brought together in the five 
volumes of the Harvard African Studies founded 
by Orie Bates and edited by E. A. Hooton. 
Among the longer papers published may be men- 
tioned H. S. Stannus’s description of the Wayao, 
E. Cerulli’s collection of Galla folk-literature, 
including poetry as well as prose, and C. G. 
Seligmann’s account of the camel-nomad Arabs 
known as the Kababish. 

B. Ankermann’s ‘‘Verbreitung und Formen des 
Totemismus in Afrika” (Zeitschift fiir Hthnol- 
ogie, 1915, pp. 114-180) was a model study and 
established some significant conclusions, such as 
the independence of totemism and exogamy in 
the area examined, the patrilineal descent of 
the totem irrespective of other coéxisting rules 
of descent, and the probable lack of genuine 
totemism in ancient Egypt. lL. Frobenius once 
more appeared with a startling theory in Das 
Unbekannte Afrika. He differentiated an Ethi- 
opie and a Hamitic culture, the former charac- 
terized by age-grades, belief in reincarnation, 
patrilineal descent and agriculture; the latter, 
by maternal descent and pastoral conditions. 
F. von Luschan’s monumental work on Die Alter- 
tiimer von Benin (1920) pleaded for the vir- 
tually independent character of Benin art in 
some respects, yet suggested an ancient connec- 
tion between southern Europe and the western 
Sudan. N. W. Thomas’s Anthropological Re- 
port on the Ibo-speaking Peoples and subject re- 
ports on neighboring tribes supplemented our 
knowledge of the western Sudanese, while The 
Lango by J. H. Driberg provided a study of a 
Nilotie tribe in Uganda exhibiting the joint in- 
fluence of Bantu and Sudanese features. 

The Bantu also became better known. E. W. 
Smith and A. M. Dale published a standard 
work on The Ila-speaking People of Northern 
Rhodesia (1920), who differ in their matrilineal 
and exogamous customs from their paternally 


430 


ETHNOGRAPHY 


and rather loosely organized congeners to thie 
southeast. J. Roscoe added to his earlier work 
on The Baganda one on The Northern Bantu 
(1915) and other books. In The Northern 
Bantu he presented a singularly clear picture of 
the development of definite castes through the 
conquest of a horticultural people by a numer- 
ically weaker but better organized pastoral 
group. The rise of such an aristocracy was 
also well brought out in J. Czekanowki’s For- 
schungen im Nil-Kongo Zwischengebiet ; in this 
region a third caste is constituted by the under- 
sized hunting tribe called Batwa, who strangely 
combine the status of pariahs, potters and rain 
wizards. 

Oceania and Australia. Linguistically the 
earlier synthesis of W. Schmidt, who connected 
Malayo-Polynesian with certain languages of In- 
dia and Farther India was extended by A. Con- 
rady (Anthropos, vol. xii-xiii, p. 702 et seq.), 
who arrived at the conclusion that Schmidt’s 
“Austric” stock is genetically related to all Far- 
ther Indian languages, as well as to Tibetan and 
Chinese. This finding could not of course be 
accepted without further inquiry. Australian 
languages were investigated and classified by 
W. Schmidt. 

Ethnographically a number of , significant 
works were published. B. Spencer in his Native 
Tribes of the Northern Territory of Australia 
described a very atypical group of natives, es- 
pecially the Kakadu, and the Melville and 
Bathurst Islanders. Thus, the rites of subin- 
cision and circumcision are lacking, and women 
are permitted to witness the boys’ initiation. 
Tree-burial is unknown, interment being al- 
ways practiced. The realistic drawings on bark 
and on rocks are likewise utterly un-Australian 
and suggest some foreign influence. West Aus- 
tralia also no longer continued a terra incognita, 
thanks to Prof. A. R. Brown, whose “Notes on 
the Social Organization of Australian Tribes” 
(Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. 
xlvilil, p. 222 et seq.) supplemented his ear- 
lier studies among the Kariera and their neigh- 
bors. 

New Guinea and Melanesia likewise fared well. 
R. Thurnwald’s memoir on Banaro Society 
(1917) gave a detailed account of the intricate 
social and kinship system of a Papuan people; 
P. Wirz in Die Marind-anim von Holldndisch- 
Siid-Neu-Guinea (1922) described the tribe 
otherwise known as Tugeri; and the elaborate 
economic conceptions, marked by ritualistic 
ramifications, of another New Guinea group 
were set forth in B. Malinowski’s The Argo- 
nauts of the West Pacific (1922). A _ prelimi- 
nary account of Melanesians was published by 
F. Sarasin under the caption of Neu-Caledonien 
und die Loyalty Inseln (1918). Mr. and Mrs. 
W. S. Routledge’s The Mystery of Easter Island 
(1920), with its authentic account of the famous 
statues and the elaborate bird-cult of this east- 
ernmost Polynesian group, evoked considerable 
interest, and Rivers interpreted the huge figures 
described as resting-places for the souls of the 
dead. “The Hawaiian Romance of Laieikawai” 
(Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 
1920) was a re-publication of the original text 
with a translation and numerous explanatory 
notes by M. W. Beckwith, who thus provided 
one of the most interesting documents for the 
study of primitive literature. P. A. Erdland’s 
paper on Die Marshall-Insulaner is a valuable 
monograph on a Micronesian tribe, with exog- 


ETHNOLOGY 431 


amy, matrilineal descent, cross-cousin marriage, 
and a kinship system strongly suggestive of the 
Hawaiian type. Many useful papers also ap- 
peared in the technical journals and the pub- 
lications of the Bishop Museum in Honolulu. 
The historical interpretation of Oceanian data 
was powerfully influenced by the two schemes 
alluded to; that of F. Griibner’s Methode der 
Ethnologie, with the emendations supplied by 
W. Schmidt, and the system of W. H. R. Rivers’s 
The History of Melanesian Society (1914). See 
ANTHROPOLOGY; ETHNOLOGY. 

ETHNOLOGY. Following the publication of 
F. Griibner’s Methode der Ethnologie (1911), 
theoretical discussion was largely concerned with 
the interpretation of similarities in culture, and 
the most notable phenomenon to be recorded 
was the reaction against the formerly regnant 
theories of psychic unity, parallelism and uni- 
linear evolution. The catchword opposed to 
these shibboleths of an earlier day was diffusion, 
and it was less as to the occurrence of borrow- 
ing than as to its extent and the paths of cul- 
tural dissemination that scholars remained at 
loggerheads. For convenience’ sake three main 
anti-evolutionist schools, opposed to unilinear 
evolution, may be distinguished: the British, 
the German, and the American. 

The British and German schools were at one 
in emphatically repudiating the likelihood of in- 
dependent invention for the same cultural fea- 
ture, but their schemes otherwise differed funda- 
mentally. Characteristic of the British school 
were certain principles evolved by Dr. W. H. R. 
Rivers and applied by Prof. G. Elliot Smith and 
W. E. Perry to the proposition that much, nay, 
most of the culture hitherto ascribed to primi- 
tive peoples is neither primitive nor primeval 
but represents the débris of archaic Egyptian 
civilization, as diffused after the Sixth Dynasty. 
The possibility of such dissemination was con- 
sidered established by Rivers’s paper, The Con- 
tact of Peoples, in which the suggestion was 
thrown out that a very small number of im- 
migrants could impress their culture upon a 
large native population, provided only their 
superiority in the arts of life were manifest. 
Further, the criterion formerly required as evi- 
dence of diffusion, to wit, continuous distribu- 
tion, was rejected as a result of Rivers’s proof 
that in several instances even useful arts have 
fallen into desuetude. 

It was argued, then, that from Egypt as a 
centre such crafts as stonevork and pottery, 
such beliefs as the sun-cult and animism, and a 
series of other traits grouped together as “the 
archaic civilization,’ were diffused to the four 
corners of the globe; and that the geographical 
lacune in the distribution were the result of 
degeneration. The consistent application of 
these ideas led not only to such conclusions as 
that American Indian civilization in its higher 
forms was wholly an alien product engrafted 
upon an extremely slender stock of indigenous 
customs and modes of life; but even to the as- 
sertion that the totemism and magic of the Aus- 


tralians represented deteriorated elements of the 


old Egyptian complex. Rivers contented him- 
self with laying the theoretical base for this 
structure and applying the principles to Ocean- 
ian developments in The History of Melanesian 
Society (1914). The emphasis upon Egypt was 
due to G. Elliot Smith, whose Primitive Man 
(1916), The Evolution of the Dragon (1919), 
and other essays, discussed both the psycho- 


15 


ETHNOLOGY 


logical and the historical aspects of the prob- 
lem. A complete exposition of the scheme, 
with special attention to America, was offered 
by W. E. Perry in The Children of the Sun 
(1923). 

The German point of view, originally set forth 
in two lectures by F. Griibner and B. Anker- 
mann (Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, 1905), and 
later codified in Griibner’s Methode, did not as- 
eribe to Egypt nor to any other single area an 
absolute hegemony in cultural development. In 
both its original and its amended forms this 
theory postulated a primeval culture best rep- 
resented in recent times by the Tasmanians and 
Pygmies. From this common starting-point 
evolved two (Griibner) or three (W. Schmidt) 
divergent primary cultures, each displaying a 
characteristic combination of traits. Thus, in 
Father Schmidt’s amended scheme as expounded 
by himself and his disciple, Father Koppers, in 
various articles of their journal Anthropos, and 
by Koppers in a book on Die Anfiénge des 
Menschlichen Gemeinschaftslebens (1921), were 
three distinct cultural spheres (Kulturkreise) : 
a horticultural one with matrilineal descent and 
exogamy; an industrial hunting culture with 
patrilineal descent, totemism, and exogamy; 
and a pastoral non-exogamous culture with 
paternal descent. All other cultures were the 
result of blendings of these primary cultures, 
and the final product of such amalgamation was 
the germ of higher Mediterranean civilizations. 
The traces of these primary cultures were 
diligently sought in all continents, including 
America, and the New World culture was traced, 
not indeed to Egypt, as by the British diffu- 
sionists, but to southeastern Asia. 

In striking contrast to the world-spanning 
schemes of both the British and the Germans 
stood the American diffusionists. Their posi- 
tion was outlined in F. Boas’s “The Methods of 
Ethnology” (American Anthropologist, 1920, pp. 
311-320), where the work of Kroeber, Parsons 
and Spier in the Southwest and of Lowie on 
the Plains Indian age-societies was cited as rep- 
resentative. Contrary to the allegation of the 
European diffusionists, this school did not set 
up a Monroe Doctrine barring the occurrence 
of extraneous influences on the New World ab- 
origines. On the contrary, these influences were 
explicitly admitted, with references to such ele- 
ments as the composite bow and various mytho- 
logical tales; what was denied was the neces- 
sity for evoking foreign contact to account for 
the development of the more complex civiliza- 
tions of Peru and Mexico. Altogether, less em- 
phasis was placed on the tracing of historical 
connections between remote areas, though as 
shown in Kroeber’s Anthropology their demon- 
stration was by no means eschewed on principle. 
The essential thing, however, was on the one 
hand to reconstruct the actual culture-history 
of a limited area by an intensive study, with a 
minimum of pure speculation; and, above all, 
the mere establishment of historical relations 
was considered not the be-all and end-all of 
research but rather a starting-point for the in- 
vestigation of the psychology of diffusion, the 
reasons for the selection of some elements while 
others were spurned; in short, the dynamics 
of cultural change. To this important subject 
several interesting contributions were made. 
Noteworthy among them was P. Radin’s essay 
on the spread and growth of the Peyote cult in 
his monograph on The Winnebago Indians (37th 


ETHNOLOGY 432 


Annual Report of the Bureau of American Eth- 
nology). 

While the stressing of this aspect of the 
problem was undoubtedly a striking charac- 
teristic of the American school, it would be un- 
fair to deny that similar tendencies were dis- 
cernible elsewhere. Dr. R. R  Marett, inde- 
pendently of any school, suggested, if he did not 
himself cultivate, similar lines of research in his 
Psychology and Folk-Lore (1921). Rivers, a 
psychologist and physiologist by early training, 
devoted some papers to this subject, though al- 
most uniformly with a definite bias, ie. in the 
interests of his special scheme rather than of 
cultural dynamics generally. F. C. Bartlett, a 
British psychologist, offered a book on Psychol- 
ogy and Primitive Culture (1923), in which he 
not only concentrated attention on the processes 
incident to cultural borrowing but presented for 
the first time the spectacle of a European writer 
taking adequate cognizance of American theories 
and facts. The logic of historical reconstruc- 
tion was suggestively discussed in E. Sapir’s 
Time Perspective in Aboriginal American Cul- 
ture (1916) which was also noteworthy for the 
utilization of linguistic evidence. 

One of the fields jointly cultivated by psychol- 
ogy and anthropology was that of racial dif- 
ferences. With the emphasis on the study of 
individual mental variability it was inevitable 
that the tests applied in psychological labo- 
ratories should be extended to other than Cau- 
casian stocks for the purpose of ascertaining 
possible group differences. The earlier work of 
Rivers on Torres Straits Islanders and of Wood- 
worth on the several distinct stocks exhibited 
at the St. Louis Fair failed to reveal far-reach- 
ing differences but within the decade 1914-24 
the subject was vigorously attacked anew. In 
the United States especially the presence of a 
large Negro group and the influx of a new type 
of immigrants stimulated a scrutiny of the 
constituents entering into the general popula- 
tion, and the tests on army recruits of different 
extraction as reported in the Memoirs of the Na- 
tional Academy of Sciences, vol. xv (1921), 
were widely quoted and popularized. Charac- 
teristic of some of the work attempted was T. 


R. Garth’s “Comparison of the Intelligence of’ 


Mexican and Mixed and Full Blood Indian Chil- 
dren” (Psychological Review, 1923, p. 388 et 
seq.). The author found positive differences, 
the mixed-bloods ranking highest, the Mexicans 
next, and various Indian groups following in 
definite tribal sequence; but he admitted his 
inability to control the environmental factor. 
Some writers, however, who did not make such 
reservations, sank to the level of propagandists 
of the lowest type, rationalizing or even glorify- 
ing their traditional prejudices Such char- 
latanism is unfortunately bound to throw dis- 
credit on a perfectly legitimate branch of inquiry. 

Of the sincere investigators some were pre- 
disposed to assume mental differences because 
the observed biological differences seemed to 
them necessarily correlated with those of men- 
tality; in a very moderate form this is likewise 
the position of F. Boas with reference to Negroes 
and Caucasians. Cultural anthropologists gen- 
erally did not maintain the existence of racial 
differences in the extreme form popular -with 
their biologically oriented colleagues. Two posi- 
tions were held. Some were impressed with the 
very great differences observable in grade of cul- 
tere and explained them by inborn mental dif- 


ETHNOLOGY 


ferences between the bearers of these cultures; 
others denied that cultural differences consti- 
tuted a cogent argument, since the history of 
the Caucasians or Nordies exhibits enormous 
cultural differences Within a period so brief that 
innate variation is excluded so that environ- 
mental factors must be taken into account. The 
former point of view was that of C. Wissler’s 
Man and Culture and R. B. Dixon’s The Racial 
History of Man; the latter was advocated in 
A. L. Kroeber’s Anthropology and R. H. Lowie’s 
article on “Psychology, Anthropology and Race” 
(American Anthropologist, 1923, pp. 291-303). 
Kroeber and Lowie, it should be noted, did not 
deny racial differences but rejected the evidence 
formerly advanced as lacking in cogency. Lowie 
proposed a programme by which relatively pure 
anthropological groups could be isolated and 
studied comparatively. 

In the earlier years of the decade 1914-24 an- 
thropologists were particularly eager to assert 
their complete independence of psychology and 
to explain culture exclusively in cultural terms, 
while latterly more cordial relations were as- 
sumed toward the sister science by the very men 
who formerly spurned her services. Thus, 
Kroeber, who in his article on The Super-organic 
(American Anthropologist, 1917, pp. 163-213) 
tended to divorce historical from psychological 
inquiry, came to look toward psychology for 
an ultimate explanation; and a similar shift- 
ing might be demonstrated in the case of Wiss- 
ler, Rivers, and Lowie. A first tentative essay 
toward a synthesis of psychological principles 
as displayed in the ethnographic field was pre- 
sented by R. Thurnwald in his Psychologie des 
Primitiven Menschen (1922). In part the rap- 
prochement was due to the influence of Freudian 
theories, though ethnologists generally repudi- 
ated the incursions of psychoanalysts into their 
own domain. Freud himself attempted to apply 
the principles of psychoanalysis to an inter- 
pretation of Totem and Taboo (1918), while his 
followers traced connections between primitive 
myth and the ideation of their mentally de- 
ranged patients. W. H. R. Rivers, himself a 
psychoanalytic practitioner, offered several sug- 
gestions for the elucidation of ethnological prob- 
lems, as in his presidential address on Conserv- 
atism and Plasticity (Folk-Lore, 1921, pp. 10- 
27). Here the attitude of the individual Me- 
lanesian towards the cguncil of elders was 
brought under the concept of the father-complex, 
which was thus made to account for the prim- 
itive tendency to conservatism, while the pos- 
sibility of a change was ascribed to a transfer 
of regard to the representatives of an alien cul- 
ture. W. Wundt’s monumental Vélkerpsychol- 
ogie, while psychological in orientation, con- 
tained much of interest to anthropologists. 

Anthropological research into philology was 
outlined in its broader psychological as well as 
historical aspects in E. Sapir’s Language (1922), 
one of the outstanding synthetic works of the 
period. It presented a wholly novel scheme of 
classification. Primitive music was system- 
atically studied in Germany and America. In 
the former country E. von Hornbostel examined 
the records brought by explorers from different 
parts of the world and was at work on a sci- 
entific method of transcription. In America, 
Frances Densmore published a series of tribal 
studies on the Ojibwa, Sioux, Shoshoneans, 
Mandan and Hidatsa in the Bulletins of the Bu- 
reau of American Ethnology, while Helen H. 


ETHNOLOGY 


Roberts advanced the subject by reviews and 
articles in the Journal of American Folk-Lore 
and the American Anthropologist. The applica- 
tion of exact measurements to the study of 
primitive art along the lines of G. T. Fechner 
was advocated in Lowie’s A Note on disthetics 
(American Anthropologist, 1921, p 170 et seq.) ; 
and following suggestions of F. Boas, G. A. 
Reichard published an essay on The Compleaity 
of Rhythm in Decorative Art (American An- 
thropologist, 1922, p. 183 et seq.). P. Radin’s 
Literary Aspects of North American Mythology 
(1915) directed attention to the purely stylistic 
element otten neglected in the study of prim- 
itive prose literature. 

The traditional views on social organization 
popularized by L. H. Morgan, especially regard- 
ing the question of descent, were expounded in 
E. §. Hartland’s Matrilineal Kinship and the 
Question of its Priority (1917) and his Prim- 
itive Society (1921). A brief outline of the 
development of sociat life as conceived by Father 
Schmidt was presented in the book by Koppers 
cited above. A significant point of difference 
from the older theory lay in the idea that mater- 
nal and paternal descent belong to different lines 
of evolution, so that the question of their respect- 
ive priority is made futile. R. H. Lowie’s Prim- 
itive Society (1920) likewise denied the neces- 
sary priority of either maternal or paternal de- 
scent: either method was represented as grow- 
ing naturally from a loose organization through 
the stressing of either the father’s or the 
mother’s kin as a consequence of modes of resi- 
dence or of transmitting property. Another in- 
tegral part of the classical doctrine attacked by 
Lowie related to the absence of individual prop- 
erty, which in one form or another was shown 
to exist even on the plane of the simplest peo- 
ples. Again, this author maintained against 
Maine and Morgan that germs of political or- 
ganization appear even in very rude tribes, the 
blood-bond between kinsmen being supplemented 


by a territorial bond partly established by the ° 


clubs, fraternities, and other associations so fre- 
quently found among illiterate peoples. 

Rivers’s booklet on Kinship and Social Or- 
ganization (1914), vindicated the correlation be- 
tween social usage, especially marriage customs, 
and relationship terms. More particularly, he 
contended for a connection between exogamy and 
the classificatory system of relationship. This 
publication proved highly stimulating to Amer- 
ican scholars. Lowie established the general 
validity of this correlation for the region north 
of Mexico and summarized the results in Prim- 
itive Society; Kroeber, E. C. Parsons, and Lowie 
systematically collected Southwestern kinship 
systems, some of which were published in Kroeb- 
ner’s Zuni Kin and Clan and several minor com- 
munications to the American Anthropologist by 
E. C. Parsons; and E. W. Gifford amassed a 
wealth of relevant information in California 
(Californian Kinship Systems, University of 
California Publications, 1922). 

Totemism continued to arouse interest, and 
for several years Father Schmidt issued an in- 
ternational symposium on the subject in his 
journal Anthropos A model study of the data 
within a circumscribed area was furnished by 
B. Ankermann in his Verbreitung und Formen 
des Totemismus in Afrika (Zeitschrift fiir Eth- 
nologie, 1915). This work proved that in Africa 
the totem, irrespective of other rules of descent, 
is transmitted from father to child. Anker- 


433 


ETHNOLOGY 


mann is not convinced that genuine totemism oc- 
curred in ancient Egypt. This is a conclusion of 
some importance, since G. Elliot Smith and Per- 
ry traced even Australian totemism to an Kgyp- 
tian source. A. A. Goldenweiser did not con- 
sistently adhere to the negative attitude of his 
Totemism: an Analytical Study (1910), but 
later argued in several essays and in his book 
on Harly Civilization (1922) for an organic 
union of totems and exogamy. 

In the field of religion attention should be 
called to Hastings’s completed Entyclopedia of 
Religion and Ethics. Though including much 
other material as well, it was of great impor- 
tance in the present connection, since many ar- 
ticles were written by anthropologists and in 
some instances presented not only brief sum- 
maries by experts but even information other- 
wise quite inaccessible. W. D. Wallis’s Mes- 
siahs: Christian and Pagan (1919) contained 
much valuable description and duly emphasized 
the problem of the individual’s relation to so- 
ciety in the religious domain. The one-volume 
edition of J. G. Frazer’s The Golden Bough 
(1923) offered a mass of interesting raw mate- 
rial and also the historically important discus- 
sion of the relations between religion and magic. 
A general survey of modern theories of religion 
was presented in Goldenweiser’s Early Civiliza- 
tion (1922) where such closely associated topics 
as primitive mentality were likewise considered. 
Summarizing some of the points of general in- 
terest on this subject, it may be said that G. 
Elliot Smith’s school stood alone in tracing all 
religious customs and beliefs of primitive peo- 
ples, even animism, to ancient Egypt. Father 
Schmidt, from a comparison of the rudest 
tribes, inferred that Lang was right in credit- 
ing to an archaic stage a relatively pure mono- 
theism, a theory set forth in the reviews of 
Anthropos and in Kopper’s above-mentioned 
book. 

Archbishop N. Séderblom in Das Werden des 
Gottesglaubens (1916) accepted belief in the 
existence of a creator on the most primitive 
levels, but regarded Schmidt’s and Lang’s de- 
scription of his ethical perfection as exaggerated. 
He furthermore advanced the interesting theory 
that even more basic in religion than the idea 
of divinity or spirit is that of holiness, a view 
adopted in R. Thurnwald’s Psychologie des Prim- 
itiven Menschen. Somewhat comparable views 
had been voiced by R. R. Marett in The Threshold 
of Religion. American scholars for the most 
part were content to give theoretical interpreta- 
tions of specific aspects of religion. Thus, F. 
Boas in Mythology and Folk Tales of North 
American Indians (Journal of American Folk- 
Lore, 1914) discussed the relations of myth and 
tale; P. Radin (ibid.) surveyed the Religion of 
the North American Indian on its subjective 
side; and R. H Lowie’s Ceremonialism in North 
America (American Anthropologist, 1914) con- 
sidered the objective side of religion and con- 
nected it with esthetic impulses. 

' In the general subject of culture-history no 
comprehensive work appeared, but two special 
studies merited attention. W. Koppers gave a 
convenient survey of the investigations hitherto 
made of the economic life of savages (Die Eth- 
nologische Wirtschaftsforschung, Anthropos, 
vol. x-xi, pp. 611-651 and 971-1079). In B. 
Laufer’s The Reindeer and its Domestication 
sinological and ethnographic research were com- 
bined to determine time and place of the first 


ETTLINGER 434 


domestication of this species, which seemed to 
have occurred about the beginning of our era in 
the vicinity of Lake Baikal. For notices of 
other papers by Laufer of a culture-historical 
nature, see ETHNOGRAPHY, section Asia; also 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 

ETTLINGER, Karu (1882- ). One of 
the foremost humorists of Germany, born in 
Frankfort. On leaving college he was succes- 
sively engaged in banking and printing, and 
finally became editor of the magazine founded 
by the late Georg Hirth, Jugend. Among his 
numerous works are: Der neue Martial (1905) ; 
Ovids Liebeskunst (1905); Das Tagebuch eines 
gliicklich Verheirateten (1906); Unsere Donna 
(1907); Der neue Juvenal (1907); In Freiheit 
dressirt (1908); Streifziige eines Kreuzverg- 
niigten (1910); Die Hydra, a comedy (1911) ; 
Scherzo, a one-act play (1913); Mister Galgen- 
strick (1915); Aus frohem Herzen (1915); 
Benno Stehkragen (1917); a volume of war 
verse, Lieder eines Landsturmmamnes (1919) ; 
Das Verhidltniss (1920); Die duldsame Hva 
(1921). 

EUCKEN, Rupotr CHRISTOPH (1846- is 
A German philosopher (see Vor. VIII). After 
1914, he published Geistuge Forderungen der 
Gegenwart (1918), Der Sozialismus und seine 
Lebensgestaltung (1920), and his autobiography, 
Lebenserinnerungen, ein Stiick deutschen Lebens 
(1921). All three works were translated into 
English. 

EUGENE, ARCHDUKE (1863- ). An Aus- 
trian soldier, born in Moravia. In his earlier 
years he served in the army, but retired on ac- 
count of ill health. At the outbreak of the War 
he again entered the service, and after the Aus- 
trian retreat in Serbia in 1914, was given com- 
mand of a portion of the Austrian troops. 
After the entrance of Italy in the War, he com- 
manded the southwestern front, and achieved 
great success at Isonzo and elsewhere. He re- 
tired from active service in January, 1918. 

EUGENICS. The term eugenics has come 
into common usage and as usually understood 
means applied human genetics. Genetics (see 
HEREDITY and ZoOLoGy) is primarily concerned 
with heredity as a biological phenomenon and is 
a true experimental science, but, since for ob- 
vious social reasons experiments in human 
breeding are impossible, geneticists give the 
problems of human heredity little attention. 
Several organizations and a few institutions 
have devoted themselves to the consideration of 
the results obtained by the study of heredity in 
general, in the effort to apply them to man, or 
at least to point the way to the betterment 
of human stock. This conception constitutes the 
eugenic ideal, which in its modern scientific 
form arose in England where Francis Galton did 
more than any one else to crystallize it. Him- 
self a great student of heredity and a firm be- 
liever in man’s ability to improve his own 
stock, he left a bequest to the University of 
London in 1910 for the support of a eugenics 
laboratory, with the objective of “a study of 
the agencies under human control which may 
improve or impair the racial faculties of future 
generations physically and mentally.” 

About the same time the Eugenics Record Of- 
fice was established at Cold Spring Harbor, N. 
Y., and the Eugenics Education Society of Eng- 
land was founded under the leadership of Leon- 
ard Darwin. These initial movements led to 
the successive organization of societies and in- 


‘Spain, New Zealand, and elsewhere. 


EUGENICS 


stitutions in all English-speaking countries, as 
well as among the nations of western Europe. 
Following the War, interest was renewed in the 
eugenic question. The movement spread to 
China, Japan, and Latin America. Thus the 
eugenic movement became international, but 
even as early as 1912 an International Eugenics 
Congress was held in London. The War pre- 
vented a reconvening of this congress until 
1921, when it assembled in New York. For this 
occasion many of the world’s foremost biologists 
gathered. The scientific contributions to this 
congress were published in two large volumes 
under the title of Eugenics in Race and State. 
The congress also presented an exhibition of ma- 
terials, methods, and results of research in 
heredity in general and the human problem in 
particular. 

To understand the eugenic movement fully one 
should note the large part medicine, criminol- 
ogy, and education have taken in preparing its 
background. Medical and social students have 
long realized that while environment is a large 
factor in determining the fate of the individual, 
it could not do everything for him. He must 
bring with him a normal and efficient organism. 
Long ago the hereditary nature of a few types 
of mental and bodily inadequacy were recog- 
nized and measures taken to prevent the prop- 
agation of these abnormalities. Criminologists, 
running down the family histories of delin- 
quents, revealed a greater tendency for a repeti- 
tion of these offenses in their offspring than 
among the offspring of non-offenders. Conse- 
quently, in the United States, health boards 
and charity commissions began to advocate legis- 
lation for the segregation and also the steriliza- 
tion of the incompetent and the delinquent. 
Laws were passed in 1913 authorizing the 
sterilization of the unfit in North Dakota, Mich- 
igan, Kansas, Oregon, Wisconsin, California, 
and Iowa. During the same year legislation 
restricting marriages was enacted in England, 
In the 
United States, fifteen states had passed such 
laws by 1924, though much of this legislation 
was inoperative. 

The greatest stimulus to the general consid- 
eration of eugenics was the Wisconsin marriage 
law of 1913; which required medical certifica- 
tion for all who applied for licenses. This 
brought on a nation-wide discussion and at- 
tempts at similar legislation in other States. 

In the United States there are two active or- 
ganizations, the Eugenics Research Association 
and the Eugenics Society of the United States 
of America. The effort of these organizations 
is, in the main, to stimulate research in human 
heredity and the effects of early surroundings. 
Although, as already stated, the basic concep- 
tion of eugenics is the improvement of the hu- 
man stock, these organizations have not only 
stimulated scientific research in the laws of 
heredity, but have taken a hand in problems 
of social delinquency. All organized charitable 
and corrective agencies now critically study 
their cases and are using the technique devel- 
oped by the eugenicists for gathering family 
histories and other data bearing upon the cases 
of inadequacy and delinquency with which they 
have to deal. In this way were brought about 
such studies as that of the Tribe of Ishmael in 
Indiana, for example. The eugenicists have also 
stimulated the scientific study of families in 
the United States. 


ie 


——s 


EULENBERG 435 


At the meeting of the International Commis- 
sion in Sweden in September, 1923, representa- 
tives of England, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, 
Holland, Switzerland, and the United States 
were present. In all these countries provision 
was made for searching studies of the popula- 
tion. An understanding of the biological ele- 
ments entering into national heritages was 
sought as a basis for a sound policy of con- 
serving and strengthening the quality of their 
respective citizenries. 

Sweden was the first nation to set up an in- 
stitute for the study of race-biology. In 1918 
the University of Upsala subsidized the research 
of Professor Lundborg into the lineage of 
peasant families, and he also received small 
grants from the government. Professor Lund- 
borg’s researches were so promising that the 
Swedish Parliament appointed a commission in 
1920 to consider the needs of a national insti- 
tute for the study of race-biology, which re- 
ported favorably. Consequently such an _ in- 
stitute was founded and located at Upsala. 
Professor Lundborg was its director. This in- 
stitute inaugurated an intensive study of the 
nation’s population, province by province. See 
ABORTION. 

EULENBERG, FRANz (1867- ). A Ger- 
man economist, born and educated in Berlin. 
He began teaching in Leipzig in 1899. From 
there he went to Aachen, and in 1919 became 
professor of political economy and statistics in 
the University of Kiel. His works include: 
The Possibility and Results of a Social Psychol- 
ogy (1900); Society and Nature (1905); The 
Modern Philosophy of History (1907); The In- 
ternational Money Market (1908); The Rise in 
Prices during the Last Ten Years (1912); 
Money in War (1915); The New Industry 
(1919), and numerous magazine articles. 

EUPEN, MALMEDY, and MORESNET. 
To satisfy Belgian demands for protection and 
for reparations, Articles 34-39 of the Treaty 
of Versailles provided for the cession to Belgium 
by Germany of the frontier districts of Eupen 
(area 68 square miles; population, 26,156), 
Malmédy (area 314 square miles, population 
34,768), and the disputed neutral district of 
Moresnet (area 2 ‘square miles; population, 
3038), together with a small portion of Prus- 
sian Moresnet. The regions in question had 
undergone steady Germanization since their ac- 
quisition by Prussia in 1815, so that the end of 
the War saw the original Walloon population 
so reduced that only one-sixth of the population 
could speak French. In fact, in Eupen the 
French-speakers were insignificant, though in the 
town of Malmédy 94 per cent. spoke French. 
Likewise, in Moresnet, 48 per cent of the in- 
habitants were French-speakers, but it is to be 
noted that only 2 per cent spoke French ex- 
clusively. To the Peace Commissioners, other con- 
siderations were weightier than the question of 
language, which made the transfer of territory 
justifiable. Aside from the strategic argument, 
it was maintained that the orientation of the 
districts was toward Belgium, that there were 
profound historical ties, and that the necessity 
for compensating Belgium for the forests de- 
stroyed during the War favored the decision. 
For this last reason, too, Germany was com- 
pelled to turn over to Belgium the domanial 
and communal woods of Prussian Moresnet. 
Germany protested that the wishes of the popu- 
lation had not been consulted and that the 


EUROPE 


method provided by the Treaty for ascertaining 
the popular will with regard to the maintenance 
of German sovereignty, i.e. through the signing 
of open registers under the surveillance of the 
Belgian authorities, implied a bald negation of 
the principle of self-determination. Subsequent 
events lent some color of truth to this conten- 
tion, for in the six months allowed by the 
Treaty only a few hundred persons dared to 
register openly their belief that the districts 
ought to be returned to Germany. Belgium, 
therefore, took final possession, despite plainly 
expressed German disapproval. 

EUROPE. The Great War (1914-1918) and 
the revolutions in Russia, Austria-Hungary, and 
Germany which attended it led to a profound 
metamorphosis in European political geography. 
The cataclysmic changes registered in the peace 
settlement of Paris (1919-1920) with subsequent 
modifications and supplementary arrangements, 
surpassed in scope and significance such stages 
in the evolution of the modern state-system as 
were signalized by the Treaties of Westphalia 
(1648), the Peace of Utrecht (1713-1714), and 
the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815). The ter- 
ritorial readjustments consummated during the 
period 1918-1924 involved directly or indirectly 
every state in Europe except Portugal, Spain, 
and Switzerland. Western Europe, where the 
first truly national states had emerged cen- 
turies before, where political democracy had 
early achieved conspicuous successes, where the 
main bloc of the victorious Entente Powers was 
situated and where political revolutions did not 
sweep away long established institutions, was 
little transformed, the most notable exceptions 
being Alsace-Lorraine and Ireland (q.v.). Cen- 
tral and Eastern Europe, on the other hand, 
were almost completely reorganized on a nation- 
al basis and to a large extent republicanized 
and democratized. The three great non-national- 
istic empires of Austria-Hungary, Russia, and 
Germany (qq.v.) were dismembered and_ the 
diminutive state of Montenegro disappeared. 
A solid belt of eight new national states emerged 
in Central Europe, viz:—Austria, Hungary, 
Czecho-Slovakia, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Es- 
thonia and Finland (qq.v.), while contempo- 
raneously the respective national unifications of 
Italy, of Serbia, of Rumania, and of Greece were 
virtually completed and the nationalistic griey- 
ances of France and Denmark adequately re- 
dressed through the restitution of Alsace- 
Lorraine and Northern Schleswig (qq.v.). Such 
in broad outlines, was the territorial resettle- 
ment of Europe. 

The age-long movement for home-rule for Ire- 
land eventuated (1921-1922) in the establish- 
ment of a new self-governing, democratic Brit- 
ish dominion—the Irish Free State—with a spe- 
cial status for six Protestant counties of Ulster 
under the Act of 1920. On the continent of 
Europe the abasement of Germany’s power and 
prestige correspondingly exalted the democratic 
republic of France to a position as foremost 
military state. Her eastern boundary was defi- 
nitely rectified through the retrocession of Al- 
sace-Lorraine. In addition the French exercised 
virtual control over the inter-Allied civil com- 
mission supervising the occupation of the Left 
Bank of the Rhine, enjoyed a special economic 
status in the Saar Valley (q.v.) which was 


politically separated from Germany for 15 years 


‘and placed under a League of Nations Commis- 


sion dominated by the ‘French, and finally, 


EUROPE 


through the forcible seizure of the Ruhr (Janu- 
ary, 1923), greatly though temporarily aug- 
mented the area of German territory actually 
controlled by France. The kingdom of Belgium 
was liberated from the permanent and interna- 
tional guaranteed neutralized status imposed 
upon her by the settlement of 1839. She also 
acquired from Germany the diminutive districts 
of Eupen, Malmédy and Moresnet (q.v.). An 
attempt to secure the annexation of the Left 
Bank of the Scheldt from neutral Holland failed, 
but in 1920 a special convention freed Belgian 
navigation on that waterway from onerous Dutch 
restrictions. By a subsequent arrangement 
(May, 1921) the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg 
though retaining political independence prom- 
ised henceforth to conform its tariff, coinage, 
and railways to those of Belgium. 

Germany emerged from the Great War and 
from her political revolution a democratic re- 
publican national state somewhat diminished in 
size and subjected to burdensome penalties by 
the Treaty of Versailles, but nevertheless popu- 
lous and potentially strong. In addition to her 
loss of territory in the west to Belgium and to 
France, and in the north to Denmark, she was 
obliged to cede the greater part of Posen, West 
Prussia and Upper Silesia (q.v.) to Poland, to 
relinquish the Baltic port of Memel (q.v.) for 
eventual assignment to Lithuania (1923) and to 
consent to the internationalization of the port 
of Danzig (q.v.) under League of Nations aus- 
pices and the accordance of a specially privileged 
status therein to Poland. 

Even more striking than the partial dis- 
memberment and political regeneration of Ger- 


many was the complete disintegration of the ~ 


great Dual-Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Aft- 
er the revolution of 1918 and the Treaty of St. 
Germain of 1919 Austria constituted but a small 
land-locked German state on the Danube with an 
area of less than 33,000 square miles, whereas 
Hungary, by a similar process of revolution and 
the Treaty of Trianon of 1920, shrank to be a 
minor Magyar realm of some 36,000 square miles 
immediately to the east. The other regions in 
erstwhile subjection to the Habsburg sceptre 
were either assigned to victorious neighbors— 
Italy, Serbia, and Rumania—or incorporated 
in the newly recreated states of Poland and 
Czecho-Slovakia. Italy acquired Trentino, Tri- 
este, part of Austrian Tirol (q.v.), Gorizia and 
Gradisca, Istria, Fiume (q.v.), Zara and certain 
Dalmatian Islands. Slovenia, Croatia-Slavonia, 
Dalmatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and the western 
Banat (q.v.), together with certain small Bul- 
garian districts, were united with Serbia and 
Montenegro under the Serbian monarch to form 
the unitary kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slov- 
enes (Jugo-Slavia). The principality of Albania 
successfully asserted and maintained its inde- 
pendence against both Jugo-Slav and Italian en- 
croachments, but its exact boundaries long re- 
mained undefined. In addition to slight recti- 
fications of her boundary with Jugo-Slavia on 
the west, prescribed by the Treaty of Neuilly 
(1919), the kingdom of Bulgaria was obliged to 
cede a substantial portion of Thrace (q.v.) to 
Greece, being thereby rendered non-contiguous 
with the ASgean Sea. Greece not only gained 
Bulgarian Thrace, but also part of Turkish 
Thrace, Smyrna, Gallipoli, and the Dodecanese 


by the Sévres settlement of 1920 only to be | 


forced to relinquish these latter regions as a re- 
sult of her military débécle in the war with Tur- 


436 


EVANGELICAL CHURCH 


key and the humiliating Treaty of Lausanne 
(1923) which was in no small degree responsible 
for her republicanization in 1924. The Turkish 
Empire was definitely debarred from Europe by 
the Treaty of Sévres only to be nationalized, re- 
publicanized, and democratized by the regenera- 
tive movement under Mustapha Kemal Pasha 
and make a triumphal reéntry into the European 
family of nations through the reacquisition of 
Adrianople and Thrace by the Treaty of Lau- 
sanne (1923). To the kingdom of Rumania 
were annexed the eastern Banat, the whole of 
Transylvania and the Russian province of Bes- 
sarabia (qq.v.). The ancient kingdom of Bo- 
hemia reappeared in the form of the Republic 
of Czecho-Slovakia in which were embraced not 
only Bohemia, Moravia and part of Austrian 
Silesia, but also the region of Slovakia and 
Carpathian Ruthenia long merged in the king- 
dom of Hungary, part of German Upper Silesia 
and parts of Teschen, Zips and Orava (q.v.) 
as shared with Poland. 

Poland, grievously partitioned” by powerful 
neighbors in the late eighteenth century, was re- 
born under a republican régime at the end of 
the Great War, thanks to the Russian Revolu- 
tion and the defeat of the Central Powers. To 
her territorial resurrection, Germany, Austria- 
Hungary and Russia all made substantial con- 
tributions. The Russo-Polish frontier remained 
uncertain during several years of hostilities 
(1919-1920) -but was definitely demarcated by 
the Treaty of Riga (1921). To the north of 
Poland had been established (1918-1920) a 
fringe of small states on Russia’s western bor- 
der, namely the republics of Lithuania, Latvia, 
Esthonia, and Finland (qq.v.). With Lithu- 
ania, Poland had a protracted dispute over the 
eity of Vilna (q.v.) and vicinity which finally 
terminated in Poland’s favor with the annexa- 
tion of the whole southwestern half of 
Lithuania. Lithuania, however, successfully 
thwarted (1923) the Franco-Polish attempt to 
forestall her acquisition of the Baltic port of 
Memel as contemplated in the Versailles set- 
tlement with Germany. Finland, emancipated 
from Russia after a long struggle for autonomy 
and independence, was temporarily embroiled in 
a dispute with Sweden over the possession of 
the Aland islarids (q.v.) in the Baltie Sea. 
Norway, granting independence to Iceland (q.v.) 
in 1918, which nevertheless retained the Nor- 
wegian king as its monarch, was compensated 
for this diminution of area by a treaty signed 
at Paris in 1920 assigning her the Arctic archi- 
pelago of Spitzbergen (q.v.), comprising some 
25,000 square miles. 

Russia, losing territory all along her western 
border, and renouncing imperialistic ambitions 
in Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan, and China, was 
gradually reconstructed by the Soviet govern- 
ment on the basis of a federation of autonomous 
Socialist republics—Ukrainia, Transcaucasia, 
White Russia and Great Russia. See War IN 
EUROPE. 

EUROPEAN CORN BORER. See ENTo- 
MOLOGY, ECONOMIC. 

EUROPEAN WAR, 1914-1918. See War 


IN EUROPE. 

EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION. See 
EVANGELICAL CHURCH. 

EVANGELICAL CHURCH. Established 


Oct. 14, 1922, by union of the Evangelical As- 
sociation and the United Evangelical Church. 
The Evangelical Association was the outgrowth 


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THE LIGRARY 
OF IHE 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 


EVANGELICAL CHURCH 


of a religious movement started in Pennsylvania 
in 1800 by the followers of Jacob Albright. 
After many years, differences arose in the 
church which culminated in 1891 in a division, a 
considerable number of ministers and members 
organizing themselves in 1892 into the denomina- 
tion known as the United Evangelical Church. 
At the end of the second decade of separation 
the growing conviction that the two churches 
should be reunited began to find articulate ex- 
pression. The act of merger was the consum- 
mation of 12 years of negotiation. 

The Evangelical Association increased in num- 
ber of communicants from 150,380 in 1914 to 
167,416 at the time of merging, in number of 
pupils in the Sunday schools from 227,820 to 
271,758, and in the valuation of its churches and 
parsonages from $11,699,452 to $16,281,011. 
Similarly, the membership of the United Evan- 
gelical Church was increased from 79,292 in 
1914 to 92,001 at the time of merging, and the 
total value of chureh property from $5,476,602 
to $9,515,328. In 1923 the Evangelical Church 
had 244,072 church members and 391,207 pupils 
in the Sunday schools, 2663 churches, 1878 itin- 
erant ministers, and 562 local ministers; and 
church property in the United States and Can- 
ada valued at $23,917,585. It carried on mis- 
sion work in 31 States, Canada, Germany, 
Switzerland, Latvia, France, China, Japan, and 
Africa. 

EVANGELICAL CHURCH, UNITED. 
EVANGELICAL CHURCH. 

EVANS, Epwarp RADCLIFFE GARTH RUSSELL 
(188l1-: ). A British explorer (see Vot. 
VIII). In 1914, he commanded the Mohawk in 
the bombardment of the right wing of the Ger- 


See 


man army on the Belgian coast and in 1917. 


took command of the Broke. He was awarded 
the Royal Humane Society’s silver medal in 1921, 
and has been honored and decorated by many 
other societies. He published Keeping the Seas 


Down (1920), South with Scott (1921), and 
others. 
EVANS, RuputpeH (1878- ). An Amer- 


ican sculptor born at Washington, D. C. He 
studied at the Corcoran Art School, Washington, 
the Art Students’ League, New York, Julien’s 
Academy and the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris. 
He was a pupil of Falguiére and Rodin and was 
elected Associate of the National Academy in 
1919, when he won the Watrous gold medal. 
His best known sculpture is the “Golden Hour,” 
the original of which is in F. A. Vanderlip’s gar- 
den at Scarborough, N. Y., a copy in the Luxem- 
bourg Museum, and a marble replica in the 
Metropolitan Museum, New York. Mr. Evans 
has the capacity to catch in his portraits the 
aloofness of childhood. Besides portraits of 
young people, he has made monuments and por- 
trait busts of financiers, including Frank A. 
Vanderlip, John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and Thomas 
F. Ryan. His superb “Boy and Panther” was 
exhibited in 1923. 

EVANS, WILLIAM (1870- ). An Ameri- 
ean theologian, born at Liverpool, England, and 
educated in private schools in England and at 
the Moody Bible Institute (Chicago), the Chi- 
cago Lutheran Theological Seminary, and the 
Theological Seminary of the University of Chi- 
cago. He was ordained in the Congregational 
ministry in 1894, and was appointed to his first 
pastorate in the following year. In 1901, he be- 
came director of the Bible course at the Moody 
Bible Institute, where he remained until he was 


437 


_ books include: 


EWART 


appointed associate dean (1915) of the Bible 
Institute in Los Angeles. He resigned this posi- 
tion in 1918, becoming director of Bible con- 
ferences for the United States and Canada. He 
is the author of: Zhe Book of Books (1902) ; 
How to Memorize (1909); Outline Studies in 
Bible Books (1909); Personal Soul-Winning 
(1910); Studies in the Life of the Christian 
(1911); The Great Doctrine: of the Bible (1912, 
1920); How to Prepare Sermons (1913); 
Through the Bible—Series of 10 Volumes on 
Bible Exposition (1916-18; incomplete); The 
Book Method of Bible Study (1915); Epochs in 
the Life of Christ (1916); The Shepherd’s 
Psalm: a Meditation (1921); The Coming King: 
the World’s Next Great Crisis (1923). 
EVARTS, Hat G. (1887- ). An Ameri- 
can author born at Topeka, Kan. After a va- 
ried career as rancher, trapper and_ licensed 
guide, he turned to writing. He published: 
The Cross Bull (1920); The Bald Face (1921) ; 
Passing of the Old West (1921); The Yellow 


Horde (1921); Tumbleweeds (1922); Fur 
Sign (1923). 
EVE, ArtTHUR STEWART (1862- } (A 


Canadian physicist, born at Silsoe, Bedford- 
shire, England. He was educated at Cambridge, 
and in 1903 became Macdonald professor of 
physics, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. 
He commanded the 148th Overseas Battalion in 
the War, and was director of research, Ad- 
miralty Experimental Station, Harwich, 1917-18. 
In 1919, he became director of physics at Mc- 
Gill University. He has published various pa- 
pers on radioactivity and ionization. 


EVERWIJN, JAN CHARLES AUGUST 
(1873- ). A Dutch diplomat born at Noor- 


wijk, Holland. He studied law at Leiden Uni- 
versity, and was.a lawyer at The Hague (1897). 
Among his government posts have been: vice- 
president of the commission of the Netherlands, 
participation at the Panama-Pacific Exposition 
in San Francisco (1913); various economic 
negotiations (1914-19) ; president of the Nether- 
land Organization for the International Cham- 
ber of Commerce (1920); delegate at the Paris 
Conference (1920); envoy extraordinary and 
minister plenipotentiary from the Netherlands to 
the United States (1921- 


EVJEN, Joun OLur (1874-. ). An 
American educator, born at Ishpeming, Mich., 
and educated at Augsburg Seminary (Minne- 


apolis), the University of Minnesota and the 
University of Leipzig. In 1903, he was or- 
dained in the Lutheran ministry. From 1909 to 
1919, he held the position of professor of the- 
ology at Augsburg Seminary and in the latter 
year became president of the State Normal 
School at Mayville, N. D. Becides contributing 
to periodicals and encyclopedias, both German 
and American, he is author of the following: 
Die Staatsumwdlzung in Dinemark im Jahre 
1660 (1903); Scandinavia and the Book of Con- 
cord (1905) ; En Boganmeldelse (1910); Et Kap- 
atel fra Symbolforpligtelsens Historie (1911); 
Lutheran Germany and the Book of Concord 
(1911); Scandinavian Immigrants in New York, 
1630-1674 (1916); Naadegaverne og Embedet 
(1920) ; The Teachers’ College—Its Place in the 
Educational System (1920). 

EVOLUTION. See ANTHROPOLOGY; BOTANY; 
HEREDITY; ZOOLOGY. 

EWART, JAMES CossaR_ (1851- Aes: 
Seottish naturalist (see Vor. VIII). His later 
Domestic Sheep and Their Wild 


EWELL 438 


Ancestors (1913); Development of the Horse 
(1915) ; Mounting of the King Penguin; Nest- 
ling Feathers of the Mallard (1921). 

EWELL, ARTHUR WOOLSEY (1873- ). An 
American physicist (see Vor. VIII). He was 
appointed commanding captain of the United 
States Reserves on Dec. 15, 1917, and head of 
the bomb unit of the Air Service of the American 
Expeditionary Forces. After the Armistice, he 
was placed in charge of the experimental de- 
velopment and tests of bombs. 

EWING, James (1866- ). An American 
pathologist (see Vor. VIII). In 1919 Dr. Ewing 
brought out his monumental work on tumors, 
entitled Neoplastic Diseases. 

EXCESS PROFITS TAX. See TAXATION IN 
THE UNITED STATES. 

EXCHANGE, ForriaN. See FINANCE AND 
BANKING. 

EXPERIMENT STATIONS, AcGricuLTURAL. 
See AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 

EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY. See 
CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE UNCONSCIOUS. 

EXPLORATION. With the changed condi- 
tions which arose among tle nations in 1914—- 
24 came new methods and special aims in ex- 
ploration. Apart from the enormous unvisited 
areas of glacier-covered Antarctica and the un- 
known regions of the Arctic Ocean, no lands of 
extent remained in 1924, and such as there were 
could be easily reached by airplane. Except by 
Americans, new exploration ceased during the 
War, but later it revived. With the accession 
of new territories by mandate, the victorious na- 
tions diligently applied themselves to ascertain- 
ing the extent and variety of natural resources 
suitable for exploitation. Climate, fauna, flora, 
minerals, and soil conditions, needed study in 
order to foster emigration or to increase essen- 
tial raw materials. Such considerations largely 
controlled explorations by Europeans. Amer- 
ican expeditions were sent forth for the in- 
crease of knowledge and the advancement of 
science. Institutions of learning and progres- 
sive museums applied their energies to re- 
searches to enlarge their representative ex- 
hibits and so make them more useful for sci- 
entific study and public edification. American 
research, especially in the later years, was en- 
gaged in the accumulation of data, archeologi- 
eal and geological, which might enable scien- 
tists to write the story of prehistoric races 
definitely and to trace the methods of biological 
evolution. 

Africa. See Arrica, Explorations. 

Asia. The most important researches were 
those in the Mongolian deserts, which were 
explored geologically, as well as with respect 
to geography, physiography, and paleontology. 
Fossil vertebrates were discovered in large 
numbers and varieties. Berkey stated that the 
geologic core of Asia is now known, and Osborn 
looks to the elucidation of man’s origin by 
later research. The Swedish expedition made 
extensive biological explorations in Kamchatka. 
Stein’s expeditions, 1913-16, covered large in- 
terior areas, especially along the Persian-Afghan- 
istan border, a ruined Bhuddist monastery fur- 
nishing interesting archeological data. Brit- 
ish explorers twice crossed the interior deserts 
of Arabia, and twice failed to attain the summit 
of Everest, and also Mt. Raeburn, the third 
highest peak. On Everest an elevation of 27,- 
300 feet was reached, within 1700 of the sum- 
mit; this was the highest point ever attained. 


EXPLORATION 


The Palestine Exploration Fund, under Macalis- 
ter, continued excavation of the City of David, 
whose history extends back more than 2000 years. 
The British Archeological School excavated a 
Phenician City. Italians made anthropological 
researches in Eritrea and among the Bhuddist 
antiquities of Afghanistan. 


Arabia. See AraBia, Explorations. 
Australia. Extended explorations in Western 


Australia threw new light on the vast areas of 
thousands of square miles hitherto classed as 
deserts incapable of economic utilization. Much 
of the region was said to have a fertile soil, 
watered by a scanty rainfall. Irrigation, con- 
serving the rain by reservoirs, should make it a 
region fit for agriculture. Oil resources were 
indicated. 

Europe. Excavations in France and Italy 
disclosed ancient ruins of unknown periods. 
Ethnographic researches were made in southern 
France and northern Spain. The construction 
of a war railway to the Murman Coast brought 
scientific knowledge of the hitherto unknown 
region of the Kola Peninsula. 

North America. Canada. The Ministry of 
the Interior continued its researches into the 
resources of the Dominion. A water power 
inventory placed the resources at 32,000,000 
horse power. The Arctic archipelago was ex- 
plored and police, customs, and postal service 
established. In the Mackenzie district, bitumen, 
coal, copper, gold, and oil were located and 
exploited. National parks (one for _ bison) 
were surveyed; their total area was over 6,000,- 
000 acres. Forest reserves cover 36,000 square 
miles. The movements of the magnetic north 
pole and correlated phenomena were scientifically 
determined. At the University of Toronto ex- 
tended researches were carried on with the 
helium gas of western Alberta. See also 
PoLAR RESEARCH. 

United States. Scientific field research was 
annually pursued by scores of American uni- 
versities and scientific societies. Space does not 
permit even brief allusion to their extensive ad- 
ditions to human knowledge. A few may be 
mentioned whose work was of international in- 
terest. 

Chicago Field Museum. Under Director Dav- 
ies about 30 field parties were sent forth, cov- 
ering all continents except Europe. The nome 
work in 10 States was principally botanical and 
zoological. Researches were made in the fauna 
and flora of 10 of the countries of South Amer- 
ica, birds and mammals were particularly 
studied. In China and India the work covered 
ethnology, in Mesopotamia archeology, and in 
Canada and Argentina paleontology. 

American Indian Heye Foundation. Its 
unearthing of two of the fabled Seven Cit- 
ies of Cibola yielded information on_prehis- 
toric Indian life, which, preceding the Zufi 
period, was thought to extend backward 1000 
years. 

American Museum of Natural History. Dr. 
Osborn continued the supervision of its research 
work covering most regions of the northern hem- 
isphere. Most important were the biological 
surveys of eastern Asia (Burma, China, and 
Mongolia), and northern South America (Bra- 
zil, Chile, and Ecuador). In this work Andrews, 
Anthony, Chapman, Cherrie, Faunthorpe, Miller, 
Tate, and Vernay won distinction. Very no- 
table and promising in its results was the dis- 
covery and exploitation of the wonderful fossil 


EXPLORATION 


mammals, cretaceous and tertiary fossils, ete. 
Akeley and Lang’s African mammals were also 
important. 

Pennsylvania University Museum. Under 
Gordon, its field work largely consisted of ar- 
chological researches which met with marked 
success. In Egypt Fisher’s excavations at 
Giza, Memphis, and Thebes revealed papyri and 
other articles of historic value. Woolley, co- 
operating with the British Museum in Mesopo- 
tamia, at and near Ur explored ruins extend- 
ing back 6400 years; they added 1000 years 
to Babylonie history. Fisher’s excavations at 
Beth Shean in Palestine disclosed eight super- 
imposed cities, Arabic, Byzantine, Crusader, 
Egyptian, Grecian, Roman, and Scythian. These 
periods cover about 4000 years of history. Far- 
rabee’s years of research in the watershed of 
the upper Amazon made valuable ethnological 
and archeological contributions. Especially im- 
portant were those relating to the Carib and 
other tribes along the borderland of Guiana and 
in Chile and southern Peru. 

Carnegie Institute. This organization main- 
tained its research activities in astronomy, chem- 
istry, embryology, genetics, geophysics, history, 
and magnetism. Notable were the study of the 
Maya civilization and the astronomical work 
through the 100-inch telescope on Mt. Wilson. 
Most important were the survey cruises of the 
Carnegie, including codperative work, which 
brought the total of magnetic stations to about 
10,000 in hitherto unexplored regions. A new 
analysis of the earth’s magnetic field for 1922 
disclosed three magnetic systems, internal, ex- 
ternal, and non-potential, the first constituting 
94 per cent of the total and the last two about 
3 per cent each; it also disclosed a decrease of 
5 per cent, during the past 80 years, and an 
annual loss of one part in 1500. Continued in- 
vestigations of atmospheric electricity on land 
and sea showed that for a large component of 
the daily variation the maximum and minimum 
occur, roughly, simultaneously. Comprehensive 
programmes were inaugurated for the investiga- 
tion of correlations between terrestrial magnet- 
ism, atmospheric electricity, and earth cur- 
rents. 

National Geographic Society. Researches were 
extended and successful. In Peru, Bingham un- 
earthed the lost city of Machu Picchu, of the 
prehistoric period. In Alaska, five expeditions 
under Griggs surveyed the volcanic Mt. Katmai 
region, devastated by the most violent eruption 
in modern times; it has been proclaimed a na- 
tional monument. In New Mexico, Judd ex- 
cavated the communal dwelling of the Bouitas, 
thought to be prehistoric Indian people. 

Smithsonian Institution. Organized for the 
increase and diffusion of knowledge among men, 
the Institution with its eight bureaus, includ- 
ing the Bureau of Ethnology and the National 
Museum, uninterruptedly ‘earried on extensive 
field work and scientific research. The Institu- 
tion covered by its scientific surveys the less 
known regions of Africa, Asia, North America, 
South America, and Oceania, with the adjacent 
islands. Fauna, flora, archeology and ethnol- 
ogy were the principal subjects, although as- 
tronomy, geology, and other physical sciences 
were studied. The Bureau of Ethnology largely 
applied its researches, with marked success, to 
the ethnology of the American Indian, present 
and prehistoric. 


439 
fields of Mongolia, with their rich yield of | 


EXPLOSIVES 


Oceanography. Besides currents, depths, 
and deposits, research turned to marine biology, 
especially to the breeding, growth, and migra- 
tion of edible fish. The United States thus in- 
vestigated its coast waters, and European sci- 
entists—British, Danish, French and Swedish— 
explored the North Sea, the Mediterranean, and 
Atlantic waters from the English Channel to 
Madeira. Great Britain was studying the bi- 
ology of the whales, etc., of the waters of the 
Falkland Island Dependency. After 1914 an 
American ice patrol located and warned ship- 
ping of dangerous ice in the North Atlantic. 

Miscellaneous. Under a tropical expert, 
Beebe, a biological survey was made of the 
Galapagos Islands. 

EXPLOSIVES. Such developments of the 
War as the tremendous increase in the expendi- 
ture of artillery ammunition for preliminary 
bombardment of objectives, in barrage fire for 
protection of infantry waves advancing to the 
attack, in harassing fire directed on enemy 
back-areas, in counter-battery work, in putting 
up aérial barrages to fend off enemy airplanes, 
and the enormous increase in the employment 
of machine guns in lieu of the slower-firing 
shoulder rifle, all magnified the role of explosives. 
Progress in their manufacture was mainly to- 
ward quicker manufacture, greater safety in 
handling, storage, and transportation, slower 
deterioration after manufacture, and_ substi- 
tution of more abundant raw materials for 
those found to exist in quantities too small for 
ready conversion on a hitherto unprecedented 
scale. 

Propellants. Smokeless powder in various 
forms was in universal use prior to the War, 
and except for the substitution of wood pulp 
for cotton linters in the manufacture of nitro- 
cellulose and the development of a water-drying 
process which was much quicker than the former 
air-drying process, no outstanding improvements 
in its manufaeture were achieved during the 
War. 

Probably the most important development 
work carried on in 1924 was on a smokeless, 
flashless, non-hygroscopic powder. Immediately 
after the Armistice, demands were made for a 
new type of propellant powder to meet such con- 
ditions as those of the War. The particular ob- 
jection to the service powder fof the United 
States army was that it was hygroscopic and 
must be kept in waterproof containers up to 
the time of use. Another very important factor 
was that it was a solvent powder, requiring con- 
siderable time for drying, even making use of 
the so-called water-drying process developed 
during the War. Several experimental powders 
of varying composition and granulation passed 
satisfactory tests. In order to obtain necessary 
ballistic properties and yet avoid the use of 
solvents, nitroglycerine in very small amounts 
was incorporated with the other ingredients. 
This powder can be fired within 48 hours after 
manufacture but greater uniformity is obtained 
by allowing it to age for several days. It is 
completely non-hygroscopic; samples have been 
fired immediately after submersion in water for 
24 hours. 

Bursting Charges. Just prior to the War, 
trinitrotoluol (TNT) was considered the most 
satisfactory bursting charge for mobile artillery 
shells. Because of the scarcity of TNT during 
the War, a fairly satisfactory substitute was 
developed and used, 8%  amatol, a mixture of 


EXPLOSIVES 


80 parts of ammonium nitrate and 20 parts of 
TNT. Small-caliber shells were filled largely 
with 504) amatol, but at best this was a tempo- 
rary expedient; the standard practice in 1924 
was to use TNT without dilution. The 80%) 
amatol was prepared by crushing and drying 
ammonium nitrate,. melting TNT in steam- 
jacketed kettles, and mixing the two components 
in the required proportions in a steam-jacketed 
mixer. The resulting product resembled soft 
brown sugar and might be tamped into the shell 
cavity by hammer and mallet or, as was done 
during the War, by means of the screw shell- 
filling machine, which consists of a hopper to 
hold the amatol in bulk and a sleeve contain- 
ing a rotating worm. The shell to be filled was 
mounted horizontally on a wheel carriage placed 
so that the worm and sleeve entered it within 
a few inches of the bottom of the shell cavity. 
The amatol was fed into the shell by the rotat- 
ing worm until the resistance to the entrance 
of more amatol caused the carriage and shell 
to back off from the hopper, when the worm was 
automatically stopped, since the cavity had been 
filled to a predetermined point. The remain- 
ing cavity left by the sleeve and worm was filled 
with liquid TNT except for a small cavity to 
take the booster. See Coxe. 

Ammonium picrate, called explosive D in the 
United States Service, is used for bursting 
charges of armor-piercing projectiles, since TNT 
is not sufficiently insensitive to shock to with- 
stand.passage through armor plate on impact 
without exploding. Ammonium picrate will do 
this and still be in condition to give effective 
fragmentation on perforation of heavy armor 
plate. In loading ammonium picrate in armor- 
piercing projectiles, small quantities of the 
crystalline explosive are given a preliminary 
amount of tamping in the nose of the shell, fol- 
lowed by hydraulically pressing successive in- 
crements as needed to fill the shell cavity com- 
pletely and with proper density. The bursting 
charge for shrapnel continued to be black pow- 
der, according to standard practice prior to the 
War. The ammunition used with trench mortars 
developed during the War was filled with a 
nitrostarch explosive for the smaller calibers 
and either 80) or 5%, amatol for the larger 
calibers. Hand) grenades were loaded princi- 
pally with nitrostarch, and rifle grenades with 
compressed TNT. Aircraft bombs were loaded 


440 


EYRE 


with °%o0 amatol during the War; 1924 practice 
was to use TNT without dilution. 

Booster Charges. During the War attempts 
were made to load boosters with tetryl around 
the fuse socket, filling the remainder of the 
booster with TNT. This was abandoned in 
favor of completely filling the booster with 
tetryl. This practice was standard in 1924. 

Detonators. In the decade 1914-24, mer- 
cury fulminate maintained its position as the 
premier military detonator. It is manufactured 
by dissolving mercury in nitric acid, pouring 
the solution into grain alcohol, and removing and 
washing the gray crystals of mercury fulminate 
thus precipitated. Mercury fulminate is the 
most sensitive, most powerful, and most ex- 
pensive of military explosives. It costs more 
than twice as much as tetryl and about five 
times'as much as TNT. The bursting of an ar- 
tillery shell is in reality a series of explosions. 
On impact with the ground the firing mechanism 
of the fuse delivers a minute flash to the mer- 
ecury fulminate detonator. It detonates and 
transmits the explosive wave to the tetryl of the 
booster charge surrounding it. The booster in 
turn causes the detonation of the TNT in the 
main bursting charge of the shell. By utilizing 
this step-up method, small quantities of ex- 
pensive and highly sensitive explosives are used 
to set off successively larger quantities of less 
sensitive explosives. See CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC; 
also ORDNANCE. 

EXTENSION TEACHING IN AGRICUL- 
TURE. See AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK. 

EYDE, SAMUEL (1866- ). A famous 
Norwegian engineer (see Vor. VIII). He or- 
ganized, in 1916, a company for the manufacture 
of fertilizer out of saltpetre and in 1917 founded 
the Norsk Spraengstofindustrie. 

EYRE, LAURENCE ( ?- ). An American 
actor and playwright born in Chester, Pa. He 
made his début with the Castle stock company 
in Boston in 1907, played with Julia Marlowe, 
and also leadiag characters with the Ben Greet 
company. His best known plays include: The 
Things That Count (1914); Sazus Matazus (first 
full length play dealing entirely with Negro 
life, in which all the characters are colored, to 
be produced in America) produced at Atlantic 
City (1916); Driftwood (1917); Mis’ Nellie of 
N’Orleans (1919); Martinique (1920). Mis’ 
Nelly of N’Orleans was also produced by Dion 
Boucicault later in London. 


AESI, ROBERT (1873- ae: 

Swiss poet, essayist and dramatist, 

born in Zurich. He studied at the 

universities of Zurich and Berlin. 

After some years of travel in France, 

Italy, Russia, and England, he re- 
turned to Zurich and published Zuricher Idylle 
(1908), Odysseus und Nausikaa, a_ tragedy 
(1911), and Die offene Tiir, a comedy (1912). 
He wrote a volume of verse, Aus der Brandung: 
Zeitgedichte aus der Schweiz (1917), and 
compiled an anthology of Swiss poetry under 
the title Gestalten und Wandlungen (1920). 
His most important critical works are Paul 
Ernst und die Neueren Bestrebungen im Drama 
(1913), Karl Spitteler (1917), and Rainer Maria 
Rilke (1919) 


FAHEY, Joun H. (1873- ). An Ameri- 
can banker and newspaper publisher, born at 
Manchester, N. H. After receiving a high 


school education he became a reporter in Man- 
chester. He was editor and publisher of the 
Boston Traveler 1903-10, finally becoming presi- 
dent of the Boston Traveler Company and of 
the State Publishing Company. He was also 
president and publisher of the Worcester Post. 
In 1919-20, he was chairman of the organizing 
committee of the International Chamber of 
Commerce, and in the following year American 
director of the same body. In the same period 
he was a member of the Senior Council of the 
United States Chamber of Commerce. Other 
offices held by him include membership in the 
United States section of the inter-American 
high commission, member of the American 
Chamber of Commerce in Paris, and _ honor- 
ary member of the Bolsa de Commercio of 
Buenos Aires. In 1920 he was made Chevalier 
of the French Legion of Honor and Commander 
of the Italian Order of the Crown. 
FAHRENKROG, Lupwia (CAr~L WILHELM) 
(1867-— ). A German poet-painter, born in 
Rendsburg. He studied at the art academies 
of Hamburg and Berlin and spent some years in 
Italy. His mural paintings soon attracted at- 
tention, among them “Youth as the Golden Age”’ 
in the Girls’ High School of Barmen, a “Cruci- 
fixion” in Mulheim and a “Descent of Christ to 
Hell” in Kiel. He made a sensation at the 
Munich Exhibition of 1902 with his “Christ 
Preaching,” in which he presented a beardless 
Christ, an innovation which he subsequently 
justified in his writings. He has since become 
better known as an author. His literary works 
are Geschichte Meines Glaubens (1906); the 
dramas Baldur (1908), Wéland (1914), Norne- 
gast (1921), and Die Godentochter (1921); the 
poems Lucifer (1917) and Das Goldene Tor 
(1921), the latter illustrated by himself: and 
a history of God-lore, Gott im Wandel der 


Zeiten (1921). 
F. A. I. (FépfRATION ALRONAUTIQUE IN- 
TERNATIONALE). See AERONAUTICS, 


FAILURES OF DAMS. See DAms, 
FAIRBANKS, CHARLES WARREN’ (1852- 
1918). An American politician, Vice President 


441 


FR 


of the United States, 1904-09 (see Von. VIII). 
In 1914 he was chairman of the Indiana Repub- 
lican State Convention for the third time. In 
1916 he was again nominated for the Vice- 
Presidency by the Republican national conven- 


tion but was defeated in the campaign. He died 
in 1918. 

FAIRBANKS, Doverias (1883- in eAn 
American actor, born in Denver, Colo. He first 


appeared on the stage in New York in 1901. On 
the legitimate stage he played in Hawthorne of 
the U. 8. A., Frenzied Finance, All For a Girl, 
A Gentleman of Leisure, Henrietta, The Show 
Shop, and others. After 1916 he headed his own 
motion picture productions. His chief successes 
include His Majesty the American, When the 
Clouds Roll By, The Mollycoddle, The Mark of 
Zorro, The Nut, The Three Musketeers, Robin 
Hood, and The Thief of Bagdad. 

FAIRCHILD, BLAIR (1877- yo} An 
American composer, born at Belmont, Mass. 
Simultaneously with his academic studies at 
Harvard University, he took courses in composi- 
tion under J. K. Paine and W. R. Spalding; 
later he studied piano with G. Buonamici 
in Florence. In deference to his father’s wish 
he returned to America and entered business, 
but went to Constantinople in 1901 as a member 
of the American Legation and thence to Persia, 
Finding that Persian music interested him more 
than his diplomatic duties, he decided to devote 
himself entirely to music and went to Paris in 
1903 for further study under Widor and Gan- 
naye. His style is a combination of French 
impressionism and Oriental elements. Among 
his works are a ballet pantomime, Dame Libel- 
lule (Paris, 1921); the symphonic poems, Hast 
and West, Zal, Shah Feridoun; a sketch for 
orchestra, Tamineh; Légende and Etude Sym- 
phonique for violin and orchestra; a _ violin 
sonata; two piano trios; a string quartet; a 
piano quintet; six Psalms for soloists and chorus 
& cappella; two fugues for organ; and many 
songs, almost all on Oriental themes. 

FAISAL (1885- ). King of Iraq, third 
surviving son of Hussein, King of the Hedjaz, 
born at Taif, Turkey. He received a modern 
education at Mecca and Constantinople and later 
took an active part in the Turkish government. 
On the restoration of his father to the emirate 
of Mecca in 1908, Faisal commanded the Arab 
contingent in the operations of the Turks against 
the Idrisi (1911-13). He was elected deputy 
for Jidda in the Turkish Parliament (1914), 
commanded the rebels at Medina in the Arab 
revolt against Ottoman (1916), commanded the 
northern forces of the Arabs (1917), and sup- 
ported the Egyptian Expeditionary Force of the 
Allies. After the Armistice he set up a tempo- 
rary government in eastern Syria and _ repre- 
sented the Arabian cause at the Paris Peace 
Conference (1919). In March of the following 
year, he was proclaimed King of Syria by the 
Syrian national government, but the plan was 
overturned by the entry of the French troops 
into Damascus. The British government recog- 


FALKENHAYN 442 


nized him as King of Iraq and head of the new 
state under its mandate of August, 1921. See 
MESOPOTAMIA. 

FALKENHAYN, EricH von (1853- 1s 
A Prussian general, born at Burg Belchau, in 
Thorn. He entered the army in his youth, and 
became military attaché to the legation at Paris 
in 1887. In 1889 he acted as military instructor 
and favorite of the Crown Prince of Germany 
and Prince Eitel Friedrich. He served in China 
during the Boxer Rebellion. He was promoted to 
lieutenant-general and was made Prussian Min- 
ister of War in 1913. In 1914 he became chief 
of the general staff of the army, and later gen- 
eral of the. infantry. He upheld the officers 
whose conduct in Alsace resulted in the Zabern 
disorders. He received the credit for the break- 
ing through of the Russian lines at Gorlice- 
Tarnow in 1915, and also planned the successful 
Russian and Serbian campaigns of the same 
year. The unsuccessful attack at Verdun of 
1916 caused his removal as chief of the general 
staff, Hindenburg taking his place. He was 
given the leadership of the Ninth army in its 
fighting at Hermannstadt, and in 1917 of the 
Asiatic Corps. In 1918 and 1919 the Tenth 
army was commanded by him. He wrote: Die 
oberste Heeresleitung in ihren wichtigsten Ent- 
schliessungen 1914-16 (1919), giving an account 
of the German conduct of the War. 

FALKLAND ISLANDS, DEPENDENCY oF. 
The creation of this dependency completed, in 
the western hemisphere, the accession of Ant- 
arctic regions initiated by Great Britain a cen- 
tury before. In 1832, she took possession of 
the Falkland Islands to protect her interests in 
the southern fisheries. By proclamation of 
July, 1908, this dependency was created as a 
distinct entity. It includes all lands and in- 
closed seas of that region southward from the 
Falkland Islands to the Antarctie Pole. In its 
limits are Caird, Coates and Leopold coasts, 
Graham Land, the Sandwich group, South 
Georgia, the South Orkneys and the South Shet- 
lands. Argentina occupies its meteorological 
station on the South Orkneys by British permit, 
and the use of land stations for fisheries is 
possible only under licenses. The whale fishery 
of these seas is the most extensive in the world, 
and the eatch of 1920-21 produced 435,000 bar- 
rels of oil, mostly taken by Norwegians. The 
British government began in 1923 an economic 
study of the food supply, habits, migration, etc., 
of the whales, and of other productive marine 
life in these waters. See Ross DEPENDENCY. 

FALL, ALBERT BACON (1861- yo aA 
American public official (see Vor. VIII). He 
was reélected to the United States Senate for 
the term 1919-25, but resigned in 1921 to be- 
come Secretary of the Interior at the request of 
President Harding. In June, 1921, the naval 
oil reserves were transferred to the Department 
of the Interior, and in 1922 Secretary Fall signed 
a long pending lease of the Teapot Dome oil dis- 
trict in Wyoming to the Sinclair oil interests, 
and also a lease of the resérves in California to 
KE. M. Doheny, an oil magnate. Only about one- 
third of the oil was heli for use of the 
navy. Later Fall resigned his secretaryship. In 
1924 an investigation was begun by the Public 
Lands Committee of the Senate, and Fall ap- 
peared before a subcommittee and denied that 
he had received any money from Sinclair or 
Doheny, but on January 24, Doheny testified be- 
fore the Committee that he had “lent” Fall 


FARM INSTITUTES 


$100,000 without security or interest. On July 
15 he was indicted on three counts, the first and 
third relating to the alleged $100,000 payment, 
the second charging conspiracy with Harry F. 
Sinclair in regard to the Wyoming or Teapot 
see leases, and entering into contracts without 
ids... : 

FALLA, MANUEL DE (1876- ). A Span- 
ish composer, born at Cadiz. He studied at the 
Madrid Conservatory under Tragé (piano) and 
Pedrell (composition), and while still a student 
wrote several zarzuelas which he offered to the 
managers in vain. Unable to obtain a hearing 
in his native land, he went to Paris in 1907, 
where, after some hard years, Debussy and 
Dukas became interested in him. After his first 
opera, La Vida Breve, written in 1904, had been 
successful in Nice (1913) and -Paris (1914), it 
was brought out in several cities of Spain and 
won recognition for the composer. De Falla 
then settled in Granada. Although not a pro- 
lific writer, he is the acknowledged leader of 
Spanish futurists. His other works are the 
ballets, El Amor Brujo (Madrid, 1915), El 
Sombrero de Tres Picos (London, 1919), and 
El Retablo del Maese Pedro (Madrid, 1923) ; 
three pieces for orchestra, Noches en los Jar- 
dines de Espana, En el Generalife, and Danza 
Lejana; and piano pieces and songs. 

FALL RIVER. A port of entry of Massa- 
chusetts, and the largest cotton manufacturing 
centre of the United States. The population 
rose from 119,295 in 1910 to 120,485 in 1920, 
to 120,912 by estimate of the Bureau of the 
Census for 1923, and to 130,800 by local esti- 
mate for 1924. The city in 1923 adopted the 
report of the city-planning board issued on its 
survey of the city begun in 1920. The number 
of persons employed in the cotton mills of the 
city increased from 35,000 in 1914 to approxi- 
mately 40,000 in 1924, and the investment from 
$34,000,000 to $100,000,000. The largest fuel- 
oil refinery in New England, of 1,000,000 barrels 
monthly capacity, was built in 1922; in 1924, 
the first unit was begun of a power plant 
that would ultimately produce 275,000 horse 
power. 

FARABEE, WILLIAM Curtis (1865- i 
An American anthropologist who was born in 
Washington, Pa. He was in charge of the de 
Milhaud Harvard expedition, 1913-16, and 
curator of the Museum of Philadelphia. Be- 
sides his numerous contributions to anthropolog- 
ical and geographical magazines, he published 
The Central Arawaks (1918). 

FAR EASTERN REPUBLIC. See Srperra 
AND FAR EASTERN REPUBLIC; RUSSIA; JAPAN. 

FARMAN, Henri (1874—- ). A French 
designer of aircraft who was the first man in 
Europe to accomplish a flight of a mile. He is 
best known for his inventions based on the 
Voisin machine from which he evolved the air- 
plane bearing his name. He followed the lines 
of the Voisin type fairly closely but altered the 
controls and the design of the undercarriage. 
He reduced the weight and supporting area. 
This machine was prominent in the famous Lon- 
don to Manchester flight. 

FARM BUREAUS. See AcricuLTurAL Ex- 
TENSION Work. 

FARM COOPERATION. Sce AGRICULTURAL 

LIT. 

FARMING. See AGRICULTURE. 

FARM INSTITUTES. See 
EDUCATION. 


AGRICULTRAL, 


FARM TRACTOR 
FARM TRACTOR. The tractor is a me- 


chanically propelled prime mover having as its 
source of self-contained power usually either a 
steam or internal-combustion engine. ‘The sig- 
nificance of the tractor in agriculture is its util- 
ity as a source of tractive energy for field and 
hauling operations and as a source of belt power 
for stationary mechanical farm operations. The 
earlier tractors were large, heavy, and powerful 
machines actuated by steam engines. They were 
used almost exclusively for heavy hauling, heavy 
drawbar work such as the pulling of very large 
gang plows in the breaking of virgin prairie 
lands on a large scale, and for heavy farm belt 
work such as the operation of threshers, usually 
on custom work. Steam tractors are still used 
in agriculture occasionally for operations re- 
quiring higher power. They are also used, par- 
ticularly in Europe, for the operation of cable- 
drawn plowing and cultivating outfits. In this 
the tractor itself is stationary and actuates a 
drum and cable which draws the plowing and 
cultivating apparatus back and forth across the 
field. Such outfits are especially adapted to 
swampy or other soil conditions which will not 
permit the operation of a heavy tractor in direct 
traction and where cultivation is necessary for 
the production of crops. 

The internal-combustion engine tractor is a 
more recent development and has now largely 
supplanted the steam tractor for use in agri- 
culture. There are a large number of types 
and sizes of internal-combustion engine tractors. 
In a broad general way this variation corresponds 
to distinct types of agricultural service. For 
example, the small garden tractor weighing 
about 500 pounds rated at 1.25—4 horse power, is 
adapted only to certain light garden drawbar op- 
erations and belt operations requiring a low 
maximum power. On the other hand, the ex- 
tremely large tractor weighing 30,000 pounds 
rated at 70-120 horse power, is adapted only to 
the heaviest of drawbar and belt operations. A 
great variety of types and sizes of tractors ex- 
ists between these two extremes. When it is 
considered that in 1922 there were over 300 dif- 
ferent types and sizes on the market, it would 
seem that the variation is due much more to 
lack of standardization than to the variation in 
the requirements of agricultural processes. 

As a rule, the general characteristics of a 
tractor for agricultural use are _ governed 
largely by the number and size of plows it can 
pull through average soil at an average depth 
and speed. While tractors are designed and 
built to run at speeds varying up to five miles 
or more per hour on actual drawbar work, a 
plowing speed of about 214 miles per hour for 
tractors of 15 drawbar horse power or less is 
generally considered to be the most efficient 
speed under average conditions. Small plats 
usually require only a small garden tractor of 
1.25-4 horse power which will pull a 12-inch 
plow. Truck farming will require a tractor ca- 
pable of pulling one 14-inch plow. Farms up to 
160 acres in size will require a tractor capable of 
pulling at least two plows, while large farms 
of 300 acres or more will require a tractor ca- 
pable of pulling three or more plows. As a 
very general average, and depending upon the 
soil, about eight drawbar horse power are re- 
quired to pull two 12-inch plows, 10 horse power 
for two 14-inch plows, 15 to 20 horse power for 
three to five 14-inch plows, 22 to 30 horse power 
for five or six 14-inch plows, and 30 to 45 horse 


443 


FARM TRACTOR 


power for from six to twelve 14-inch plows. It 
is to be noted that there is a wide variety of 
tractors to choose from when from 12 to 20 
drawbar horse power are required. 

The propulsion requirements in drawbar work 
govern the characteristics of the driving mech- 
anism and ground-gripping devices of tractors. 
Tractors divide, broadly, into wheel and crawler 
or self-tracklaying types. In the wheel type 
tractor, propulsion results from the action of 
two large drive wheels equipped with ground- 
gripping lugs and actuated by means of the 
engine through the medium of gears, clutches, 
and shafts. The majority of wheel tractors 
are steered with ordinary steering gear attached 
to two wheels independent of the drive wheels, 
although in some special types steering is done 
with the drive wheels. The majority of tractors 
are of the wheel type. Experience has shown 
that the drawbar requirements of most farms 
with favorable conditions of soil and topography 
ean be more effectively and economically met 
with wheel tractors than with crawler tractors, 
especially where the light or medium weight 
tractor is required. Considerable experience and 
care are necessary in the operation of wheel 
tractors, especially when drawing cultivating 
machinery, since the sudden and severe resist- 
ances occurring in cultivation emphasize the 
rotating tendency of the tractor around its 
drive wheel axles and frequently result in ac- 
cidents and damage. 

The crawler or tracklaying tractor is adapted 
especially for conditions where drawbar work 
is very heavy or where soil and topographic 
conditions will not permit the operation of a 
wheel tractor. Such a tractor consists of an 
engine and frame mounted on and propelled by 
a combination of large geared wheels and very 
broad, heavy endless chains. The power for 
propulsion is transmitted from the engine to 
the large gear wheels over which the endless 
chain passes, laying several links at a time on 
the ground as the tractor proceeds. These chains 
are wide and large enough so that the weight of 
the tractor is distributed over quite a broad 
area, resulting in a very low pressure on the 
soil per unit area. This permits the crawler 
tractor to operate with ease over soil in which 
a wheel tractor would sink. Since the chain 
tread extends the entire length of the tractor 
and on both sides thereof, the frictional con- 
tact of the soil-gripping devices is relatively 
very great and its propulsive energy is at a 
maximum. The crawler tractor is thus a very 
powerful unit. In addition, the large area of 
contact of the treads with the soil permits op- 
eration over ditches and land with rough topog- 
raphy. The crawler tractor has been found 
well adapted to the breaking of virgin swamp 
and cut-over lands in the United States and to 
rice land cultivation, especially in India. Ow- 
ing to its rather limited practical agricultural 
utility as compared to wheel tractors. the 
crawler is usually a heavy, high-powered unit 
of relatively high cost. 

About the hardest cgricultural belt work for 
which a tractor is adapted is operating the 
thresher. Such work will require from 10 to 
80 horse power, varying with the type of ma- 
chine and grain, but under most conditions the 
threshing of wheat and oats will require only 
from 20 to 30 belt horse power. Other of the 
larger belt power applications of the tractor are 
corn husking and shredding, hay baling, ensilage 


FARRAND 


cutting and blowing, corn shelling and _ feed 
grinding, all of which usually require less power 
than threshing. While there is considerable 
controversy as to the extent of the actual utility 
of the tractor in agriculture, obviously it has 
become a factor of considerable importance in 
farming operations. Its capability cf perform- 
ing timely field operations quickly and on a 
large scale was officially recognized by the 
French, British, and Italian governments in 
their efforts to increase food production during 
the War. It was extensively used in the 
United States for belt and drawbar operations 
on farms even prior to 1917. As evidence of 
the continued and increased belef in its utility 
on farms, especially under conditions where time- 
liness in the performance of belt and field op- 
erations is an important factor, a conservative 
estimate indicates that there were approximately 
325,000 internal-combustion tractors on farms 
in the United States on Jan. 1, 1923, and ap- 
proximately 400,000 on Jan. 1, 1924, represent- 
ing an actual increase of 100,000 and a discard 
of 25,000 in one year. The conditions and re- 
quirements of service for different localities and 
types of farming are so variable as to make it 
difficult to estimate the average life of a tractor 
with any accuracy. An estimate of from five 
to seven years would probably be sufficiently con- 
servative for the majority of conditions of normal 
service. 

Bibliography. Consult: A. FF. Collins, 
Farm and Garden Tractors (New York, 1920) ; 
E. F. Hallock, Tractor Engines (Cincinnati, 
1920); C. B. Hayward, Gasoline Tractors (Chi- 
cago, 1919); L. A. Reynoldson, Influence of the 
Tractor on the Use of Horses (United States 
Department of eAgriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 
1093, 1920); G. Sherwood, The Farm Tractor 
Handbook (London, 1919); J. H. Stephenson, 
Traction Farming and Traction Engineering 
(Chicago, 1917) ; H. R. Tolley and L. M. Church, 
Tractors on Southern Farms (United States 
Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 
1278, 1922); H. R. Tolley and L. A. Reynoldson, 
The Cost and Utilization of Power on Farms 
Where Tractors Are Owned (United States De- 
partment of Agriculture, Bulletin 997, 1921). 

FARRAND, Livineston (1867- ian 
American educator. In 1914 he became presi- 
dent of the University of Colorado, and held 
that position until 1919. During the War he 
was director in France of the International 
Health Board, in 1917-18, and from 1919 to 
1921 was chairman of the Central Committee 
of the American Red Cross. In the latter year 
he was chosen president of Cornell University. 
He contributed many articles to psychological 
' and anthropological publications. 

FARRAND, MAx (1869- ). An Ameri- 
can university professor (see Von. VIII). He 
published Development of the United States 
(1918) and Fathers of the Constitution (1921). 

FARRAR, GERALDINE (1882- yeh am 
American dramatic soprano (see VoL. VIII). 
At the height of her artistic powers she retired 
from the operatic stage, appearing for the last 
time at the Metropolitan Opera House as Zaza, 
in Leoncavallo’s opera, on -Apr. 22, 1922. 
After the fall of the curtain, scenes of wild en- 
thusiasm were enacted inside the house and on 
the street. For 16 consecutive seasons she had 
been one of the most popular artists of the com- 
pany. Since the sensational success of her film 
production of Carmen, in 1915, she has been in- 


444 


FASCISM 


creasingly active in this field. In 1916 she pub- 
lished an autobiography, Geraldine Farrar (Bos- 
ton). 

FARRERE, Ciaupre. Pseudonym of CHARLES 
BARGONE (q.v.) 

FARWELL, ARTHUR (1872- ). An 
American composer, born at St. Paul. He 
studied with Norris in Boston, Humperdinck in 
Berlin, and Guilmant in Paris. From 1910 to 
1913 he was director of municipal concerts in 
New York City, and from 1915 to 1918, director 
of the Music School Settlement there. He then 
moved to Pasadena, where he devoted much time 
to community music. He was always deeply 
interested in the music of the American Indians 
and at various times visited Indian reservations. 
In 1901 he established at Newton Centre, Mass., 
the Wa-Wan Press for the publication of Amer- 
ican works, especially those based on Indian 
themes. He was the first recipient of the Com- 
posers’ Fellowship awarded by the Pasadena 
Musie and Art Association (1921). In his com- 
positions he employs chiefly Indian themes. 
He published collections of Indian melodies 
and folk-songs of the South and West and was 
known as a writer on his subject, particularly 
through his former associate editorship of 
Musical America. 

FASCISM. Fascism (Italian, fascismo) 
denotes an ultranationalistic regenerative move- 
ment which played a prominent role in the post- 
bellum development of Italy, 1919-24, and 
which spread to Spain, Bavaria, and other coun- 
tries. The central impulse of Fascism was na- 


tionalism, an ideal generating in turn the de- 


termination to extricate Italy from chaos, to 
give her moral unity, to make her a new state, 
and to make it an axiom and a creed with every 
one that all social progress must be through 
and by the nation. Fascism came into power 
with dramatic suddenness, a movement of emo- 
tion and action fusing together in the crucible 
of patriotism the most diverse elements of Ital- 
ian society: soldiers back from the trenches, 
business men, peasants, and proletarians. The 
first groups of Fascisti were formed in March, 
1919, at the very moment when Italy’s national- 
ist claims to Fiume were being disputed at 
Paris, while within Italy communist agitators 
were boldly preaching not only social revolution 
but also antimilitayism and pacifism. The two- 
fold aim of the original Fascisti was to suppress 
communism and exalt patriotism. Taking their 
name from the Latin fasces, the bundle of rods 
wrapped round an ax to indicate power to pun- 
ish offenders, the Fascisti assumed the right to 
enforce order by using violence against socialists 
and pacifists. Unlike members of the American 
Ku Klux Klan, the Fascisti did not conceal their 
identity; but like the Klan, they appreciated 
the emotional appeal of uniforms, organization, 
and sonorously titled officers. Each active mem- 
ber of the Fascist organization wore a black 
shirt, oftentimes decorated with war medals; 
for many had fought with distinction in the 
War. The organization was very elaborate, 
modeled on the ancient Roman imperial army. 
Strict discipline bound rank and file to obedi- 
ence. And at the head of the movement was 
the forceful Benito Mussolini, a blacksmith’s 
son, once a socialist, and later editor of the 
patriotic Popolo d’Italia. 

During the early stages of the movement, 
two phases of activity were most notable. First 
and foremost, the Fascisti, as has been said, 


—_ ~~ 


FASCISM 445 


were patriots, superpatriots, and they expressed 
their loyalty to Italy by forcibly suppressing 
pacifist demonstrations, by conducting prop- 


-aganda in favor of Italy’s most extreme terri- 


torial claims, to the Tirol, Istria, Fiume, Dal- 
matia, Albania, ete.; and by inculeating a spirit 
of devotion, almost of worship, toward the na- 
tional state. One very significant manifesta- 


tion of this nationalist devotion was the scorch- 


ing criticism which the Fascisti heaped on the 
“outworn and incapable governments which had 
become a menace to the development of Italy and 
under whose rule the authority of the state had 
fallen into decadence and decay.” Fascist writ- 
ers and speakers, with this phase of their move- 
ment in mind, often described Fascism as a 
“spiritual revolt.” Secondly, Fascism was anti- 
communist. From 1919 to 1922 it waged a sort 
of guerrilla warfare against socialism in Italy; 
Fascisti roughly dispersed Socialist party meet- 
ings, raided Socialist printing offices and head- 
quarters, and administered novel and ingenious 
forms of physical punishment to leading Com- 
munists. Further, it organized labor unions of 
its own, found work for the unemployed with 
Fascist capitalists, and thanks to its success in 
these directions, soon began to accept the affilia- 
tion of unions which deserted socialism. To 
prevent the landless peasants of southern Italy 
and Sicily from joining forces with the social 
revolution, the Fascisti took it on themselves in 
many localities to cut the Gordian knot of the 
agrarian problem by compelling landlords to 
subdivide and sell their estates, or by per- 
suading friendly landowners to offer small plots 
for sale to peasants. So effective were these 
measures that communism in Italy was, if not 
annihilated, at least compelled to work under- 
ground, and even the more moderate political 
socialism was reduced to impotence. By 1921, 
Fascism, in the words of Mussolini himself, 
was no longer “liberation but tyranny; no longer 
the safeguard of the nation, but the upholding 
of private interests and of the most grovelling 
and unenlightened classes existing in Italy.” 
Cesare Rossi, one of Mussolini’s chief lieuten- 
ants, likewise said, “Fascism has become, in 
truth, an entirely conservative and reactionary 
movement. ... Jt reacts with foolish and pur- 
poseless cruelty against everything that tells of 
progress in the life of to-day... . That very 
character of petty, overbearing tyranny, of 
which we used to accuse the Socialist party in 
the days .. . of their supremacy, has now been 
transferred to the vory heart of the Fascist 
movement.” 

As the organization became more powerful, 
it entered its political phase. Indeed, now that 
it embraced workingmen and peasants as well 
as bourgeois and militarists, it could no longer 
pursue a clear-cut policy in economic matters, 
nor could it survive permanently by merely 
talking about patriotism. Political action was 
a necessity as well as a logical Consummation 
of the order’s career. Gradually the Fascisti 
gained control of many municipalities, using 
violence where votes would not avail. Then 
their leaders looked to Rome. Mussolini grew 
more insistent in his declarations that the ex- 
isting parliamentary government, headed by a 
vacillating coalition cabinet, was unrepresenta- 
tive and unworthy of Italy. Soon he had the 
temerity to demand for himself and his follow- 
ers places in the cabinet. Meeting refusal, he 
became but more ambitious. In October, 1922, 


FAULHABER 


he compelled the Ministry to resign and installed 
a Fascist cabinet. See Iraty, History. 

The Fascisti preserved their organization as 
a sort of unofficial militia on which Mussolini 
could, if need be, rely; at the same time they 
constituted themselves a political party for 
parliamentary and electioneering purposes. 
Though he had denounced the inefficiency and 
unrepresentative character of parliamentary 
government, Mussolini utilized Parliament to 
earry out his own policies, and after he had 
won a sweeping electoral victory, his adminis- 
tration became in form at least a responsible 
government, like its despised predecessors. 
One marked difference characterizing Fascist 
rule, however, was the fact that force was 
relied on as an expedient to be employed if 
democracy failed. “I declare,” said Mussolini 
in 1923, “that my desire is to govern, if pos- 
sible, with the consent of the majority, but in 
order to obtain, to foster, and to strengthen that 
consent, I will use all the force at my disposal.” 
All else failing, “there is always force.” This 
was the aspect of Fascism that appealed so 
strongly to ambitious leaders in Spain, Bavaria, 
Bulgaria, Mexico, and many another country: 
if votes fail, there is always violence. 

In economic policy since 1922, the Fascists 
emphasized chiefly the reform of governmental 
finance. In reducing expenditures, to balance 
the budget, they performed fiscal miracles. For 
labor, they enacted an eight-hour day law and a 
collective agreements law designed to promote 
collective bargaining between organized labor 
and organized capital. This was their sub- 
stitute, in practice, for the state socialism, the 
syndicalism, or the communism which radical 
workers had desired. State monopolies, such as 
telephone service, matches, etc., were handed 
over to private companies, in accordance with 
the Fascist principle of maintaining private en- 
terprise and combating state socialism. In re- 
ligion, the Fascisti, in power, were partisans of 
reconciliation between Catholic and non-Catho- 
lic; they restored compulsory religious instruc- 
tion; and they endeavored to establish more 
cordial relations with the Vatican—all for the 
sake of that national unity which, to their way 
of thinking, should transcend all else. This 
brings us, finally, to the patriotic or nation- 
alist aspect. In keeping with its ardent na- 
tionalism, Fascism insisted on improvement of 
military, naval, and, above all, air forces; it 
revived interest in the colonies; it persistently 
cherished irredentist hopes for Fiume until in 
1924 Mussolini was able to obtain the coveted 
city; it was ready to burst into hot flames of 
chauvinist emotion at any slight to national 
honor. Such a force, as the Corfu incident 
only too clearly showed, could be a peril to 
European peace as well as a temptation to 


aggression. See ITALy. 
FATIGUE. See PsycHotocgy, ABNORMAL. 
FAULHABER, MicHarL von (1869- ya 


A bishop of Munich, born at Heidenfeld. | He took 
his degree at the University of Wiirzberg and 
spent some years in Rome. He is the author of 
works of timely import, among them Petrus 
Stirbt Nicht (1903); Die Vesperpsalmen 
(1906); Schule und Religion (1907); Priester 
und Volk (1911); Hirtenbriefe (1912); Char- 
akterbilder aus der Biblischen Frauenwelt 
(1920); Die Fretheit der Kirche (1913); Waf- 
fen des Lichtes (1918); Das Schwert der Geis- 
ter (1918); Trennung von Kirche und Staat 


FAULKNER 446 


(1919); Zeitfragen und Zeitaufgaben (1920) ; 
and Das Papsttum in Unserer Demokratischen 
Zeit (1920). 

FAULKNER, JOHN ALFRED (1857- ye 
An American church historian (see Vou. VIII). 
He published Wesley as Sociologist, Theologian, 
Churchman (1918), Value of Study of Church 
History (1920), and Modernism and the Chris- 
tian Faith (1921). 

FAY, Apert Hitt (1871- ). An Amer- 
ican mining engineer, born in Appleton City, 
Mo. He graduated from the Missouri School 
of Mines in 1902 and took post-graduate courses 
at Columbia. He was in charge of mining op- 
erations in Mexico, Alaska and Tennessee until 
1908, when he joined the editorial staff of the 
Engineering and Mining Journal, He served 
with the Bureau of Mines from 191] to 1920, 
and from the latter date was valuation en- 
gineer with the Internal Revenue Bureau. From 
1921 he was also head of the natural resources 
division of that bureau. He wrote Coal Mine 
Fatalities in the United States, 1870 to 1916 
(1916); Glossary of the Mining and Mineral 
Industry (1920). He also wrote numerous tech- 
nical bulletins. 

FAY, Henry (1868-— ). An American 
chemist, born in Williamsport, Pa. He gradu- 
ated from Lafayette College in 1889 and took 
post-graduate courses at Johns Hopkins. He 
was instructor at that university from 1893 to 
1895, and from the latter date to 1920 was a 
member of the faculty of the Massachusetts In- 
stitute of Technology, becoming professor of 
analytical chemistry and metallography in 
1920. He was also consulting chemist for sev- 
eral large corporations and was lecturer at the 
United States Military Academy and the United 
States Naval Academy. He wrote Microscopic 
Examination of Steel, 1917, and contributed 
articles on chemistry and metallography to vari- 
ous journals. 

FAYANT, Frank H._ (1876- ) eA 
American publicist, born at Fort Plain, N. Y., 
and educated at Cornell University. He worked 
on various newspapers from 1895 to 1900, act- 
ing as war correspondent for the New York Sun 
in the West Indies from 1898 to 1900. In the 
latter year he was London correspondent for 
the New York Herald and served other Amer- 
ican magazines and journals until 1911, when 
he became a member of the editorial staff of 
the banking and currency reform campaign. 
He served during the World War in various im- 
portant capacities and is author of Fools and 
Their Money (1907), Government and the Rail- 
roads (1919), To Increase Railroad Efficiency 
(1922), and other works: 

FAYOLLE, Marie Emite (1852- JnncA 
French soldier. He was educated at the Supe- 
rior School of War and for several years served 
as instructor at that institution. In 1903 he 
was promoted lieutenant-colonel and became gen- 
eral in 1910. In 1914 he commanded the artil- 
lery brigade of Vincennes, and in the same year 
was made commander of the 70th Division of 
Infantry. In the year following he was made 
commander of the 33d Army Corps, and later of 
the 6th French Army. He was given command 
of the French forces in Italy in December, 1917. 
He greatly distinguished himself in the first 
French offensive in Lorraine, in 1914, by ener- 
getic action which held up the German advance. 
He also performed important service in the bat- 
tles of Arras. His name is chiefly connected, 


FEDERAL COUNCIL OF CHURCHES 


however, with the battle of Somme, in 1915. 
Here he commanded the 4th French Army. In 
1918 he was given command of a group of armies 
which included a part of the American Expedi- 
tionary Force. His efforts in withstanding the 
movements of the Germans at Amiens in 1918 
were especially effective. In 1920 he visited the 
United States as a representative of General 
Foch at the convention of the American Legion. 

FAZY, HENR1 (1842-1920). A Swiss Radical 
statesman and historian, born at Berne. He 
studied philosophy and law at Geneva; in 1860, 
he became a member of the cantonal parliament, 
and in 1897, a member for the remainder of his 
life of the cantonal executive. Like his great- 
uncle, James Fazy, he played a prominent part 
in Radical politics at Geneva. His proposal to 
separate the Church and State was not accepted 
by the Swiss until 1907. He was a member of 
the Swiss National Council (1896-99, 1902-20), 
archivist of Geneva, and professor of Swiss his- 
tory at the University of Geneva (1896-99, 
1902-20). Although the Radicals were com- 
pletely defeated in the election of 1918, he still 
held his office. His Life of James Fazy ap- 
peared in 1890, works on the Swiss Government 
shortly afterward, Histoire de Genéve a VEpoque 
de lEscalade, 1589-1601 (1902), and Genéve et 
Charles Emmanuel (1909). 

FECHTER, Paut (1880- ). A German 
editor and art-critic. He has been literary and 
dramatic editor of the Dresdener Neueste Nach- 
richten, the Vossische Zeitung, and other promi- 
nent papers, and is the author of Der Expres- 
sionismus (1914), Frank Wedekind (1920), 
Das Graphische Werk Max Pechsteins (1920), 
Die Tragédie der Architektur (1921), and 
other works. 

FEDERAL AID ROAD ACT. See Roaps 
AND PAVEMENTS. 

FEDERAL COUNCIL OF THE 
CHURCHES OF CHRIST IN AMERICA. 
Founded in 1908 by the official action of 30 
Protestant denominations in the United States 
to represent them and act for them in matters 
of common interest. No control was exercised 
over the churches; rather it was their own 
agency for codperation and common expression, 
directed and controlled by their representatives. 
Four hundred members elected by the denomina- 
tional assemblies compose the quadrennial Coun- 
ceil, which met in 1916 and 1920 and was 
scheduled to meet in December, 1924. The ex- 
ecutive committee met annually; the adminis- 
trative committee, monthly. 

The activities of the Council during the years 
between 1914 and 1924 were varied and were 
carried on through numerous commissions. The 
commission on international justice and good- 
will was especially active. It rendered effec- 
tive service in European relief movements and 
for several years was of assistance to the Near 
East Relief. A committee on mercy and relief 
was appointed, through which, in the summer 
of 1922, a representative of the Council was 
sent to Russia to distribute relief, especially 
to the destitute among the clergy of the Rus- 
sian church and their dependents; in 1924 it 
earried on a church campaign for the relief of 
German children. Through its committee on 
relations with the Orient a representative of 
the missionaries of Japan toured the United 
States in 1924 in the interest of good feeling be- 
tween this country and the eastern races; in 
return a Christian embassy was sent to Japan 


: 
; 


FEDERAL COUNCIL OF CHURCHES 447 


the following year. This Committee made in- 
vestigations on the Pacific coast of the Japanese 
problem in the United States and in 1919 
started a movement to urge Congress to in- 
troduce an amendment to the Constitution ad- 
mitting to citizenship in the United States 
Chinese and Japanese already in this coun- 
try, but at the same time in no way affect- 
ing the Chinese Exclusion Act and other im- 


migration laws. In 1922-23 a special com- 
missioner was in the Orient in the interest 


of furthering a better understanding between 
the eastern and western worlds. 

The commission on international justice and 
goodwill also, when the Disarmament Confer- 
ence was assembled at Washington, worked 
through the churches to influence public opin- 
ion in favor of its proposals. On the suc- 
cessful completion of the treaties on disarma- 
ment it continued its activities unabated to 
secure the participation of the United States in 
permanent organized codperation for world peace 
and human welfare. During 1924 it concen- 
trated attention on the entrance of the United 
States into the Permanent Court of Interna- 
tional Justice. 

In May, 1917, the Federal Council held a 
special meeting to consider the problems of 
the churches arising from the entrance of the 
United States into the War. There was organ- 
ized, to codrdinate the work of the denomina- 
tions in behalf of the soldiers and sailors, the 
general war-time commission of the churches. 
It also worked with the various relief agencies 
in Europe. On its dissolution in 1919 it ap- 
pointed a committee on the War and the re- 
ligious outlook, made up of a few representa- 
tives of the larger churches, to study the state 
of religion as revealed or affected by the War. 
It issued several volumes setting forth the re- 
sults of its findings, including The Church and 
Industrial Reconstruction and Christian Unity: 
Its Principles and Possibilities. 

Other commissions took up the relief and 
reconstruction work of the Council in Europe 
after the close of the War, assisted the churches 
in the devastated countries, and were active in 
initiating and preparing the way for a uni- 
versal conference of the Church of Christ on 
life and work, to be held in 1925 for the pur- 
pose of considering how the churches of the 
world can bring about a fuller application of 
the Christian gospel to modern life. 

The commission on the church and _ social 
service was actively engaged in efforts to im- 
prove industrial relations and promote the in- 
telligent codperation of the churches in commu- 
nity service and in support of such social move- 
ments as prison reform and the abolition of 
child labor. Many of the contacts for this 
work were formed during the War when the 
commission codperated with the Red Cross in 
army and navy centres, industrial centres, and 
Negro communities. 

The department of research and education de- 
voted itself chiefly to bringing together and in- 
terpreting social data made available by vari- 
ous research organizations in so far as they 
bore on the work of organized religion. Cer- 
tain original studies were made, as in the 
case of industrial disputes where the human 
factors were an important element in the situ- 
ation. The department issued a weekly informa- 
tion service and occasional bulletins on par- 
ticular subjects; for example, wages, hours of 


FEDERN 


work ete. It maintained, jointly with the Na- 
tional Catholic Welfare Council and the Cen- 
tral Conference of American Rabbis, a con- 
ference on economic factors in international re- 
lations which in 1924 was preparing educational 
material for the churches on the economic basis 
underlying hostile relations between govern- 
ments. 

In 1918 the Council introduced carefully 
prepared lessons in international peace into the 
Sunday schools and also took up the matter of 
religious instruction in codperation with the 
public schools. It developed codperation be- 
tween the various denominational commissions 
on evangelism, making available for all those 
methods which each had found most success- 
ful; carried on temperance education, through 
prohibition pamphlets and motion pictures; and 
made a survey of religious conditions in rural 
communities throughout Ohio. 

The committee on the church and race rela- 
tions was organized in 1921 to bring about 
fuller codperation between whites and Negroes. 
There were also permanent committees on army 
and navy chaplains, on religious work in the 
Canal Zone, on the interchange of preachers 
and speakers between the churches of Amer- 
ica, Great Britain and France, and an edito- 
rial council of the religious press. The publicity 
department issued the bi-monthly Federal Coun- 
cil Bulletin. The presidents of the Council 
during the period were Dean Shailer Mathews, 
1912-16; the Rev. Frank Mason North, 1916- 
20; and Dr. Robert E. Speer, 1920-24. 

FEDERAL FARM LOAN ACT. See Aari- 
CULTURAL CREDIT. 

FEDERAL HORTICULTURAL BOARD. 
See HorTICULTURE. 

FEDERAL LAND BANKS. See AGRICUL- 
TURAL CREDIT. 

FEDERAL POWER COMMISSION. See 
WATER POWER. 

FEDERAL RESERVE BANKING SYS- 
TEM. See FINANCE AND BANKING; AGRICUL- 
TURAL CREDIT; UNITED STATES, History. 

FEDERAL TERRITORY. A territory of 
the Australian commonwealth lying within the 
state of New South Wales. Area, 940 square 
miles; population in 1911, 1714; in 1922, 2592. 
The site for a Federal capital and a _ port 
was acquired from New South Wales in 1909 
and work was begun in 1913 on the construc- 
tion of the commonwealth’s capital city. An 
additional area of 28 miles at Jervis Bay was 
added for the purpose of establishing a naval 
college. Progress on the work was seriously 
retarded during the War. By 1922, upwards 
of $5,000,000 had been spent. 

FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION. See 
TRUSTS. 

FEDERAL WATER POWER ACT. See 
WATER POWER. 

FEDERATION INTERALLIEE DES AN- 
CIENS COMBATTANTS. See Lecion, AMERI- 
CAN. 

FEDERATION: OF LABOR, AMERICAN. 
See Laspor, AMERICAN FEDERATION OF. 

FEDERN, Kari (1868-— ). An Austrian 
critic, translator, and authority on Dante. He 
was born in Vienna. He studied law at the 
University of Vienna and practiced it before he 
turned to literature. He traveled in Italy, Eng- 
land, and France and has written on a great 
variety of subjects. His earliest works, includ- 
ing Gedichte (1893) and Kénig Philipps Frau- 


FELAND 448 


en (1894) were poetical, but he soon abandoned 
verse for prose. His book on the Vita Nuova, 
Das Neue Leben des Dante Alighieri (1897), 
was the forerunner of his Dante, a biography 
(1900), which has been translated into other 
languages. ‘Two noteworthy books of essays are 
Essays zur Amerikanischen Litteratur (1899) 
and Hssays zur Vergleichenden Litteraturge- 
schichte (1904). Other works are Frauenrecht 
und Logik (1904) and the book in which he 
branded the attitude of Italian judges toward 
women, Der Prozes Bonmartini-Murri (1906), 
translated into Italian and French. He also 
wrote some fiction, Zwei Novellen (1899), Rosa 
Maria (1901), and Die Flamme des Lebens 
(1906), and edited a collection of the world’s 
fiction, Hundert Novellen (1912-13). As a stu- 
dent of seventeenth-century France he wrote 
Der Chevalier Grammont (1910) and Schriften 
und Briefe des Herrn St. Hvremond (1912). 
To the literature of the War he contributed 
Die Politik der Dreiverbiindeten (1915). He 
has translated Emerson, Edward Carpenter, 
Mesnil, Whitman, Croce, and others. 

FELAND, Logan (1869- ). An Ameri- 
ean soldier, born in Hopkinsville, Ky. He grad- 
uated from the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
nology in 1892. He served in the Spanish- 
American War and in 1899 was appointed first 
lieutenant in the’ Marine Corps. He was pro- 
moted to be major in 1916, colonel in 1918, 
and brigadier-general in 1920. He served in the 
Philippines, Panama, Cuba and Santo Domingo. 
He was commander of the 5th Regiment of 
Marines in 1918 and the 2d Brigade of Marines 
in Santo Domingo in 1919-20. For distin- 
guished service in France, he was three times 
awarded the Croix de Guerre with Palm, and 
was made an Officer of the Legion of Honor. He 
also received the Army D. 8S. M. and the Navy 
D. 8S. M. for distinguished service. 

FELDEN, Emiu J. (1874- ). A German 
clergyman and author, born at Montigny (near 
Metz), and educated at the Gymnasium and 
the University of Strassburg. After serving as 
vicar and then pastor in various places, he was 
finally made primate of St. Martini, Bremen, 
in 1907. In 1904 he was editor of the Elsés- 
sische Tageblatt of Colmar. He became a mem- 
ber of the Bremen Biirgerschaft in 1920. Be- 
sides articles on religion and ethics in news- 
papers and periodicals, he is the author of nu- 
merous works, among them Im (Gebirgsdorf, a 
novel (1899); Die Protestantische Kirche in 
Deutschland (1902); Kirchlicher Liberalismus 
und Radikalismus (1908) ; Kénigskinder (1914) ; 
Kind und Gottesglaube (1915); Grundriss eines 


Freien Religionsunterricht (1916); Menschen 
von Morgen (1918); Im Kampf um Frieden 
(1919); Die WSiinde des Vatikans (1920); 


Spiritismus und Andere Okkulten Systeme 
(1920); Sieghafte Menschen (1920), and Die 
Siinde wider das Volk (1921). He became 
the editor of the periodical Hs Werde Licht in 
1920. 

FELLOWSHIPS. See 
COLLEGES. 

FELTON, Lwuoyp Derr (1885- )aaAn 
American physician who, having received the de- 
gree of M.D. from Johns Hopkins, became at- 
tached to the Laboratory of Bacteriology and 
Immunology there. He resigned to accept a 
similar position at Harvard. In 1924, after 
researches pursued under the auspices of the 
Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, he an- 


UNIVERSITIES AND 


FERGUSON 


nounced the discovery of an antipneumonic 
serum which had already shown the ability to 
reduce greatly the mortality of that disease and 
had received the approbation of prominent 
health officers. Dr. Felton has recently been 
appointed assistant professor of hygiene and 
preventive medicine at Harvard. 

FELTON, SAMvuEL Morse (1853- ). An 
American railway official (see Von. VIII). He 
was appointed director-general of military rail- 
roads by the Secretary of War in 1917 and was 
chairman of the port and harbor facilities com- 
mission of the United States Shipping Board 
in 1918-19 and was acting chairman of the 
board in 1919. He was president of the West- 
ern Railway Association and a member of sev- 
eral engineering and patriotic societies. He 
was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal 
for his war-time services and was also awarded 
the Cross of the Legion of Honor by the French 
government. 

FEMINISM. See WoMAN SUFFRAGE; 
WoMEN IN INDUSTRY; PAINTING, France; AND 
ScutpTureE, United States. 

FENCING. See Sports. 

FENOLLOSA, Mary McNeEru (“SIDNEY 
Mc Catv”). An American author, born at 
Mobile, Ala., and educated at Irving Academy 
in that city. She is the author of entertaining 
stories, some of them dealing with Japan, where 
she lived for some years. Her works include 
A Flight of Verses (1899), The Dragon Paint- 
er (1906), The Breath of the Gods (1906, 
1920), Blossoms from a Japanese Garden 
(1915), Sunshine Beggars (1918), The Stirrup 
Latch (1917), Christopher Laird (1919), and 
others. She edited her husband’s Hpochs of 
Chinese and Japanese Art. 

FERBER, Epna (1887—- ). An American 
novelist and short story writer, born at Kala- 
mazoo, Mich. After studying at the Appleton 
(Wis.) High School, she became a reporter on 
the Appleton Daily Crescent, and was later em- 
ployed on the Milwaukee Journal and Chicago 
Tribune. Miss Ferber’s writings are charac- 
terized by understanding and alertness of 
thought. She has published Dawn O’Hara 
(1911), Buttered Side Down (1912), Roast 
Beef Medium (1913), Personality Plus (1914), 
Emma McChesney & Co. (1915), Fanny Her- 
self (1917), Cheerful by Request (1918), Half 
Portions (1919), The Girls (1921) ; the comedy, 
Our Mrs. McChesney, in collaboration with 
George V. Hobart; Gigolo (1922), and So Big 
(1924). 

FERDINAND I, Kine or _ BULGARIA 
(1861- ). (See Vou. VIII.) In 1918 he 
abdicated in favor of his son Boris and re- 
tired to Coburg. 

FERGUSON, Este (1885- ). An Amer- 
ican actress, born in New York. She made her 
first appearance at the Madison Square Theatre 
in Liberty Belles. She starred in The Outcast, 
Margaret Schiller, and Shirley Kaye. In 1917 
she went into motion pictures in Barbary Sheep 
and later did excellent work in Rose of the 
World, The Avalanche, The Witness for the De- 
fense, Footlights, and Peter Ibbetson, She re- 
turned to the speaking stage in 1920 in Sacred 
and Profane Love and appeared in The Varyin 
Shore (1921). 

FERGUSON, Frank WILLIAM (1861— ‘4 
An American architect, born at Portsmouth, 
N. H., and educated at Dartmouth College. As 


a member of the firm of Cram and Ferguson he — 


OE = SO 


a ee ee” a 


FERGUSON 


helped plan buildings at the United States 
Military Academy at West Point, Saint 
Thomas’s Church in New York City, Prince- 
ton University, Richmond College, Williams 
College, and Rice Institute at Houston, Tex. 

FERGUSON, JoHN CaALvIN (1866- ). 
An American in the service of the Chinese sov- 
ernment (see Vor. VIII). He was counselor 
in the Chinese Department of State in 1915-17 
and became adviser to the President of the 
Republic of China in 1917. He was a delegate 
to the Disarmament Conference (1921). 

FERNALD, Rospert HEywoop (1871-— "4 
An American engineer, born at Orono, Me. He 
studied at the Maine State College and at the 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Case 
School of Applied Science, and Columbia Uni- 
versity. For several years he was a member 
of the faculty of the Case School, and from 
1902 to 1907 was professor of mechanical en- 
gineering at Washington University. From 
1907 to 1912 he was professor of mechanical 
engineering at the Case School, and from 1912 
to 1921 was Whitney professor of dynamical 
engineering at the University of Pennsylvania. 
From the latter date he was director of the 
Department of Mechanical Engineering at that 
university. He was a member of many engi- 
neering societies and was the author of many 
reports and bulletins relating to the conserva- 
tion of the fuel resources of the United States. 

FERNOW, Bernyuarp Epuarp (1851-1923). 
An American forester and educator (See Vot. 
VIII). From 1907 to 1919 he was dean of the 
faculty of forestry at the University of Toron- 
to and in the latter year was retired as pro- 
fessor emeritus. 

FERRAN Y CRUA, Jaime (1852-1919). A 
Spanish bacteriologist and sanitarian, contem- 
porary of Koch and said by his fellows to have 
made some of the latter’s discoveries inde- 
pendently and to have anticipated many im- 
portant developments in the prevention of epi- 
demic diseases. As early as 1885 he wrote on 
immunization against cholera. In 1893 his work 
on this subject was translated into French with 
the title L’Inoculation préventive contre le 
Cholera. Recently (1921) Fernandez, a Span- 
iard, published a considerable volume, with a 
Latin title, Woe to Great Inventors, seeking to 
show that Ferran had anticipated the methods 
of immunization practiced successfully in the 
War by 30 years. Another subject in which 
Ferran was always deeply interested is tuber- 
culosis and the possibility of immunization 
against it. Some of his ideas on the transmis- 
sion and virulence of this disease are revolu- 
tionary. 

FERRI, Enrico (1856— ). An Italian 
criminologist (see Vor. VIII). After 1914 he 
published Jl Diritto Staccionata (1916); L’Azi- 
one di Risarcimento dei Danni dell’ Imputato 
Assolto contro il Denunziante (1916); Enrico 
Pessina ed il Pensiero Italiano sulla Giustizia 
Penale Discorso Commemorativo (1917), and 
Commissione Reale per la Reforma della Leggi 
Penali (French, English, German translations; 
1921). His Criminal Sociology appeared in a 
new English translation in 1917. He is the 
subject of one of the chapters in Giovanni Pa- 
pini’s Ventiquattro Cervelli; Saggi non Critict 
(1918). 

FERRIS, Davin Lincotn (1864- ). An 
American bishop, born at Peekskill, N. Y., and 
educated at the Peekskill Military Acadamy, 


449 


FERTILIZERS 


the Cayuga Lake Military Academy, Hobart 
College (Geneva, N. Y.), and the Berkeley Di- 
vinity School (Middletown, Conn.). He was 
ordained priest in the Protestant Episcopal 
Chureh in 1894, having become deacon in the 
year preceding. He held several pastorates 
from 1893 to 1920, becoming in the latter year 
suffragan bishop of the diocese of Western 
New York. He served on various religious 
boards and committees and was made a trustee 
of Hobart College. 

FERRIS, Wooppripce NATHAN (1853- yi 
An American educator and public official (see 
Vou. VIII). He was governor of Michigan, 
1913-14 and 1915-16, and was elected United 
States Senator for 1923-29. 

FERTILIZERS. The term fertilizer as 
used in this article includes not only com- 
mercial fertilizers, but also farm manures and 
other substances added to the soil to increase 
its productiveness. It therefore includes ma- 
terials which not only furnish plant food but 
perform other functions in correcting soil defi- 
ciencies and promoting plant growth. During 
and immediately following the War, the price 
of commercial fertilizers was prohibitively high, 
with the result that the use of fertilizers was 
seriously curtailed to the detriment of the 
manufacturer and the farmer. The effect of 
the War upon the production and price of fer- 
tilizers is strikingly indicated by the fact that 
there were produced in the United States in 
1921, 5,994,179 tons (of 2000 Ib. each) of fer- 
tilizers valued at $174,878,864, as compared with 
8,432,206 tons valued at $153,260,212 in 1914. 
Fertilizer prices reached their. peak in 1919. 
Recognizing the need for cheaper fertilizers, the 
Tariff Act of 1922 exempted from duty all 
materials used chiefly for fertilizing, as well 
as sulphuric acid, an essential in the fertilizer 
industry. Prices in 1924 were about 1913 levels 
plus the increased cost of labor and freight. It 
is estimated that freight alone on raw ma- 
terials and finished product represents 25 to 
30 per cent of the average cost of fertilizers 
to farmers. This emphasizes especially the im- 
portance of high grade concentrated fertilizers 
and fully justifies the recent effort which is 
being made to reduce the number of fertilizer 
formulas and to encourage the use of only high 
grade mixtures. 

The experience of the ten years 1914-24 
demonstrated strikingly the precarious nature 
of the world’s supply of raw materials for 


_ fertilizers in times of disturbed commerce, par- 


ticularly that of nitrogen. Nitrogen for fertil- 
izer purposes is largely drawn from the nitrate 
deposits of Chile, but these are steadily de- 
clining in quantity and quality and increasing 
in cost of mining and delivery to consumers. 
Moreover, this source of supply may be cut off 
entirely in times of war or other disturbed con- 
ditions. The production of sulphate of am- 
monia as a by-product of coke ovens cannot be 
expected to meet the world’s needs, and or 
ganic sources of nitrogen, such as cottonseed 
meal, slaughterhouse products, and the like, are 
being more profitably utilized for other pur- 
poses. Fertilizer nitrogen must therefore come 
in increasing proportion from other sources. 
Fixation of the nitrogen of the air by electrical 
processes offers an inexhaustible supply. The 
world’s production of fixed nitrogen increased 
from about 1 to 35 or 40 per cent of the 
total production of nitrogen fertilizer between 


FERTILIZERS 


1914 and 1924. In 1910 Germany imported 65 
per cent of the nitrogen compounds she used. 
In 1924, largely because of development of. fixa- 
tion processes, she was practically independent 
in this respect. A considerable ‘fixed nitrogen 
industry also was developed in Norway, but 
practically nothing had been achieved in this 
direction in the United States up to 1924, al- 
though, with an appropriation of $20,000,000 
carried in the National Defense Act, construc- 
tion was begun in 1916 at Muscle Shoals, Ala., 
of a plant estimated to have a capacity of 
40,000 tons of fixed nitrogen per year. This 
plant had not been completed and operated, and 
President Coolidge recommended to Congress 
that it be sold, subject to recall in time of war 
and with a proviso requiring further investi- 
gation with the object of cheapening the cost 
of the fertilizer produced. Various offers and 
proposals were under consideration by Con- 
gress. (See MusScLE SHOALS.) A Fixed Nitro- 
gen Laboratory was established in 1919 by the 
Secretary of War, under the National Defense 
Act, to aid in developing the industry and espe- 
cially for perfecting methods. This laboratory, 
transferred to the Department of Agriculture in 
1921, reported the discovery of a catalyst which 
it was believed would increase the efficiency and 
reduce the cost of the fixation process. The 
various products of the fixation processes, in- 
cluding cyanamide, nitrates, urea, with the pos- 
sible exception of cyanamide, have shown fer- 
tilizing effects comparable with those of nitrate 
of soda and sulphate of ammonia, although some 
of them are difficult to use because of their 
hygroscopic nature. Urea has, however, proved 
to be an effective nitrogen carrier on all types 
of soils tested. 

Phosphoric acid is almost universally needed 
by the soils of the United States, but fortu- 
nately the natural supply of phosphates is 
abundant (estimated at over 10,500,000,000 
tons), as are the materials necessary for con- 
verting it into available form. The production 
of acid phosphate, the form in which phosphate 
is most commonly used as a fertilizer, was 
3,367,220 tons (of 2000 pounds each) in the 
United States in 1923. The preparation of 
acid phosphate by the usual method of treat- 
ment with sulphuric acid requires a high grade 
of rock phospnate and results in great waste 
of the lower grades. Effort therefore has been 
made to find a process which will utilize the 
low grade phosphates. The Bureau of Soils of 
the United States Department of Agriculture 
has developed such a process. This consists of 
smelting rock phosphate with silica and carbon 
and condensing and collecting the volatilized 
phosphoric anhydride which is used in the 
preparation of highly concentrated fertilizer 
compounds. Reduction of rock phosphate by 
means of sulphur undergoing bacterial oxida- 
tion, as proposed by Lipman, was one of the 
newer developments and appeared to have prac- 
tical possibilities. 

The necessities of the War led to strenuous 
efforts to develop a potash industry in this 
country, utilizing for this purpose especially 
certain western dry lake deposits, kelp, alunite, 
and dust of cement works, and blast furnaces; 
but while the industry prospered with war-time 
prices and fostering, it did not grow to any 
great proportions, the annual output never ex- 
ceeding 50,000 tons, and it practically disap- 
peared when prices fell and the German potash 


450 


. Fixation and Utilization of Nitrogen 


FEVRIER 


salts were again available. Hope of develop- 
ing a domestic potash industry has, however, 
been revived by results of recent studies by the 
United States Geological Survey, confirming 
earlier indications of the occurrence of exten- 
sive and commercially workable deposits of 
potash in the Permian salt beds of western Texas 
and eastern New Mexico similar to those of 
Stassfurt and Alsace. The scarcity and high 
price of potash fertilizers during and immedi- 
ately following the War resulted in a great re- 
duction in the use of such fertilizers, and 
while this proved to be a distinct disadvantage 
in some cases, it also indicated other conditions 
under which potash fertilizers may not give a 
profitable return. 

The growing relative scarcity of manure has 
led to efforts to find an efficient substitute for it. 
The Rothamsted Experimental Station reported a 
fair degree of success with an artificial manure 
consisting of a fermented mixture of straw, 
chalk, and ammonium sulphate. Attention has 
also been turned anew to the possibility of 
greater use of peat and city refuse, to better 
methods of preserving manure and to steriliza- 
tion as a means of prolonging the efficient use 
of manure in greenhouse culture and market 
gardening, but the most hopeful advance in 
meeting this situation has probably been made 
in the direction of showing the large extent 
to which commercial fertilizers may replace 
manure. 

The need for liming is widespread and is 
often increased by the use of commercial fertil- 
izers, as is especially evident in the case of 
continued use of sulphate of ammonia. Lime 
corrects acidity, creates favorable bacteriological 
conditions in the soil, and sometimes supplies 
needed plant food. It appears also to be an 
efficient means of controlling certain plant dis- 
eases, as, for example, finger-and-toe disease 
of cabbage, turnips, and similar plants; but it 
increases scab in potatoes. The different forms 
of lime, oxide, carbonate, and hydrate, appear 
to be about equally effective if equally fine and 
used in amounts supplying the same amount of 
lime (CaO). See also PHOSPHATE Rock. 

Bibliography. S. B. Haskell, Farm Fertility 
(New York and London, 1923); E. J. Russell, 
Manuring for Higher Crop Production, 2d ed. 
(Cambridge, England, 1917); A. C. Girard, Les 
Engrais, Emploi Raisonné et Lucratif (Paris, 
1922); R. Heinrich and O. Nolte, Diinger und 
Diingen, 8th ed. (Lerlin, 1922); Report on the 
(United 
States Department of War, Document 2041) ; 
W. H. Waggaman et al., Investigations of the 
Manufacture of Phosphoric Acid by the Volatil- 
ization Process (United States Department of 
Agriculture, Bulletin 1179, December, 1923) ; 
P. Krische, Das Kal (Stuttgart, 1923); W. H. 
Ross, A. R. Merz, and C. R. Wagner, The Re- 
covery of Potash as a By-product in the Ce- 
ment Industry (United States Department of 
Agriculture, Bulletin 572, October, 1917); A. R. 
Merz and W. H. Ross, The Recovery of Potash 
as a By-product in the Blast-furnace Industry 
(United States Department of Agriculture, 
Bulletin 1226, March, 1924). 

FEVRIER, Henri (1875- ). A French 
dramatic composer, born in Paris. He received 
his musical education at the Conservatoire under 
Pugno, Leroux, Fauré and Massenet. His repu- 
tation rests on the success of a single work, 
Monna Vanna (Paris, 1909; Boston, 1913). 


FEWKES 451 


In 1919 he visited the United States for the 
purpose of witnessing the world premiére of his 
Gismonda by the Chicago Opera Company. Be- 
sides these operas he wrote Le Roi Aveugle 
(Paris, 1906) and the operettas Agnés, dame 
galante (1912), La Princesse et le porcher 
(1912), and Carmosine (1914), all produced in 
Paris. 

FEWKES, JESSE WALTER (1850- ). An 
American anthropologist (see Vou. VIII). He 
has contributed largely to anthropological and 
other magazines and was appointed chief of 
the Bureau of American Ethnology in 1918. 

FICKE, ArtHur DaAvipson (1883- yee cAn 
American author, born at Davenport, lowa, and 
educated at Harvard and the College of Law 
of the University of Iowa. He taught English 
at the latter institution and was admitted to 
the bar in 1908. Among his recent works are 
Sonnets of a Portrait Painter (1914), The Man 
on the Hilltop (1915), Chats on Japanese 
Prints (1915), An April Elegy (1917), and 
Spectra, with Witter Bynner (1917). 

FICTION. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH AND 
AMERICAN. 

FIELD, HAMILTON EASTER (1873-1922). An 
American artist, born at Brooklyn, N. Y. He 
studied at the Polytechnic Institute, at Colum- 
bia and Harvard Universities and under Ra- 
phael Collin and Fantin-Latour at the Ecole des 
Beaux Arts in Paris. Shortly before his death 
he inaugurated the Salons of America, of which 
he was the first president. He was editor of 
Arts and Decoration, editor and owner of The 
Arts, the Touchstone Magazine, and The Amer- 
ican Art Student. He was director of the 
Thurnseoe School of Modern Art, Ogunquit, Me., 
and the Ardsley School of Modern Art, Brook- 
lyn. He was also connected with the Ardsley 
Studio in Brooklyn and at one time was art 
editor of the Brooklyn Eagle. 

FIELD, Hersert HavitAnpd (1868-1921). 
An American zoélogist, born in Brooklyn, N. Y., 
and educated at Harvard. His published papers 
at Harvard were mostly on the embryology of 
the frog, but from 1895 he lived in Zurich 
(Switzerland), where he organized and adminis- 
tered the Oonciliwm Bibliographicum, an in- 
ternational catalogue of scientific literature, 
which aims to give in card-catalogue form the 
title of every paper on zodlogy published 
throughout the world. 

FIELD ARTILLERY. See ArrIvLeERY. 

FIELDS, Joun CnHarLes (1863- pat HAs 
Canadian mathematician (see Vor. VIIT). He 
became a member of the University of Toronto 
Senate in 1914 and was president of the Royal 
Canadian Institute from 1919 to 1922. Largely 
due to his efforts was the cuccess of the meet- 
ing of the American Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science at Toronto in 1921. He 
had much to do with the organizing work in 
connection with the International Mathematical 
Congress which met in Toronto in 1924. 


FIJI ISLANDS. See PACIFIC OCEAN 
ISLANDS. 
_FILTRE, Srream Line. See CHEMISTRY, 
PHYSICAL. 
FILTRES. See SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE 
TREATMENT. 


FINANCE AND BANKING. The subject 
of public finance, customarily restricted to in- 
clude discussion of revenue and expenditure, 
may also be taken to cover the discussion of pub- 
lic debt; and in recent years has frequently 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


been employed to include within its scope dis- 
cussion of banking and credit as well. The 
term finance is here used in the latter broad 
sense. Finance in its public aspect includes 
two distinct fields of thought; the first cover- 
ing the theory of taxation and of public reve- 
nue in general, as well as the theory and prac- 
tice of budgetary management on the part of 
modern nations, the latter including survey 
of actual results attained as to revenue and 
expenditure by principal nations. In banking, 
discussion is usually divided into two more or 
less distinct fields, the former dealing with the 
theory and organization of banking institu- 
tions, the latter with actual banking systems 
and results of operation. 

Prior to the War, steady and consistent ef- 
fort was made by nations to maintain a dis- 
tinct line of separation between public finance 
and banking, the principal connection between 
the two types of activity being afforded by the 
operation of central banks in the different coun- 
tries. During the War, public revenues were 
in no small degree obtained through banking 
methods, with corresponding effects upon prices, 
while governments practically took possession 
of banking systems with a view to controlling 
supplies of credit, issues of currency and rates 
of interest. The result has been that, since the 
close of the War, a very intimate connection has 
continued to exist between public finance and 
banking in actual practice, while levels of prices 
and other aspects of the general economic situ- 
ation have felt the effects of financial and 
banking policies compositely, rather than inde- 
pendently. Therefore, much discussion of pub- 
lic finance and of banking is to-day carried on 
jointly, while the bulk of the consideration of 
public finance implies specified conditions as to 
banking; and, conversely, statements of theory 
and practice in banking are based upon speci- 
fied assumptions as to financial conditions. 

Relation of Finance and Banking. Bank- 
ing is the phase of economic organization, or 
the economic institution, by means of which the 
credit function is exercised and through which 
actual wealth is made available as a means of 
exchange. Public finance is the science or 
method whereby governments obtain the re- 
sources they need, and apply them to designated 
objects. Evidently where governments become 
large operators of industry, large owners of 
wealth, or large consumers, they come to occupy 
a very important relationship to banking, in- 
asmuch as they require extensive banking serv- 
ices and must rely largely on banks for the 
collection and payment of funds as well as for 
the transfer of wealth from individuals to the 
government and vice versa, and for the advance- 
ment of private resources for government use 
pending the time when the government has col- 
lected from taxpayers wealth in sufficient quan- 
tity to meet its requirements. Moreover, the 
increasing use of paper currency and the haz- 
ards involved in leaving its issue unrestrictedly 
in the hands of the banks have led to the 
establishment of an intimate relationship be- 
tween the government and the banking mecha- 
nism with respect to the control of the circu- 
lating medium. At the same time, the creation 
and retirement of such medium, coupled with 
the variations in the volume of bank credit in 
other forms, have exerted a direct influence on 
prices, and hence on the volume of taxation 
required to furnish means for the government’s 


FINANCE AND BANKING 452 


needs as respects the purchase of commodities 
and services. 

Trend of Finance 1914-24. The war and 
post-war period included in the decade 1914-24 
is too recent to permit of a very positive judg- 
ment with respect to the general trend of 
methods or currents in public finance. It will 
require a much longer lapse of time to reach 
definite conclusions as to the probable outcome 
of the factors which had been set at work as a 
result of the War; yet there are outstanding 
tacts which are deserving of special notice from 
a descriptive standpoint and which supply the 
basis for inferences with regard to the probable 
trend to be followed in the future. Generally 
speaking, the outstanding feature of the decade 
is found in the enormous growth of public ex- 
penditure which has carried the outlays of sub- 
stantially all modern governments, whether bel- 
ligerent or neutral, up to figures that before the 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


This showing is clearly paralleled in the fact 
that Great Britain, whose conditions are per- 
haps closer to those of the United States than 
are those of any other country, has seen her na- 
tional expenditure rise from £2.31 per capita in 
1890 to £3.52 in 1900, followed by a very mod- 
erate decline to £3.50 in 1910 and an increase 
toize2aean 1921. 

Expenditure of Principal Countries. It is 
worth while to take careful account also of the 
expenditure of the principal Continental coun- 
tries, not only because of the inferences that 
may be drawn from such comparisons as to the 
causes of growth of public outlay in the dif- 
ferent countries but also because of the light 
that is thereby thrown upon the burdens to 
which the public of the several nations have 
been subjected. The accompanying table fur- 
nishes the data necessary for such a comparison 
during the war and post-war period. 


NATIONAL EXPENDITURE 
(000,000 omitted) 


Countries 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 
United States@ . $ 700 ffasik (20m On (12697 18,515 6,1414 5,166 3,372 3,294 
Australiae.4.cs. te 23.1 38.1 65.2 S7.O pees iN Bib 0 kg 92.6 (eo 62.3 
United Kingdom . oe LO Tb 560.4 “1,559.0 25198.1 (2569622 59 '2:57953 2195)" 1.079 1,079 910 
Germany) @ ec) mark 8,654 25,708 27,723 49,098 53,360 45,573 54,867135,315 300,399 352,291 
ranee Wake ie cs franc 6,589 22,804 29,536 36,345 39,419 49,793 29,882 23,262 24,687 23,179 
USSG a & Gtk he ruble 2,927 2,898 3,021 4,078 AG 706  3215,402 210 we20,076 922 1,418 
Ttaly Ces See iy. lire 3,129 59540 (27411 917,146 25329 28,171 387,689 21,759 20,618 20,618 
Austrias Hungary, ‘kronen. 5,210.9) 46,048 pap Heel ae 25,612 eats PEW DO, oom Dito as es? 
JAPAN gee cutis sis yen 574 648 583 602 714 1,808 1,396 1,584 1,482 1,350 
Gara ieee scree ee $ 27 197 296 456 522 712, LOG LUem eee 3845 ate 

2 Fiscal year. 81913. °¢ Estimated. 347 SHS 


War would have been considered purely imag- 
inative. This enormous growth of public ex- 
penditure was, in the belligerent countries, the 
natural result of warfare and its cost, but in 
the neutral countries was only partly brought 
about as the indirect result of these factors. 
Many of the smaller countries, especially those 
bordering on the scene of action, found it neces- 
sary to mobilize their armies and to keep large 
bodies of men ready for defense should such a 
step become necessary. Yet this alone was not 
a sufficient influence to bring about the tremen- 
dous growth of outlay. Added to it was the 
fact that the enormous inflation of credit and 
currency in the belligerent countries was re- 
flected in the neutral states, while the world 
demand for commodities itself tended to raise 
prices everywhere; the outcome being a great 
advance in the price level, of which the net result 
was to necessitate corresponding increases in 
the amounts of revenue raised for the public 
service as expressed in terms of money. This 
state of things, it should be remembered, came 
into existence at a time when there was already 
a general drift towards higher levels of expense, 
which had already made itself apparent not 
only with respect to absolute amounts but also 
in proportion to population. The movement, 
viewed in the aggregate, may be illustrated by 
the experience of the United States, which was 
at first a neutral and later a belligerent, its 
federal expenditure both absolutely and _ per 
capita moving as follows: 


eo ls a ee ne 
AMERICAN FEDERAL PUBLIC EXPENDITURE 


Total 
Year (000,000 Per Capita 
omitted) _ 
POO OVA RE: » Ghote ccletenelees $520.8 $6.39 
71: Ds. Ong reer Res on cos esis: Lage ae 693.6 Tao0 
LOT Dire ee ER ot Gil eos Sean pale 760.5 7.26 
LODO Pe Artem oh itels cele slate te ts 6,141.7 Bieta 
VORSPE Bo ASS Meise ASE! é 3,294.7 29.77 


Classfication of Expenditure. Almost as 
important as the gross amount of expenditure, 
is its classification as between different pur- 
poses. Before the War there was everywhere a 
substantial growth toward an undue outlay for 
military and naval expenditure, which gave rise 
to much of the demand for a means of obtain- 
ing international agreements for the mainte- 
mance of peace. The drift of public expendi- 
tures during and after the War greatly exag- 
gerated this tendency toward the growth of 
military outlay, while at the same time it natu- 
rally enlarged the proportion of expenditure go- 
ing to public debt, due to the fact that the War 
was necessarily (as will be seen later) so ex- 
tensively financed upon a_ borrowing basis. 
While some progress was made after the close 
of the War in diminishing the amounts directly 
spent for army and navy, it was still true in 
1924, if the public debt be primarily regarded 
as a legacy of post-war outlays, that the total 
amount payable for military and naval reasons 
far exceeded any other category and was prob- 
ably on the increase. The table on page 453 
reviews the development of American Federal 
government outlays at intervals from 1870 down 
to the situation during the fiscal year ending 
in 1923. Whether expenditure has proceeded 
more rapidly than the growth of wealth in 
recent decades is another point as to which 
statistics are very much less positive. It would 
seem in the main that prior to the War wealth 
was increasing slightly faster than expenditures. 
War experience makes the question far more 
debatable. 

Comparative Revenues. While there is 
much advantage to be derived from careful com- 
parison of the revenues of different countries, the 
same difficulty inheres in any such comparison 
that has been noted in connection with expendi- 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


453 FINANCE AND BANKING 
EXPENDITURE IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS 
Civil and :. Interest on 
Year miscella- War Navy Indians Pensions the Public Total 
neous @ Debt 
SEMROMRS Pins watéieiress bt 6s © $64.3 $57.6 $21.7 $3.4 $28.3 $129.2 $309.6 
Be ES > eae 63.8 41.1 21.4 8.3 29.4 103.0 274.6 
1880 ERR, ty ie ae ee 54.4 38.1 u Us | $53 5.9 56.7 95.7 267.6 
Us? ¢ Bil ouen ¢ a eee ee 82.9 42.6 16.0 6.5 56.1 51.38 260.2 
uchiha ke gi as ot le ee Sea 94.8 44,5 22.0 6.7 106.9 36.0 318.0 
Petinay MPa ld yates, oh eg LE A 82.2 51.8 28.7 9.9 141.3 30.9 356.1 
CNC Bem 2 Ghat cegts so tA tale Sob 131.6 134.7 55.9 10.1 140.8 40.1 520.8 
Le Ube | Petey ae Ope Raat 127.9 126.1 117.5 14,2 141.7 24.5 567.2 
MNO MTEL. Ye x etic. c's) s, fF aeew LT 1.5 189.8 123.1 18.5 160.6 21.3 693.6 
1912 APR MT Aces pity ve 172.2 184,1 185.5 20.1 153.5 22.6 689.8 
Peed os (NSN chee sth te) 21% ch ota este. 5 8,133.1 1,100.9 629.9 40.5 213.3 1,024.0 6,141.7 
USS ah) Bee oe ar 2 se A 1,169.5 SOs) 322.5 45.1 264.1 1,055.0 3,244.7 
“Exclusive of postal deficiencies. ; he tl 


—e ee Le Le a a aes sees siesta sss SS UsSninssistsnasnssn 


tures. Nevertheless, 
rough general comparison of outlays, particular- 
ly for recent years, war necessities and negotia- 
tions having compelled a closer basis of analysis 
for the purpose of reducing national expendi- 
tures and receipts to somewhat the same footing 
in one country as in others. The figures in the 
accompanying table furnish comparative data de- 
signed to contrast revenue and expenditure con- 
ditions in the several countries over the past 
decade. 

Local Versus National Finance. In the 
United States, particularly, great interest has 
always attached to the distribution of taxation 
and expenditure between the Federal and local 
governments. This is due to the fact that under 
our peculiar system of State and local govern- 
ment there has been considerable jealousy be- 
tween the different grades of administration, as 
well as more or less conflict in their taxing 
policy. The War and the developments after it 
materially affected this relative situation while 
they widely altered the relationship existing 
between the amount of Federal and local ex- 
penditure and income. In 1904, the Census Bu- 
reau, in a first report on the subject, showed 
that local expenditures were 61.8 per cent of 
all governmental outlays in the United States. 


it is possible to afford a 


United States have been studied by the Census 
Bureau, which furnishes the following figures: 


SS 


1902 1912 1922 
( (000 omitted) 

States and territories $189,165 $306,521 $867,470 
COUntICH eres ¢¥ 5x 199,119 307,872 745,000 
Cities over 25,000 . 424,763 849,971 1,532,435 
Cities 800—25,000 TO, LGM pe meeeton 2) 95,100 
All other minor civil 

CLVISLON Sis ae corer: 2B OFS Od ae iets ac. 1s 248,321 

Motalwy Tad vst: $1,107,569 $1,464,364 $4,224,616 
General revenues are classified as _ follows: 
1902 1922 
(000 omitted) 

General property tax ....... 706,660 3,323,166 
Special property and business tax 62,327 256,647 

OU CAKES te aay ak isn cece ane oie 16,581 29,140 
LAgdOre licensest ioe tke hoe a 55,241 408,271 
Other licenses and permits ... veaalt 
Pines taAnderarieltsy «ss... 5). an 7,962 ) 
Inventions and grants ..... 60,984 | 
Donations), aNd Pitts y . oe sss ows 2,903 [ 203,392 
Alloy others tive wala. aoe. 25027 | 


Sources of Public Revenue. The theoretical 
classification of public revenues employed by 
most writers on public finance, omitting minor 
or casual sources of income such as fines and 
gifts, includes: (1) Prices——By this term is 
meant the revenue arising from the sale of 
public property such as land and its products, 


Similar inquiries in Great Britain showed local usually a small proportion of the income of well 
NATIONAL (GOVERNMENTAL) INCOME 
000,000 ay 
Countries 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 191 1920 1921 1922 1923 
United , 

States.. $ Fe 698 ftehein a bp iB or 38,665 belo 6,695 5,625 4,109 4,007 
Australia. = 2A T 22.4 30.8 34.1 86.8 44.7 52.8 65.5 64.9 59.5° 
United 

Kingdom £ FOS.20 226-7) wosGoy, to-du ss FOT-2 889 1,339.6 1,425.9 1,124.9 914,20 
Germany. mark 2,350.833,400 3,320 4,340 17,332 9200 53,000 149,600 1,091,600 5,640,900 
France... frane 1,239 4,113 4,641 5,811 6,987 11,200 21,170 2,330.2 28,381 19,285 
Russia ruble eficae 2,079. 0,644... 3,999 . 16,583 48,959 159,604 4,139,900 368 ¢ 1,056 @ 
pal ys be vae lire sane 265 eek RS Oo othe o 4,645 22,080 ol, 201 23,052 17,497 17,767 ® 
Austria 
Hungary kronen 5210 95,724.84) Ue: 28,668 BUD. | "DPE oa Oats 93,325 209,763 +. > ears 
Japan.... yen 549 509 513 233 714 122 1,396 1,584 1,482 1,350 
Canada... 163 133 127 595 26) 310 400 440 380\=2, 3) ee o 

4Gold rubles. | 

41913. %Estimated. ° Gold rubles for 9 months. 


— 


expenditures for 1910 as 55 per cent. While 
the increase of local expenditure not only here 
but in England and in other countries has gone 
on rapidly measured in absolute figures, being 
augmented by special causes which are perhaps 
not permanent in their nature, the relative 
proportion of local outlay has been reduced, due 
to the fact that national or Federal expenditures 
have been so vastly enlarged. For 1920-21, 
Great Britain’s local expenditures were only 18 
per cent of her national total while those of the 
non-Federal grades of government in the United 
States, in 1922, were 56 per cent of the total. 

Local Revenues. Local revenues in the 


developed states; (2) Charges.—By this term 
is meant the sums exacted for the particular 
services, largely industrial, rendered by the 
state, including post office, telegraph, telephone, 
railroad, gas and electric light and sale of man- 
ufactured products; (3) Fees. rey this term is 
meant the sums exacted for services rendered 
by publie authorities in the course of adminis- 
tration of business. Included are court fees, 
licenses and the like. They are charged upon 
the theory that they represent the return for a 
special service which is not enjoyed by the en- 
tire body of the community. Special assess- 
ments are grouped under the head of fees by 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


most writers; (4) Taxes.—By taxes are meant 
sums levied upon the citizen as a contribution 
to the general welfare or for the support for 
the government in the performance of functions 
which are so broadly applicable to all citizens 
that they cannot be apportioned or assigned, 
while their cost is so great that they must be 
paid for on a common basis regardless, in some 
measure, of specific advantage to the individual. 
The characteristic of the decade 1914-24 has 
been the great growth of the latter revenue 
source. 

American Revenues. The following figures 
furnish a brief survey of principal sources of 
revenue in the United States since 1900: 


RECEIPTS OF THE UNITED STATES IN 
MILLIONS OF DOLLARS 


Income 

and 

Year Total Customs Int. Rev. profits 

tax 

SA OMEN. chelate us $19.5 5,3 Sides Wiehe hed ks iainis heat ete 
ERS Ch gp eters 52, are ee 30.0 TSW Alok cna eae Ly WR oteie kote 
TS5OF t . 4 e 43.6 39 TEM stole stens mellisienaiete 
aS py os tetere stone 65.3 53. OM bet. te cos cea oat Eee 
LS GOV at heheirs fates DOL LSE PeA Ae ales eB BS (cm SEMIN EN OS 
NB GS sow e cleusere ell 84.9 S209°5) Sircte <1 vie 
TSO Wimsxee. te oe 41 2 194.5 1S4°9 . eee cisteia ts 
LSD 2 eer ke. 288.0 ST fa? 110.0 e 
LSS Owes s > ores BoOLw 186.5 LDA OU Siietats 
LSS ie Nate s co date ae Se, Sep RDS, A Sede 
TSO Oeics eee 567.2 233.2 OD: eae eenete iso 
POO Dense te, sce 544.2 261.7 LAD Pei ets te re%s 
LOD ON ics cotane boys 67535 330.6 2 G80 wea evscclo 6 
TOW RA hh dane Seah ae 8 692.6 aye hi Bat 293.0 cele eieacnane 
LO ZO GR eons ee 6,704.4 DeoLy 1,442.2 3,956.9 
O23 Moet at caret ee 3,847.0 DOLD 35.6 1,691.0 
Reliance on Direct Taxation. Pre-war 


finances in many countries relied largely on 
indirect taxation. In the United States the 
Federal government was collecting in normal 
years the great bulk of its income from customs 
duties and internal revenue charges. During 
the early war years a small income from direct 
taxation was also obtained. Great Britain had 
long had the income tax in effect and it was 
producing substantially at the opening of the 
War. Nevertheless Great Britain also relied 
largely on indirect taxes and the same was true 
of most countries. The war necessities changed 
all this and hostilities greatly increased the 
total burden of taxation and made it absolutely 
necessary, in order to get the required funds, to 
rely largely on the proceeds of direct levies. 
Not only, therefore, was the total burden of 
taxation very greatly added to, but also the 
amount paid to governments as direct deduc- 
tions from income not dependent upon purchase 
or the performance of specified acts was greatly 
enlarged. The effect of this change in method 
of taxation was undoubtedly to make the bur- 
den of the tax loads very much more obvious 
and to make it seem more serious than would 
have been true had it been collected entirely 
through indirect sources. Efforts to reduce 
budgets after the close of the War did not prove 
very successful and it was found in almost all 
cases that indirect taxation had been carried 
practically to the extreme of its productivity, 
while the income and excess profits taxes in this 
country which depended upon these sources of 
income predominantly had been raised to a 
point which was interfering with the growth 
of wealth. This latter consideration seemed to 
be of peculiar force in Great Britain and in the 
United States where during the early post-war 
years there was an obvious decline in the 


454 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


amount of saving due to the fact that taxpayers 
of large income really engaged in business found 
it a matter of relative indifference whether to 
increase their business expenses to a point which 
consumed what might otherwise have been ad- 
ditional net income or to pay the latter in large 
part to the government. With rates on incomes 
running as high as 60 to 70 per cent the induce- 
ment to saving beyond a specified limit was not 
strong. Hence most post-war fiscal policies 
which aimed at budgetary economy sought to 
bring about such economy by a reduction in the 
burden of direct taxation. One outgrowth of 
this movement was the adoption in November, 
1921, of the Income Tax Revision Law in the 
“United States which eliminated the excess prof- 
its tax, while in Great Britain the budget esti- 
mates for the year beginning Apr. 1, 1922, 
abandoned the idea of further debt reduction 
during the year in question, excess profits taxes 
having already been repealed in 1921. The post- 
war taxation on the Continent naturally fol- 
lowed a somewhat different course because of 
the fact that during the War so great a re- 
luctance to further tax increases had been made 
manifest. The necessities of such countries as 
France, Germany, and Italy after the War natu- 
rally dictated the imposition of new rather 
than the withdrawal of old taxes because of the 
necessity of providing means which would carry 
the very heavy interest charges resulting from 
the borrowing policies of the War. 


POST-WAR FINANCE 


Post-war finance, both in the United States 
and in Europe, has had three principal objects— 
the reduction or abolition of the enormous tax- 
ation of the war period, the funding and con- 
solidation of the debts created during war, and 
the reduction of government expenditures. Co- 
incident with these it has been necessary to find 
a means of beginning the restoration of bank- 
ing systems to a sound condition in order that 
foreign exchange rates might be placed upon a 
more stable basis and the international flow of 
trade and of investments be correspondingly 
facilitated. One principal obstacle to success 
in these undertakings has been the tangle of in- 
debtedness existing between the various coun- 
tries. Such indebtedness represented the aid 
extended by one country to another during the 
War, but it was early perceived that in the last 
analysis there was but one great creditor, the 
United States and one great debtor, Germany. 
It was recognized accordingly that the key to 
the restoration of a sound system of post-war 
finance was probably to be found in the intro- 
duction of a satisfactory system of reparation 
payments which should enable the Allied bhel- 
ligerents to collect from Germany enough to 
enable them to offset the bulk of the losses to 
which they had been subjected and at the same 
time to settle with their external creditors. The 
Treaty of Versailles had made no definite dis- 
position of these questions, leaving final settle- 
ment to the so-called Reparation Commission, 
which in March, 1920, announced a scheme of 
reparation payments whereby Germany’s total 
obligation was fixed at 135,000,000,000 marks 
(pre-war gold value). Elaborate details con- 
cerning the payment of this sum were provided 
and the bulk of the cash proceeds was assigned 
to France, Belgium, and Italy The Germans, 
however, failed to pay more than approximately 
enough to cover the cost of holding the occupied 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


German territory which had been taken by the 
Allies as security for the liquidation of their 
claims. Accordingly, France and, in a much 
lesser degree, some of the other countries that 
relied on the collection of German indemnities 
as a means of meeting their budget requirements 
were unable to obtain the funds necessary to 
settle the budget obligations they incurred in 
the belief that they would be able to transfer 
the cost to the Germans. Hence, their budgets 
failed to balance, and such reductions in taxa- 
tion as occurred simply cut away the funda- 
mental basis upon which a restoration of sound- 
ness would necessarily rest. Great Britain, 
which did not rely on any considerable re- 
ceipts from Germany, was able gradually to 
restore her exporting power, despite some seri- 
ous industrial obstacles such as the coal strike 
of 1921. The pressure for reduction of the ter- 
rible tax load was severe in all countries, but 
even in those where a cut might have been made, 
as in the United States, the recurrence of so- 
cialistic or semi-socialistic antagonism to wealth 
and capital resulted in the retention of many 
war taxes as a peace expedient. The Repub- 
lican party, elected in the autumn .of 1920, 
largely on a platform of tax reform, adopted in 
October, 1921, a so-called tax revision measure 
which, however, cut the burden of taxation but 
slightly, although technically repealing the ex- 
cess profits tax. Great Britain likewise did 
away with the excess profits tax and similar ac- 
tion was taken in other countries. Nevertheless, 
in all the problem of rebalancing, the budget 
was seen to rest more and more upon the restora- 
tion of sound banking conditions. 

Progress toward sound budgetary conditions 
was greatest in the United States and in Eng- 
land during 1920 and 1921. In the United 
States ordinary receipts up to November 12, 
for the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1921, ex- 
ceeded ordinary disbursements by about $155,- 
000,000. The British budgetary situation was 
less satisfactory, showing deficits in 1920-21, 
although it was steadily improving. It must 
be remembered, however, that the main factor 
in tax policy which accounts for this unfavor- 
able balance was the reduction in receipts from 
the excess profits tax. Although certain funds 
were still coming in on this account from ex- 
cess earnings during earlier years, there was 
a decrease during the first six months of 1922 
of £82,336,000 from the corresponding period 
of the year before. 

In most of the Continental countries the 
budget situation during 1921, on the contrary, 
showed no real improvement; in fact, the re- 
verse, although in the case of France and Italy 
a certain amount of relative advance was scored. 
In other words, the total amount of outgo of 
these countries which had to be made, not from 
the proceeds of taxation, but ether from short- 
term bank borrowing or the issuing of currency, 
increased rather than diminished. Figures for 
Italian finances for the fiscal years ending June, 
1921, and June, 1922, were still in the form of 
estimates, the actual accounts not being avail- 
able at the latter date. According to the latest 
estimates, however, it appeared that the deficit 
for the year would be only about one-half that 
for the year ending in June, 1921. In other 
words, the estimated deficit for 1920-21 
amounted to 10,300,000,000 lire, while the esti- 
mated deficit for 1921-22 ‘worked out at 5,000,- 
000,000 lire. The French government contem- 


455 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


plated an expenditure for 1921 amounting to 
42,412,000,000 frances, as contrasted with re- 
ceipts of 23,312,000,000 frances, thus leaving a 
deficit of about 19,000,000,000 franes to be pro- 
cured by the flotation of loans. Of this deficit, 
about 16,000,000,000 francs was regarded as 
eventually recoverable from Germany under the 
terms of the peace treaty. Of the ordinary re- 
ceipts, 14,558,000,000 franes were expected from 
indirect taxes and monopolies. During the first 
half of 1921 the total public debt of France rose 
from 245,000,000,000 francs to 264,000,000,000 
francs, calculating in both instances the foreign 
debt at par. This figure does not include loans 
floated by the cities and industries in the dey- 
astated regions, although the government is 
responsible for their interest and repayment. 
In the case of Germany close estimates of the 
total amount of government expenditures for 
1922 were not available. 

There has been a prevailing belief for a long 
time past that the principal element in the 
existing fiscal difficulties of many countries is 
to be found in their great outlay for war. This 
statement is true in broad terms, but requires to 
be qualified and limited in its application. In 
some countries, such as the United States, the 
outlay for war, while a very large part of the 
total outlay, is in large measure an expense 
which serves to carry the cost of past wars in 
the form of interest on public debt. While 
naval and military expenditure is large in such 
countries, it is a relatively moderate part of 
the entire budget. In other countries, like 
France, the current cost of military support still 
constitutes a very important fraction of the 
budgetary outgo. It has, therefore, been thought 
worth while to compile statements designed to 
show the comparative situation of the budget 
in several of the principal countries, with a view 
to ascertaining approximately how each one of 
them stands in this matter of expenditure for 
national defense, especially as compared with 
the pre-war years. 

Compared with 1913, the last pre-war year, 
the amounts of money expended for national de- 
fense by the governments of France, Italy, and 
Germany show enormous expansion, but it should 
be remembered that the purchasing power of 
the currencies of these countries has undergone 
varying degrees of depreciation, and that the 
larger amounts for the more recent years, when 
reduced to 1913 monetary equivalents, will not 
show the same degree of expansion as is in- 
dicated in the table. During the war years the 
proportion of the total expenditures made for 
war purposes was in excess of 80 per cent in all 
three of these countries. In 1920, the proportion 
had declined to 60 per cent in Germany, to 
about 50 per cent in France, and, according to 
preliminary figures not included in the table, to 
less than 40 per cent in Italy; in Great Britain 
and the United States the proportion for the 
fiscal year 1921 was 26 and 24 per cent, re- 
spectively. Nevertheless, the financial burden 
upon taxpayers of these countries due to mili- 
tary expenditures was much heavier than be- 
fore the War, since national production and 
income had suffered severely, and fiscal require- 
ments for rehabilitation and _ reconstruction 
were an additional drain on national resources 
and income While the proportion of total ex- 
penditures devoted to military purposes was, 
according to the fiscal returns, smaller in some 
countries in 1922 than before the War, these 


FINANCE AND BANKING 456 FINANCE AND BANKING 


GREAT BRITAIN 
(In jae gamnd of pounds sterling) 
b 


a (c) (d) 
Ratanhes Expenditures Public debt Percent Expendituresfor Percent 
charges (c) to (b) national defense (d) to (b) 
1904--U5RY, faces. 143,370 141,956 27,000 19.8 66,055 48.5 
ROLSAL or YO... ee ies 165,778 165,598 24,500 14.8 72,436 43.7 
fl OF Gs bi sis ce ee 573,427 2,198,113 127,250 5.9 1,302,603 54.0 
OVS 219 ious hee aie eee 842,050 2,579,301 269,965 10.6 1,701,545 70.0 
aS Pe 7 Bede hes Sse 1,425,984 1,195,427 349,599 30.5 292,288 25.5 
LOZIT—22 PERI Oa 1,160,521 1,079,186 332,300 30.0 189,300 18.4 
FRANCE 
(In thousands of francs) 
LOUD SMe a, Shatter eats uc rae 3,766,346 706,835 Op, Let 34.9 1,143,820 Bia 
TOTS A roms anc ae cles 5,091,744 5,066,931 1,284,079 27.2 2,070,530 43.9 
VOLT Gas. 8h. Bee D,070,045 * 41,679,600 4,863,686 127 34,065,809 81.7 
OT 9 Mab sas eh Aeslivn wey eden 11,300,000 4 793,884 7,986,823 16.3 35,811,390 73.0 
PRS PAU Nb arc AR ge 21,770,243 29,882,700 119833;174 DPA 26,432,545 91.7 
LOA Une Rs. we icddings cae 23,302,584 23,262,969 13,320,000 57.4 5,027,000 23.0 
WO 22H EW Bia A et 23,381,334 24,687,958 13,320,000 5451 4,539,000 18,4 
LY 
(In thousands of lire) 
I OD Paes ach snot realy ci 1,950,620 1,902,822 574,017 37.6 419,200 22.6 
MOUS So eres a Lee 2,385,130 3,289,010 593,220 18.2 1,666,660 50.7 
OUT), © =.\0a SR WG. Soe 5,170,430 16,971,000 1,348,119 7.2 14,310,680 84.3 
102 Ro Be ee RA ee Ree 22,080,185 22,150,100 2,705,200 8.4 26,974,420 83.9 
POZO oe ite. eee) ee oak 37,251,018 28,171,296 3,543,024 AD Om) oi cis aihah planters sltenerte 
AL) Od Bee each eens er 23,052,003 37,689,951 3,712,790 10.9 5,026,038 13.4 
BDZ 2 Lethe hephi ken bs die he 17,497,130 2175 9:255 3,708,272 12.2 3,450,000 15.8 
GERMANY 
(In thousands of marks) 

LaDy Se Ake ae ae 2,215,232 2,208,887 127,556 8.6 1,052,288 48.3 
i913 oP Sheers ae 1,957,380 2,024,523 231,176 ai x 1,582,290 78.2 
MOLT PG ch e eos sk 2,122,304 27,821,047 2,616,793 9.4 24,920,907 89.5 
7910 aL rake, «te 31,589,709 45,513,671 5,914,204 12.6 40,179,143 85.5 
VOD O tment 6 eden ce 16,907,025 54,867,028 8,922,692 14.5 37,033,588 60.2 
ODT MeO Ley ae ee 135,315,768 135,315,768 12,693,316 9.1 3,007,812 ab Gib 
1929 Mee. Ha eee ee 350,099,885 300,399,885 16,121,472 5.3 3,653,896 1.2 


“Total expenditures. 


expenditures undoubtedly constituted a larger 
proportion of the diminished national incomes 
and were, therefore, a more crushing load on 
the financially weakened countries of Europe. 

The accompanying table exhibits the post-war 
burden of taxation in some of the chief countries 
of the world: 


PER CAPITA TAXATION 


road operation, which was undertaken on an 
extensive scale both by Great Britain and the 
United States, proved an actual source of loss 
and was discontinued in both countries. The 
operation of ocean-going ships was equally dis- 
appointing and state manufacture of various 
kinds of commodities turned out even more un- 
successfully than during pre-war years. In- 
stead of assuming an increasingly important 


United. (States: e.,ctieraie i): serer. 6 lee $70.80 @ position in budgets, revenue derived from in- 
STH ie ee ELLA GMA TO le Ga oe dustrial and business occupations has not only 
Canada... 222222220022 12122212 35!05% come to form a smaller and smaller proportion 
EEO IANY, brits, wie etek er aie eto 243.42 6 of total income; but, as just stated, it has been 
ee a ile Aes ora ys ete: obtained under circumstances of such difficulty 
LAB ATR, SHO Lov?-(s'34 41a Me phidda Aeea BAT. ORe? as to make it clear that it must be regarded 


@QOn basis of 1923-24. 
b’On basis of 1920-21. 


The question whether some adjustment or 
alleviation of this tremendous burden can_ be 
devised has occupied the attention of statesmen 
since the close of the War but has confirmed 
most in the belief that heavy direct taxes will 
continue the chief reliance of most countries 
for a long time to come. 

Government Activity in Business. The 
participation of the government in business, 
which before the War had produced a very con- 
siderable element in the revenue system of some 
countries (eg. France, Germany, Austria and 
others), received a considerable extension in 
consequence of the War and of necessities at- 
tendant thereon, but the success obtained has 
been so slender as to produce a reaction of 
opinion among those who in former years re- 
garded public activity of this kind as a probable 
source of future increase in revenue yield. Rail- 


as an inadequate reliance for the future. 
Tariffs and Internal Revenue. Highest 
productiveness was believed by some to have 
been reached in the tariff system of the United 
States prior to the War, with a revenue of about 
$350,000,000 as a maximum. In Europe, the 
productiveness of tariff duties had declined as 
rates increased. During the War, tariff sys- 
tems fell into disorder and yielded far less than 
normal returns, owing to the interruption of in- 
ternational trade or its distortion as a result 
of war demands. After the War, a new era of 
tariff taxation set in, based upon the national- 
istic spirit and essentially intended for protec- 
tive purposes. The tariff of the United States 
adopted in 1922 (Fordney-McCumber Act) has 
been unexpectedly large in its yield, the an- 
nual income amounting to $560,000,000. Eu- 
ropean tariffs continued in a tentative condition 
of development, owing to disturbances of trade 
during post-war reorganization, but also showed 
an increased rate of yield. One feature of the 


o 


eee 


; 
| 
: 
; 
: 
4 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


tax system of the War was the great extension 
of internal revenue duties, especially taxes on 
articles of luxurious consumption. These taxes 
proved so unpopular that the greater share of 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


rience may be described as a universal advance 
in world indebtedness. The outstanding facts in 
the situation as affecting the principal countries 
are reviewed in the accompanying table: 


457 


DEBTS OF PRINCIPAL NATIONS, AND AGGREGATE FOR ALL NATIONS OF THE 
WORLD AT VARIOUS DATES 
(In millions of dollars) 


; ; Nether- United United 
Dates Austria Belgium France Germany Italy lands Russia Kingdom States World 
SICA Pte aah’ Aes is. > lo4ieczen ite 6k 3,799 825 6,300 1,200 2,852 462 4,500 3,500 1,193 42,940 
TRIER WeSC aE N anes a sidite.'s 15, 807/62,902 82.322 39,200 11,900 652. 24,564 28,600 12,248 205,396 
Be OM Neren che cede PSs 28,584 1,888 42,700 48,552 15,009 981 24,564 37,221 25,482 295,070 
GS ae By et eras Baa ss 15,800 4,900 55,000 80,000 21,200 1,046 24,564 37,000 24,297 382,634 
TAPS MEE Ge RP Oe oe ge Re Oe eee Oe 6,708 65,921 1,984,475 22,816 wy.) 247564495 3800903) 22) 350 ori eos 


them were abolished. The United States elim- 
inated a large portion of its consumption taxes 
from and after Jan. 1, 1922. In all countries 
taxes on tobacco and liquors continued very 
heavy with increasing returns. In the United 
States, however, the adoption of the prohibition 
system largely eliminated the regular yield of 
the liquor taxes. 

State and Local Taxation. As a result of 
war demands, local expenses as well as national 
greatly increased. Such increase in expenditure 
was met chiefly through an advance in the rate 
levied upon already existing objects of taxa- 
tion. In the United States, however, State in- 
come and inheritance taxes were given a very 
considerable development while in some cases 
surtaxes were added. Real estate taxation be- 
came much heavier both in the United States 
and in Europe. Public debts were largely add- 
ed to among local governments and the tend- 
ency to increase in that direction was fur- 
thered by bonus distributions to ex-service men, 
the borrowing for this purpose being rendered 
easier through exemption of bonds from taxa- 
tone? 

Budget of the United States. In all coun- 
tries the importance of budgetary control was 
emphasized as a means of economy. An effort 
to introduce a budget system into the financial 
organization of the United States was made early 
in the administration of President Harding, be- 
ing recommended in a message to Congress on 
Dee. 5, 1921. This was the result of about 12 
years of discussion beginning during the ad- 
ministration of President Taft. On June 10, 
1921, Congress approved a law providing for a 
national budget system and a bureau of the 
budget. Appropriations in Congress, however, 
continued in the hands of the numerous Congres- 
sional committees vested with the power of ap- 
propriation and resulted in preventing the de- 
velopment of a genuine budget system analo- 
gous to that of European countries. In fact, 
on various occasions Congress disregarded the 
budget estimates and appropriated money ac- 
cording to its own inclination. On the other 
hand, savings which were nominally introduced 
as a result of the budget system turned out to 
be illusory in some cases, owing to the fact 
that they were merely due to curtailments of 
allowances for upkeep which eventually had to 
be restored although temporarily interrupted. 

Changes in Public Debt. It follows closely 
from what has been said with respect to public 
finance that the decade 1914-24 was notable 
in its relation to the public debt. Like the 
growth in public revenue and expenditure, the 
growth in debt was practically universal in all 
countries, although not proceeding in the same 
proportion in all; but in the main the expe- 


Taxation in France followed a course rather 
different from that pursued in the United 
States. The first new impositions adopted in 
1914 were made effective in 1916 and applied 
to incomes in excess of $1000 with excess profits 
rates running up to 50 per cent. On July 1, 
1916, a special war levy was made on all citizens 
who had not actually served with the troops, 
and fees and stamp dues as well as taxes on 
investments were raised all around. In 1917 
and 1918 extensive luxury taxes were introduced. 
After the War, continuous legislation on taxa- 
tion was proposed but the situation was never 
taken in hand very vigorously until early in 
1924 when the absolute necessity of equaliz- 
ing the budget became evident. 

Germany, in the belief that the War would be 
short, attempted to do without new taxation 
but in 1915 provided for a substantial increase, 
applicable largely in the several German states. 
The Imperial government in 1916 imposed war 
profits taxes, excess profits taxes and others, be- 
sides taxes on transactions and various objects 
of consumption. In 1918, internal revenue 
duties were extended and the rates on war 
profits were made heavier. The system, how- 
ever, continued inadequate and receipts were by 
no means comparable with outlays. A similar 
policy of waiting prevailed in Austria, although 
as the War progressed advances were made from 
time to time. Italy, on the other hand, recog- 
nized the necessity of heavier taxation prac- 
tically from the beginning of the War, but was 
not very successful until the struggle was nearly 
over. In 1918, there were great extensions of 
luxury and consumption taxes and in 1919 a 
supplementary income tax. In the minor Eu- 
ropean countries, no general or uniform policy 
was pursued, some increasing the revenues 
through taxation while others relied largely on 
loans and indirect taxes. 

In the United States, as a result of continu- 
ous agitation, the administration of President 
Coolidge obtained from Congress at the session of 
1923-24 the adoption of a more thorough plan 
of tax revision than that adopted in October, 
1921, basing the demand upon the presence of 
an expected surplus in the budget for the fiscal 
year 1925. Among the minor European coun- 
tries budgetary progress was slow, while in 
Germany the unsettlement with regard to repa- 
rations and the unsatisfactory industrial con- 
ditions resulted in continuous deficits. 

As already incidentally noted, this growth in 
indebtedness is to be ascribed in part to actual 
military expenditure, in part to the protection of 
neutral frontiers and in part to the advance 
of prices and wages. Which one of these factors 
was predominant in any given country, is pos- 
sibly a matter of secondary interest. The sig- 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


nificant facts relating to the debt situation are, 
first of all, the actual growth of indebtedness 
as just surveyed, and secondly the methods by 
which the debt position at the end of the decade 
was attained as throwing light upon the prob- 
lem of reduction. 

A feature which distinguishes the financial 
experience of the war period from periods of 
similar trial in the past relates to methods of 
public borrowing. During the War, a_prob- 
ably unprecedented use was made of the short- 
term obligation, while at the same time the 
plan of funding the short-term obligations thus 
incurred into long-term debt was carried to 
a higher point of development than ever before. 
The use of this method was practically iden- 
tical in all of the belligerent countries, but natu- 
rally was carried on with far greater success in 
certain of them, owing to the fact that a greater 
degree of responsiveness on the part of the pub- 
lic was achieved in some than in others. This 
method of borrowing, as developed most suc- 
cessfully in England and the United States, was 
substantially as follows: A given quantity of 
revenue having been estimated as _ necessary 
within a specified period, funds were then ob- 
tained direct from the banks through the issue 
of certificates of indebtedness or treasury bills, 
or the equivalent. These short-term obligations 
usually ran for only about three months. The 
intent of every issue was to obtain steadily 
from the community a proportionate part of its 
current earnings and thus to make sure of draw- 
ing off from the general fund of commercial in- 
come a sufficient amount to provide for public 
necessities. In placing these certificates with 
holders, use was usually made of the central 
banking mechanism, the method being substan- 
tially the same in Great Britain and in the 
United States. Certificates issued by the 
Treasury were placed in the hands of reserve 
banks which distributed them at first volunta- 
rily and later by a process of assignment to 
members. The proceeds were marked up on the 
books of the subscribing banks as a credit to the 


458 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


vanced the practice grew of making a small 
preliminary payment, borrowing the remainder 
at the buyer’s bank. The result then was chiefly 
to convert the obligation of the government into 
the obligation of the individual citizen, pre- 
sumably to be paid for out of his income or 
savings. As the floating debt outstanding in- 
creased in this way, and as the amount owing 
by bond buyers to the banks for the purchase 
of bonds increased, inflation naturally resulted, 
owing to the fact that bank credit was greatly 
outrunning in its rate of growth the rate of 
production of commodities. The effect was very 
largely the same as that which had been pro- 
duced in former wars through the issue of ir- 
redeemable currency. Upon the close of the 
War, the stronger governments took measures 
to reduce their outstanding floating indebted- 
ness, but during the first two or three years 
after the close of the struggle, the only coun- 
tries that made any material progress in this 
direction were Great Britain and the United 
States. Italy later began to take steps along 
the same line but other belligerents met with 
no success. 

Internal and External Loans. At the 
opening of the War, much discussion developed 
in all countries as to the relative advantage of 
internal or external loans. Embargoes and 
blockades made it impossible for some to bor- 
row abroad, but the major belligerents, as the 
War advanced, tended more and more to draw 
upon foreign markets. The United States was 
naturally regarded as a primary source of such 
loans, although during the early year of the 
War London houses succeeded in distributing a 
great many of them. As the War advanced, in- 
vestors grew more and more hesitant, and it be- 
came necessary to negotiate not with foreign 
investors but with foreign governments, either 
obtaining their permission or when possible in- 
ducing them to advance the funds themselves. 
Thus arose the enormous international obliga- 
tions which assumed a size that was wholly 
unprecedented and in a very real sense con- 


government. These deposits were then called stituted a new phase of national finance. The 
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL DEBT 24 
Approximate value in millions of dollars—conversion at par 
Ratio of debt 
to national 
External Internal Total Pre-war wealth 
wealth on pre-war 
basis 
United ) States #2... cision iS ae $22,400 $22,400 > $204,400 11 
United skanedom ey. ..stctens $5,650 31,850 37,500 70,500 53 
ADBSELALLD eerie. bie eretone eat e 552 1,408 1,960 8,600 ae 
ANAC wee eeevauetens: © os lcvens ethers 243 2,074 2,317 14,650 16 
Germany seco tik) bia hehiaee dye (¢) 71,500 71,500 80,500 89 
OPANCE i aes. Sree Es. 31+ alee edeae 15,000 42,200 57,200 57,900 102 
RUSSIA, eins oP PRI co es fe eae 4,500 20,900 25,400 58,400 A2 
Ttaly ae Gens hieee aoe este 4,200 11,500 15,000 21,800 66 
Japan's MaLesee 2 ite cae ke oes 710 902 1,612 11,200 LS 


“Debts for which figures are given vary somewhat but are approximately representative of conditions at 


beginning of 1921. ®End of 1921. 


when necessary, the government giving as much 
notice as possible, and also endeavoring to pay 
out the funds as nearly as possible in the parts 
of the country from which they were drawn. 
After a period of some months had elapsed, a 
general loan was offered to the public and when 
subscribed, the proceeds were used to redeem 
the certificates and thus to reimburse to the 
banks the amounts they had advanced. Suc- 
cess in the method was dependent upon pay- 
ment by buyers of the long-term bonds in ac- 
tual cash or bank credit, but as the War ad- 


¢ For Germany’s external debt, see terms of the reparations. 


table reviews for several of the belligerent coun- 
tries the situation at about the opening of 1921 
(when conditions were most critical) as regards 
the division of public debts between internal and 
external obligations. : 

Inter-Governmental Debts. When the 
United States entered the War it found nearly 
all of the Allied powers approaching exhaustion. 
England had previously made large war loans 
to the Allies; but could no longer continue 
them. Advances were accordingly authorized 
by Congress in 1917 from the Treasury of the 


a¥ 2 at 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


United States. They were steadily made during 
the remainder of the War and were continued 
about eight months after the conclusion of the 
struggle. Thus a total sum of about $9,500,- 
000,000 was loaned, the proceeds being used in 
large measure for buying in the United States 
commodities that were needed for exports. The 
debts thus contracted were represented by tempo- 
rary certificates evidencing the obligations in 
question and assigned by the representatives of 
the various borrowing European countries. 
Eventually the question of “funding,” or pro- 
viding for their definite payment and for the 
rate of interest they should bear meanwhile be- 
came a pressing question. No interest on them 
had been paid from the time of their issue and 
Congress eventually passed, on Feb. 9, 1922, the 
so-called Debt Funding Commission Act in 
which a commission of five, headed by the 
Secretary of the Treasury, was directed to make 
arrangements for settling the obligations of the 
various countries. These obligations consisted 
of the following at the time of the adoption of 
the Act: 


NET OBLIGATIONS OF FOREIGN GOVERNMENTS, 
UNDER AUTHORITY OF ACTS APPROVED 


Mees Ot AND eS Sh PT 247) 19077 
AS AMENDED (ON BASIS OF CASH 
ADVANCES) 

LOPES free tices chee ts eee cet eyo * $347,691,566.23 
MULES POET en ek, eat ot Co avaat | als Mer due ates 8,147,000.00 
WZGCHO-SlOVAKI Ree at ctorers. chelen s) Sate Meas 61,256,.206.74 
A RTECOUMERS eal ePatada mic cae iee: spec se sts 6 2,950,762,938.19 
Cole Litalniee seeks ete sis chee cinch 4,166,318,358.44 
MTEC CC COMME ce aura te ner oes «what Sreh Soothe teh ahs 15,000,000.00 
TRIN pie Bro tin OOO cy Eee EEOC OE 1,648,034,050.90 
Wee DOU See rok a ienel cits a dhsy di ose 6) scat.c) ee sbihe. es: « 26,000.00 
ULGT SUG men eheencrate Neve reie sucrehahe sisveele 23,205,819.52 
ERIS ume eter once aer as ve the Shaved Slatelateie 187,729,750.00 
SOE DUT Maoh co eeic ce saree eidaue lo) euersrehee a) wlichs 265UT 5613922 

ROta ee eter ators © cle or wraueteee eta $9,434,346,829.24 


Accrued interest on this total was also due, 
besides some $573,000,000 for surplus war sup- 
plies sold to various foreign nations. Great 
Britain, meanwhile, had advanced to Continental 
countries sums amounting in the aggregate to 
about $8,500,000,000, a sum nearly as great as 
that lent by the United States. Some relatively 
small loans had likewise been made by sundry of 
the Continental powers to one another, France 
advancing nearly $2,509,000,000. Out of this 
situation arose in 1919-22 the demand for in- 
ternational debt cancellation. 

German Indemnity. The most _ trouble- 
some phase of the debt situation produced sby 
the War grew out of the establishment of an 
ndemnity or reparation for Germany. (See REPA- 
RATIONS for an extended treatment of this sub- 
ject.) Because of the inability of the Powers to 
hasten a settlement, the questions of interna- 
tional debts and reparations passed into a wait- 
ing stage which lasted well into 1924. The 
only important progress during the period was 
the funding of the British debt to the United 
States which was finally effected in January, 
1923 (formal agreement June 18, 1923). Great 
Britain recognized the entire indebtedness and 
arranged to pay it over a period of about 61 
years with an annual interest rate of 3 per cent, 
rising after 10 years to 3%. As the United 
States had outstanding the bonds which were 
issued to provide the funds advanced to Great 
Britain, and was paying 414 per cent on them, 
the arrangement with Great Britain was equiv- 
alent to partial cancellation, although not tech- 
nically so. 


459 FINANCE AND BANKING 


Change in Revenue Systems. In the en- 
deavor to avoid unnecessary increase in debt, 
England and the United States early in the War 
resorted to heavy taxation, adopting income and 
excess profits taxes upon a large scale and par- 
ticularly advancing the rates of surtax up to 
figures never before thought of. Other coun- 
tries were slower to resort to heavy taxes be- 
cause of the reluctance of their own citizens 
to submit to such control, yet it was practically 
inevitable that they should eventually do so 
and in substantially all. countries there was 
an effort to get away from publie borrowing and 
shift over to a basis of budgetary balance. Only 
by so doing, it was recognized, would it be pos- 
sible to restore a condition of solvency in the 
principal countries. The result of this neces- 
sity was to emphasize the finding of new sources 
of income and hence the reconstruction of fiscal 
systems. How this change worked may be noted 
from a comparison of the sources of income in 
France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, 
shown in the table on page 460. 

Proportion of Loans to Taxation. Authori- 
ties on public finance prior to the War had gen- 
erally taken the view that no public loan should 
ordinarily be floated without the imposition of 
taxation in an amount sufficient to provide for 
interest on the principal thus created and for an 
amortization or sinking fund sufficient eventu- 
ally to extinguish the debt. At the opening 
of the War there was a widespread opinion 
among theorists both in the United States and 
Great Britain in favor of restricting loans to 
not over 50 per cent of total outlay, the balance 
to be raised by taxation. On the Continent, 
governments found their populations very restive 
under taxation and before the War were dis- 
posed to make use of deficit financiering through 
public loans because of the already existing bur- 
den. During the War, both Germany and 
France relied largely on borrowing. No consist- 
ent policy of financing in this respect was pur- 
sued during the War. 

‘Debts, Prices and Exchange. The growing 
proportion of debt both before and in a more 
striking degree after the War, as compared with 
the volume. of national wealth, became an alarm- 
ing feature because of the disproportionate ab- 
sorption of national income in meeting debt 
charges. Inasmuch as existing debts were in- 
curred in units of currency of the pre-war gold 
value, attempt to pay them in full at the close 
of the decade would involve an enormously 
greater transfer of wealth than that which was 
originally borrowed. Alternative to such a 
course would be the partial repudiation of the 
debts, either by “devaluation” (change in the 
gold equivalence of the currency unit) or by the 
so-called “capital tax,” which amounts to an 
appropriation of enough of the wealth of the 
propertied class to pay the state’s debt to that 
class. Some settlement of this question would 
be necessary if the countries were to attempt 
to restore a sound banking and currency system. 
The difficulty in the case is particularly marked 
in those countries which have heavy foreign 
debts because they must usually settle in terms 
of gold. 

Relations with Banks. Owing to the fact 
that the War took all countries by surprise, 
bank loans were necessary in nearly every case 
in order to furnish funds for immediate require- 
ments. This was an inevitable episode in war 
finance and was not open to criticism except in 


FINANCE AND BANKING 460 FINANCE AND BANKING 


FRANCE 
In million francs 
19i9 1920 1921 1922 ¢ 19232 
Directitaxes Ae bib ae Uh eee 1,069 1,620 1,872 21507 2,983 
Stamp taxes, »¢.. 4.5 a= fn sh-s.c ee ee 2,195 3,260 3,289 3,516 3,176 
(Paxton SeCULILIES . 2Go on sa a See oe 290 568 926 737 821 
Salostdaxth it". .otQe Sree eee hie aaa8 269 1,256 1,911 3,058 } 2,513 
Gustoms. duties (¢. ..& .$faeceneee oe 1,477 1,596 1,197 2,466 1,923 
Indirect: taxes «a5 + #a-cb oe eee ke. 1.759 2,612 2,919 2,927 2,682 
SuUrar CAKES so hue ans ack eee eeic rite t( 444 365 543 519 
Monopolies! \.c8 25.04 See eee nee 1,052 1,582 J heal? Wl 8 1,802 1,837 
Post. Office ihincess deheneeearan st. . 589 921 A OFCL 1,108 — 
Publics dOmMaln st: bug cae Meee eears a2 es 155 alse | 113 183 176 
Miscellanecus oe +. ceeetaen eee Lee ses 455 938 te levies 985 1,420 
a 
Total wordinarys tera asic tee 9,707 14,948 16,547 19,831 18,060 
War-Dronts ataxic eee - ati aie 672 3,224 3,169 3,050 1,225 
Bale VOL Wate InaALeryal sac 2s cei i YA OMS 1,649 Us Ojak 500 — 
Total, general budget ..2: 02.4 <1. 11,586 19,821 2121.7 23,381 19,285 
SMECIA MDILCOCL 1. ie seaside ite names — — 326 1,310 — 
Grand stotal pies. ite Pea aie 11,586 19,821 21,543 24,691 19,285 


@ Hstimated. 


GERMANY 
In billions (milliards) of marks 
1919 1920 1921 1922 ¢ 1923 4 
Taxes on wealth and exchange: 

INCOME). purte ce AEeE I adele ieee eae —: 10.2 29.7 350. 450. 
GOrporation ss i wees te oe eee a 0.1 eG D if 
Produce (Kapitalertragsteuer) — 0.9 ibys 2 — 
Emergency levy (Reichsnotopfer) 0.002 9.9 0.8 4 — 
Property (Vermogensteuer) ..... — — — — 60. 
Possessions (Besitzsteurer) ...... 0.08 0.01 OvL 0.002 —— 
InWeritan cepe i: WALES ris stole eee 0.09 0.3 0.6 1.5 aoe 
Turnover (Umsatzsteuer) ....... 0.8 spel ie L925 500. 
Real estate purchase (Grunderwerb- 

Breuer) Woe este ee eee 0.06 0.7 0.7 1.5 1.4 
Dividends and interest (Kapital- 

Wenkelreteuemrvio. Liki aoe eek — == a 35.2 65.8 
Motor. Veliclesive of ia. cubis watt cee — a — 0.1 4, 
ENSUTENCCH NICE Sr nie eee eae — a — 13 1b 
Rates! andimMotteny hier. sikelele — —- — 0.8 2.2 
Stamps cheer wince ROA Kee cea re 0.9 1.7 6.8 2a 4.5 
Transportationie. asi ci ee ee ae 0.5 1.4 2.2 34.2 520. 
Non-recurring war taxes ........ iby 5.6 5.4 — — 
Motala” ach Wh act capes LAE see te, alee castes Ses Ses 35.7 59.1 614.9 1,617.9 

Taxes on commodities: 
GuStomsies. cca tcer se eas ee ae ee ibs | Qe 5.9 88. 500 
Goalie tse iy Me SR hn he PES. 1.6 4.9 7.0 150. 2,750 
Other excises stn): feta ye Pee he eT, 4.1 8.3 59.6 189 
Otay MEP Y he eaetne ooo eh ree oY, 4.4 tl 22 PAL) 297.6 3,439 
Miscellaneous® i... 2ece ei. JR re iN 6.1 6.93 119.1 574 
Grange! ofalace. toes c Ge 9.2 53.0 149.6 1,071.6 5,640.9 


* Budget estimates, 


2 


UNITED KINGDOM 
In millions of £ 


1920 1921 1922 1923 19244 
OUSCOMS.) 1k oso Fee AES. in Sy. Ae f 149.4 134.0 130.0 123.0 118.5 
MXCISG Sy... uae MAT ENE Ce on 133.6 199.8 194.3 123.0 155.7 
Motor vehicles Wns meen pie ee ale —— 7.0 wr st 12:2 13.2 
Histates#:.. ih. igre eee Sea eS 40.9 47.7 52.2 56.9 52.0 
MOLAINLD S| fe caschemea nde Meee eee cinco as 22-0 26.6 19.6 22.2 20.0 
anGitax th fois. er Tea MRMe oe oe 0.7 (wey 0.6 12.9 3.0 
HOUSE uty NEAL eee tebe ek ef 1.9 1.9 1.9 if 3.0 
meome’ tax jidels valet cues eee ean 359.1 396.3 398.8 879.0 328.0 
HIXCOSS DT ONS ite .1 ob tokens ee ne ec cole 290.0 218.2 30.5 2.0 12.0 
Corporation. Proiits. '.... . sere ees h sh. — 0.7 1705 18.9 20 
Wands valuesduties (2). apeteneis o OF 0.1 0.1 — — 
Totalstax Teveniess +. ute 998.9 DOB 200 856.7 774.7 732.2 
INGH-tax.) TEVenUes se. ain Lee 340.7 394,2 268.2 139.3 120.4 
Totalprevenues: i. 6d. 64. nt ee eee 1,339.6 1,426.9 1,124.9 914.2 852.7 


“The figures are for Great Britain and North Ireland. 


a ea? 


Pam age 


a a a 


- 


ee ee 


a a. 


= 


FINANCE AND BANKING 461 


so far as it might be adopted as a systematic 
policy. Fear of popular discontent led a good 
many countries to continue the short-term financ- 
ing much longer than they otherwise would, the 
only countries that possesed the real internal 
strength to tax severely and effectively during 
the War being Great Britain and the United 
States. In falling back upon the -banks, the 
various governments resorted to metlwds of bor- 
rowing that had not been tried in previsely the 
same form during the course of formep!struggles. 
Relatively small use of legal tendérspaper or 
“fiat money” was made but the banks were re- 
quired to take and distribute short-term obliga- 
tions which were then funded from time to time 
into longer term loans as circumstances seemed 
to permit. The fact that the subscribers to 
these loans were encouraged to borrow from the 
banks the funds which were necessary in order 
te enable them to make good their subscriptions 
naturally tended to produce in all countries a 
highly inflated condition of prices, together 
with a steady disappearance of specie, notwith- 
standing an early embargo:upon movements of 
coin which took effect in nearly all countries, 
comparatively early in the struggle although at 
slightly differing dates. The United States was 
the last to declare such an embargo, owing to 
the fact that it did not enter the War until the 
year 1917 was well advanced. Heavy borrowing 
at the banks in nearly all countries left these 
institutions at the close of the War in a very 
unliquid condition, their government paper hold- 
ings being “frozen” owing to inability to find 
buyers for them either at home or abroad due 
to the deterioration of public credit. But re- 
liance upon foreign borrowing which was char- 
acteristic of practically all European countries 
that had found themselves able to get access to 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


other markets, left all of them at the close of 
the War with tremendous external obligations 
which they were in no position to liquidate, 
owing to the fact that as a result of the conflict 
their productive power had been very greatly 
decreased. An unavoidable consequence of the 
drawing off of a large share of the population 
from economic occupation had been in all a 
corresponding curtailment of productive effort. 
The close of the War, therefore, found practical- 
ly all European countries facing a highly com- 
plex problem in public finance—that of reducing 
the cost of their government to such an extent 
as to make it possible to pay the necessary sums 
from the proceeds of taxation, thereby avoiding 
further borrowing while at the same time en- 
larging their surplus export power sufficiently 
to provide a balance large enough to furnish the 
necessary funds abroad with which to pay in- 
terest and maturing obligations. This latter 
necessity was the more obvious because of the 
fact that for one reason or another it had been 
found necessary to “release” a great deal of gold 
as the War advanced, thereby reducing the bank 
reserves and in some cases bringing the specie 
stock to so low an ebb that it was exceedingly 
doubtful whether any restoration of gold re- 
demption could be brought about in the near 
future. 

Results of Inflation Policy. The self-con- 
scious inflation policy which was thus adopted 
by the belligerent governments soon proved 
disastrous. It was not only exceedingly dis- 
turbing to business, but it also defeated the 
efforts of the governments which resorted to it 
as a fiscal expedient. Price levels rose rapidly 
and enormously in nearly all countries, as may 
be seen from this table of index numbers: 


INDEX NUMBERS OF WHOLESALE PRICES (ALL COMMODITIES) ¢ 


France; Bul- Italy; Prof. 


United United King- letin de la Bachi (38 Germany Sweden; 
States; Fed- Canada; dom; Board Statistique commodities Statistisches Svensk Han- 
eral Reserve Department of Trade (150 Générale until1920,76 Reichsamt delstidning 
Board of Labor (271 commod- (45 commod- during 1921 (38 commod- (47 quota- 
(90 quota- quotations) 2 ities) ities) ¢ and 100 there- ities) > tions) @ 
tions) ? after) ® 
eee 
TOM SORES asst coy 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 9 
TUS Re Wig a esi Heed 101 sey ane 95 110 116 
OL Gta ee ey ae 206 217 stil 356 364 420 330 
LOZOM ARR es 226 246 307 510 6381 1,486 347 
OD Dem, sna ovhays oP 147 182 197 345 578 1,911 211 
5 A AWAD ity Roa «h 149 165 159 327 562 34,180 Lez, 4 
Oe ete te 156 ae 159 419 Oreo : haath 
Christiania, Australian 
Norway; Denmark; Belgium ; Holland ; Common- Japan; 
Okonomisk Finanstid- Department Switzerland; Central wealth; Bank of 
Revue ende of Statistics Dr. Lorenz Bureau Bureau of Japan 
(92 commod- (33 com- (130commod- (71 commod- _ of Statistics Census and for Tokyo 
ities) @ modities) f ities) ™ ities) * (538 commod- Statistics (56 commod- 
j ities ? (92 commod- ities ® 
ities) ° 
ee EE ai a Rk UU a SS ETD Ce A RR Re ES ORE TLL AL 
120 is RE as oO oes ae atte i, Pies 108 bh to, 100 
med ba 230) 55 (Shee L145; 100 # 100" 100 109 100 4 95 
BO Oe ss. 5. a 322 294 i pone 304 180 235 
AS Vali ea Dee’ et ae 382 382 326 292 218 259 
ag! Pals Sort Ree coda 298 250 Se. 195 182 167 200 
AOD eee. 5 a 238 9 179% 367 168 180 9 54 196 
Un V8 et ei, Ee 233 9 201% 201 180 a 170 199 
“These figures are taken from the table published *Dec, 31, 1913—June 30, 1914= 100. 


in the Bulletin of the Federal Reserve Board. 
+ Average for the month. 
¢ End of month. 
@ Middle of month. 
¢End of year and end of month. 
f First of month. 
9 July 1, 1913, to June 30, 1914 = 100. 


+ July 1, 1912—June 30, 1914 = 100. 

a Duly toa: = 100} 

k Prices as of first of the month. 914 = 100. 

t Based upon prices of 52 commodities during 1920, 
53 during 1921. 1913 = 100. 

m Average of last half of month. 

wWAprilvelo)4 = 100. 

°End of year. 


FINANCE AND BANKING 462 


The effect of this advance in prices, brought 
about as it was by the practice of borrowing 
over heavily at banks, was to make commodities 
and services cost enormously more than they 
otherwise would. Particularly harmful results 
Were experienced in the’ case of those countries 
which found it necessary to apply to foreign 
markets for munitions and supplies. Nearly all 
of the European countries had found themselves 
obliged at an early stage to buy heavily in the 
United States. Although the American price 
level had risen considerably even before the 
United States entered the War the advance had 
not been comparable to that which occurred at 
a later date. 

Federal Reserve System. The war period 
with its sequel had a peculiarly important 
relationship to American banking conditions 
because of the fact that simultaneously with 
the opening of the War the United States 
had arranged to organize an entirely new bank- 
ing system—the so-called Federal Reserve. 
This banking system had been framed entirely 
without reference to war necessities but was just 
on the point of taking effect when the struggle 
broke out in Europe. During the first two 
years—1915 and 1916—in which the United 
States was a neutral, the Federal Reserve Sys- 
tem was practically in process of organization 
and the task of installing its various elements 
was in progress. Its business during that peri- 
od was small; but with the entry of the United 
States into the active participation in the strug- 
gle early in 1917 the Federal Reserve System 
became a war banking system almost exclusively, 
and this character it retained until the struggle 
was over and the great advances made by the 
United States to European countries had been 
completed and the Liberty Bond issues largely 
growing out of them had been financed and di- 
gested by the banks and the vublic. Thereafter, 
the Federal Reserve System was able once more 
to turn its attention to the tasks of peaceful 
finance and to assist in restoring more normal 
conditions. 

Immediately after the inauguration of Pres- 
ident Wilson in 1913, a bill which had previ- 
ously been developed under the direction of a 
sub-committee in the preceding Congress was 
introduced (June, 1913) and thereafter con- 
sidered and adopted by the House of Rep- 
resentatives on September 17. This measure was 
considerably modified in the Senate but in con- 
ference committee it was amended back into 
nearly its original form, becoming a law on 
Dec. 23, 1913. As thus passed, the act provided 
for the establishment of a “Federal Reserve” 
System in which all national banks were obliged 
to take membership by subscribing 3 per cent of 
their capital and surplus to the stock of institu- 
tions to be organized in a number of districts 
throughout the country and known as Federal 
Reserve Banks. These banks were corporations 
chartered for 20 years under Federal authority. 
receiving deposits only from the government 
and from their member banks (though subse- 
quently allowed to receive deposits from other 
banks under certain conditions), their chief 
duties being the issuing of notes and the hold- 
ing of the reserves of their members. Their 
business consisted primarily of rediscounting 
paper for their members, although they were 
also authorized to buy paper (of the same kind 
that had been made rediscountable) in the open 
market, should they see fit. In issuing notes 
the Reserve Banks, as they were popularly 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


called, were authorized to deposit eligible redis- 
counted paper with their chairman (the Federal 
Reserve Agent), acting as trustee for the govern- 
ment, who then issued an equal amount of notes 
to the Reserve Bank. The latter then placed 
them in circulation by paying them out or hand- 
ing them.to members who had requested such 
accommodation By a later amendment, gold 
might alsol.be deposited with the chairman of 
the boardsia lieu of eligible paper. These notes 
were maalasobligations of the United States and 
receivable for all public dues. An organization 
committee, created under the act, eventually 
divided the country into districts and estab- 
lished twelve banks. Government control of the 
institutions was provided for by authorizing 
the Federal Reserve Board to name three out 
of nine directors for each of the reserve banks, 
the other six members being required to include 
three business men and three bankers, one busi- 
ness man and one banker being selected by 
banks voting individually, in each of three dis- 
tinct groups (including the small, medium and 
larger banks of each district). It was further 
provided, in order to insure democratic govern- 
ment of the banks, that each bank should have 
but one vote regardless of capitalization. With 
reference to reserves, the act required that the 
25 per cent reserve formerly required in central 
reserve cities be cut to 18 per cent of demand 
obligations; likewise also the 25 per cent for- 
merly required in reserve cities was cut to 15 
per cent, and the 15 per cent in other places was 
cut to 12 per cent. Of these reserves 7 per cent 
was to be placed by central reserve city banks 
with their reserve bank, 6 per cent by reserve 
city banks and 5 per cent by all others. Time 
deposits were made subject to a 5 per cent rate 
throughout. Federal Reserve Banks were to be 
authorized to pay 6 per cent cumulative divi- 
dends, after all expenses and allowances had 
been provided for, to their stockholders, and 
their remaining earnings were then to be paid to 
the government. 

An important feature of the act on its foreign 
banking side was found in the authorization 
granted the larger national institutions to es- 
tablish branches abroad and in its grant of the 
power of accepting time bil’s (not over 90 days’ 
maturity) to national institutions. In its or- 
dinary rediscount operations the reserve banks 
were limited to ninety-day paper growing out of 
commercial, agricultural or industrial transac- 
tions, speculative paper being barred. 


The act as thus adopted was subsequently 


modified by 10 principal enactments. The 
important features in these amendments were: 
(1) enlargement of the acceptance power to 100 
per cent of capital and surplus; (2) permission 
to national banks to subscribe to the stock of 
foreign banking enterprises formed for the pur- 
pose of establishing branches abroad; (3) ter- 
mination of the reserve requirements of the 
original law and substitution therefor of a pro- 
vision requiring all reserves to be kept in Re- 
serve Banks, such reserve to consist of 13 per 
cent of demand deposits for central reserve city 
banks, 10 per cent for reserve city banks, 7 per 
cent for all others, with time deposits at 3 per 
cent; (4) adoption of the so-called Edge Act 
authorizing the formation of corporations for 
the purpose of making long-term investments 
abroad, national banks being permitted to sub- 
scribe to their stocks; (5) enlargement of 
amount of loans permitted to be made on the 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


strength of Liberty Bonds as collateral; (6) 
modification of voting arrangements governing 
the election of directors in Federal Reserve 
Banks; and a few others. Of these amendments 
the only one which fundamentally altered the 
structure and significance of the act was that 
transferring the entire reserves to the central 
institutions and the Agricultural Credits Act of 
1923 which gave special privileges to paper 
growing out of farm credits (see AGRICULTURAL 
CREDIT). 

As provided for by the Act of 1913 the Fed- 
eral Reserve System went into operation (pre- 
liminary details having been arranged by an 
organization committee) technically on the 10th 
of August, 1914, the banks themselves being 
actually opened for business on November 2, 
while reserves were paid over on November 14 
of the same year. The two years 1915-16 were 
occupied largely in developing methods of dis- 
counting and establishing new plans of note 
issue. A constructive piece of work carried 
through during these years was the establish- 
ment of the Gold Settlement Fund at Washing- 
ton whereby the Federal Reserve Banks were 
enabled to clear on the central set of books con- 
ducted by the Board the bulk of their obliga- 
tions against one another, thereby avoiding the 
shipment of specie. This clearance, at first car- 
ried on only once each week, was later made a 
daily clearance, and eventually came to super- 
sede in large part the work of the local clearing 
houses. 

With the entry of the United States into the 
War early in 1917, a new epoch in the history 
of the Federal Reserve System and of the 
banking system of the United States in gen- 
eral opened. The fundamental problem at the 
opening of the War was that of finding means 
to supply the Treasury with necessary funds. 
This object was temporarily accomplished by 
direct borrowing from the Federal Reserve 
Banks on short-term treasury certificates. The 
system of Liberty Loans was then developed and 
the Reserve Banks were made the active agents 
of the Treasury in placing thems The Federal 
Reserve Act had originally provided for making 
the banks the fiscal agents of the government 
and this was now interpreted to include not only 
sub-treasury functions but also all those relating 
to the sale and distribution of bonds. The im- 
portance of the sub-treasuries accordingly was 
reduced and they were eventually closed in 
1920, but during the latter part of the War and 
the period just after it their activity was purely 
nominal. With the issuance of the First Liberty 
Loan in July, 1917, the activity of the Federal 
Reserve Banks was largely transferred to a war 
basis including the management of public finance 
and continued so throughout the ‘temainder 
of the struggle. 

War Banking and Finance. From the date 
of the entry of the United States into the 
War, the function of the Federal Reserve 
System became almost exclusively that of financ- 
ing the process of borrowing from the _ peo- 
ple. During the years 1917, 1918, and 1919 
the government increased the national debt from 
a little over $1,000,000,000 to a little over 
$25,000,000,000. These great loans were for the 
most part placed first through the banks and 
then with the rank and file of the investing 
public. It would probably have been impossible 
to dispose of the enormous quantities of bonds 
which the government was obliged to sell in 


16 


463 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


order to provide itself with funds without some 
kind of special banking aid. Such aid was par- 
ticularly necessary in view of the fact that it 
had been determined by the Treasury author- 
ities to dispose of the bonds at a rate of interest 
quite materially below the prevailing rate in the 
market. The first issue of Liberty Bonds was 
sold at 3% per cent and as subsequent issues 
were put out the rate was gradually raised 
until it reached 434 per cent on the fifth, the 
Victory Loan (1919); although it should be re- 
membered that the first loan bearing 3% per 
cent had been wholly exempt from taxation of all 
classes, while subsequent loans were only par- 
tially so exempt. That the public might be in- 
duced to purchase up to the full extent of its 
saving power, paying for the bonds it thus 
bought on the installment plan, Federal Reserve 
Banks were instructed by the government 
through the Federal Reserve Board to fix a rate 
for the rediscount of paper equal to the coupon 
rate on the Liberty Bonds. Commercial banks 
generally were induced to discount directly for 
their customers at the same figure. Thus a buy- 
er of bonds who was unable to pay for them in 
full, borrowed from his bank the additional 
amount he needed, the bank carrying it without 
cost to him since the coupons provided for the 
borrower’s own interest charge. The bank then 
rediscounted such paper at the same (coupon) 
rate with the Federal Reserve Bank of its dis- 
trict. This policy was very successful in “sta- 
bilizing” the rate of interest, but it also tended 
to transfer the principal burden for the time 
being at least to the banks. The system was 
perfected through the steady issue of Treasury 
certificates sometimes as often as twice a month, 
these certificates running for 90 days as a 
rule and being funded at the end of that period 
into the successive issues of Liberty Bonds which 
were then subscribed for and carried as in- 
dicated. The burden resting upon Federal Re- 
serve Banks thus became heavier and _ heavier 
as the War advanced and as successive issues 
were sold. Hence the reduction of the reserve 
ratio (ratio of gold to demand liabilities) of 
the system, which fell from about 90 per cent 
before the War to about 52 per cent at the end 
of 1918, shortly after the Armistice. The fifth 
Victory Loan, which was floated early in 1919, 
was sold upon the same general principles that 
had been pursued in the earlier financing and re- 
sulted in increasing the burden resting upon the 
reserve system still further. The successful 
floating of this loan was followed by a specula- 
tive development of business and especially of 
foreign trade, which continued during the year 
1919, and although checked early in 1920 did 
not reach its peak until about the close of the 
latter year. ° 

Prices during the War had tended to rise 
rapidly as a result of a variety of causes. Of 
these the principal was the tremendous demand 
exerted by all governments for commodities, 
coupled with the natural shortage in production 
which resulted from the withdrawal of a large 
part of the productive labor of all of the . 
Western nations for the purposes of war. A 
contributing cause of the rise in prices, how- 
ever, was found in the suspension of specie pay- 
ments and excessive issue of currency which 
produced the condition of “inflation” reflected in 
unduly high prices for commodities and services 
of all classes. This price and wage advance con- 
tinued steadily up to a peak in May, 1920, at 


FINANCE AND BANKING 464 


which time the index number of prices was. ap- 
proximately 270 measured from a base in 1913 
taken as 100. The check to expansion and 
wholesale-price advance administered early in 
1920 has been variously explained and has been 
popularly attributed in the United States to the 
fact that Federal Reserve Banks toward the end 
of 1919 resolved upon the so-called deflation 
policy. This deflation policy took form as an 
advance of interest rates above the low levels 
that had been established during the Liberty 
Bond period. It was aided by a more strict 
interpretation of the eligibility of paper for re- 
discount, coupled with an effort to induce bor- 
rowers who had obtained advances on Liberty 
Bonds as collateral to settle these loans and 
thus to take them out of the banks. The in- 
adequacy of this explanation is indicated by the 
fact that the recession in business and _ prices 
which set in early in 1920 did not originate in 
the United States but was first indicated by the 
collapse of the silk market in Japan, while in 
most foreign countries no very definite deflation 
effort was undertaken until after the business 
recession had begun. Federal Reserve _ dis- 
counts, as already stated, did not reach their 
peak until the end of 1920, about eight months 
after the business decline had started. At that 
time total assets of the Reserve Banks were ap- 
proximately $5,000,000,000 while bills discounted 
were about $2,700,000,000 and currency outstand- 
ing was about $3,336,000,000. As the decline 
of business became more pronounced during 
1921, the price level gradually sank to approxi- 
mately 140, or a little more than half its level 
at the peak, while discounts at Federal Reserve 
Banks had been reduced by the end of 1921 to 
less than $1,150,000,000. Notes at the same 
time receded to about $2,400,000,000, thus con- 
tracting over one-fourth of their maximum 
amount. The inability of foreign countries to 
settle their enormous purchases in the United 
States had Ied during the War to very heavy 
advances made by the government to foreign 
governments and expended almost entirely in 
the United States. These advances were to be 
continued until about the middle of 1919, eight 
months after the Armistice, and amounted to 
about $9,500,000,000. When they came to a 
close there ensued a period of trade expansion al- 
ready noted during which considerable advances 
were made by American banks and _ business 
houses for the purpose of carrying foreign buyers 
as long as possible. As it became more and 
more evident that foreigners would not be able to 
liquidate these debts in full, banks and exporters 
began to withdraw these credits and the large 
movement of gold into the United States which 
had been very marked during 1916 and 1917 
was resumed. From the opening of the War 
in 1914 to the close of 1923 the total net im- 
portations of gold into the United States 
amounted to about $2,150,000,000 and the total 
gold holdings of the Federal Reserve Banks rose 
to about $3,200,000,000. At the same time the 
ratio of reserve to liability advanced to ap- 
proximately 78 per cent. One of the noteworthy 
services of the Reserve Banks during this whole 
period of unusual trial and strain was seen in 
the great reduction of bank failures, the total 
of failures at no time being large and. in some 
years being practically negligible. 

The general situation and development of the 
Federal Reserve System during the two years 


following the close of the inflation period was | 


\ 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


substantially as follows: Immediately after the 
completion of the task of readjusting the dis- 
count rates and business which culminated in 
the spring of 1921, Federal Reserve Banks en- 
deavored to return to a basis in which their 
principal activity would be devoted to com- 
mercial undertakings while they sought to di- 
vest themselves so far as they could of govy- 
ernment obligations and to induce the invest- 
ment public to take up and hold such securities. 
The result was a steady decline in their activ- 
ity, since they had consistently refused to enter 
into any considerable competition with the larger 
member banks which held their stock. Coupled 
with this change of policy was a second remark- 
able transformation of their position, owing to 
the steady and great movement of gold into 
the United States, which resulted in building up 
enormous specie reserves in the hands of Fed- 
eral Reserve Banks. The situation of the re- 
serve system at approximately the close of 1923 
may be conveniently reviewed in the table on 
page 465. 

Development of Clearing System. The na- 
tional system of clearance which has consti- 
tuted one of the most outstanding achievements 
of the Federal Reserve Board under the manda- 
tory provisions of the original act had attained 
only a moderate degree of development prior to 
the close of the War. It was not put into ef- 
fect at the outset of the Federal Reserve opera- 
tions but first took form in a definite way on 
July 1, 1916, when arrangements were made for 
collecting checks on member: banks or on non- 
members which remitted at par without charge 
for exchange or collection. Credits and debits 
were entered upon a deferred basis correspond- 
ing to the amount of time required actually 
to collect the items. From the time that the 
system was fully inaugurated the totals trans- 
ferred by this means rapidly grew, the system 
largely superseding clearing houses in many 
parts of the country, a number of the latter be- 
ing closed in the meantime, as a result. Ow- 
ing, however, to the fact that as a result of 
the clearance at par without charge many small 
banks lost a valued source of income, criticism 
arose and during the years 1920-23 hostile legis- 
lation was undertaken in eight southern States 
and suits were brought against reserve banks 
for the purpose of having their clearance func- 
tion declared unconstitutional. In 1924, this 
litigation was still incomplete, although one or 
more cases had gone to the Supreme Court. In 
these the exercise of the clearance function had 
been upheld, subject to some important reserva- 
tions. This resulted in reducing somewhat the 


total number of banks remitting at par, the re-_ 


maining number being about 28,000. 
European Banking Development. Eu- 
ropean banking was in a far more stable and 


completed condition at the opening of the War 


than was the banking system of the United 
States, but the strain to which it was subjected 
was far more severe, relatively speaking, than 
that to which the United States was obliged 
to adjust itself. In a general way, the principal 
effect of the War was to bring about an ex- 
tensive redistribution of specie, a great reduc- 
tion in the bank reserves of some countries, 
an even larger relative reduction in these re- 
serves as compared with outstanding obliga- 
tions and a very material alteration in the 
character ef the investments held by the banks, 
this change taking form as a great growth in 


FINANCE AND BANKING 465 FINANCE AND BANKING 


FEDERAL RESERVE DISTRICTS 


N DAK 
MINN 


~ MINNEAPOLIS 
: AF 
| 


1+ — ae e 


ip SusbuTe? ‘ 
e, 
aly} be 
iB °K » \o 


eNashville 
TENN 


ARK 
EE EPs 


qmemms BOUNDARIES OF FEDERAL RESERVE DISTRICTS 
BOUNDARIES OF FEDERAL RESERVE BRANCH TERRITORIES 
@ FEDERAL RESERVE BANK CITIES 
@ FEDERAL RESERVE BRANCH CITIES 
© FEDERAL RESERVE BANK AGENCY 


RESOURCES AND LIABILITIES OF THE TWELVE FEDERAL RESERVE BANKS COMBINED 
(In thousands of dollars) 


Resources 
Gold’ and *Mederal Reserve agents 2. och. wc ee 
Gold redemption fund with United States Treasury 


Gold held exclusively against F. R. notes ...... 
Gold! ‘settlement fund “with EH? “Ri Board is soe. oe. 
Gold and gold certificates held by banks ........... 


PSU beet O Mime TESCT VOSS Brora cherata ep oPineic cre clever «ores aya.3.o es 
Reserves other than gold ..... BIPM ates ick dote elects coe 6 


RO tals ESOT VCS ofa i 0el lett hey ola chet! chacicl trae aatel's cote te 
Non-reserve cash ........e. bP Re EE QO one OOO 
Bills discounted: 

Secured by United States government obligations .. 
Others billsh GISCOUNtCCsi ss dascke dete Reheat ahenbaleye s dre +. 


otal bills discountedy .''. Gace we ees ee cees ; 
Pallsspouecht) ingopensmarket) si tis Borges. Wits cide stele Melete’ 
United States government securities : 
Es OTM Sante ON Pa a ctans ies taraein 4, ope sia adeee leledis, cies 0.2 saehals |hrace 
EC ERSU LV OCS Fete, Ret Sie ce ere ee letras telee sc eicke 
Certificates; ofjindebtednessity.)ccioy 2 Sets PI ORIEL. 


Total United States government securities ....... 
All Oth ere Carine assets tists o1aiche ioral hate enteesrctern terete e's 


T Oth OR Hin tp SSO T Saks Bipst chip deer seta s eh vs tcl Mavaned BO si cre 
Five per cent redemption fund—F. R. bank ‘notes 
wintcollecteds.1tem ser Seek te cece Peat th, he dh SS = eee 
anky Premises: }..4.-. tis oh eeade SFA ake oe a A 
MOLD EY + TCSOULRCEN 2 <tc aan cieieToceieichcccvercvalers cues ite oles 


Totallresources aks t nein ct oe he te tes betes 
Mapkenotes.in actiali,circulations#. sa onl Lee. scenes. 
F. RK. Bank notes in circulation—net .....0.....ec08s 
Deposits : 

Member bank—reserve account .......... Meecha ce ote 
ATOMOLIUINGT Hig (ars o5k «Shc tolelio ofalsitis REPRE. o 


oes eee see eevee 


MPEP GOODRUS With SE. SRD shee. itelas 
Deferred avallability items ©. 66.6. isleielele ce ellen 
Rh CEERI SER TE Odo. a. co sve eYu 0 oh Mv aph bat aite | amen pen th toto Shics acl « 
SUD Ty OSMIUM eso Oa cles: elves ofl above Ogee) ate ta hetbes totey- oes 
PTIVOTNGH DL A HIEIGLCRMY ores. te ols Ci hE, OP eae erent, 


OCA PMLEATIUITEIC Ste t.4. «ys, 0.004) oF'e.0 exe eRe ROR Aol srcrcke 

Ratio of total reserves to deposit and F. R,. note 
Nabiliticas COmpiseds Oi). Mae Poets SR? BO Ih, 
Contingent liability on hills purchased for foreign cor- 
LOSPODAENUS Uamtchethet tks > 4.6, AN. «50s "ss 0 dacete reeeeeas 45,2 


May 7, 1924 


2,110,776 
89,755 


2,150,531 
601,766 
377,309 


3,129,606 
102,502 


3,232,108 
51,243 


167,556 
272,729 


440,285 
87,287 


18,353 
232,091 
60,438 


310,882 
51 


838,505 
28 


566,511 
56,540 
23,730 


4,768,665 
1,927,027 
338 


1,953,532 
18,381 
22,439 


1,994,352 
500,211 
111,231 
220,915 

14,591 

4,768,663 

82.4% 


21,388 


@ Revised figures. 


Apr. 30, 1924 


2,088,317 
450,749 


42,139,066 
“610,622 
370,701 


3,120,389 
102,220 


3,222,609 
49,811 


161,164 
286,021 


447,185 
124,485 


19,269 
221,771 
60,620 


301,660 
51 


873,381 
28 


586,350 
56,494 
22,530 


4,811,203 
1,926,013 
343 


1,944,952 
32,503 
27,926 


2,005,381 
533,466 
110,927 
220,915 

14,158 

4,811,203 

82.0% 


20,505 


>Tncluding Victory notes. 


May 9, 1923 


2,005,066 
54,435 


2,059,501 
706,261 
323,062 


3,088,824 
92,557 


3,181,381 
67,726 


358,637 
336,380 


695,017 
266,992 


29,573 
b 119,387 
36,854 


185,814 
40 


1,147,863 
191 
600,834 
50,155 
13,811 


5,061,961 
2,241,780 
2,065 


1,886,455 
22,616 
28,599 


1,937,670 
536,222 
109,029 
218,369 

16,826 

5,061,961 

16.1% 


33,615 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


STATISTICS OF MONEY AND CREDIT 
IN THE U. 8.—1914-1923 


(000 omitted) 


All banks, national, State, and trust companies 
General stock Loans and Deposits 
ofmoneyin discounts 
United States 


June, 19142 ... $38,738,288 $15,288,337 $18,517,732 


June, 1915@ , 3,989,456 15,722,440 19,135,380 
June, 1916¢ ... 4,482,891 17,811,605 22,773,714 
June, 1917% ... 5,407,990 20,594,228 26,062,986 
June, 1918¢ ... 6,741,072 22,514,828 27,748,471 
June, 1919@ , 7,605,366 25,255,171 32,665,286 
June, 19202 ... 7,909,998 31,208,142 37,315,123 
June, 1921¢ , 8,099,006 28,932,011 34,844,572 
June, 1922 8,177,477 27,860,443 37,194,318 
June, 1923 8,603,732 30,416,577 40,034,195 
June, 1924 $750,765: Oe a CE te 


@Vigures as of last week in month. 


the amount of government paper held by the 
banks and discounted for the several govern- 
ments with a corresponding (relative) decrease 
in the amount of paper discounted for private 
citizens. A brief general survey of the banking 
situation of certain principal countries as it 
has developed during the period in question, and 
as it stands approximately at the end of the 
decade, is shown in the table on “Financial 
Statistics” on page 467. 

Banking in England. Opening the War 
with a well codrdinated money and banking sys- 
tem, Great Britain shortly found it necessary to 
resort to an embargo on gold and an issue of 
government notes. The result was immediate 
depreciation of currency, inflation of prices, and 
disturbance of exchange. This latter gave rise 
to a “pegging” of the rate as compared with 
dollars (and at the same time a pegging of 
francs in relation to sterling and dollars) the 
funds therefore being first supplied from the 
British Treasury and later through loans ob- 
tained from the United States. This situation 
continued until March, 1919, when the pegging 
was suspended and exchange left to take its 
own course, the embargo on gold being retained. 
Almost immediate reaction occurred in the value 
of sterling, steady recession taking place until 
Great Britain had been able in a measure to 
rectify her international position. The result 
was a general recovery which brought sterling 
up to a general level (at the opening of 1924) 
of about $4.35, varying from day to day but 
showing substantial ability to maintain itself. 
The material improvement in the British budget 
which took place, and.the slight reduction of 
indebtedness, together with the funding of Great 
Britain’s debt to the United States, all tended 
to produce a more stable financial position and 
brought about a return of confidence in the 
value of sterling. Like other countries, Great 
Britain suffered quite materially from the elimi- 
nation of inflation; and popular dissatisfaction 
occasionally compelled a suspension of drastic 
measures. The general situation of banking in 
England may be inferred from the tabular pres- 
entation already given but it is enough to say 
generally that improvement was steady and that 
if Great Britain could have been assured of a 
continuously favorable balance of trade it could 
have restored the gold standard at any time 
when the British public was willing to per- 
mit such restoration. On the other hand, there 
was a feeling among large groups in Great 
Britain that such action would probably tend 
to aggravate the depression and unemployment 


466 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


in the country at large so that it would prob- 
ably be well to defer such action until a more 
complete adjustment of reparations had been ef- 
fected. This tended to defer action which other- 
wise might have been feasible looking to the re- 
tirement of legal tender notes issued during the 
War and the restoration of the convertibility of 
Bank of England notes into gold. Little change 
occurred in the general structure of Great Brit- 
ain’s banking system as a direct result of the 
War, although the creation of the Irish Free 
State separated a portion of the Irish banks 
from the general British money market, at least 
in theory, even though they continued to be 
closely associated with it in fact. Scotch and 
Irish notes, which had been made legal tender 
during the War, were deprived of that quality 
after the Armistice, while it should be remem- 
bered that the Currency and Bank Notes Act of 
1914 providing for legal tender issues was not 
in form a temporary act, so that it might be 
said that there is no direct assurance of the 
restoration of pre-war conditions. There is no 
certainty how long the war changes in banking 
and currency, profound as they have been, will 
continue or when they will be offset by new 
measures. Meanwhile, the principal obvious 
mark left by the War upon the British banking 
system is to be found in the great concentration 
of banking which has occurred, there being to- 
day only about 25 banks in the United Kingdom 
of which by far the more dominating position 
has been assigned to five or six of the British 
institutions with headquarters in London. 
Continental Banking. The outstanding 
changes in Continental banking which took place 
during the War were, in theory and effect, very 
similar to those in Great Britain, although usu- 
ally assuming a more extreme form. In France, 
a moratorium was declared shortly after the 
opening of hostilities, applying to deposits as 
well as notes. This was soon ended but at no 
time during or since the War have Bank of 
France notes been convertible into coin. Large 


‘support has been given by the Bank of France to 


the government in the form of short-term loans, 
the result being an enormous increase in note 
circulation, although changes in the actual struc- 


ture of banking in France have been fewer than 


in England. Provisions for the official control 
of exchange and prohibition of the export of 
capital were early introduced and have continued 
in effect. In 1924, France’s banking problem 
was more than ever intimately associated with 
governmental budget conditions. The decline in 


exchange which carried the frane down into an 


ordinary level of about 5 cents soon after the 
opening of 1924 (a low point of 3.43 cents hay- 
ing been reached in the late winter of 1924), 
merely reflected the declining confidence of the 
foreign public in France and her budget man- 
agement, due to the continuance of extraordi- 
nary budgets without provision to meet them, 
the continued insistence upon reparations at a 
rate probably out of the question, and the effort 
to rely upon inflation and short-term loans in 
lieu of taxation. Conditions became so alarm- 
ing as to bring about pledges from the Poincaré 
Ministry in the spring of 1924 bearing upon the 
reintroduction of budget balances and _ heavier 
taxation designed to overcome existing evils. No 
progress in this direction had been made up to 
the close of spring of 1924, while the coming 
of the new ministry had left the situation still 
doubtful. 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


467 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


FINANCIAL STATISTICS OF PRINCIPAL FOREIGN COUNTRIES 


ENGLAND 
(In millions of pounds) 


1923 1922 
OCten, NOV. Dec. Dec. 
Gold and silver, coin 

and#bullion*o fee 155 Too i Hails 154 
Bank notes in circula- 

Lae eR AS ae ie ete 102 103 106 104 
Currency notes and 

certificates!’ . Fre i0 280 282 299 3801 
Totaly deposits. sat. 119 npg 132 133 

Nine London clearing 
banks: 
Money at call and 

short notice ..... 101 105 102 106 
Discounts and ad- 

VAlCOS Geert wrasse cee cae Otel 0100 +L. O26 02,030 
Tnvestntents Whos SOT. 336 oot 341 860 
Total deposits ..... a6 W629) A680 1/685 791,684 

Totals, cleaving sits. fara « Sotomeo LO me, 9.4 e247 OO 
Government floating debt: 
Treasuryaeb lise Oe: 635 646 652 TA19 
Temporary advances 175 158 208 222 
Total floating debt 810 804 860 941 
Index number of foreign 

exchange value of 

the, pounds, sterling, -125.5 pb27.7 ol2702 9925.8 
“Less notes in currency note account. 

ITALY 
(In millions of lire) 
1923 1922 
Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov 
Banks of issue: 

Gold reserve ....... ao cee See, Poland 1a G 
Total reserve. 1s a4 > TOM BASS s S53! °2:039 
Loans and discounts 9,982 10,421 10,618 9,082 

Note circulation for 

COMMMENCEy MIF) 2 a0 00. 9,274 953887 9,482 ° 9,782 
Note circulation for 

SHOU States te wssss yess THO lina DOP OM 1 GDOM LS 0 15 
Total deposits, y.. -.. - Zo LOMO 200 2.250 2.656 

Leading private banks: 
Casha Fach ignites by:sty il. 756 751 EES 781 
Loans and discounts® 9,223 8,741 Hreis 5 3485609 
Due from correspond- 

Cnisoo Pe ie 3, 6481983 ;935 3,568 
PaTrticipahions GA2 iin 252 252 339 
Total. deposits. -a.tya.cs: Neon Alt ons + amet dils.9 60 

Index of security prices 161.61 160.05 162.33 111.09 


b Including treasury bills. 


In Germany, the shock to the banking sys- 
tem caused by the War was fully as severe as 
that felt elsewhere, but technically produced no 
great change during the continuance of the 
struggle. Early in August, 1914, the govern- 
ment provided for a legal tender currency which 
was later retired, its place being taken by Reichs- 
bank notes. All notes and currency were de- 
clared inconvertible and a special type of ivan 
banks was established. Partly as a result of 
strict military control and government regu- 
lation of prices, it was pcssible to maintain, 
up to the close of the War, a semblance of 
solvency. Immediately after the Armistice, this 
semblance largely disappeared, and rapid de- 
terioration began, partly due to loss of specie, 
the restoration of the reserves to foreign banks 
which had been carried away, the necessity of 


CANADA 
(In millions of dollars) 
1923 1922 
Sept. Oct. Nov. Nov. 


Chartered banks: 


Gold coin and bullion # 61 67 54 92 
Current loans and dis- 

COUN tSiee $a los ears [outs Lalor S24 EA 190. tiles 
Money at call and 

short? notice’ ’...°) 283 300 825 303 
Public and railway 

Securities ..... 0 417 A434 410 317 
Note circulation 184 185 181 170 


Individual deposits 1,997 1,990 2,030 2,036 


Gold reserve against 
Dominion notes 114 112 109 96 
Dominion note circula- 
GIO TIOe steels pics dus abet 243 242 241 251 
Bank clearings 2)": . 34 123 2,220,910 71,619 
*Not including gold held abroad. 
> Total for month. 
FRANCE 
(Amounts in millions of francs) 
1923 1922 
Oca Gv. Dec. Dec 
Bank of France: 
Gold reserve® ...... JIGo po, OKO no OlGnl o1O70 
Silver reserve ...... 296 296 297 289 
War advances to the . 
Government ...... 23,400 22,800 23,300 23,600 
Note circulation 37,670 37,329 37,905 36,359 
Total depositsw aloe sine 2,030 1 poi 2042 oS Ain 2.009 
Clearings, daily average 
of Paris banks 877 919 935 630 
Savings banks, excess of 
deposits (+) or 
withdrawals (—) . —33 —41 +2 +383 
Brice. iof , sihtper) cent 
perpetual rente 55.601" 54500 1) (53.25) | “39.02 
*Not including gold held abroad. 
JAPAN 
(In millions of yen) 
1923 1922 
Oct. Nov. Dee. Dec 
Bank of Japan: 
Reserve for notes® .. 1,062 1,061 1,057 1,064 
Loans and discounts 499 491 654 3875 
Advances on foreign 
Dillghmiesic servants crate 86 133 207 205 
Note circulations .6 3. 1;449 f 1415 “oh 6977741 590 
Government deposits 350 416 360 joe 
Private deposits .. 58 49 63 66 
Tokyo banks: 
Casheony handia aye. 110 131 £33 169 
TG tenlie Loa TS epee stele us 222 Ae OL -2eoqlel. 2.04 
Tota lide positSig = set < 18 1 Oy ES26" 1879 eel. S69 
TOtala GiealrUiGGr laasrelare 1,460 2,003 2,418 3,329 


@Gold abroad, gold coin and bullion in Japan. 


paying for large quantities of raw material 
abroad and other factors of the same sort. The 
outcome necessarily was the steady recession 
of the mark, somewhat aided by apparently in- 
tentional inflation with shipment of paper 
marks and mark obligations abroad. Accord- 
ing to expert Committee No. 2 whose report 
was rendered to the Reparation Commission in 
April, 1924, careful investigation showed that 
Germans had in this way disposed of a total 
abroad of nearly 8,000,000,000 marks, receiv- 
ing, of course, goods in exchange to an equal 
amount, the marks in the meantime becoming 
practically worthless. Increasing difficulty con- 
tinued and was greatly emphasized by the in- 
ability to obtain any balancing of the budget or 
any adjustment or reparation claims. The re- 
sult was to drive the mark down to practically 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


nothing, the quotation at about the close of 1923 
being $0.00000000000022. At this microscopic 
figure the mark was practically valueless and 
its place was rapidly being taken by foreign 
currencies. Decisive deterioration in the quota- 
tion of the mark had set in about the middle of 
1922 and continued more or less steadily from 
that day onward to the autumn of 1923, when 
effort was made to obtain a substitute cur- 
rency by organizing the so-called ‘“Renten- 
bank.” This was a bank whose obligations were 
secured by mortgages upon the lands, houses 
and industrial property of Germany, the unit in 
which they were expressed being designated as 
the ‘“‘Rentenmark,” presumably equivalent to 
the gold mark. During the winter of 1923-24, 
there was also gradually brought into existence 
under the supervision of Dr. Schacht, the sc- 
called “Gold Diskont Bank,” whose purpose it 
was to finance foreign transactions. This “gold” 
bank was such only in name as its capital was 
largely derived from English sources in sterling 
while its foreign payments were made in sterl- 
ing, it being thus really a sterling bank rather 
than a gold bank. The reparation committee’s 
plan called for a governmentally controlled bank 
which would supersede both of these emergency 
establishments as well as the Reichsbank and 
would reéstablish a gold currency in Germany 
with corresponding stability in foreign exchange 
based upon the idea of conversion of outstand- 
ing currency at demand either into actual gold 
or into the gold currency of other countries at 
a specified rate of exchange. In the autumn of 
1924, preliminary arrangements relating to this 
plan had only just been concluded. German 
banking had not changed greatly in its external 
form, but the same tendency to consolidation 
apparent in England was felt also in Germany 
and resulted in a reduction in the number of 
independent banks, accompanied by some in- 
crease in the degree of their dependence upon 
the Reichsbank. 

In other European countries where central 
banking systems were in operation practically 
upon the same general basis as in England or 
France at the opening of the War, very much 
the same war changes were experienced. Prac- 
tically all introduced gold embargoes which 
were continued after the close of the War and 
in most of them attempts were made, usually 
with but little success, to control the direction 
of foreign exchange. In Russia, practically the 
entire pre-war stock of specie was taken from 
the banks and eventually exported. Austria, 
too, lost her entire reserve of coin and was 
obliged to submit to a reorganization of her 
finance under the auspices of the League of Na- 
tions with a gold loan based upon or gua.anteed 
by the Allies themselves. In Italy, conditions 
more closely resembled those of France, and the 
restoration of governmental frugality under 
Mussolini had the effect of stabilizing the lira 
and curtailing bank inflation. Among the so- 
called neutral countries such as Switzerland, 
Holland and Scandinavian nations, conditions 
varied somewhat, but the general drift was to- 
ward increase of gold owing to payments made 
by belligerents for supplies that they needed. 
The result generally was to bring about an over- 
expansion of gold reserves with a corresponding 
tendency to inflation in bank obligations. Alto- 
gether, therefore, the tendency was somewhat 
parallel to conditions among the belligerents al- 
though for different reasons. Subsequent to the 


468 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


War this whole group of countries found itself 
better able to resume the free payment and 
movement of specie than before the struggle, yet 
disinclined to do it because of the fact that the 
principal customers were themselves on a paper 
basis. Efforts to bring about a “monetary 
union” between them, Great Britain and the 
United States, were not successful because of 
the fears in regard to the effect of such action 
on the competitive position. 

“Colonial’’ and Oriental Banking. Condi- 
tions in the colonies of the various principal 
powers, prior to the War, had been generally de- 
pendent upon the situation in the parent coun- 
tries. The War for the most part threw their 
systems of money and banking out of gear, 
partly by cutting off regular trade movement 
between them end the parent country, partly 
by leading them to declare embargoes, as in Can- 
ada and Australia, in the fear that otherwise 
they might lose their specie, as well as out of 
a sense of loyalty to the colonizing nation itself. 
As a result of these conditions abnormal dif- 
ficulties were encountered in those parts of the 
world where the so-called gold exchange stand- 
ard had been established, e.g. in India, the ef- 
fort being there to bring about a conservation 
of specie and a fair stability of value. After 
the close of the War these difficulties disappeared 
in some measure, still leaving the dependencies, 
such as Australia, Canada, and others, inclined 
to move parallel to the currency of the parent 
country. In Japan, where an independent gold 
standard system had existed for many years, 
the embargo on gold early established during 
the War was maintained, notwithstanaing that 
the stock of metal there was large and foreign 
trade in a fairly satisfactory condition. No 
serious changes in the structure of banking took 
place in the colonial or Oriental countries upon 
any considerable scale during the post-war peri- 
od, perhaps the outstanding development being 
the creation of a reserve bank, closely modeled 
upon the Federal Reserve system, in South 
Africa. In other countries effort was made to 
popularize the banking systems and so far as 
possible rather to diminish the power of central 
oversight so far as practicable. Price move- 
ments in these economically dependent countries 
were naturally governed to no small extent by 
the price movements in the parent country, as 
may be seen by consulting the table of prices 
printed earlier in this article. 

War Changes in Foreign Banking. The 
War naturally affected the banking systems of 
all nations very profoundly, resulting in most 
countries in an enormous expansion of credit 
both in the form of notes and of deposits, while 
practically everywhere the banks of the several 
countries became overloaded with government 
securities of various kinds either purchased for 
their own account or taken as collateral be- 
hind paper which had been left with them by 
customers for the purpose of carrying these bonds 
pending gradual liquidation of subscriptions to 
them. After the close of the War, the general 
development of banking in most countries passed 
through considerable changes of volume and 
character of transactions but the alteration in 
banking structure was comparatively slight. 
The general effect of the War, as noted above, 
was to tend toward concentration of banks— 
England, for example, reducing the number of 
institutions from upward of 100 to only about 
25, of which five were of preponderating im- 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


portance. In France, the drift toward concentra- 
tion was not so strong because France had 
already reached a highly concentrated posi- 
tion in banking prior to the War. The War, 
therefore, found conditions ready to hand for 
the exercise of strong government control, while 
on the other hand such control did not produce 
the effect that was witnessed in England and 
elsewhere in drawing banks closer to the gov- 
ernment because they were already very di- 
rectly affiliated with and under the control of 
the public powers. In Germany, the Reichsbank 
became little more than a tool in the hands of 
the government, being used there for the pur- 
pose of floating short-term loans and_ later 
of issuing paper currency in almost unlimited 
volume to care for the needs of the govern- 
ment and avoid the necessity for heavier taxa- 
tion. 

Another phase of post-war banking was seen 
in the fact that the portfolios of practically all 
European institutions changed greatly. In lieu 
of the short-term paper which formerly occu- 
pied so nearly exclusive a place, the primacy 
was taken by government obligations and _ so- 
called short-term notes, ‘‘direct advances to the 
state,’ and other types of public obligations. 
The result was the maintenance of an inflated 
and unsatisfactory condition throughout the 
entire banking structure, solvency continuing to 
be entirely dependent on the condition of af- 
fairs in the public treasury, while prices were 
not able to react toward normal because of the 
continued inflationary influence to which they 
were subjected in consequence of the status of 
affairs in government relations with the banks. 
Still a third important change in the situation 
after the War was seen in the fact that so 
many banks and banking institutions were either 
driven into failure or obliged to go out of busi- 
ness or to amalgamate with others because 
they had become overburdened with non-liquid 
paper. The banks in such cases frequently were 
found to have ventured a good deal of their 
funds in foreign trade operations of one kind 
or another and there was great mortality and 
severe losses among the foreign banks of the 
world at large. In the United States there was 
a rapid, but not very successful, development of 
foreign banking during the War, owing to the 
fact that foreign, and especially English, in- 
stitutions were so seriously crippled, and hence 
so little able to take care of the necessities of 
foreign trade. As a result the United States en- 
joyed an unequaled opportunity for the develop- 
ment of its foreign banking system and _ busi- 
ness, but it never succeeded in gaining a strong 
foothold; and after the reaction of 1920-21 
when foreign trade showed such extensive and 
serious net losses, there began a movement to 
disestablish foreign banks which, numerically 
speaking, went very much further than in any 
other country, while at the same time the seri- 
ous losses, which had to be recognized and writ- 
ten off as a result of the shrinkage of prices, 
became very pronounced. This, taken in con- 
junction with the readjustment of foreign trade, 
was perhaps the most striking economico-finan- 
cial development of the entire post-war period 
in the business and credit world. 

Banking, Prices, and Finance. The prob- 
lem of banking, prices, and finance thus became 
unusually closely intertwined as a result of dis- 
turbance to revenue systems and to bank reserve 
holdings during the War and there was a dis- 


469 


‘ Costs of the Great 


FINANCE AND BANKING 


position towards the end of the decade to treat 
the whole situation as essentially a large problem 
of public concern in which a restoration to 
soundness could be brought about only through 
the direct invocation of government assistance 
coupled with legislation. It was generally ad- 
mitted that permanent recovery from the ef- 
fects of war finance and restoration of stability 
in currency would involve certain standardized 
and fairly definite elements. Conspicuous among 
these was the restoration of a budgetary bal- 
ance designed to bring about freedom for the 
central banks from constant demands on the 
part of government short-term borrowing. At 
the same time the necessity of bringing about, so 
far as possible, a uniform condition of the 
monetary standard in all countries trading with 
one another was recognized. It was thought 
that this might not necessitate the actual re- 
distribution of gold coin, opinions differing as 
to the advisability of such a step, pending the 
time of full restoration of commercial and eco- 
nomic soundness; but it did imply the restora- 
tion of currency and banking convertibility into 
foreign standards of. recognized stability and 
strength and in so doing it rendered the interna- 
tional monetary problem practically a uniform 
matter subject only to variations of local atti- 
tude growing out of the varying amounts of 
specie that were held, the varying conditions 
of public debt, budgetary balance and the like. 
Finally, it was recognized that in some way it 
would be necessary to bring about a scaling 
down or cancelation of international indebted- 
ness on a fairly large scale, since without such 
cancelation, it would be practically impossible 
to develop a situation in which the various 
countries could meet their foreign obligations 
and provide the interest essential to keeping 
them alive. 

Not only budgets but international debt and 
exchange conditions as well as the distribution 
of specie among the several countries were thus 
(in 1924) in a highly transitional condition in 
which the development of stability or a return 
to soundness must depend upon measures still 
to be taken, some of them of an international 
nature. Nothing could be expected for some 
time, owing to the fact that political condi- 
tions in the various countries and the persistence 
of race and national prejudice following after 
the War prevented the discussion of the eco- 
nomic problems presented upon a business basis. 

Bibliography. The principal sources of in- 
formation of war finance are still (1924) the 
financial reports of the various countries. For 
the United States the reports of the Secretary 
of the Treasury and the annual reports of the 
Federal Reserve Board give the most complete 
and authentic information. The League of Na- 
tions published, preliminary to the interna- 
tional financial conference at Paris, a series 
of documents which deal at great length with 
public finances during the War. Volume IV is 
perhaps the most useful of these publications. 
The following works are also of service in this 
same connection: Bogart, Direct and Indirect 
World War; Anderson, 
Effects of the War on Money, Credit, and Bank- 
ing in France and the United States; Gottlieb, 
L. R., Financial Status of the Belligerents and 


, Post-War Finance (a series of four monographs 


issued by the Bankers’ Statistics Corporation, 
New York, 1920-21); Benson, State Credit and 
Banking during the War and After; Seligman, 


FINLAND 


Currency Inflation and Public Debts (Equitable 
Trust Company, New York, 1922); Hollander, 
War Borrowing. Fisk, Inter-Ally Debts (New 
York, 1924); Reports of the National Monetary 
Commission (Washington, 1910-11); Reports of 
the Comptroller of the Currency; Kirkbride, 
Sterrett and Willis, Modern Trust Company 
(New York, 1921); Willis and Edwards, Bank- 
ing and Business (New York, 1922); Reports of 


Federal Reserve Board, 1914-21; Currencies 
After the War (London, 1920). See TARIFF; 
TAXATION; AGRICULTURAL CREDIT, etc,; also 


paragraphs on Finance in articles on countries; 
and the article STATE FINANCES. 

FINLAND. Formerly a grand duchy of the 
Russian Empire, but since Dec. 9, 1917, an in- 
dependent republic, situated in the northeastern 
part of Europe on the gulfs of Finland and 
Bothnia. Area, 149,639 square miles, of which 
17,100 square miles are under water; popula- 
tion (census of 1922), 3,105,103, as against 
3,364,807 in 1920. The 1920 count was a gain 
(for the same area) of 224,399 over the last 
decennial period, or 7.2 per cent. The gain for 
the decade of 1900-10 had been 14.8 per cent. 
The population was preponderantly rural though 
with the twentieth century the urban popula- 
tion steadily increased. In 1900, 12.5 per cent 
of the population lived in towns; in 1910, 14.6 
per cent; in 1920, 16.3 per cent. In 1920, there 
were 1026 females to 1000 males. Racially, 
the population was divided into Finns, 88.7 per 
cent; Swedes, 11 per cent; Russians, 1 per cent; 
Germans, 0.8 per cent; Lapps, 0.5 per cent. 
The National Church was Evangelical Lutheran, 
but liberty of conscience was guaranteed. At 
the end of 1920, there were 3,300,520 Lutherans, 


54,791 Greek Catholics and Raskolnics, 404 
Roman Catholics, 6614 Baptists, and 1618 
Jews. During 1916-20 inclusive, emigrants 


numbered 16,678 of whom 16,597 went to Amer- 
ica. In 1921, emigrants numbered 3557. The 
principal towns, with their populations in 1910 
and 1922, were: Helsingfors, the capital, 200,- 


RECORD OF CROPS 
( Official Hagures) 
1 


14 1919 

Hectolitres Hectolitres 
WWACAT ANG te ccs, at havea aoe coenne 69,211 92,299 
FEV Ore ie ee: SNA SHAPE Cees Sie 3,978,946 3,050,434 
Barley te tei. iia = eb sai 1,521,039 1,648,262 
OSH AAS tA os. 2| Scie eee 6,897,155 7,148,721 
WOLRHOGES EE) ced cde). = totes eee 6,602,533 Y Os l261 
TTEEITEDS Metege ee eee's tus. skede A whee 2,779,486 1,989,799 
208 (1910, 147,218); Abo, 58,694 (1910, 49,- 


691); Tammerfors, 48,475 
borg, 30,748 (1910, 27,508). 

Agriculture. The census of 1920 listed oc- 
cupations as follows: agriculture, 65 per cent; 
industry, 14.8 per cent; communications, 3.4 
per cent; commerce, 3.4 per cent; others 13.3 


(1910, 45,442); Vi- 


per cent. Only 9.9 per cent of the land was un- 
der cultivation (4,959,568 acres), worked in 
small holdings mainly. There were 250,748 


farms in 1920 (284,188 in 1910) of which only 
14,891 (5.9 per cent) were 62 acres and over. 
Cereals and root crops were raised for home 


Item 1914 
Niimber"or enterprises: sols areietetei srt. ss 5,024 
Numbengot workers; 3500.) > eeeeciane . 106,097 


Gross value of output, 1000 marks ..... 
Exchange rate 
Value in American dollars 


eo ‘aioe ees bie & ww Oe PD ielene Bie 6 ie 


consumption and by 1919 the yields reached the 
pre-war stability (see table). Before the War, 


470 


FINLAND 


Finland imported about 30 per cent of her 
cereals, mainly from Russia, but during the 
years 1914-16 this trade fell off about a fourth 
and from 1917 on it decreased to about 3 per 
cent of its former quantity. The necessity for 
stringent regulation at once became evident and 
food-cards had to be resorted to. From 1919 
on, large quantities of grain were imported from 
the United States. In 1913, cereal imports 
totaled $17,505,100; in 1918, imports were only 
$2,861,658; by 1921, they had reached $13,756,- 
740, and in 1923, $19,904,850. The manufacture 
of dairy products, a thriving industry before 
the War, steadily declined during 1914-18 and 
by 1919 had not yet recovered. In 1914, there 
were 651 creameries; in 1919, only 431; in 1921, 
462. In 1911-15, an average of 13,013,000 kilo- 
grams of butter were produced; in 1916-20, 
8,803,000 kilograms; in 1921, 9,449,000; in 1914, 
2,462,000 kilograms of cheese were produced; in 
1919, 1,016,000; in 1921, 3,292,000. The same 
was true in the case of domestic animals. Not 
until 1920 did Finland succeed in making up the 
losses suffered during the War. In 1921, horses 
numbered 392,558 (294,264 in 1914); cattle, 
1,791,947 in 1921 (1,167,112 in 1914) ; sheep, 1,- 
572,444; swine, 374,636. The necessity for in- 
creasing the land-holding class was a concern of 
major importance in the country and from 1919 
on the government consistently applied itself 
to that end. In 1919, 1920, 1921, state subven- 
tions were made for the purchase of new lands, 
and by the law of 1922, provision was made for 
the increase of small holdings created out of 
State and Communal property. The decision, 
by the law of 1919, to permit the tenant to 
pay for his rental in money instead of labor, 
was significant and pointed to the eventual de- 
struction of the large estates through the 
elimination of cheap labor. The country’s chief 
wealth lay in its forests and its water power. 
The forests of pine, spruce, and birch covered 
more than half the country, and the state for- 
ests alone included 33 per cent of the country’s 
area. These yielded a considerable revenue, as 
may be seen from the fact that for 1920 the 
maintenance cost was 64,117,327 marks and the 
income derived, 130,625,765 marks. In 1913, 
wood and wood products (including pulp and 
paper) formed 75 per cent of the exports of 
the country. By 1921, these had increased to 
79 per cent and in 1923, to 89 per cent. It was 
estimated that there were 3,000,000 horse power 
available in Finland’s water courses, but these 
as yet had been tapped only slightly, as was in- 
dicated by the fact that only 100,000 were in 
use in 1920. 

Mining. Mineral resources were still in- 
considerable for want of capital, copper ore, 
magnetite, iron, pyrite being mined only in 
small quantities. In 1923, considerable depos- 
its of kaolin, useful in the manufacture of por- 
celain and paper, were discovered near Wart- 
sila. 

Manufacturing. The War played havoc with 
the country’s industries, the cutting off of 
foreign markets, the unsettled political status, 


1920 1921 1922 
2,920 3,141 3,294 
117,230 120,317 132,707 


6,168,031 


$0.034 $0.019 $0.021 
$209,713,054 $124,141,668 $174,857,000 


strikes, etc., bringing conditions to an exceed- 
ingly low level. With 1920, however, affairs 


ee 


FINLAND ant 


were on the mend, as may be seen from the 
foregoing table. 

The most important industries, by number of 
workers, were, in order: wood industries, iron 
and mechanical works, textiles, paper, leather, 
graphic arts, tobacco. By 1921, relations be- 
tween employers and workers were on a more 
amicable basis, industrial conflicts in 1921 al- 
most reaching the low level of 1914. In 1914, 
there were 37 strikes and lockouts involving 
6217 workers and lasting 1300 days; in 1917, 
the height of unrest was reached with 483 
strikes involving 139,812 men and lasting 9383 
days; in 1921, the figures were again normal, 
viz., 76 strikes, 6251 workers, and 1944 days 
out; in 1923 they fell to 49, affecting 7469 em- 
ployees. 

Cost of Living. During the War and well 
into 1923, the cost of living steadily mounted, 
adding to the privations of the population. 
Based on the index figure of 100 for prices as 
of July, 1914, in December, 1920, prices reached 
1,103.2 and in 1923, reached the high figure of 
1147. The exchange rate steadily continued un- 
favorable to Finland, reaching 29 marks to the 
dollar in 1920, 52 to the dollar in 1921, 46.7 to 
the dollar in 1922, and 37.4 to the dollar in 
1923 (par rate=5.18 marks to the dollar). 

Commerce. Imports and exports for typical 
years (based on the American dollar) were: 


Imports Exports 


POLSON Pret cle hele ert hehe 2 $96,600,000 $78,100,000 
ROS HPs ieee het. 63,076,500 28,355,400 
iS PAIS SPS Sy ORC Em oa 125,051,000 100,911,100 
a ia teat Metal taaohoTske) el orks 84,700,000 95,600,000 
ELS Bane. ote tens ee cnet fens 123,010,000 117,070,000 


The year 1922 was the first rf the annals of 
Finland to show an excess of exports (13 per 
cent). In 1913, the excess of imports had been 
22 per cent while for pre-war years the import 
excess had ranged from 15 to 40 per cent. On 
the basis of 1913 prices, exports in 1922 were 
93.4 per cent of those in 1913, and imports were 
74.4 per cent of those in 1913. Nothing can 
indicate more plainly than these figures how 
rapidly Finland was approaching its normal 
status. Principal imports were in order of val- 
ue: textiles; cereals; coffee, tea, sugar; metals; 
machinery; oils and fats. Principal exports in 
order of value were: timber; pulp and paper; 
animal products, mostly butter; hides and 
leather; animals; matches; gums, tar, ete. In 
1913, the following countries figured in goods 
sent into Finland, in order of importance: Ger- 
many, Russia, Great Britain, Denmark, Sweden, 
Holland, Belgium. The United States was fif- 
teenth with $712. In 1923, the order was: Ger- 
many, Great Britain, United States ($15,600,- 
000), Sweden, Holland, Denmark. In 1913 the 
following were countries of destination of Fin- 
nish exports, by order of value: Russia, Great 
(Britain, Germany, France, Holland, Belgium, 
Sweden, Denmark. Nothing was reported for the 
United States. In 1923, the order was: Great 
Britain, France, United States ($9,200,000), 
Holland, Belgium, and Germany. 

Communications. In 1911, there were 2332 
miles of railway; in 1923, the mileage was 2765, 
all but 184 miles of which belonged to the state. 
In 1921, there were 2525 post offices, 10,517 
miles of telegraph, and 3230. miles of telephone 
wires. In 1913, 11,901 vessels entered Finnish 
ports, with cargo 1,668,000 tons, in ballast 
2,028,000 tons; 11,937 cleared, of which with 


FINLAND 


cargo 3,374,000 tons, in ballast 255,000 tons. 
In 1923, a total of 7647 vessels entered, with 
cargo 1,696,000 tons, in ballast 1,763,000 tons; 
7450 vessels cleared, with cargo 3,266,000 tons, 
in ballast 193,000 tons. In 1923, the Finnish 
merchant marine consisted of 683 sailing vessels 
of 102,111 tons, 781 steamers of 92,032 tons, 124 
motor-driven ships of 18,649 tons. 

Finance. On Dec. 31, 1923, there were 
1,352,400,000 marks of the Bank of Finland in 
circulation. This was equal to $33,400,000 at 
the current conversion rate. In 1914, there were 
141,724,000 marks or $27,352,732. Revenues in 
1914 totaled 169,692,000 marks ($32,777,556) ; 
in 1921, 2,887,179,000 marks ($44,260,000); in 
1923, 3,913,526,545  ($104,491,170). Expendi- 
tures in 1914 were 185,987,000 ($35,895,491) ; 
in 1921, 2,698,135,000 ($51,887,211); in 1923, 
3,497,446,804 ($93,381,800). In 1914, the total 
debt was 171,186,038 marks ($33,038,905). At 
the end of 1923, it was $86,600,000, at current 
rates of exchange, including $63,500,000 of for- 
eign debt and $23,100,000 of internal debt. In 
1923, a loan of $10,000,000 was floated in the 
United States while arrangements were made 
for floating Finland’s debt to America. 

Education. In 1922, there were three uni- 
versities, the Swedish university at Abo being 
opened in 1919 and the Finnish university at 
Abo in 1922. There was a total of 2819 stu- 
dents. For secondary education there were 85 
lyceums, 31 middle schools, 26 girls’ colleges, 
with a total student body of 28,839. There 
were in all (1921) 7214 elementary schools 
with 531,393 pupils. Besides, the educational 
system included schools for the teaching of 
navigation, commerce, arts and crafts, agricul- 
ture, forestry, ete. In 1921, there were 254 
newspapers and reviews in Finnish, 87 in Swed- 
ish, 10 in Finnish and Swedish, and 5 in other 
languages. 

Defense. The army and coast defense were 
recruited on the basis of universal service. In 
1922, the class called up for service numbered 
18,000. An integral part of the defense was 
the voluntary Civie Protective Guards Organ- 
ization, which in 1922 numbered 98,319. By 
1924, Finland had no battleships. The army 
and navy budget for 1922 amounted to 12.5 per 
cent of the total material expenditures. 

History. The War brought Finland relief 
from the Russification policy which had been 
carried on with an increased intensity during 
the decade preceding the outbreak of hostilities. 
The years 1914-17 witnessed an abatement of 
the Russian programme, with the result that 
though Finns received no new political liberties 
their industrial growth was considerable. The 
manufacture of war materials was prosecuted 
advantageously, so that the cities grew affluent 
while the countryside, deserted by labor flock- 
ing to the cities, steadily declined. It could not 
be said that the Finns hoped ardently for a Rus- 
sian victory, for enlistments were surprisingly 
few. Yet the Russian Revolution of March, 
1917, was hailed with mixed feelings. The 
erowing industrial activity had increased the 
size of the Social Democratic party and acces- 
sions to the workers’ ranks had been made from 
Russia in which the workers had been im- 
pregnated with revolutionary ideas. The bour- 
geois classes feared as much the dominance of 
this group as they had the former Russian 
autocracy. One of the first steps of the Keren- 
sky government was to restore representative 


FINLAND 


government to Finland. The Diet met on Apr. 
5, 1917, and it was immediately evident that 
the Social Democrats were in control. At- 
tempts were made by the radicals to set up an 
independent Finland, at least politically and 
economically, and altercations went on with the 
Russian government until the advent of the 
Bolsheviks. Affairs were further complicated 
by the epidemic of strikes which broke out in 
1917, and the threatening famine due to the 
breakdown of agriculture. 

In the new Diet, elected Oct. 2, 1917, a bour- 
geois bloc forced out the Social Democrats and, 
fearing the collapse of Russia with the attend- 
ant economic ruin, immediately issued a declara- 
tion of independence (Dec. 5, 1917). The Bol- 
shevik government finally gave its assent on 
Jan. 9, 1918, and this was followed by recog- 
nition on the part of Sweden, Norway, France, 
Spain, Denmark, and Germany. The following 
year was a tragic one. The Social Democrats 
were averse to breaking relations with Russia, 
for such a connection meant the extension of 
communism into Finland. The bourgeois ele- 
ments, on the other hand, fearing for the new- 
found wealth that had come from war manu- 
factures, desired a connection with either 
Sweden or Germany. The result was the ap- 
pearance of “White Guards” and “Red Guards,” 
the latter being augmented by the influx of 
Russian soldiers. War broke out everywhere, 
beginning with the seizure of Helsingfors in 
January, 1918, by the “Red Guards,” the estab- 
lishment of a soldiers’ and workers’ council, 
and the inauguration of a Red Terror. The 
ready success of the Bolshevik forces and the 
inability of General Mannerheim, leader of the 
“White Guards,” to cope with the situation led 
the government to appeal to Sweden and Ger- 
many for aid. Sweden very wisely declined, re- 
fusing to be embroiled in the War; Germany, 


however, was very quick to embark’on the ad- . 


venture. The treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed 
Mar. 3, 1918. On Mar. 7, 1918, the Finno- 
German treaty was signed, and to all intents and 
purposes Finland was a German vassal. General 
von der Goltz, head of the German forces, im- 
mediately landed on the Aland Islands and thus 
was able to take the Red forces in the rear. 
Victories by von der Goltz and Mannerheim 
immediately followed; Helsingfors was retaken; 
and by May, 1918, the revolution was crushed. 
The White Terror that was inaugurated ac- 
counted for from 15,000 to 20,000 victims, and 
almost 100,000 men and women were thrown 
into jail. 

The reactionary government that followed, un- 
der the dictatorship of Senator Svinhufvud, was 
completely under the control of von der Goltz, 
and attempted to erect a monarchy under a 
German prince, Frederick Charles of Hesse It 
became plain that it was von der Goltz’s inten- 
tion to employ Finnish codperation in a mili- 
tary movement on the Murman coast but the 
turn of events on the Western front made the 
plan impracticable. Fortunately the Armistice 
intervened to save Finland. In December, 
Svinhufvud, because of his pro-German tenden- 
cles, resigned, and Mannerheim, whose sympa- 
thies were monarchistic, was installed as Regent. 
During 1919, Manne:heim attempted unsuccess- 
fully to ally Finland with the Entente powers 
in their adventure on the Murmansk front, but 
the reaction had swung in and from 1919 on 
Finland applied itself exclusively to its internal 


472 


FIORE 


problems. The Diet of Mar. 1, 1919, organized 
by a bloc of the Progressive-Agrarian parties 
(though the Social Democrats had a plurality), 
decided for a republic and on July 25, Prof. 
Kaarlo Juho Stahlberg was elected first presi- 
dent over General Mannerheim, for a six year 
term. The republican government received in- 
ternational recognition, and, after signing a 
treaty for the protection of minorities, Finland 
was admitted to the League of Nations, Dec. 
16, 1920. One of Finland’s leading aspirations 
was realized, when, on Oct. 14, 1920, by the 
Treaty of Dorpat with Soviet Russia, she re- 
ceived the Pechenga region on the Arctic Ocean. 
The significance of this port lies in the fact 
that it is open to navigation during the winter 
months because of the presence of the Gulf 
Stream, Eastern Karelia, on the other hand, 
was granted autonomy under Russia. During 
1921, a local uprising in Karelia tended to 
alienate Russia and Finland, the former accus- 
ing Finland of complicity. Finland endeavored 
to carry the controversy into the World Court, 
but was thwarted by Russian opposition. The 
difficulty had not been adjusted by 1924 and hard 
feeling still prevailed. Another question of in- 
ternational importance was the disposition of the 
Aland Islands, claimed by Sweden on _ ethno- 
graphical grounds and by Finland because the 
islands were necessary for her national exist- 
ence, being located as they were at the entrance 
to the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. The mat- 
ter was referred to the League of Nations in 
June, 1920, and a year later, the islands were 
granted to Finland. (See ALAND ISLANDS). 
Under the moderate coalition which continued 
in power after the election of 1922, the country 
made rapid strides toward regaining its stabil- 
ity and earned thereby the approbation of Euro- 
pean powers and the United States. By the 
election of 1922, the Social-Democratie group 
was further whittled away and the government 
was formed by the Agrarian-Progressive bloc 
as heretofore. But a crisis was precipitated to- 
ward the end of 1923, largely as a result of the 
drastic measures taken against the Communist 
party. The cabinet fell from power, Jan. 16, 
1924, and was succeeded by an interim govern- 
ment. New elections were announced for April, 
1924. 

FINLEY, Joun Huston (1863- Den pot 
American educator and editor (see Vou. VIII). 
He was a member of the American Army Edu- 
cational Commission (1918), commander of the 
American Red Cross for Palestine and the Near 
East (1918-19), editor of Nelson’s eincyclopedia, 
and associate editor of the New York Times 
(1921= ). In 1923 he was appointed exchange 
lecturer to Scandinavian countries under the 
auspices of the Scandinavian-American Founda- 
tion. Among his later works are French Schools 
in War Times (1917), A Pilgrim in Palestine 
(1918), and The Debt Eternal (1923). 

FIORE, PASQUALE (1837- ). An Italian 
jurist (see Vor. VIII). Revised and enlarged 
editions of two of his important works on in- 
ternational law appeared after 1914, [1 Diritto 
Internazionale Oodificato e la sua Sanzione 
Giuridica: Studi (1915), which contains in an 
appendix a summary of the most important in- 
ternational treaties from 1525 (English trans- 
lation, 1918, New York) ; and Trattato di Dirit- 
to Internazionale Pubblico (1916), which con- 
tains (vol. iii) a discussion of war and its 
general effects, and of the rights and duties of 


FIRE APPARATUS 


belligerents. He is the editor of Jl Diritto Civile 
Italiano Secondo la Dottrina e la Giurispru- 
denza (1918). Pasquale Fiore is the subject of 
a discussion by Josef Miiller in Volksbildung, 
vol. xix, under the title of “Die Stellung des 
Menschen im Volkerrecht nach der Theorie Pas- 
quale Fiores” (1921). 

FIRE APPARATUS. See Moror VEHICLES. 

FIRE FLY. See ZodLoey, Physiology. 

FIRE FLY, Licut or. See Puysics. 

FIRE PROTECTION. It was a somewhat 
striking commentary on the progress of civiliza- 
tion that, with the various means of safeguard- 
ing life and property, the losses due to fire in 
the United States and Canada increased rather 
than diminished in the period from 1914 to 
1924. In fact the annual destruction by fire 
and conflagration fairly could be compared with 
that of war, yet it was impossible to arouse 
adequate public sentiment to deal effectively 
with this great menace. However, there were 
certain advances to be recorded in securing more 
adequate fire protection, and a hopeful move- 
ment towards fire prevention which was becom- 
ing more general. It was realized that much 
of the work of a municipal fire department 
should be in the field of fire protection and 
securing the enactment and enforcement of 
adequate regulations in the interests of public 
safety 

The National Board of Fire Underwriters con- 
tinued their inspection of municipal fire depart- 
ments and water supplies, and from time to time 
made valuable recommendations which were car- 
ried into effect and reacted to the benefit of the 
citizens by more favorable insurance rates. The 
decade under consideration witnessed the prac- 
tical disappearance of horse-drawn fire ap- 
paratus in favor of motorized equipment which 
had reached a point where for speed and relia- 
bility, as well as for economy, it was able to 
function satisfactorily. By the elimination of 
the cost of maintenance for the food and care of 
horses it was possible to provide more adequate 
protection to the smaller cities and towns, and 
the increased speed of travel on the road and 
capability of achieving greater distances made 
possible codperative action by the fire depart- 
ments of adjoining towns. In some of the larger 
cities, particularly those on the coasts and the 
Great Lakes, independent high pressure services 
were installed or extended, and with the tall 
buildings of modern construction such _ inde- 
pendent high pressure mains were considered 
absolutely essential. 

In the fire departments themselves it was 
interesting to note that along with the increase 
of technical interest and training, there was a 
marked advance in the spread of the fire pre- 
vention spirit and campaign. It was clearly 
evident there was a passing of the old type of 
fire fighter whose method and pleasure appar- 
ently was the throwing of vast quantities of 
water. The reduction of the number of fire 
alarms rather than the number of fires extin- 
cuished was beginning to mark the efficiency of 
a fire department and its chief, who was becom- 
ing both a public conservation officer and educa- 
tor. Chief O’Brien of the Indianapolis Fire De- 
partment, who had to deal with an average of 
five or six fires a day from sparks on shingle 
roofs, made it a practice as soon as he had such 
a fire under control to deliver a lecture on the 
wooden shingle hazard to the crowd of men and 
women attracted by the fire. 


473 


FIRE PROTECTION 


For the protection of water fronts large and 
more powerful fire boats were being built with 
modern centrifugal and other pumps, and these 
were valuable adjuncts to most of the large 
cities with warehouse piers and other harbor 
facilities, as their pumping facilities could be 
brought to bear on fires not too far distant from 
the water front either through hose lines or per- 
manent pipe systems. 

In Europe where greater care ordinarily is 
exercised than in America there were not the 
same fire losses, and in England, in particular, 
there was a steady improvement in fire appa- 
ratus which manufacturers of motor equipment 
are turning out constantly on a more efficient 
basis. In Japan, in connection with the earth- 
quake of 1923, the district including the cities 
of Tokyo and Yokohama, suffered from fire in- 
volving a loss in the former city alone of 184,103 
residence buildings and 4488 other buildings, 
or about 74 per cent of the total outlay of build- 
ing in the city was destroyed, while in Yoko- 
hama the destruction was even more complete. 
Of course the earthquake was responsible for 
much of this destruction, and it would be im- 
possible to settle the damage done by the pri- 
mary cause and that resulting from fire, but 
it was a very serious element in this disaster. 

Showing the widespread distribution of Amer- 
ican cities in which the fire losses exceeded five 
dollars per capita in 1923, as reported by the An- 
nual Board of Fire Underwriters, the accom- 
panying table is of interest, and when it is 
realized that a number of these cities have fig- 
ured on a corresponding list for more than one 
year out of five the seriousness of the situa- 
tion may be appreciated. 


UNITED STATES CITIES IN WHICH FIRE LOSS 
EXCEEDED $5.00 PER CAPITA 


1923 

Chicago Heights, Wichita, Kans. $6.77 
THATS OS: 28.95 @Durham, N. C. . 6.73 
2 Jackson, Miss. .. 27.83 Key West, Fla. . 6.72 
Hagerstown, Md. 18.33 Louisville, Ky. .. 6.69 
4 Montgomery, Ala. 1503 %Nashville, Tenn. 6.55 
> Oharlotte, N. OC. 14.81 ¢ Savannah, Ga... 6.52 
Muskegon, Mich. 13.31 Duluth, Minn. .. 6.52 
@ Marion. «lindas 410.00. 2 Pine JBluft,, Avk 6.47 
> Garfield, N. J. .. 12.63 Vicksburg, Miss. 6.46 
Omaha, Neb. ... 11.43 % Springfield, Ill. 6.21 
¢ Concord, N., H.).) 11.14 , Norwalk, Conn. . 6.2 
Plainfield, N. J. 10.82 % Springfield, Mass. 6.14 
@ Chelsea, Mass. .. 10.61 Burlington, Iowa 6.13 
@ Stockton, Cal. .. 10.55 %Shreveport, La. . 6.08 
5 Charleston, W. Va. 10.52 ° Memphis, Tenn. . 6.04 
Dallas Texwy errs 10.06 Danville, Ill. ... 5.92 
Duquesne. Pa. .. 10.00 ®Moline, Ill. .. 5.73 
Springfield, Mo. . 9.85 Revere, Mass. .. 5.67 
> Oshkosh, Wis. 9.78 Baton Rouge, La. 5.63 

Leominster, Mass. 9.45 *New London, 
Riverside, Cal. .. 9.11 GOs tance: 5.60 
Lancaster, Pa... 8.94 % Ottumwa, Iowa . 5.56 
¢ Haverhill, Mass. 8.56: *La Crosse, Wis. . iss byl 
New Albany, Ind. 8.36 *Sedalia, Mo. . 5.48 
® Boston, Mass. .. 8.18 Lowell, Mass. 5.44 

¢ Fort Smith, Ark. 8.05 * Battle Creek, 
@ Grand Rapids, Mich. ck ere 5.44 
Mich iapees = fae 8.03 * Wilmington, N. C. 5.40 
@Fau Claire, Wis. 7.44 ®Oswego, N. Y. .. 53:7 

Asheville, N. ©. 7.22 Niagara Falls, 
Providence, R. I. Tou ot Mee wt ee 5.36 
@ Alton’ Tile eee: 7.18 %Kokomo, Ind. 5.34 
¢ Kansas City, Mo. 7.18 %Lexington. Ky. . 5.28 
Everett, Mass. .. 7.14 Buftaloy Novy. ee 5.24 
Ogden, Utah ... 6.86 *Columbus, Ga. . 5.14 
@ Winona, Minn. . 6.79 ®St. Paul, Minn. . 5.13 
Utica: Nicky. 5.01 
«These cities in this class in two of the five years. 


>In this class three of the five years. 
¢In this class four of the five years. 
@In this class five years. 


In the ten years from 1913 to 1923 the an- 
nual fire losses in the United States have con- 
tinually mounted, reaching in 1923 the stu- 


FIRE PROTECTION 


pendous figure of over half a billion dollars, and 
falling but $10,000,000 short of the record prop- 
erty loss of 1906, the year of the San Francisco 
conflagration, when the destruction of property 
totaled $518,611,800. The figures by years for 
the period under review are given in the follow- 
ing table, 


COMPARATIVE FIRE LOSSES, UNITED STATES 
1 


913-1923 
Per 
Population Total Loss Capita 
1913— 
Whole country 97,163,330 * $203,763,550 2.10 
298 cities 33,281,804 674,876,608 2.25 
1914— 
Whole country 98,781,824 4% 221,439,350 2.24 
298 cities 40,213,230 >’ 93,368,795 2.32 
1915— 
Whole country 100,399,318 %*%172,033,200 il fal 
333 cities 35,161,266 b 68,386,218 1.94 
1916— 
Whole country 102,017,812 4%214,530,995 2.10 
329 cities 36,055,568 b’ 79,440,658 2.20 
1917— 
Whole country 103,635,606 9% 250,753,640 2.42 
327 cities BG.oD 1, OleL > 89,483,398 2.45 
1918— 
Whole country 105,253,300 %290,959,885 2.76 
328 cities 38,079,781 b 95,365,412 2.50 
Whole country 106,871,294 %320,540,399 2.99 
326 cities 89,898,869 %103,028,235 2.58 
1920— 
Whole country 105,683,108 4% 447,886,677 eo 
370 cities 39,636,748 %151,120,951 3.81 
1921— 
Whole country 108,540,838 *495,406,012 4.56 
370 cities 40,324,918 %141,406,007 3.01 
1922— 
Whole country 109,955,947 %506,541,001 4.61 
366 cities 88,821,476 %120,964,112 SOi7. 
1923— 
Whole country 111,715,242 4% 508,000,000 4.55 
372 cities 42,946,639 %147,102,119 3.42 


@Wstimated from Records of the Actuarial Bureau, 
National Board of Fire Underwriters. 


> Actual figures reported. 

The same table shows the comparative fire 
losses for the whole country on the basis of 
population and for certain selected cities for 
which actual figures were reported to the Actua- 
rial Bureau of the National Board of Fire 
Underwriters. It must be considered, however, 
in connection with these statements of fire losses 
that in the ten year period the burnable values 
had materially increased, and it was a source of 
some encouragement to fire underwriters that 
the proportion of fire losses to burnable values 
had shown a decrease. This was claimed to be 
the result of fire prevention efforts of various 
kinds but much more needed to be done to make 
such efforts effective. 

The United States was suffering a vast drain 
on its total resources and the fire losses were 
vastly greater, both in amount and per capita 
than in Europe. This is indicated by the ac- 
companying comparison of fire losses in the 
United States for three years in comparison 
with the corresponding figures for Great Britain: 


Year Great Britain United States 
OD Oona Walesetexe cle (cen eene $42,445,000 $447,886,677 
ODA ho. as where « etemaenene 38,820,000 495,406,012 
MOY DA. ONES oS eens 30,812,000 521,860,000 


The population of Great Britain in 1922 was 
approximately 43,000,000 people, and the popu- 
lation of the United States for the same year 
was about 111,000,000. Consequently the per 
capita loss in Great Britain in 1922 was 72 cents 
as compared with $4.75 for the United States. 
These figures indicated a continued decrease in 
the British fire loss, and a marked increase in 
losses in the United States. See INSURANCE; 
also Forestry, section Forest Fires. 


474 


FISHER 


FISCHER, Evcen (1881- ). A German 
writer, born at Balingen, Wiirttemberg, and edu- 
cated at the University of Tiibingen. After 
teaching in the University of Berlin, he became 
a free lance writer, specializing in articles on 
the responsibility for the War. He was made 
press secretary of the Reichstag commission in- 
quiring into pre-war history. Besides newspaper 
articles on cultural and political subjects, he is 
the author of Der Kampf um Gott, Das Reich 
des Lebens, an historical novel; Woodrow Wil- 
sons Entschluss, political scenes; etc. 

FISCHER, Martin HENRy (1879- ‘es 
A German-American physiologist and _ pathol- 
ogist, born at Kiel, Germany. He came to 
the United States in 1885 and took a degree 
at Rush Medical College. Having held sub- 
ordinate positions in the department of physi- 


ology in the Universities of Chicago and 
California, he became full professor in the 
University of Cincinnati in 1910. He is 


known especially for his original research into 
the nature of nephritis and has been instru- 
mental in bringing the subject of focal infection 
before the German medical men; he has also 
made a number of German works on physical 
chemistry available to English readers by his 
translations. In addition to many articles in 
periodicals he has published The Physiology of 
Alimentation (1907), Gdema (1910), Nephritis 
(1911), and has translated Cohen’s Physical 
Chemistry (1903), Pauli’s Physical Chemistry 
(1906), Ostwald’s Handbook of Colloidal Chem- 
istry (1915), and Ostwald’s Introduction to Col- 
loidal Chemistry (1917). 

FISH, Cart Rvssett (1876— jon = 
American historian, born at Central Falls, R. L., 
and educated at Brown and Harvard Universi- 
ties. In 1900 he became professor of history at 
the University of Wisconsin, and was research 
associate at the Carnegie Institution in 1908-09 
and director of the British branch of Historical 
Service, 1917-20. His works include Develop- 
ment of American Nationality (1913), Amer- 
ican Diplomacy (1915), The Path of Empire 
(1919), Guide to the Study of American Diplom- 
acy (1919), and many articles on educational 
and historical subjects. 

FISHBERG, Maurice (1872- ). A Rus- 
sian-American physician and anthropologist, born 
in Russia. Having migrated to the United 
States in 1890, he took his medical degree at the 
University of New York in 1897. He is clinical 
professor of medicine at the New York Uni- 
versity and Bellevue Hospital Medical College 
and physician to the Montefiore Home and Bed- 
ford Sanitarium and is a member of the Amer- 
ican Anthropological Association. In 1897 he 
made a tour of Europe for the Bureau of Emi- 
gration; his report was published by the Govern- 
ment. He is one of the leading authorities on 
tuberculosis; most of his papers for the period- 
ical press have been devoted to that subject. 
His major publications are The Jew: a Study of 
Race and Environment (1911); Die Rassenmerk- 
male der Juden (1913), and A Treatise on 
Tuberculosis (1916). He translated Gley’s work 
on internal secretions from the French in 1917. 

FISHER, Anprew (1862- ). An Aus- 
tralian statesman (see Vor. VIII). He was 
again Prime Minister of Australia in 1914-15 
and was High Commissioner of Australia in 
England, 1916-21. 

FISHER, DorotHy CANFIELD (1879- fe 
An American author, born at Lawrence, Kan., 


FISHER 


and educated at the Ohio State University and 
at Columbia University. In 1907 she married 
John Redwood Fisher of New York, and made 
her home on a farm near Arlington, Vt., and 
in New York City. In 1911-12 she and her hus- 
band went to Rome, where she made the ac- 
quaintance of Madame Montessori and helped 
translate her book about her pedagogical sys- 
tem. From this experience resulted her own 
book, A Montessori Mother (1913), which was 
translated into five foreign languages. Dur- 
ing the War Mrs. Fisher edited a magazine for 
soldiers blinded in battle, cared for children 
from the evacuated portions of France, and 
managed the cooking and bought supplies for 
a large training camp for ambulance drivers. 
Her books include The Squirrel Cage (1912), 
Mothers and Children (1914), The Bent Twig 
(1915), Hillsboro People (1916), The Real Mo- 
tive (1917), Understood Betsy (1917), Home 
Fires in France (1918), The Day of Glory 
(1919), The Brimming Cup (1921), Rough-Hewn 
(1922), Raw Material (1923), and The Home- 


maker (1924). She translated Papini’s Life 
of Christ (1921). 
FISHER, FrRep (ERICK) B(oHN (1882- fe 


An American Methodist Episcopal bishop, born 
at Greencastle, Pa., and educated at Asbury 
College (Wilmore, Ky.), Boston University, and 
Harvard University. He was ordained in the 
Methodist ministry in 1903 and in the next year 
went to India as a missionary, returning in 
1906. From 1908 to 1910 he was pastor of the 
First Church in Boston and in 1910-20, served 
on the Board of Foreign Missions and in the 
Laymen’s Missionary Movement. In 1920 he 
was elected bishop. He is the author of The 


Way to Win (1915), Gifts from the Desert 
(1916), India’s Silent Revolution, in collabora- 
tion with Gertrude M. Williams (1919), and 
Garments of Power (1920). 

FISHER, HERBERT ALBERT LAURENS 
(1865-— ). An English historian and edu- 
eator (see Vor. VIII). He received honorary 
degrees from Edinburgh University (1913), 
Sheffield (1918), Manchester (1919), and Cam- 


bridge (1920). In 1915 he was a member of 
the government committee on alleged German 
outrages. Two of his later works are Studies 
in History and Politics (1920) and Internation- 
al Experiment (1921). 

FISHER, Irvine (1867- ). An Ameri- 
ican economist (see Vou. VIII). He was an 
officer of many organizations for the advance- 
ment of the public health. His later writings 
include Why Is the Dollar Shrinking? (1914); 
How to Live, with Dr. E. L. Fisk and others 
(1915); and Stabilizing the Dollar (1919). 
His views on the means of insuring a stable 
medium of exchange were the subject of wide 
discussion. 

FISHER, SYDNEy GEORGE (1856- yalf An 
American lawyer and writer (see Von. VIIT). 
He wrote American Education (1917) and The 
Quaker’ Colonies (1918). 

FISHER, WALTER KENDRICK (1878- ile 
An American zodlogist, born at Ossining, N. Y., 
and educated at Leland Stanford Junior Uni- 
versity. He was special field naturalist for the 
United States Biological Survey (1897-1901) ; 
and Assistant (1902-05), acting instructor 
(1905-07), instructor (1907-09), assistant pro- 
fessor (1909-20), and associate professor 
(1920— ) at Stanford. Professor Fisher was 
director of the Hopkins Marine Laboratory 


475 


FISHERIES 


(1917- ). His published work was largely 
on the ecinoderms of the Pacific Ocean. 

FISHERIES. A term of varied application 
but used here to designate organized governmen- 
tal agencies which have to do with the collection 
of information concerning food supplies ob- 
tained from oceanic or inland waters and the 
application of this information to the problem 
of increasing or making these supplies more 
available to the citizens. In all countries 
where fishing industries are important, it has 
been the experience that there occur periods 
when there are noticeable decreases in the 
amount of these supplies to be obtained from 
the waters and this decrease is usually laid to 
injudicious fishing. As a result, a large part of 
the’ work of a fisheries bureau is to devise 
methods for increasing the supply, and legisla- 
tion governing the methods to be employed in 
taking it. 

In Great Britain, the plaice and herring in- 
dustries have received most attention from this 


‘point of view, plaice investigations having been 


begun in 1908. MeIntosh, an eminent Scottish 
zoologist, has argued strongly against the 
desirability of spending public funds for in- 
vestigations of this kind, on the ground that so 
small an area of oceanic waters can be covered 
by fishermen that it is impossible that any de- 
crease in the supply can be caused by fishing. 
He argues that seasonal variations in the num- 
ber of fish are caused by climatic or other 
agencies beyond man’s control and have been 
known to occur for hundreds of years. These 
criticisms by McIntosh are directed especially 
against the work of the International Council 
for the Study of the Sea, composed of represent- 
atives of all the countries bordering on the 
North Sea, in so far as the work of this Council 
is directed at repopulating by artificial means 
the waters under their control. This Council 
was organized in 1901 and was functioning suc- 
cessfully when interrupted by the War. After 
the War, it resumed operations, the first meet- 
ing later than 1913 having been held in 1920. 
Statistics covering the herring and plaice in- 
dustries have appeared in its reports. An in- 
teresting development from the work of this 
Council has been the discovery of the breeding 
place of the eel. Grassi discovered, as early 
as 1897, that the eel does not breed in fresh 
water but its exact breeding place was un- 
known. It has now been determined that this 
breeding place lies between 20° and 30° of north 
latitude and 50° to 60° west longitude, or a 
region southeast of Bermuda. From there it 
migrates to the continents and goes up rivers 
to the localities where it is commonly found. 
In the United States, the Bureau of Fisheries 
(originally the United States Fish Commission 
but now a Bureau under the Department of 
Commerce) has general supervision over the 
marine and fresh-water fisheries in United 
States territory as well as the fur seal, rein- 
deer and fox industries in Alaska. Under its 
control are four main laboratories; at Woods 
Hole, Mass.; Beaufort, N. C.; Key West, Fla.; 
and Fairport, Iowa. In all of these it has been 
the policy of the Bureau to encourage abstract 
scientific investigation as well as researches 
having more immediate practical application. 
At the Woods Hole station formerly there were 
hatched each year large numbers of lobsters 
which were set free in the neighboring waters; 
but as it seemed impossible to enlist the co- 


FISHERIES 476 


operation of the fishermen in the attempt to 
prevent the catching of the “short” or immature 
lobsters, the supply decreased so that it was 
difficult to get enough eggs for this work and 
it was discontinued in 1919. In this case, it 
would appear that McIntosh’s position is not 
well taken, due perhaps to the fact that the 
lobster has a very limited range of distribution 
and is not an open-sea animal. 

Invention of machinery making commercially 
profitable the manufacture of buttons from the 
shells of fresh-water mussels led to the estab- 
lishment of the laboratory at Fairport, where 
much attention has been given to the problem of 
the propagation of mussels and of the fishes upon 
which the young mussels are parasitic for a 
period during their immature stage. The latest 
reports of the Commissioner indicate that owing 
to lack of funds the laboratories at Beaufort 
and Key West have done very little research 
work in recent years. At these stations, and 
at many hatching stations, the Bureau hatches 
large numbers of fish annually and distributes 
them to appropriate localities. During the year 
ending June, 1922, it distributed 4,925,981,320 
eggs, fry and older fish in this fashion. 

According to the latest report available in 
1924, a period of extreme depression in the fish- 
ing industries, which was more severe in Europe 
than in the United States but very noticeable 
in the latter country, followed the War. This 
depression showed itself in a marked decrease 
in the amount of fish taken as well as in the 
prices obtained; it continued for some years, 
though by 1922 a slight improvement was noted. 

A large part of the work of the United States 
Bureau of Fisheries consists of the collection of 
statistics relating to the fisheries, including 
the Alaska fur industries, and the reports of 
the Commissioner as well as the occasional Sta- 
tistical Bulletins should be consulted for this 
information, which is too varied and voluminous 
to be summarized here. These statistics cover 
not only data relating to fish properly so called, 
but relate to a wide range of aquatic products 
covering oysters and clams, lobsters, shrimps 
and crabs, and sponges, as well as by-products 
such as whale and fish oil, shark and porpoise 
hides, agar-agar, shark fins, whale skeletons 
and oyster shells ground up for use as lime and 
poultry grits. 

Much of the recent work of the Bureau has 
been extended to cover determination of im- 
proved methods for merchandising fishery prod- 
ucts as well as the consideration of better pres- 
ervation procedures in connection with canning 
and freezing, thus broadening the scope of its 
operations so as to include the final distribu- 
tion of the products as well as encouraging 
their increase. 

In Alaska, the predominant fishery interests 
have been connected with the salmon, but hal- 
ibut, herring, cod and shrimps form an impor- 
tant part of the total catch. The peculiar 
spawning habits of the salmon make them es- 
pecially easy to catch but this also leads to 
overfishing, with consequent depletion of the 
supply, another case where MclIntosh’s reason- 
ing seems at fault, and this situation calls for 
constant legislative supervision. The taking of 
skins of the fur seals is now under strict super- 
vision, it being decided annually how many 
should be taken. This has resulted in a desirable 
increase in the size of the herds and the estab- 
lishment of the industry on a more durable 


FITE 


basis. For the year 1921-22, the total value 
of the sealskins taken (as determined by the 
prices paid at auction for them at St. Louis) 
was $722,060. Blue-fox skins taken from herds 
kept on the Pribilof Islands for the year 1920-21 
had a value, determined in the same way, of 
$109,398. See ALASKA. 

FISK, Evucene Lyman _ (1867- ). UAn 
American physician and cofounder of the Life 
Extension Institute, born at Brooklyn, N. Y., 
and educated at the medical college of New 
York University. In 1898 he joined the med- 
ical department of the Equitable Life Insurance 
Company and later became medical director of 
the Provident Savings Life Insurance Company. 
In 1910 he accepted a like position in the Postal 
Life Insurance Company and in 1913 became 
the medical head of the Life Extension Institute. 
In collaboration (Fisher and Fisk) he wrote 
How to Live (1916) and Health for Soldier and 
Sailor. He is the author of Alcohol: Its Re- 
lation to Efficiency and Longevity (1917) and 
Health Building and Life Extension (1923). 

FISKE, Brapitey ALLEN (1854— ). An 
American naval officer (see Vou. VIII). He 
was awarded a gold medal by the Aéro Club of 
America for the invention of the torpedoplane 
in 1919. His later writings include The Navy 
as a Fighting Machine (1917, 2d ed., 1918) ; 
From Midshipman to Rear Admiral (1919); 
ae Art of Fighting (1920), and Invention 
(1927): : 

FISK UNIVERSITY. A coeducational in- 
stitution for negroes at Nashville, Tenn., found- 
ed in 1868. Dormitory limitations prevented 
much variation in attendance, which was 516 
in 1914 and 517 in 1923-24, exclusive of the 
summer registration. For its rigid emphasis 
on high standards in all departments it was 
aided during the decade by the General Edu- 
cation Board, the Carnegie Foundation, the 
Carnegie Corporation, the Phelps-Stokes Fund, 
the Slater Fund, the American Missionary As- 
sociation, the Harmon Foundation and the 
Juillard Foundation. Fisk received, chiefly 
from the General Education Board and the 
Carnegie Corporation, the sum of $150,000 in 
1917; in 1920 the General Education Board of- 
fered to give $500,000 on condition that the 
University raise $1,000,000. The faculty in 
1923-24 numbered 71. President Fayette Avery 
McKenzie, Ph.D., was inaugurated in 1915. 

FITCH, ALBERT PARKER (1877-— j2eAn 
American educator, born in Boston, and educated 
at Harvard University and Union Theological 
Seminary. He was ordained in the Congrega- 
tional ministry in 1903, subsequently holding 
various pastorates, and becoming president of 
Andover Theological Seminary at Cambridge in 
1909. In 1917 he resigned to accept the profes- 
sorship of the history of religion at Amherst 
College, where he was one of those who with- 
drew from the faculty on the resignation of 
President Meiklejohn in 1923. In 1919-20 he 
was Beecher lecturer at Yale University He is 
the author of The College Course and the Prep- 
aration for Life (1914), Religion and the Under- 
graduate, Can the Church Survive the Changing 
Order? (1920), and Preaching and Paganism 
(1920). 

FITE, WILLIAM BENJAMIN (1869- 1s 
An American educator, born in Marion, Ohio. 
He studied at Hillsdale College and took post- 
graduate work at Cornell. After teaching 
mathematics in the Academy, he served on the 


FITZGERALD 


faculty of Cornell as instructor and assistant 
professor in mathematics until 1910, when he 
was appointed professor of mathematics at Co- 
lumbia. He wrote College Algebra and First 
and Second Courses in Algebra. 

FITZGERALD, F(RaANcIs) 
(1896-— ). An American author, born at 
St. Paul, Minn. He left Princeton University 
in 1917 to join the American forces and served 
as aide-de-camp to Gen. John F. O’Ryan (1918- 
19). Written with refreshing verve and promis- 
ing talent, his books on the younger generation 
include This Side of Paradise (1920), Flappers 
and Philosophers (1920), The Beautiful and 
the Damned (1921), and a play, The Vegetable 
(1923). 

FITZ-GERALD, Joun DrIscoLt, (1875-__). 
An American philologist (see Vor. VIII). He 
is professor of Spanish at the University 
of Illinois. His most recent work was a trans- 
lation with Thatcher Howland Guild, A 
New Drama by Manuel Thona y_ Baus 
(1915). 

FITZMAURICE-KELLY, JAmeES- (1858- 
1923). An English writer and Spanish schol- 
ar (see Vou. VIII). From 1909 to 1916 he was 
professor of Spanish language and literature at 
the University of Liverpool and in 1916 gave 
a special course at Cambridge. He was the 
editor of the Romance section of the Modern 
Language Review, 1913-20, and one of the lead- 
ers in his field in his own and other countries. 
Among his later works are Cervantes and 
Shakespeare (1916); Gongora (1918); Fray 
Luis de Leon (1921); and Spanish Literature 
Primer (1922). He edited The Oxford Book 
of Spanish Verse (1913), Samaniego’s Fabulas 
en verso (1917), Iriarte’s Fabulas Literarias 
(1917), Garcilaso de la Vega’s Eglogas (1918), 
Poesias varias (1918), Complete Works of Mig- 
uel de Cervantes Saavedra, and Cambridge Read- 
ings in Spanish Literature (1920). He also 
contributed to the Cambridge Modern History, 
Encyclopedia Britannica, Homenaie a Menen- 
dez y Pelayo, ete. 

FITZPATRICK, EDWARD AUGUSTUS 
1884— ). American educator and author, 
born in New York, and educated at the New 
York Training School for Teachers and Colum- 
bia University. He taught in the public schools 
of New York (1903-12) and later identified 
himself in that city with training schools for 
public service. In 1919 he became secretary 
of the State Board of Education in Wisconsin. 
He has published Educational Views and In- 
fluence of De Witt Clinton (1911), Budget- 
making in a Democracy (1918), and Public Ad- 
ministration and the Public Welfare in Freed- 
man’s America and the New Era (1920). 

FIUME-ADRIATIC CONTROVERSY .. 
The drawing of the boundary line between Italy 
and Jugo-Slavia was perhaps the most difficult 
problem before the Peace Conference, and con- 
tinued to be a cause for dissension in Europe 
long after the peace treaties were signed. The 
territories in dispute were: Gorizia and Gra- 
disea, Trieste, Istria, Dalmatia (all former 
parts of Austria), and Fiume (formerly belong- 
ing to Hungary). These lands, in the main, 
are separated from Jugo-Slavia by chains of 
mountains; in climate, economic, and cultural 
activities, with some exceptions, their orienta- 
tion is plainly toward the west. While the 
Slavs made up the majority of the population, 
the Italians predominated in many of the towns, 


Scott (Kerry) 


477 


FIUME-ADRIATIC CONTROVERSY 


and it was for sentimental, historical, and 
strategic, as well as economic reasons that 
Italian aspirations envisaged the acquisition of 
these territories. The nationalistic trend of 
the nineteenth century had made the region the 
scene of bitter struggles. In accordance with 
the Austro-Hungarian principle of ‘divide and 
rule,” Slovene and Croatian hopes had been 
encouraged, as against the Italian, in the Aus- 
trian provinces; Hungary, on the other hand, 
had played off the Italians against the Southern 
Slavs in Fiume. Therefore, whereas an Italian 
irredentism was strong in the Austrian territo- 
ries, it was correspondingly weak in the Hun- 
garian. Because of these confused purposes 
there were no clear-cut programmes that either 
the [talians or the Southern Slavs could present 
at the outbreak of the War. It was natural, 
therefore, that the Italian claims, recognized by 
the secret Treaty of London (Apr. 26, 1915), 
were, in a sense, confusing. Italy gained the 
promise of Allied support to an Italian frontier 
which included Gorizia, Trieste, Istria, North- 
ern Dalmatia and some islands to the south; 
Fiume was to remain in Croatia, on the sup- 
position, evidently, that it was to continue to 
form a part of Hungary. The execution of this 
agreement would have meant turning over about 
800,000 Jugo-Slavs to Italy. On geographical 
and cultural grounds there was indeed some 
justification for this. Gorizia, Trieste, and Is- 
tria (making up Venetia Julia), presented no 
real difficulty, for though in 1910 there were 
here 417,000 Jugo-Slavs and 356,000 Italians, 
the Slavic cultural and ethnical complexities 
were so many that the Italians were clearly the 
dominant group. As proof, the fact was urged 
that out of the 17 deputies in the Austrian 
Reichsrat for the three provinces, 10 were Ital- 
ians. Dalmatia and Fiume involved other con- 
siderations. Dalmatia had 611,000 Jugo-Slavs 
in 1910 and only 18,000 Italians; and the Jugo- 
Slavs, politically, controlled every commune in 
the province but one. Italians, putting aside 
questions of ethnography, emphasized its alleged 
geographical unity with the west and its strate- 
gical importance, its long affinity with the Latin 
race and Italian culture, and the bitter fight 
which the communes of the province had fought 
with Austrian officials for the preservation of 
the Italian language in schools and administra- 
tion (though by 1914 only one city, Zara, haa 
succeeded in remaining Italian). On both sides 
there soon manifested itself a willingness to 
compromise these two points: Italy to get 
Venetia Julia, the Jugo-Slavs to get Dalmatia. 
Fiume furnished the basis of the real struggle. 
Fiume (together with its suburb SuSak) had a 
population distributed as follows: 22,488 Ital- 
ians and 13,351 Jugo-Slavs in Fiume; 1500 
Italians and 11,000 Jugo-Slavs in SuSak. The 
Fiumani had been encouraged in their inde- 
pendent spirit by the Hungarians and had de- 
rived great benefit from the Hungarian con- 
nection in that their city had served as the 
chief entrepot of the Hungarian Adriatic trade. 
Italian nationalists, eager to obtain complete 
commercial and naval domination in the Adri- 
atic, coveted Fiume not only because its upper 
class was Italian but also because it might rival 
Italy’s newly acquired seaport of Trieste. The 
Jugo-Slav position depended on other factors. 
If the suburbs were included, Fiume was not 
Italian, but predominantly Jugo-Slav. More- 
over, in order to connect Fiume with Italy, 


FIUME-ADRIATIC CONTROVERSY 


large blocks of indisputably Jugo-Slav territory 
would have to be placed under alien sovereignty. 
Furthermore, the commercial hinterland of the 
city included Croatia, and Italian control of 
Fiume would mean the economic subservience of 
Jugo-Slavia, for Fiume was the only adequate 
outlet for Jugo-Slavia on the west. (In con- 
nection with this factor it must be borne in 
mind that perhaps one of the reasons why the 
settlement was such a tardy one was that the 
Fiume question was agitated only by the Croats 
and Slovenes while the more important Serbs 
manifested only a slight interest in the western 
frontier, for their natural. trade outlets were 
the Danube and the Vardar.) So much for 
underlying considerations. On Oct. 29, 1918, 
Italian troops, at the behest of the Fiumani, 
occupied the town. The Allies, in their turn, 
protested on the ground that Fiume had not 
been assigned to Italy, with the result that an 
inter-Allied army took possession. The course 
of events before the Peace Conference was char- 
acterized by a bitter struggle that terminated 
in a deadlock. The Italians took their stand 
on the Treaty of London line, claiming Fiume 
as well on the ground that the dissolution of 
the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy had entirely 
changed the situation. The Jugo-Slavs found 
a champion in President Wilson, who stubborn- 
ly contested the Italian claims on the eastern 
boundary and supported a frontier which ran 
on the north along the London line to Tarvis 
and then dipped south along the centre of the 
Istrian peninsula. 
tionalized though left within the Jugo-Slav 
eustoms union. (This was the well known 
“Wilson Line” presented Apr. 14, 1919.) That 
the Italians should be embittered was natural: 
they had entered the War largely as a result 
of the Treaty of London; they had the support 
of their allies in their claims; they demanded 
the territories for important strategical and 
cultural reasons. The failure to reach a com- 
promise prompted President Wilson to issue his 
famous appeal of April 23 to the Italian people 
over the heads of their delegation. (See PEACE 
CONFERENCE AND TREATIES.) But the state- 
ment acted as a boomerang, for instead of win- 
ning over the Italian people it completely 
estranged them, with the result that Orlando’s 
government, on June 19, was defeated in the 
Italian Parliament. All chances for a settle- 
ment, at least as far as the Peace Conference 
was concerned, had thus gone aglimmering. 
Meanwhile affairs in Fiume had steadily grown 
desperate. The Fiumani and the French sol- 
diers in occupation fell out and rioting oc- 
curred; the disorganized economie life was pro- 
ducing real want among the population. Hence, 
When Premier Nitti showed a disposition to 
sacrifice Italian nationalistic claims in the in- 
terest of peace, Italian chauvinists took matters 
into their own hands. It was no wonder, there- 
fore, that when on September 12 the _ poet- 
militarist D’Annunzio, at the head of a band of 
volunteers and Italian regulars, marched into 
Fiume, his coup de main should be received with 
such exuberant Italian approval. Italian sol- 
diers and sailors in the port flocked to his 
standard and such eminent Italians as Profes- 
sor Pantaleoni and General Ceccherini hastened 
to join him. The Supreme Council was spurred 
into action and during the next few months 
concerned itself with various programmes. The 
scheme proposed on Dec. 9, 1919, called for the 


478 


Fiume was to be interna- — 


FIUME-ADRIATIC CONTROVERSY 


creation of a Fiume buffer state (for by this 
time Italy had dropped Dalmatia), which Italy, 
however, refused to support; a subsequent com- 
bined Italian-English-French proposal, Jan. 14, 
1920, called for the assignment of Fiume to 
Italy with League control of its port and ter- 
minal connections, but to this both Jugo-Slavs 
and Wilson objected. Thenceforth the struggle 
became localized, and with the withdrawal of 
the United States from world affairs, the de- 
clining interest of Great Britain and France in 
the Adriatic, and the imminent defeat of the 
Democratic party in the American elections of 
1920, it appeared evident to both disputants 
that only a spirit of conciliation would serve 
their best interests. In June, 1920, the Italians 
finally evacuated their last strongholds in Mon- 
tenegro and Southern Dalmatia. On November 
12, a treaty was signed by Italy and Jugo- 
Slavia at Rapallo which showed how much 
both had yielded. Italy was to annex part of 
Carniola and all Istria and push her frontier 
east to the confines of Fiume; Fiume was to be 
created an independent state though SuSak was 
to go to Jugo-Slavia; Italian claims to Dalma- 
tia (except Zara) and almost all the islands 
(excepting Cherso, Lussin, and Unie) were re- 
nounced. Ratifications were exchanged Feb. 2, 
1921, and the vexing business seemed on the 
verge of settlement when it leaked out that the 
Italian \government privately had promised to 
turn over Porto Barros, a portion of the Fiume 
port, to Jugo-Slavia. Again the Italian public 
was aroused and again Fiume became the bone 
of contention. Meanwhile the D’Annunzio tan- 
gle had been straightened out. On Sept. 8, 
1920, he had promulgated a singularly uncon- 
ventional constitution, and this, with his con- 
tinued impractical and flamboyant conduct, 
served to alienate the more serious elements 
which had joined him. In December he was 
ordered by the Italian government to evacuate 
the town, and on his refusal to do so, the signal 
was given to attack (December 24). Realizing 
the hopeless nature of his position, four days 
later he handed over his powers to the town 
council, and by Jan. 2, 1921, the Italian reg- 
ulars were in contro]. D’Annunzio was ejected 
and steps were taken to establish the independ- 
ent government provided for by the Treaty of 
Rapallo. Elections were held in April, 1921, for 
a Constituent Assembly, but the Italian na- 
tionalists, being defeated, destroyed the returns, 
and violence again prevailed. The Fascisti, who 
had organized themselves in sympathy with 
Italian Fascism (see IrAty), seized the city 
government and established a Fascist Directory. 
Difficulties engendered in Italian evacuation of 
the Northern Dalmatian zone necessitated the 
negotiation of the supplementary convention of 
Santa Margherita (October, 1922) between 
Italy and Jugo-Slavia, though even this did not 
much expedite matters, in particular as far as 
Fiume was concerned. In November, 1922, the 
Fascisti government came into power in Italy 
and Mussolini at once indicated that it was his 
intention to hasten a settlement. Independent 
local government in Fiume had proved itself a 
failure, though this may have been due to the in- 
terference of the Fascisti; economic life also was 
completely disorganized. In 1923, Mussolini ex- 
changed a series of notes with the Jugo-Slav 
government relative to the status of the dis- 
puted city. As his demands for revision of the 
Rapallo Treaty and assignment of Fiume to 


FIVE-POWER NAVAL TREATY 


Italy were made in the peremptory style in 
which he had been accustomed to address the 
Italian Parliament, rather than with diplomatic 
suavity, the negotiations became increasingly 
acrimonious. When an Italian military force 
under General Giardino seized the city, a rup- 
ture of diplomatic relations and perhaps even 
graver consequences seemed imminent, but  se- 
cret bargaining between Belgrade and Rome 
ultimately averted armed conflict. In January, 
1924, it was announced that an agreement had 
been reached. ‘The treaty, signed at Rome, three 
days later, ceded the city and port of Fiume 
to Italy, recognized Jugo-Slav sovereignty over 
Porto Barros, leased to Jugo-Slavia a port in 
the Fiume harbor, and made the Fiume rail- 
way station an international frontier station. 
Additional conventions signed at the same time 
recognized Jugo-Slav sovereignty over Dalmatia 
and Italian sovereignty over Venetia Julia. 
More significant than this settlement, momen- 
tous as it was, and clearly indicative of the 
Jugo-Slav attitude, was the treaty of friendship 
and alliance signed, by which Italy and Jugo- 
Slavia each pledged itself to maintain the “or- 
der of things established by the treaties of 
peace” and to remain neutral in the event of a 
war engaged in by either. It appeared, in 1924, 
to be a great forward step in the maintenance 
of European peace, and that the treaty was re- 
ceived with approval in Jugo-Slavia as well as 
in Italy indicated how general was the satisfac- 
tion. 

FIVE-POWER NAVAL TREATY. See 
WASHINGTON CONFERENCE, and NAVIES OF THE 
WORLD. 

FIXATION OF NITROGEN. See CHEMIs- 
TRY, and FERTILIZERS. 

FLAMMARION, CAMILLE (1842-— j rN 
French astronomer (see Vor. VIII). Among 
his later writings are Death and Its Mystery, in 
three parts (1920, 1921, 1922), and Haunted 


Houses (1924). 
FLANAGAN, JOHN (1865- joey AD 
American sculptor (see Vor. VIII). Although 


his work included such sculptures as the bronze 
memorial portrait of Samuel Pierpont Langley, 
Smithsonian Institution, and the Bulkley Memo- 
rial, Actna Life Insurance Building, Hartford, 
he was active chiefly as a medallist, especially 
during the War. He executed the “Médaille de 
Verdun,” voted by Congress and presented to that 
city by the President. The fine realism of his 
portraiture and his subtle handling of lights 
and shadows made him preéminent in low relief. 


FLANDERS, BaTrLes IN. See WAR IN 
EuRoPE, Western Front. 
FLEMING, DANieEL JoHNnson (1877- ve 


An American clergyman, born at Xenia, Ohio, 
and educated at Wooster University, Union 
Theological Seminary, and Columbia, Chicago, 
and Punjab universities. He was ordained in 
the Presbyterian ministry in 1903 and went to 
India in 1904 as professor of physics and di- 
rector of Forman Christian College at Lahore. 
He remained there until 1913. In 1915 he was 
appointed organizing director of the department 
of foreign service at Union Theological Sem- 
inary, and in 1918, professor of missions. In 
1919-20 he was a member of the International 
Commission on Indian Village Education. He 
is the author of Social Study, Service and Eza- 
hibits (1913), Devolution in Mission Admin- 
istration (1916), and Marks of a World Chris- 
tian (1919). He _ collaborated in Village 


479 


FLETCHER 


Education wm India (1920) and Schools with a 
Message in India (1921). 

FLEMING, Joun ApAm (1877- ). An 
American magnetician, born in Cincinnati. He 
graduated from the University of Cincinnati in 
1889 and from that year to 1910 was with the 
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. 
From 1904 he was chief magnetician of the De- 
partment of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Car- 
negie Institution, and from 1919 was chief 
of the Magnetic Survey Division. He was a 
member of several scientific societies and wrote 
reports on terrestrial magnetism and other sub- 
jects for the Carnegie Institution. He also con- 


tributed numerous articles to reviews and 
magazines. 
FLEMING, WaAtter LyNwoop (1874- Vis! 


An American historian, born at Brundidge, 
Ala., and educated at the Alabama Polytechnic 
Institute and Columbia University. From 1903 
to 1907, he was professor of history in West 
Virginia University, and from 1907 to 1917, in 
Louisiana State University. In the latter year 
he was called to a similar position at Vander- 
bilt University in Nashville, Tenn. He was one 
of the editors of the Historians’ History of the 
World and edited Lester and Wilson’s History 
of the Ku Klux Klan (1905), Documentary 
History of the Reconstruction, 2 vols. (1906, 
1907), Section Six of The South in the Building 
of the Nation, 12 vols., and the Mississippi Val- 
ley Historical Review. Besides being a con- 
tributor to numerous periodicals and encyclo- 
pedias, as well as to the Photographic History 
of the Civil War, he is the author of Reconstruc- 
tion of the Seceded States (1905), The Civil 
War and Reconstruction in Alabama (1905), 
William Tecumseh Sherman as College President 
(1912), The Sequel of Appomatox (1919), and 
Biography of Jefferson Davis and a History of 
the Ku Kluz. 

FLEMISH MOVEMENT. See BELGIuM. 

FLENSBURG. See SCHLESWIG. 

FLERS, RoBert DE (1872- ). A French 
dramatist, born at Pont l’Eveque, and educated 
at the Lycée Condorcet in Paris. He devoted 
himself to drama and diplomacy. Among his 
theatrical works, which earned him a place in 
the French Academy, the undisputed master- 
piece is Le Roi, written with Cavaillet and 
Aréne. It combined the breeziness of a revue 
and the biting satire of Beaumarchais. His 
theatrical works include Le Coeur a Ses Raisons ; 
Les Sentiers de la Vertu; L’Ange du Foyer; 
Miquette et sa Mére; La Chance du Mari; Le 
Montausier; L’Amour Vieille; L’Eventail ; Le 
Roi; Le Bois Sacré, L’Ane de Buridan; Papa; 
Primerose; L’Habit Vert; La Belle Aventure; 
and Monsieur Bretonneau. His operettas and 
comic operas, written in collaboration with 
G. de Caillavet, are Les Travaux d’ Hercule: 
Chonchette; Le Sire de Vergy; Monsieur de la 
Palisse; Paris, ou le Bon Juge; Fortunio; Béa- 
trice; Cydalise; Le Retour, and Les Vignes du 
Seigneur. Among his critical and _ fictional 
works may be mentioned Vers VOrient; Entre 
Coeur et Chair; Essais de Critique; Histoire de 
la Courtisane Taia, and La Petite Table. 

FLETCHER, FRANK Fripay (1855- ). 
An American naval officer (see Vout. VIII). He 
was promoted to the rank of admiral in March, 
1915. He was a member of the War Industries 
Board in 1917 and the general board of the 
navy, and was awarded a medal of honor for 
distinguished conduct in battle. 


FLETCHER 480 


FLETCHER, Henry PRATHER (1873- es 
An American diplomat, born at Green Castle, 
Pa., and educated at Chambersburg (Pa.) 
Academy. He was admitted to the bar in 1894 
and served with the “Rough Riders” in the 
Spanish-American War. His diplomatic career 
began in 1902 when he was secretary of the 
American Legation in Cuba. After diplomatic 
service in China, Portugal, Mexico, and South 
America, he resigned in 1920, and was under- 
secretary of state from Mar. 8, 1921, to Mar. 6, 
1922. On the latter date he accepted the post 
of Ambassador to Belgium. He headed _ the 
United States delegation to the Fifth Pan- 
American Congress at Santiago, Chile, in 
1923. 

FLETCHER, Joun Govutp (1886- )- ~An 
American author born at Little Rock, Ark., and 
educated at Phillips Academy (Andover, Mass.) 
and Harvard. He later made England his 
home. He has written Fire and Wine (1913), 
Irradiations—Sand and Spray (1915), Goblins 
and Pagodas (1916), Japanese Prints (1918), 
The Tree of Life, (1918), Breakers and Granite 
(1921), and Paul Gauguin, His Life and Art 
(1921). He was one of the first to essay free 
verse successfully and together with Amy 
Lowell was considered as leading the so-called 
Imagist school of modern poetry. 

FLETTNER RUDDER. See NAVIGATION. 

FLEWELLING, Ravtpey Tyrer (1871- Ne 
An American philosophy professor, born at De 
Witt, Mich., and educated at the University of 
Michigan, Alma College (Mich.), the Garrett 
Biblical Institute (Evanston, Ill.), and Boston 
University. He was ordained in the Methodist 
Episcopal ministry in 1896, holding pastorates 
from 1903 to 1917, and in the latter year becom- 
ing professor and head of the department of 
philosophy in the University of Southern Cal- 
ifornia. In 1918 he was at the Sorbonne, Paris, 
and was appointed head of the department of 
philosophy at the American Expeditionary 
Force University at Beaune, France. He is the 
author of Christ and the Dramas of Doubt 
(1913), Personalism and the Problems of Phi- 


losophy (1915), Philosophy and the War 
(1918), and Bergson and Personal Realism 
(1919). He also contributed to the Hastings 


Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics (1917), 
and founded and edited The Personalist (1920). 
In 1919-20 he was president of the Celtic Club. 

FLIGHT. See ARoNAUTICS. 

FLINT. A manufacturing city of Michigan. 
Its population increased 137.6 per cent in 10 
years, from 38,550 in 1910 to 91,599 in 1920; 
to 117,968 by estimate of the Bureau of the 
Census for 1923, and to 135,000 by city estimate 
in 1924. This rapid expansion necessitated 
wholesale building operations and _ extensive 
public improvements. <A civic building associa- 
tion built 3000 houses in 1916 and as many 
more in 1918. <A city plan was elaborated, and 
in 1920, a programme for improvements cost- 
ing $2,215,000 was entered upon by the city; 
and in 1924, expenditures of $13,325,000 for 
streets, sewers, schools, parks, etce., and $10,- 
800,000 for public service facilities were under- 
taken. Work was begun on a new State ar- 
mory and athletic field. Three grade schools 
and a high school were completed in 1923 at a 
cost of $2,250,000. Industrial building costing 
$19,810,000 was undertaken in 1924. The num- 
ber of employees in the factories increased from 
8722 to 28,481 and the assessed valuation of 


FLOODS 


the city from $35,267,451 to $141,253,600 be- 
tween 1914 and 1923. 

FLOATING DOCKS. See Docks. 

FLOODS AND FLOOD PROTECTION: 
The years immediately following the War were 
responsible for increased attention in many 
parts of the world to the great problems in- 
volved in reducing the damage and danger from 
floods caused by the overflow of rivers and sud- 
den freshets. In China this problem has always 
been a pressing one, but as damage by flood 
always had been considered inevitable, but slight 
effort had been made to reduce the hazards by 
engineering plans and construction. In France 
the overflowing of the Seine and other rivers 
has brought temporary inconvenience and dam- 
age, and in 1910 after the City of Paris had 
experienced severe floods due to the rise of the 
Seine, a careful investigation was made of the 
best methods of protecting the city from the 
canal danger. By 1917 a comprehensive report 
dealing with this subject had been prepared 
and officially accepted, and from that time on 
various measures were taken to construct suit- 
able protection works. 

In the United States the spring floods had 
often brought about vast inundations of farm- 
ing and other lands, while the sudden rise of 
waters had produced great damage and loss of 
life in not a few instances. In addition to the 
usual spring floods there were numerous cases 
where a cloudburst or protracted rain had de- 
veloped swollen streams which had overflowed 
their banks, and in many cases had carried 
away bridges, dams and other works. 

In this latter connection great danger has 
been increased, as where towns have been lo- 
cated on river banks they have often encroached 
upon the channel of the stream, and while the 
waterway would be ample in ordinary seasons 
yet at time of flood it would be too restricted to 
accommodate the suddenly increased flow. Fur- 
thermore, by the construction of bridges the 
channel often was seriously reduced by the 
piers and abutments, so that not only were 
these structures damaged, or at times entirely 


carried away, but the water was backed up with ° 


manifest injury when it overflowed the banks, 
particularly where cities or villages were lo- 
cated in proximity. 

The great flood of 1913 in the United States 
along the Mississippi and its tributaries natural- 
ly led to the discussion of remedial measures, 
and in the interval between that time and 1924, 
important work in securing increased safety 
from the sudden rise of waters in the spring 
was put under way through strengthened levees 
and otherwise. Inasmuch as it was not every 
year that conditions of flood and disaster were 
experienced, it was quite difficult to arouse pub- 
lic sentiment to the necessity for preventive 
works, involving considerable outlay, which 
might not be actually brought into use for a 
number of years. Nevertheless there was more 
general appreciation of the seriousness of the 
matter and in many districts adequate meas- 
ures were put on foot to secure the needed pro- 
tection. Many investigations were made of the 
eonditions of rainfall, watersheds, etec., and 
plans were developed suitable for the territory 
protected. 

The flood danger in the United States ranged 
all the way from that experienced on the lower 
Mississippi, where a system of levees and other 
works had been maintained for a number of 


a, 


FLOODS 


years, to the Ohio and other tributaries where 
in addition more or less comprehensive projects 
for protection had been worked out. In many 
eases there was involved a system of retarding 
basins or reservoirs formed by dams and dykes 
which would collect and temporarily restrain 
the run-off due to melting snows or spring rains, 
and also straightened and enlarged channels 
which would take care of the great volumes of 
water by regulating the flow. 

A notable instance of this was the work of the 
Miami Conservancy District which was com- 
pleted in 1922, and by means of a system of 
dams and improved river channels afforded ade- 
quate protection to a considerable territory. 
Projects more or less similar were also ad- 
vanced in other parts of the country, particu- 
larly those that had experienced flood damage, 
but even where danger was realized it was diffi- 
cult to secure adequate attention to the danger, 
as these works involved heavy outlay which 
had to be met by bond issues or some form 
of taxation. Nevertheless, 
thoroughly alive to the 
matter. 

The Miami Conservancy scheme was designed 
particularly to afford adequate flood protection 
to the city of Dayton, above which city three 
large retarding basins were built, the Taylors- 
ville on the Miami River, the Huffman basin on 
the Mad River, and the Englewood basin on the 
Stillwater River. Further up on the Miami was 
the Lockington reservoir while on Tivin Creek 


importance of the 


emptying into the Miami below the city of: 


Dayton the Germantown retarding basin was 
built. Each of these reservoirs or basins was 
formed by a large earthen dike or dam pierced 
by conduits through which the water passed 
normally, but which at times of flood temporar- 
ily restrained the extra water until it could 
be discharged properly at the capacity of the 
channel which by straightening and levees was 
increased. This work was carried on by the 
Miami Conservancy District and in addition to 
the construction of dams and channels also in- 
volved extensive changes of location of railways 
and roads. 

The protective works of the Miami Conserv- 
ancy District experienced their first serious test 
in the flood following the rainfall of Mar. 27- 
28, 1924. Water was stored back of all the 
dams to the following depth above the conduit 
floors: Germantown 41.6 feet, Englewood 40.6 
feet, Lockington 27 feet, Taylorsville 23 feet 
and Huffman 22 feet. Conduits ran full at all 
dams except Huffman. Maximum discharges 
at the dams were as follows: Germantown 
6650 second-feet, Englewood 8400 second-feet, 
Lockington 5350 second-feet, Taylorsville 23,- 
000 second-feet, and Huffman 13,000 second- 
feet. 

In addition to the dams the improved chan- 
nels, which were an important part of the 
project, received a test when gauge heights 
of 12.3 and 13 feet were reached at Dayton 
and Hamilton, respectively. At ‘the former 
point the maximum discharge was _ 36,000 
second-feet, while at Hamilton it was 42,000 
second-feet. The flood handled, while in no 
way approaching the actual capacity of the 
system, demonstrated the ability of the flood 
control works to meet any emergency. It was 
estimated that without the protective measures 
the gauge height at Dayton would have been 
five or six feet higher, as under previous 


481 


the country was 


FLORIDA 


conditions, and while it would not have caused 
much serious trouble, yet it would have devel- 
oped considerable alarm among the low lying 
sections which was no longer felt. 

FLORIDA. Area and Population. Florida 
is the twenty-first State in size (58,666 square 
miles), and the thirty-second in population; 
capital, Tallahassee. The population increased 
from 752,619 in 1910 to 968,470 in 1920, 
a gain of 28.7 per cent. The white popu- 
lation rose from 443,634 to 638,153; the Negro, 
from 308,669 to 329,487; the native white, 
from 409,792 to 595,145; and the foreign- 
born white, from 33,842 to 43,008. The urban 
population of the State increased from 219,- 
080 to 355,825; the rural, from 533,539 to 612,- 
645. The growth of the principal cities was as 
follows: Jacksonville (q.v.), from 57,699 to 91,- 
558; Tampa, from 37,782 to 51,608; Pensacola, 
from 22,982 to 31,035; and Miami, from 5471 
to 29,571. 

Agriculture. Although Florida is not one 
of the leading cotton-producing States, cotton- 
raising is an industry of considerable impor- 
tance. In the decade 1910-20, Florida was 
affected, like other Southern States, by the 
ravages of the boll weevil, which was well 
established in the State by 1916-17. (See 
Corton.) The extent of this damage is indicat- 
ed by a comparison of the acreage and pro- 
duction for several years: In 1913, 188,000 
acres and 59,000 bales; in 1916, 191,000 and 
41,000; in 1920, 100,000 and 18,000. The pro- 
duction in 1922 was 25,000 bales; the estimate 
for 1923, 13,000 bales. 

While the population of the State increased 
28.7 per cent in the decade, the number of 
farms increased 8 per cent (from 50,016 in 
1910 to 54,005 in 1920); the acreage in farms 
from 5,253,538 to 6,046,691, or 15.1 per cent; 
and the improved land in farms from 1,805,408 
acres to 2,297,271. The total value of farm 
property showed an apparent increase of from 
$143,183,183 to $330,301,717 or 130.7 per cent; 
the average value per farm, from $2863 to 
$6116. In interpreting this statement, however, 
and, indeed, all statements of comparative 
values in the decade 1914-24, the inflation of 
currency in the latter part of that period is 
to be taken into consideration. The index num- 
ber of prices paid to producers of farm prod- 
ucts in the United States was 104 in 1910 and 
216 in 1920. The percentage of the total area 
in farms increased from 15 in 1910 to 17.2 in 
1920; the percentage of improved area in farms 
from 5.1 to 6.5. In 1920, of the total of 54,005 
farms, 38,487 were operated by owners, 1829 
by managers, and 13,689 by tenants; while cor- 


' responding figures for 1910 were 35,399, 1275 and 


13,342. The white farmers in 1920 numbered 
41,051, compared with 35,295 in 1910; colored, 
12,954, as compared with 14,721. The farms free 
from mortgage in 1920 numbered 25,010 and 
those under mortgage, 8102. In 1910, those free 
from mortgage numbered 29,614 and those under 
mortgage, 5160. The number of beef cattle was 
518,350 in 1920 and 845,188 in 1910; dairy 
cattle, 120,631 and 116,041; sheep, 64,659 and 
113,701; swine, 755,481 and 810,069. The es- 
timated production of the principal farm crops 
in 1923 was: Corn, 10,497,000 bushels; oats, 
426,000 bushels; potatoes, 1,826,000 bushels; 
sweet potatoes, 2,830,000 bushels; tobacco, 4,- 
158,000 pounds; hay, 89,000 tons, and peanuts, 
49,920,000 bushels. For cotton, see above. 


FLORIDA 


Comparative figures for 1913 are: corn, 10,- 
125,000 bushels; oats, 900,000; potatoes, 912,- 
000; tobacco, 4,000,000 pounds; and _ cotton, 
59,000 bales. The increase in production of 
citrus fruits, from 1909 to 1919, was: oranges, 
4,852,967 to 5,930,422 boxes; lemons, 12,367 to 
31,204; grapefruit, 1,061,537 to 3,158,431. 
Mining. Florida is not an _ important 
mineral-producing State. Phosphate rock is 
obtained in large quantities; and other resources 
include clay products, fuller’s earth, mineral 
waters, and sand and gravel. The production of 
phosphate rock in 1914 was 2,138,891 long tons, 


valued at $7,354,744; in 1918, 2,067,230 ($6,- 
090,106); in 1920, 3,369,384 ($19,464,362) : 
in 1921, 1,780,028 ($10,431,642). The total 


value of the mineral products of the State was 
$8,497,688 in 1914. It increased steadily from 
$4,886,010 in 1915 to $22,923,780 in 1920; but 
fell to $12,597,948 in 1921. 

Manufactures. Florida is not one of the 
important industrial States, although its manu- 
factures have shown a steady increase in the 
last three decades. There are six cities with a 
population of more than 10,000 inhabitants: 
Jacksonville, Tampa, Miami, Pensacola, Key 
West and St. Petersburg. From these, in 1919, 
47.8 per cent of the value of the State’s manu- 
factured products were reported. The total num- 
ber of establishments in 1909 was 2159; 1914, 
2518; and 1919, 2582; and the persons engaged 
in manufacture in those years numbered 64,810, 
63,204, and 82,986. The capital invested was 
$65,290,640, $88,318,983, and $206,293,570, re- 
spectively. In 1909, the value of the products 
was $72,889,659; 1914, $81,112,291, and 1919, 
$213,326,811; but this increase was in a great 
measure due to changes in industrial conditions 
brought about by the War. The increase shown 
in the number of establishments and the average 
number of wage earners, however, is an index 
of decided growth in the manufactures of the 
State. The principal industries are those con- 
nected with lumber and timber products, with 
products valued at, in 1909, $20,863,000; 1914, 
$21,457,000; and 1919, $50,409,000. Tobacco, 
cigars and cigarettes were second in value: in 
1909, $21,576,000; 1914, $19,386,000; and 1919, 
$37,926,000. Shipbuilding, especially during the 
War, acquired great importance, the value of 
the product rising from $697,000 in 1909 to 
$804,000 in 1914, and $8,428,000 in 1919. 
Florida is first among the States in the produc- 
tion of turpentine and rosin; in 1909 the value 
of these products was $11,938,000; 1914, $9,- 
573,000, and in 1919, $21,509,000. Tampa is the 
first of the cities in manufacturing importance, 
with 182 establishments and products valued 
at $13,804,000 in 1909; 202 and $14,039,000, in 
1914; and 263 and $42,461,000 in 1919. The 
manufacturing establishments of Jacksonville 
increased from 114 in 1909 to 173 in 1914, and 
244 in 1919; the value of the product, from 
$6,722,000 to $10,148,000, to $31,212,000. 

Education. Florida has been one of the most 
progressive of the southern States in the de- 
velopment of the educational system. This has 
been especially evident since 1892, when the 
school system of the State was reorganized. 
Elementary instruction has been greatly ex- 
tended. Compulsory school attendance, educa- 
tional campaigns, self-improvement associations, 
better and more adequate school buildings, 
grounds, equipment and teachers, and the trans- 
portation to and from school of pupils at public 


482 


FLORIDA 


expense, have been among the features that 
have contributed to progress. The advance made 
in high school education has been still more 
noticeable. Provision has been made for more 
adequate and suitable school plans and the em- 
ployment of a larger and more efficient teach- 
ing staff. Vocational education has been greatly 
developed in the fields of both industrial and 
commercial study; and stress has been placed 
also on instruction in home economics. The 
Legislature of 1923 passed a teachers’ examina- 
tion certification law, which aimed at improv- 
ing the grade of teachers employed. The gen- 
eral progress of this period is indicated by a 
comparison of the figures of enrollment for 
several years. In 1912-13, the total school en- 
rollment was 164,727; in 1917-18, 196,405; in 
1919-20, 225,160.. Enrollment in the white 
schools in 1912-13 was 106,777; 1917-18, 137,- 
826; 1919-20, 157,666. Enrollment in the negro 
schools in 1912-13 was 57,050; 1917-18, 58,579; 
and in 1919-20, 67,494. Attendance in the high 
schools of the State rose from 4264 in 1912-13 
to about 8000 in 1921-22. Expenditures for pub- 
lic schools increased from $2,713,390 in 1912-13. 
to $4,837,045 in 1917-18, and to $7,003,188 in 
1919-20. The percentage of illiteracy in the - 
State was diminished from 15.5 in 1910 to 
10.9 in 1920. Among the native white popula- 
tion it decreased from 5.7 per cent to 3.7 per 
cent; among the foreign-born white, from 10.5 
per cent to 6.6; and among the colored, fro 

28.8 to 24.8. 


Finance. See STATE FINANCES. 
Political and Other Events. During the 
decade 1914-24, while the State continued 


Democratie in national elections, in domestic 
politics there was a serious break in the party 
alignment which resulted in the defeat, in 1916, 
of the Democratic candidate for governor. In 
1914 elections were held for minor State officers 
and for United States Senator. Duncan U. 
Fletcher was the successful candidate for the 
latter post, and the Democrats were uniformly 
successful in electing their candidates. No elec- 
tions were held in 1915. In the election of 1916, 
when a new Democratic primary law was for 
the first time put into effect, Sidney J. Catts, 
candidate on the Prohibition-Independent ticket, 
defeated W. V. Knott, the Democratic candi- 
date, for governor, and Park Trammell, Demo- 
crat, was elected United States Senator. In the 
presidential election of this year, President 
Wilson received 55,984 votes and Charles E. 
Hughes 14,611. A proposed “grandfather 
clause” amendment to the constitution, designed 
to prevent Negroes from voting, was defeated 
at this election, as was also an amendment to 
reapportion the Legislature. In 1917 the Sem- 
inole Indians of the State were for the first 
time assigned a reservation by the Legislature. 
They were granted an area of 100,000 acres 
near the Ten Thousand Islands. In the 1918 
elections for Representative in Congress and for 
minor State officers, the Democrats were uni- 
formly successful. At this election an amend- 
ment to the constitution providing for State- 
wide prohibition was adopted. In the 1920 elec- 
tions, Cary A. Hardee, Democratic candidate 
for governor, was successful, and Duncan U. 
Fletcher was reélected to the Senate; in the 
presidential election of that year, James M. 
Cox received 90,515 votes and W. G. Harding 
44,853. Alleged peonage in the lumber camps 
of the State resulted in investigations by grand 


he 


COPYRIGHT BY HARRIS & EWING 


FERDINAND FOCH 
MARSHAL OF FRANCE AND GENERALISSIMO OF THE ALLIED ARMIES IN THE WORLD WAR 


HHE 'f°RARY 
OF iHE 
UNIVERSITY GF ILLEBOIS 


ota 


juries and other bodies in 1922-23. On Apr. 
18, 1923, the Assembly voted to abolish flogging 
at county convict labor camps, and on April 
20 the Senate passed a bill ending the loan of 
public convicts to private corporations. On 
April 26 the State Senate, in executive session, 
ordered the removal of Sheriff J. R. Jones of 
Leon County, charged with beating prisoners at 
the county convict camps. On May 14 the Leg- 
islature finally ordered the abolition of whipping 
at the convict labor camps, and this bill was 
signed by Governor Hardee. 

Legislation. The Legislature in Florida 
meets biennially. Following are among its im- 
portant accomplishments in the decade 1914— 
24. In 1915 several measures regulating the 
liquor traffic were adopted. A special session 
in 1918 passed measures to enforce the prohibi- 
tion amendment to the State constitution and 
also ratified the proposed Federal prohibition 
amendment. The State tax commission was 
abolished. The Legislature of 1919 passed a 
measure proyiding for the compulsory school 
attendance of children under 16. In 1921 a 
tax of $.01 a gallon was placed on gasoline 
used in the State, the revenue thus derived to 
be used for the building and maintenance of 
State highways. This measure was attacked in 
the courts. A constitutional amendment to be 
submitted to the people in 1922 was passed, 
providing for the reapportionment of legislative 
representation and increasing the membership 
of both the Senate and the House; measures 
were passed substituting electrocution for hang- 
ing; the infliction of cruel or inhuman treat- 
ment upon inmates of State institutions was 
forbidden; and a bill was passed to facilitate 
the codperative marketing of agricultural prod- 
ucts. The Legislature in 1923 adopted a meas- 
ure declaring that “Darwinism, atheism, and 
agnosticism” should not be taught in the in- 
stitutions of the State. 

FLORIDA, UNIversitTy or. A State institu- 
tion at Gainesville, Fla., founded in 1905. The 
student enrollment increased from 349 in the 
year 1913-14, and 140 in the summer of 1913, 
to 1287 in the year 1923-24, and 1075 in the 
summer of 1923, and the faculty was increased 
from 63 to 76 members. A gymnasium was 
built in 1919. The auditorium unit of the ad- 
ministration building was under course of con- 
struction in 1923-24. It was estimated that 
this building, when completed, would cost ap- 
proximately $750,000. President, Albert Alex- 
ander Murphree, LL.D. 

FLOTILLA LEADER. See VESSEL, NAVAL. 

FLYING BOAT. See ARONAUTICS. 

FLYNN, WiLtiAmM JAMES (1867- yee sk 
chief of the United States Secret Service, born 
in New York, where he was educated at the 
public schools. He entered the Secret Service 
Department of the United States government in 
1897. In the period 1912-17, he was chiefs of 
the Secret Service; in 1918, chief of the Secret 
Service of the United States railroad adminis- 
tration, and director of the Bureau of Investiga- 
tion of the Department of Justice, 1919-21. 

FOCH, Ferpinanp (1851-— ). Marshal of 
France and commander-in-chief of the Allies’ 
armies during the War. He was born at Tarbes 
and was educated at the Catholic College of 
St. Clément at Metz and at the Ecole Poly- 
technique. He entered the army and advanced 
rapidly. As a writer he devoted himself to the 
science of military tactics; his published works 


FOOD AND NUTRITION 


include Les Principes de la Guerre, De la Con- 
duite de la Guerre, and Eloge de Napoléon. He 
was appointed generalissimo of the Allies’ armies 
by Clemenceau after the American government 
had asked for a unified command. He drafted 
the armistice terms which put an end to hos- 
tilities between Germany and the Allies on 
Noy. 11, 1918. After the War he was chosen one 
of France’s forty Immortals and also a member 
of the Academy of Science. He received the 
highest honors and an enthusiastic popular 
welcome. on his visit to the United States in 
1921. Marshal Foch was married to Mlle. 
Julie Bienvenue. Three children were born of 
the union, including one son who was killed 
on the field of battle. See War IN Europe. 

FOG SIGNALS. See LicuTHOUSES AND 
RADIO TELEGRAPHY. 

FOKKER, AntHony H. G. (?- |i bs 
Dutch aircraft constructor who has had a great 
influence on new developments in American air- 
plane construction involving welded steel tub- 
ing in fuselage construction. Mr. Fokker built 
his first all steel fuselage in 1911—built up 
of steel tube longerons to which are welded 
vertical and horizontal steel tube struts and 
which are cross-braced by wires held taut by 
turnbuckles. One of the newest Fokker planes 
is a convertible bomber. and torpedo dropper. 
The engine takes up a very small place in the 
fuselage. The plane has a high speed (115 
miles per hour) and carries 5000 pounds. It 
was built for the Netherlands air force. Ar- 
gentine and Portuguese world cruisers are of 
a similar type. 

FOLINSBEE, Joun Futon (1892- iE 
An American landscape painter born in Buffalo, 
N. Y., and educated at the Art Students’ 
League in New York and the Woodstock School 
of Art. He was a pupil of John Carlson, F. V. 
DuMond and Birge Harrison. He is known es- 
pecially for his winter landscapes, painted in 
straightforward impressionistic teclinique, and 
is represented in the Corcoran Gallery at Wash- 
ington, in the Syracuse Museum and in the 
National Arts Club of New York. His long list 
of awards includes the Carnegie and J. Francis 
Murphy prizes from the National Academy of 
Design in 1921, and the first Hallgarten prize 
of the National Academy of Design in 1923. 
He was elected associate of the National Acad- 
emy of Design in 1919. 

FOLK, Josepn WINGATE (1869-1923). An 
American lawyer and public official (see Vor. 
VIII). From 1914 to 1918 he was chief counsel 
for the Interstate Commerce Commission. 

FOLK PSYCHOLOGY. See Socran Psy- 
CHOLOGY. 

FOOD AND NUTRITION. Ideas as to 
what constitutes a complete food have changed 
considerably since the early years of the century. 
The start of this change was perhaps the dis- 
covery that proteins are unlike in composition, 
and that they are complete or incomplete and 
of good or poor biological value in so far as 
they do or do not contain in sufficient amounts 
certain of the amino acids or “building stones” 
of which they are composed. Fortunately the 


-essential amino acids which must be supplied 


in the food are few in number, and in an or- 
dinary mixed diet the deficiences in one protein 
are compensated by an abundance of the neces- 
sary constituents in others. It is essential, 
however, to bear in mind that all proteins are 
not of equal nutritive value. In general the 


FOOD AND NUTRITION 484 


cereal grains contain proteins of lower value 
than do meat, eggs, and milk, and should not 
be used as the exclusive source of protein. It 
is thought by many that the chief cause of 
pellagra is a deficiency of certain amino acids 
in the diet in sections of the country where the 
disease is common. Dietary changes involving 
only the quality of the protein, such as an in- 
crease in milk and fresh meat, have been re- 
markably successful in preventing and curing 
pellagra. 

Vitamines. The study of the _ relative 
nutritive value of the different proteins led to 
the most important. nutritional discovery of the 
decade 1914-24; in addition to proteins of 
proper quality and quantity, fats, carbohydrates, 
and salts, a perfect food must contain a suffi- 
ciency of certain substances, as yet unidentified, 
occurring in natural foods in very small amounts 
and in a very unstable form as compared with 
other food constituents. These are the _ so- 
called vitamines. Our present knowledge of 
vitamines comprises the existence of at least 
three groups, differing in physical, chemical, and 
physiological properties. Since their chemical 
constitution has not yet been determined, they 
are for convenience designated vitamines A, B, 
and C. Vitamine A is to be found in green 
leafy vegetables, in milk and butter, in egg 
yolk, and in animal fats, particularly in liver 
fat or oil, of which cod liver oil is the best ex- 
ample. It is soluble in fats and fat solvents, it 
resists saponification, and is comparatively 
stable to heat except in the presence of oxygen 
or air. Unlike the other vitamines, a consid- 
erable amount of vitamine A can be stored in 
the body. Consequently the symptoms following 
its lack are not so quickly manifest. After a 
short period of deficiency of this vitamine, loss 
in weight and decreased resistance to infections 
of different kinds, particularly bronchial and 
lung trouble, appear. A _ characteristic eye 
condition known as xerophthalmia or ophthal- 
mia is apt to develop as the result of extreme 
deficiency in this vitamine, and for this reason 
it is sometimes known as the antixerophthalmic 
vitamine. Closely associated with this vitamine 
in occurrence and properties is the antirachitic 


vitamine, or the vitamine which assists in the 


metabolism of calcium and phosphorus and thus 
in the prevention of rickets. Certain substances 
such as cod liver oil and egg yolk appear to 
be rich in both the antixerophthalmic and anti- 
rachitic vitamines; others such as spinach con- 
tain the former but not the latter. The chemi- 
eal property which serves to distinguish it from 
the antixerophthalmic vitamine is its stability 
toward oxidation. Cod liver oil which through 
oxidation has lost its property of curing or 
preventing ophthalmia retains nevertheless the 
power of curing rickets. Unlike the other vita- 
mines, the effects produced by it can be dupli- 
cated by other measures such as light treatment. 

Vitamine B, like vitamine A, may also repre- 
sent a group of factors rather than a single 
substance. This group is widely distributed in 
nature. Whole cereal grains, vegetables (both 
leafy and root), fruits, milk, and meat con- 


tain it in varying amount, but it is absent from’ 


highly refined cereal products, fats, sugars, 
and starches. It is soluble in water, in alcohol 
up to fairly concentrated solution, and in va- 
rious organic solvents. It is comparatively 
stable to heat, but less stable in alkaline than 
in acid or neutral solution. It is less affected 


FOOD AND NUTRITION 


by oxygen than the other two groups. The 
term vitamine B includes the antineuritie vita- 
mine, which prevents polyneuritis in pigeons and 
beriberi in man, and the so-called water-soluble, 
growth-promoting vitamine. The most charac- 
teristic and earliest symptom resulting from lack 
of vitamine B is loss of appetite. This is fol- 
lowed by lowering of body temperature, rapid 
loss in weight and finally loss of motor control 
and symptoms of paralysis. An insufficiency of 
this vitamine is thought to be responsible for 
gastro-intestinal disturbances of various kinds 
and weakened resistance to infection. The lat- 
ter is attributed by some to the lowered body 
temperature. 

Vitamine C, or the antiscorbutie vitamine, is 
found chiefly in fresh fruits, particularly citrus 
fruits, in sprouted grains, and in certain vege- 
tables, both leafy and root. Oranges and toma- 
toes are the most commonly used sources of this 
vitamine. It is the least stable of the three 
and is easily destroyed by heat, particularly 
in the presence of oxygen. In acid medium it is 
less easily destroyed than in alkaline. Lack of 
this vitamine results in the well-known symp- 
toms of scurvy. An insufficiency not great 
enough to cause signs of scurvy causes a weak- 
ened resistance to infection, and in children ir- 
ritability, a general lack of stamina, and re- 
tardation of growth. In addition to these three 
groups of vitamines, investigation up to 1924 
had obtained evidence of another rather more 
limited in its scope. This was known as vita- 
mine X, necessary for successful reproduction. 
Present evidence points to its presence in cer- 
tain leafy vegetables such as lettuce, in cereal 
grains, and in meat. Abundant proof of the 
necessity of these vitamines in human _ nutri- 
tion was afforded by the result of restriction and 
limitations in the food supply of the world 
during and after the War. Perhaps the most 
striking illustration of the effect of lack of 
vitamine A is to be found in the incidence in 
almost epidemic form of eye trouble resulting 
in blindness among the children of Denmark in 
the early years of the War, when, through large 
exportations of butter, only skim milk was 
available. Shortly after: the blockade, when 
butter could no longer be exported and whole 
milk and butter became available, the trouble 
disappeared, only to turn, though less malignant- 
ly, when the export trade was renewed. Cases 
of eye trouble and blindness probably attrib- 
utable to lack of vitamine A are of common oc- 
currence even in the United States. 

A striking illustration of the direct connec- 
tion between diet and the deficiency diseases, 
beriberi and scurvy, was afforded by the de- 
velopment during the siege of Kut-el-Amara in 
Mesopotamia of beriberi among the English 
troops and scurvy among the Indian troops in 
the same garrison. The English were protected 
from scurvy by large quantities of fresh meat 
(horse and mule) which the Indians, through 
religious and other scruples, refused to eat. 
The Indians on the other hand were. protected 
from beriberi by the coarse whole-grain bread 
included in their ration in place of the white 
bread of the English ration. The effects of 
vitamine insufficiency are to be seen in the de- 
plorable state of undernutrition and weakened 
resistance to infection in the great mass of 
European children during and since the War. 
An interesting opportunity to apply the experi- 
mental methods of the laboratory to human 


FOOD AND NUTRITION 


nutrition was afforded a group of English 
scientists, headed by Dr. Harriet Chick, who in 
certain wards of the university Kinderklinik in 
Vienna undertook to build up the undernour- 
ished children by systematic vitamine feeding. 
With the same diet as that furnished in other 
wards, ample in its calorific-protein supply, the 
addition of orange juice and cod liver oil 
wrought such prompt and beneficial changes as 
to convert those who were most skeptical of vita- 
mine theories. 

In the United States the increasing evidence 
of minor symptoms, particularly lack of stam- 
ina, a tendency to digestive disturbances, and 
a lowered resistance to infection, resulting from 
an insufficiency of vitamines, makes their con- 
sideration a matter of great importance. There 
is no evidence that excess of any of the vita- 
mines is harmful, and since the absolute re- 
quirement for human nutrition is as yet un- 
known and any excess of vitamine A is kept 
in reserve for future use, it is well at all times 
to furnish an abundance of vitamine-containing 
foods, particularly of those rich in vitamine 
A. In this respect milk is an ideal food. It 
contains an appreciable amount of vitamine C, 
is a fairly good source of vitamine B, and an 
excellent source of vitamine A, and is further- 
more the best source of calcium for growing 
children. Plenty of milk and an abundance of 
green vegetables and fruits will insure an ade- 
quate supply of all three vitamines. See also 
VITAMINE OR VITAMINES. 

No less striking than vitamines in respect to 
the small amount necessary to turn the balance 
from failure to success in nutrition is iodine. 
The incidence of goitre (q.v.) in certain sec- 
tions of the United States and Europe is now 
attributed to the lack of iodine in the water 
and natural foods, particularly the former. A 
remarkable success has been obtained, in dis- 
tricts where goitre is endemic, by the adminis- 
tration of iodine compounds for very brief 
periods during the year. In certain places an 
attempt is being made to furnish the necessary 
iodine by adding it to the water supply. 

A recent scientific achievement which has an 
important bearing on nutrition is the successful 
separation from the pancreas of insulin, the sub- 
stance which controls directly or indirectly the 
metabolism of carbohydrates in the body. To 
the physician this discovery is of significance 
in offering the means of keeping under sub- 
jection the troublesome disease, diabetes; to the 
physiological chemist the centre of interest is 
the light which experimentation with it may 
throw on the mysteries of the intermediary 
metabolism of carbohydrates and fats; to the 
nutrition worker and dietitian it opens up a 
wide field in the calculation of diets, for in the 
insulin treatment of diabetes, dietary control 
is of even greater importance, and mistakes are 
of more direful consequence, than when insulin 
is not used. In connection with diabetes the 
successful preparation of an odd-carbon fat, 
intarvine, which can be safely oxidized by the 
diabetic organism, should be mentioned as an 
important recent contribution. 

In the rationing of the armies and in the 
system of rationing of the entire civil popu- 
lation of the allied countries, proposed shortly 
before the close of the War, the energy require- 
ment served as the basis. The consensus of 
scientific opinion regarding food requirements 
may be seen from the decision of the Inter- 


485 


FOOTBALL 


Allied Scientific Food Commission concerning 
the apportionment of the food supplies of the 
Allies. The Commission decided to use as the 
basic standard for the food requirement of each 
nation the quantity of food which would be 
taken by an average man. The proper diet 
of the average man was fixed as furnishing 
3000 calories “as utilized,” or, allowing for 
waste, 3300 calories as purchased, and 75 grams 
(about three ounces) of fat daily. It is of 
interest that a minimum of fat rather than of 
protein was specified. The commission decided 
that meat was not a physiological necessity, 
especially when milk, cheese, and eggs were 
available in addition to vegetable protein. In 
estimating the relative needs of food according 
to age and sex, the following percentages of the 
requirement per man were used: up to six years 
of age, 50 per cent; from six to 10, 70; from 
10 to 14, 838; 14 and over (women), 83, and 
men, 100. These values are based upon the 
more recent studies which have emphasized the 
relatively high food requirements of growing 
children. 

Increasing attention is being given, particular- 
ly in the United States, to the nutrition of 
school children. Various indices of nutrition 
have been proposed and are being used to de- 
termine the extent of malnutrition. Among 
these standards are the Wood standard of height 
and weight for age, the Dreyer standard based 
on trunk length and chest circumference, and 
the Pirquet pelidsi standard. These standards, 
while not infallible, serve to indicate roughly 
the nutritional status of the child, and consid- 
erable success has been attained in correcting 
malnutrition, as thus detected, by supplementary 
feeding. 1924 saw only the beginning of this 
work, for which much was to be expected. 

Bibliography. F. G. Benedict and F. B. 
Talbot, Metabolism and Growth from Birth to 
Puberty (Carnegie Institute, Publication 302, 
1921); G. Dreyer, The Estimation of Physical 
Fitness (New York, 1921); C. Funk, The Vita- 
mines (Baltimore, 1922); B. Harrow, Vita- 
mines: Essential Food Factors, 2d ed. (New 
York, 1922); A. F. Hess, Scurvy, Past and 
Present (Philadelphia, 1920); M. Hindhede, 
‘Protein and Nutrition (London, 1913); L. E. 
Holt, Feod, Health, and Growth: A Discussion 
of the Nutrition of Children (New York, 1922) ; 
G. Lusk, The Elements of the Science of Nutri- 
tion, 3d ed. (Philadelphia and London, 1917) ; 
R. MecCarrison, Studies in Deficiency Disease 
(London, 1921); E. V. McCollum, The Newer 
Knowledge of Nutrition, 2d ed. (New York, 
1922); J. J. R. Macleod, “Insulin” (Physiological 
Review, 1921, vol. iv, p. 21); Medical Re- 
search Council, Accessory Food Factors (Vita- 
mines), 2d ed. (London, 1924); L. B. Mendel, 
Nutrition, the Chemistry of Life (New Haven, 
1923); O. Pirquet, The Outline of the Pirquet 
System of Nutrition (Philadelphia and London, 
1922); V. G. and R. H. A. Plimmer, Vitamines 
and the Choice of Food (London and New York, 
1922); H. C. Sherman, The Chemistry of Food 
and Nutrition, 2d ed. (New York, 1918); H. C. 
Sherman and S. L. Smith, The Vitamines (New 
York, 1922). 

FOOD BOARD. See Unitep SratTes, His- 
tory. 

OOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. See VET- 
ERINARY MEDICINE. 

FOOTBALL. This branch of sports com- 

prises several different games such as college 


FORAIN 


football as played in the United States, Rugby, 
association and soccer. Rugby, association and 
soccer football are chiefly confined to the Brit- 
ish Isles and Europe although soccer, following 
the close of the World War, has gained stead- 
ily in popularity in the United States, particu- 
larly the mid-West and along the Atlantic sea- 
board. Some of the Pacific Coast universities have 
organized Rugby teams in recent years but this 
type of football has failed to arouse much in- 
terest in the American public. 

The regular college game of football vies with 
baseball in popularity in the United States, con- 
tests between prominent elevens attracting as 
many as 80,000 spectators. Within the last 
few years all the larger American universities 
have been obliged either to increase the seating 
capacity of their stadiums or build larger ones 
to meet the constantly growing demand for 
seats. 

The mammoth Yale Bowl, the Harvard Sta- 
dium, Palmer Field at Princeton and the Ohio 
State University Stadium with accommodations 
for from 40,000 to 80,000 spectators were all 
constructed during the period 1914-24, 

Unlike professional baseball there is no way 
of determining which college eleven deserves 
first ranking each year. No contests for the 
championship are played, the schedules of the 
various colleges being restricted to not more 
than ten games each season. All attempts to 
hold post-season contests in an endeavor to de- 
cide superiority have in the past been frowned 
upon by the authorities of the colleges con- 
cerned. 

The ten years ending with 1924 were marked 
by a larger number of intersectional college 
games than formerly and this fact enabled the 
students of football to compare and appraise the 
coaching methods and types of play in vogue 
in various parts of the country. The critics 
generally agree’ that whereas the more open 
style of game is played by the universities 
of the Middle West, the all-round strength of 
teams there averages no higher than in the 
eastern States or on the Pacific Coast. 

Few changes in the playing rules of the col- 
lege game have been made since the introduc- 
tion of the forward pass and the elimination 
of mass formations. ‘The present game appears 
to give satisfaction and to its development year 
by year is undoubtedly due the wonderful popu- 
larity college football is enjoying. 

Professional football has gained a foothold in 
certain cities of the Middle West, the elevens 
being recruited from former college players. 
The university authorities, however, are doing 
everything possible to discourage this movement 
and attempts to arouse the interest of the pub- 
lic in games between professional teams have 
generally been unsuccessful. 

Soccer, both professional and amateur, is mak- 
ing considerable headway in the United States. 
The American Soccer League (professional) has 
clubs in Greater New York (three), Newark, 
Philadelphia, Bethlehem, Fall River and Provi- 
dence. St. Louis, Chicago and Baltimore also 
are leading soccer centres with both professional 
and amateur clubs playing regularly arranged 
schedules. Many former star players on various 
English and Scotch league elevens have appeared 
in American soccer line-ups in recent years. 

FORAIN, JEAN Louris’ (1852— phones 
French caricaturist, etcher, and painter (see 
Vout. VIII). During the War, his weekly car- 


486 


‘manufacturer 


FORD 


toons in L’Opinion were notable. Later he ex- 
ecuted an important series of etchings on war 
subjects. In 1923 he was elected to the French 
Academy. Although most widely known as a 
penetrating illustrator of French manners, in 
which capacity he continued to contribute to 
numerous periodicals, as an etcher he was 
styled incomparable, and his work in painting 
was delicate and delightful. Additional works 
that may be mentioned are Nous, vous, eux; 
La Vie; and De la Marne au Rhin. 
FORAKER, Josepu BENSON (1846-1917). 
An American Republican politician and legisla- 
tor (see Vor. VIII). He was defeated by 


President Harding in the Republican primaries 


for a seat in the Senate in 1914. A year be- 
fore his death he published Notes on a Busy 
Life. 

FORBES, JOHN (?- ). A playwright, 
born at Salem, Ont. He came to the United 
States in 1884 and was successively dramatic 
critic, editor, and press representative. He or- 
ganized and directed the formation of groups 
of professionals sent to Europe to entertain the 
American Expeditionary Forces during the War, 
organized the first stock company of actors to 
play in repertoire in France, and originated the 
plan of organizing other actors who were serving 
in the army into stock companies. His most 
recent plays include The Commuters; The 
Travelling Salesman; The Show Shop; and The 
Famous Mrs. Fair (1919). 

FORBES, WILLIAM CAMERON (1870- ‘ 
An American public official (see VoL. IX), who 
was appointed by President Harding to the 
Wood-Forbes mission to investigate conditions 
in the Philippine Islands in 1921. He was 
overseer at Harvard, 1914-20. In June, 1923, he 
was elected honorary president of the China 
Society of America. 

FORD, GerorcE BuRDETT (1879- bite ti 
American architect and specialist in city plan- 
ning, born at Clinton, Mass., and educated at 
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and 
the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris. He began 
practice in Boston in 1901, afterward continuing 
in New York City. As a specialist in city 
planning he was consultant, at various times, 
for New York City, Passaic, Jersey City; 
Omaha, Neb.; Springfield, Mass.; Cincinnati; 
Mansfield, Ohio, and many other cities. In 
France he was consultant to the French govern- 
ment for the reconstruction of cities in the devas- 
tated regions. 

FORD, Henry (1863- ). An American 
(see Von. IX). In December of 
1915 he chartered a ship to send a party of 
peace enthusiasts to Europe with the object of 
organizing a conference to influence the belliger- 
ent governments to cease warfare. The party 
went to Christiania, Norway, and thence some 
members proceeded to Stockholm, Copenhagen, 
and The Hague, but the entire movement ended 
unsatisfactorily; it was not officially recognized 
abroad, and dissension arose in the ranks of the 
members themselves. Mr. Ford was a Demo- 
cratic candidate for the United States Senate 
in 1918. In 1916 he brought a libel suit 
against the Chicago Tribune for $1,000,000, be- 
cause he had been called an anarchist in one 
of its editorials. The court awarded him a 
verdict of $.06 and the cost of the trial. A 
controversy arose in 1918 over the results of the 
senatorial election between Truman H. New- 
berry, Republican, and Mr. Ford, Democrat. 


FORD 


Ford charged his Republican opponent with ex- 
cessive expenditure in his campaign. New- 
berry was charged and convicted, but on appeal 
to the Supreme Court, the decision was _ re- 
versed in January, 1922. Mr. Ford resigned as 
president of the Ford Motor Company in 1920 
and was succeeded by his son. About the same 
time he bought the Dearborn (Mich.) Indepen- 
dent, in which from time to time he severely 
criticized the Jews. See Muscie SHOALS. 
FORD, HENRY. JONES (1851- ). An 
American journalist and professor of politics 
(see Vout. IX). In 1920-21 he was a member 
of the Interstate Commerce Commission. He 
published The Scotch-Irish in America (1915), 
The Natural .History of the State (1915), 
Woodrow Wilson, the Man and His Work (1916), 


Washington and His Colleagues (1918), and 
The Cleveland Era (1919). 

FORD, JAMES LAUREN (1854- ). An 
American humorist (see Vor. IX). He wrote 


Waitful Watching (1916) and Forty Odd Years 
in the Literary Shops (1921) and edited The 
Porcupine, 1917-18. 

FORD, WALTER BuRTON (1874- jaw An 
American mathematician, born at Oneonta, N. Y. 
He graduated from Harvard in 1908 and took 
post graduate courses at that university and in 
Europe. From 1900 to 1903 he was instructor 
of mathematics at the University of Michigan, 
and from 1904-5 at Williams College. From 
the latter date he was again a member of the 
faculty of the University of Michigan, serving 
as professor of mathematics until 1917. He 
was a member of several scientific societies and 
wrote Plane and Solid Geometry, 1913; First 
Course and Second Course in Algebra, 1919. 


487 


FORESTRY 


He also contributed various articles to scientific 
journals. 

FORDHAM UNIVERSITY. A _ Roman 
Catholie institution at Fordham, New York 
City, founded in 1841. It is under the Society 
of Jesus and is the largest Roman Catholic in- 
stitution in America. Fordham increased its 
student enrollment from 1500 in 1913-14 to 
4866 in 1923-24 plus 500 in the summer school 
of 1923; increased its faculty from 140 to 190, 
and its library from 72,700 to 115,000 volumes 
and 38,000 pamphlets. In 1924 it claimed the 
largest law school in the United States with a 
student body of 1442 plus 140 pre-law students. 
A gymnasium was built in 1923, and a new li- 
brary building was to be erected in the spring 
of 1924. Thomas J. McClusky, 8.J., who was 
president in 1914, was succeeded in 1915 by 
J. A. Mulry, S.J., who held office until 1918, 
when E. P. Tivnan, 8.J., Ph.D., became president. 

FORDNEY-McCUMBER TARIFF BILL. 
See TarirF IN THE UNITED STATES, 

FOREIGN EXCHANGE. See 
AND BANKING. 

FORESTRY. In no single equal period of 
the world’s history were the forest resources of 
the world so heavily drawn upon as in the dec- 
ade 1914-24. Not only the needs of ordinary 
population growth but the enormous demands 
of war caused an unprecedented use of lumber, 
especially the very finest grades. The serious- 
ness of the situation in the United States was 
indicated in the 1921 report of the Chief For- 
ester, who stated that three-fifths of the virgin 
timber was gone, and, worse yet, the people were 
using the remainder at a rate four times that 
of production. The one redeeming feature of 


FINANCE 


RELATIVE STANDS OF SAW TIMBER BY STATES 


Mi = 25 Billion Bd. Ft. 


(From U. S. Department of Agriculture, ‘‘Timber: Mine or Crop?’ 1922.) 
Most of the remaining timber in the United States is in the South and West, far away 
from the great industrial and farming States of the Middle West and Northeast, where the 


need for timber is greatest. 
region. 


Destructive lumbering has greatly reduced the forests of this 
One of the most urgent economic problems is reforestation—the growing of timber 


on the immense areas of rough land best suited for forests. 


FORESTRY 


the situation was the growing realization 
throughout the civilized world at large and in 
the ‘United States in particular that forest re- 
sources must be strengthened, restored, and con- 
served in every possible manner. The War 
clearly showed how vital the forests are to a 
nation’s existence. Without the systematically 
managed forests of France the successful pros- 
ecution of the War might have been grievously 
delayed. Likewise, it was equally true that the 
forests of Germany enabled that nation, sur- 
rounded as it was by blockading fleets and 
armies, successfully to endure much longer than 
it could have without them. One of the pe- 
culiar results of the War in relation to forestry 
was the shutting off for a time of the vast Rus- 
sian timber’supplies from the nations of western 
Europe. English forests suffered severely dur- 
ing the War. It is roughly estimated that over 
1,000,000 acres of private woodlands were cut 
down for war needs. 

Lumber. Despite the stimulus of war, there 
has been a consistent decrease in lumber pro- 
duction in the United States since 1906, when a 
maximum of 46,000,000,000 board feet was 
reached. This decline in the face of rapidly in- 
creasing population meant a drop in per capita 
consumption from 500 board feet in 1906 to 
320 board feet in 1920. Taken in connection 
with a rapid westward movement of the source 
of supplies, resulting in ever increasing trans- 
portation costs, the lumber situation became in- 
creasingly serious. In an effort to reduce waste 
resulting from the use of a multiplicity of 
grades and sizes, a committee on lumber stand- 
ardization, representing the lumber trade and 
similar committees from the United States De- 
partments of Agriculture and Commerce, pro- 
posed in 1923, as the result of joint studies, a 
series of standard grades for yard lumber and 
structural timber of all important species. The 
United States Forester repeatedly warned the 
people of the country of the decreasing supply 
and urged that efforts be made to stimulate tim- 
ber production in the United States. 

Reproduction. The decade ended 1923 saw 
considerable expansion in_ forest planting 
throughout the world. England, suffering from 
the loss of 1,000,000 acres of woodland during 
the War, began actively planting on a large 
scale and establishing forest nurseries in various 
parts of England and Scotland. In the United 
States not only the Federal government but 
many States and municipalities saw the wisdom 
of encouraging forest planting, and many pri- 
vate corporations in Canada and the United 
States engaged in various forms of lumber op- 
eration began planting on a large scale. New 
York State developed nurseries having an an- 
nual eapacity of 15,000,000 trees. Pennsyl- 
vania distributed trees to private owners at the 
rate of 4,000,000 per annum. 

National Forests. The area of the national 
forests showed a net decrease approximating 
7,000,000 acres from June 30, 1914, to June 30, 
1923, a loss explained in part by the consolida- 
tion of small areas and by the release of lands 
adapted primarily to agriculture. That the na- 
tional forests are an important source of income 
to the Federal government was shown by an 
aggregate income, during the year ending June 
30, 1923, of more than $5,000,000. The value 
of the forests as recreation places for the people 
is beyond calculation. It was estimated that 
four-fifths of the forest land of the United 


488 


FORESTRY 


States was privately owned, and that, since it 
is subject to no constructive programme, it 
may become a national liability rather than an 
asset. 

Pulpwood. The enormous use of wood for 
the manufacture of paper and paper products 
constituted a very serious drain on the nation’s 
timber resources. In the year 1920 alone over 
6,000,000 cords of pulpwood were used in the 
United States, of which over 1,000,000 were im- 
ported from Canada. Canadian alarm at the 
increase in pulpwood exports to the United 
States was manifested by the authorization in 
1923 of the Government in Council to place an 
embargo on the export of pulpwood from pri- 
vately owned lands in the Dominion. In ex- 
pectation of future shortages, the United States 
Department of Agriculture Forest Service stud- 
ied the possibility of growing more pulpwood 
and also of utilizing species which hitherto 
had been considered useless. The discovery by 
the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, 
Wis., of methods of de-inking print paper was 
expected to result in the use of vast quantities 
of waste material. See PAPER AND Woop PULP. 

Alaska’s Forest Resources. The decline in 
the forest resources of the mainland of the 
United States created interest in other possible 
sources of supply, notably Alaska. A popular 
opinion of the vastness of the Alaskan forests 
was dispelled by the 1921 report of the United 
States Forester, which stated that the national 
forests of that territory comprise 20,000,000 
acres, containing an estimated stand of 15, 000, - 
000,000 board feet of usable timber, a quantity 
which, though large in itself, would not long 
supply the nation’s needs, for production in 
the United States in the year 1923, for example, 
attained the enormous quantity of 32,000,000,- 
000 board feet. In that the national forests of 
Alaska represent 85 per cent of the Territory’s 
lumber supply, it may be readily seen that they 
are not inexhaustible. In order to encourage 
the rational use of Alaskan timber, the Federal 
Forest Service offered inducements to reliable 
corporations to establish pulp mills in the na- 
tional forests, on a basis of permanent produc- 
tion. It was estimated that the Tongass For- 
est alone could thus supply an annual yield of 
print paper equal to one-third of the present 
United States consumption. The effort of Sec- 
retary Fall to obtain the transfer of the Alas- 
kan forests from the Department of Agriculture 
to the Department of the Interior created con- 
siderable excitement, but no such action was 
taken. Alaska’s cause gained much from the 
whole-hearted indorsement of conservation pol- 
icies by President Harding following his return 
from the ill-fated tour of inspection. 

Forest Experiment Stations. Under the 
stimulus imparted by the consciousness of the 
rapidly diminishing forests, research received 
greater consideration during the period subse- 
quent to the War, especially in the eastern 
United States, where the pinch of high priced 
lumber was most severely felt. That there was 
a significant awakening was concretely manifest- 
ed in the establishment of four new Federal 
forestry stations: (1) Southern, New Orleans, 
La., 1922; (2) Appalachian, Ashville, N. C., 
1922; (3) Northeastern, Amherst, Mass., 1923; 
and (4) Lake States, St. Paul, Minn., 1923. 
In opening stations in the large timber produc- 
ing sections of the East, the purpose of the 
United States Department of Agriculture For- 


FORESTRY 


est Service was to determine the best silvicul- 
tural practices for each of the regions served 
and in the Lake States to encourage the refor- 
estation of vast cut-over lands now idle, which 
only a few decades ago were covered with a 
splendid growth of white pine. 

Forest Fires. Tire, long conceded to be the 
greatest enemy of the forests, continued during 
this period to exact its toll not only of timber 
but also of human life. Conspicuous among 
the serious fires was that of the fall of 1918 in 
northern Minnesota, where hundreds of square 
miles of forests, many towns, and several hun- 
dred lives were lost, and the 1923 California 
fire, which destroyed a large part of the city 
of Berkeley. Consistent and effective work on 
the part of newspapers and periodicals in di- 
recting attention to the fearful results of forest 
fires did much to present to the general public 
the seriousness of the situation and to warn 
tourists and hunters of the danger of careless 
practices. The first national fire conference 
ever held in the United States was convened at 
Sacramento, Cal., during the summer of 1921. 
All aspects of forest fire control were discussed. 
Serious attempts made by both the Canadian 
and the United States governments to utilize 
the airplane as a means of controlling forest 
fires pointed to the probability that airplanes 
would be most effective in detecting rather than 
in subduing forest fires. The Weeks Law, 
providing $400,000 Federal funds annually to 
assist the States in fighting forest fires, aided 
materially in the reduction of loss. It was 
generally conceded by expert foresters that fire 
control is really the most vital factor in for- 
estry, since all efforts in replanting and im- 
provement are canceled by failure to suppress 
fires. The average loss in the United States for 
the six years ending with 1923 was 7,000,000 
acres of burned-over land per annum. The 
value of effective fire protection was dem- 
onstrated in western Washington when, despite 
the destruction of 6,000,000,000 board feet of 
timber by a tornado which swept the west side 
of the Olympic Peninsula on Jan. 29, 1921, no 
fire losses were reported from the tangled mass 
of highly inflammable material. 

Insects and Disease. Not fire alone, but 
‘ insects and diseases exacted a heavy toll from 
the forests of the United States and of all the 
world during the decade. Perhaps the most in- 
sidious enemy of all was the chestnut blight, 
which, gaining a foothold on the Atlantic coast 
of the United States, practically eliminated the 
chestnut from the eastern United States forests. 
The white pine blister rust, long an enemy of 
the white pine forests of the eastern United 
States, became established in the western white 
pine forests of British Columbia and Washing- 
ton. The gipsy and brown-tail moths continued 
their slow but consistent spread throughout 
New England. The tremendous areas involved 
in forest pest control rendered suppressive 
measures exceedingly difficult. 

Land Classification. The agricultural de- 
pression following the War forced the attention 
of thinking agriculturists, foresters, and busi- 
ness men to the considerable amount of land in 
the United States which, though utilized for 
agriculture, was for the time being of essen- 
tially greater value for the growing of forest 
trees. The Secretary of Agriculture named a 
committee to classify the lands of the United 
States according to their probable value, in the 


489 


FORMOSA 


effort to prevent the vain and futile attempts 
of pioneers to establish homesteads on land 
primarily unfitted for agriculture. 

Miscellaneous. The organization in 1920 
of the British Empire Forestry Association, con- 
necting all the scattered forest units of the vast 
Empire, was a very important step. Two con- 
ferences, one held in London, England, in 1920 
and the other in Ottawa, Canada, in 1923, did 
much to cement together the forestry interests 
of the British Empire. In addition, the publica- 
tion of a quarterly journal by the association, 
the first number of which ‘appeared in March, 
1922, promoted friendly relations between the 
various units of the service. The Journal of 
Forestry, published by the American Associa- 
tion of Foresters, continued to develop as an 
important medium for the exchange of thought 
and knowledge on American forestry problems. 
The Yale Forestry School held its second de- 
cennial reunion in December, 1920, bringing to 
mind that scientific forestry in the United States 
is of comparatively recent origin. 

Necrology. Of various prominent foresters 
who died during the decade may be mentioned 
Bernard Fernow, Feb. 26, 1923, first Forester of 
the United States and at the time of his death 
dean emeritus of the School of Forestry of 
Toronto University; J. T. Rothrock, June 2, 
1922, affectionately known as the father of for- 
estry in Pennsylvania; and Arnold Engler, 1923, 
director of the Swiss Forestry Experiment Sta- 
tions. 

Bibliography. The growth of scientific for- 
estry in the United States was indicated by the 
appearance of an unusual number of books re- 
lating to fundamental subjects. The more sig- 
nificant are: F. Roth, Michigan Manual of 
Forestry, 2 vols., (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1914 and 
1916); H. H. Chapman, Forest Valuation (New 
York, 1915) ; J. W. Toumey, Seeding and Plant- 
ing (New York, 1916); R. C. Hawley and A. F. 
Hawes, Manual of Forestry for the Northeast- 
ern United States (New York, 1918); H. H. 
Chapman, Forest Mensuration (New York and 
London, 1921); K. W. Woodward, The Valua- 
tion of American Timberlands (New York and 
London, 1921); R. Zon and W. N. Sparhawk, 
The Forest Resources of the World (New York 
and London, 1923). 

FORMAN, HeENry JAMES (1879- ye) An 
American author and editor. He was educated 
at Harvard and at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes 
Sociales, Paris. He was attached to President 
Roosevelt at the Russo-Japanese Conference as 
a special correspondent. Earlier in his career 
he was literary editor of Appleton’s Magazine 
and political editor of the Literary Digest 
(1905-06), associate editor and general manager 
of the North American Review (1906-10), a 
member of the editorial staff of Collier’s Week- 
ly (1913-14), its managing editor (1914-18), 
and United States propaganda agent abroad 
(1917). His works include In the Footprints 
of Heine (1910), The Ideal Italian Tour (1911), 
London—An Intimate Picture (1913), The 
Captain of His Soul (1914), Fire of Youth 
(1920), and The Maw Who Lived in a Shoe 
(1922). 


FORMOSA, or Tarwan. An island in the 


western Pacific, belonging to Japan; area, 13,839 


square miles; population, in 1920, 3,654,398 
as compared with 3,341,217 in 1910. The Japa- 
nese increased from 50,000 to 153,330. The great 
mass of the population thus remained Chinese. 


FORSTER 


The chief town, Taihoku, had 162,782 inhabitants 
in 1920 as against 95,000 in 1910. 

Industry and Trade. Rice production 
showed consistent advances, its yield (two 
crops) in 1922 being 27,434,900 bushels as com- 
pared with 25,526,500 in 1913. Sugar, which 
engaged 60 mills on the island, and tea, jute, 
and sweet potatoes, similarly were on the in- 
crease. The production of camphor, though a 
government monopoly, failed to maintain the 
progress shown during 1904-12, for the yield 
fell from 7,077,100 pounds in 1912 to 2,933,333 
pounds in 1919-20. <A greater application to 
the natural resources showed itself in increased 
returns from mining. The total value of min- 
erals, principally coal, gold, copper and silver, 
was 11,167,426 yen in 1919; in 1913, it was 
4,015,102 yen. Japan continued to absorb the 
greater part of the Formosa trade, though 
China and the United States occupied fairly 
important positions. Discounting the unfa- 
vorable years of the War, the advance was con- 
sistent. In 1914, imports from foreign coun- 
tries totaled 13,013,937 yen and from Japan, 
39,879,148 yen; in 1921, imports from foreign 
countries were 40,433,290 yen and from Japan 
93,521,168 yen. Similarly exports showed: 
1914, to foreign countries 12,982,314 yen, to 
Japan 45,738,116 yen; 1921, to foreign coun- 
tries 23,541,621 yen, to Japan 128,896,879 yen. 
Thus the favorable balance was 5,827,345 yen 
in 1914 and 18,484,042 yen in 1921. Means of 
inland communication were pushed. Railroad 
mileage increased from 290 miles in 1913-14 
to 369 miles in 1920-21. 

Government and History. Under Japanese 
administration, the island’s welfare improved 
materially. From the point of view of civil 
liberties, however, it must be recorded that the 
government remained absolute. The cost of ad- 
ministration mounted over the period. In 
1913-14, expenditures were 44,473,781 yen; in 
1922-23 (estimate) 106,002,034. Receipts were 
derived from inland taxes, customs, public 
undertakings, and Japanese subsidies (from 
5,000,000 to 9,000,000 yen annually). Monop- 
olies were maintained over camphor, salt, to- 
bacco, opium, sake, and other spirits. As a 
result of this action, the use of opium gratify- 
ingly fell off, and the number of licensed smok- 
ers declined from 169,064 in 1900 to 44,922 at 
the end of 1920. 


FORSTER, Frieprich W. (1869- yf 
German pacifist and social philosopher, born at 
Berlin. He studied philosophy, sociology, and 
political economy at the universities of Berlin 
and Freiburg. After teaching philosophy at the 
Zurich Polytechnikum, he became in 1912 pro- 
fessor of philosophy at the University of Munich. 
He resigned his chair in 1920 and retired to 
Switzerland. Unlike the famous 93 professors, 
Forster opposed the German government’s policy 
all through the War. After the Armistice, he 
became one of the spiritual leaders of the new 
Germany. In the manner of the idealistic 
philosophers of classical Germany, he published 
an appeal to the people’s conscience, an appeal 
which though without immediate practical re- 
sults yet carried the prophetic conviction of the 
future. In his World Politics and World Con- 
science (Weltpolitik und Weltgewissen, 1919), 
he made a penetrating attack on the militaristic 
policy which Germany had followed since 1870. 
He pleaded for the return to pacific federalism, 
and urged Germany not to sow dissension among 


490 


FORTY-EIGHT 


her late enemies but to strive disinterestedly 
for the creation of a European conscience. 
Forster’s outspoken stand against the old order 
earned for him the enmity of a large fraction 
of the professorate; it was for that reason that 
he retired to the neutral haven of Switzerland. 
He published there an autobiographical account 
of his long struggle with German militarism 
(Mein Kampf gegen das Militarismus Deutsch- 
lands, 1920). Fiérster’s other works include 
Technik und Ethik (1905); Schule und Char- 
akter (1907); Seaualethik und Sexualpidago- 
gik (1907; English translation, Ohristianity 
and Sex, 1908); Christentum und Klassen- 
kampf (1908); Autoritét und Freiheit (1910); 
Schuld und Siihne (1911); Politische Ethik und 
Politische Pddagogik (1919); and Christentum 
und Pddagogik (1920). 

FORSTER, HELENE von (1859-1924). A 
prominent Bavarian welfare worker. She _ in- 
vestigated child mortality, studied the occupa- 
tional problems of women, and was instrumen- 
tal in carrying on reforms. She was a member 
of the municipal council of Nuremberg. 

FORT, Pauu (1872- ). A French poet 
styled since 1912 “the prince of poets,” who 
in many ways continued the tradition of the 
symbolist school of the 1880’s and 1890’s. On 
the publication of his Ballades Francaises he 
was hailed by Rémy de Gourmont as “the most 
curious figure of the second generation of sym- 
bolists” and one whose talent was ‘‘a manner of 
thinking as well as a manner of expression.” 
His verse style reflects this peculiarity; it is a 
sort of rhythmic prose without any of the or- 
dinary transpositions. The author’s justifica- 
tion for this is that it enables his thought to 
pass freely from prose to poetry without the 
usual barriers. Fort was honored officially by 
a ribbon of the Legion of Honor but otherwise 
obtained neither the reputation nor the public 
which eminent critics believe he deserved. His 
works include Ballades Francaises; Montagnes, 
Foréts, Planes, Mers; Le Roman de Louis XV; 
Les Idylles Antiques; L’ Amour Marin, Les Noc- 
turnes; Visions Romantiques; Réponse de VAube 
et de la Nuit; Coxcombe, ow V Homme tout Nu 
Tombé du Paradis, and Vivre en Dieu. 

FORT WORTH. A city of Texas. The 
population rose from 73,312 in 1910 to 111,536 
in 1920 and to 143,821 by estimate of the Bu- 
reau of the Census for 1923. A filtration plant 
was built and the dam across the Trinity River, 
begun in 1913, was completed during the dec- 
ade; on the lake so formed a municipal bathing 
beach was opened in 1917. During the War, 
Camp Bowie and three flying fields were built 
close to the city. Shortly afterwards the dis- 
covery of oil fields near-by brought the head- 
quarters of the big production companies and 
a boom to the city, so that by 1924 the petro- 
leum products turned out by the nine refineries 


_in the city were valued at $52,000,000 annually. 


The United States helium gas plant was estab- 
lished at Fort Worth, costing, up to 1924, $5,- 
000,000, and the city was named one of the four 
stations for dirigible airships. In 1919, build- 
ing permits reached nearly $19,000,000. Sev- 
eral large office skyscrapers and many minor 
buildings were erected; in the area that had 
been Camp Bowie, 3500 houses were built. The 
area of the city was considerably enlarged by 
the annexation of closely built up territory at 
the outskirts of the city. 


FORTY-EIGHT, Committee or. An organi- 


FOSDICK 


zation founded for the purpose of establishing 
a new national Liberal or Progressive party, 
which held its first national conference at St. 
Louis in 1919. Its platform called for the 
abolition of special privilege, through public 
ownership of the railroads, public control of 
natural resources, public control of money and 
eredit through government and _ codperative 
banks, preservation of all civil rights guaran- 
teed by the constitution, and the prevention of 
judicial abuses. The Committee played an ac- 
tive part in the Congressional elections of 1922, 
and formed a new party in Idaho, Nebraska, 
Pennsylvania, Delaware, and North Dakota, in 
addition to the party already established in 
South Dakota and Minnesota. In 1924 it broke 
with the National Farmer-Labor-Progressive 
Convention held at St. Paul to nominate a can- 
didate for president, because communists were 
to be seated as delegates, and threw its entire 
support to the Convention of the Conference for 
Progressive Political Action held at Cleveland 
July 4, and recommended to its affiliated bodies 
that they take similar action. A regular press 
service was initiated in 1920 which in 1924 
served 500 or 600 newspapers, periodicals and 
magazines. The monthly organ of the Com- 
mittee, The Liberal, which was founded in 1921, 
was sent to all members. Five pamphlets were 
published in 1923 for the information of the 
voters. 

FOSDICK, Harry Emerson (1878- ie 
An American clergyman and professor, born at 
Buffalo, N. Y., and educated at Colgate Uni- 
versity, Union Theological Seminary, and Co- 
lumbia University. He was ordained to the 
Baptist ministry in 1903, holding a pastorate 
at Montclair, N. J., until 1915, when he was 
named professor of practical theology in the 
Union Theological Seminary, in New York City. 
His works include The Manhood of the Master 
(1913) ; The Assurance of Immortality (1913) ; 
The Meaning of Prayer (1915); The Challenge 
of the Present Crisis (1917); The Meaning of 
Faith (1917); The Meaning of Service (1920) ; 
Christianity and Progress (1922); a Spanish 
translation of one of his books, as La Personal- 
idad del Divino Maestro (1923); and Twelve 
Tests of Character (1924). 

FOSTER, BEN(JAMIN) (1852- \ye An 
American landscape painter (see Vor. IX). In 
his later works, among which may be mentioned 
“Late Summer Moonrise,” “Litchfield Hills,” 
“Hazy Moonrise,” and “From Hill to Hill,” his 
interest in the misty effects of dawn and twi- 
light and moonlit nights was still conspicuous. 
In 1917 he was awarded the Altman prize, Na- 
tional Academy of Design, and the gold medal 
and prize, National Arts Club. 

FOSTER, SiR GEorGE Evuras (1847- ). 
A Canadian statesman (see Vou. IX). In 1914 
he was a representative of the British Govern- 
ment at the Economie Conference in Paris. Aft- 
er the Armistice he was Canadian representa- 
tive at the Peace Conference (1919) and later 
Vice-President of the League of Nations. 

FOSTER, JEANNE RopertT (Mrs. MATLOCK 
Foster) (1884— ). An American’ editor 
and author, born at Johnsburgh, N. Y., and 
educated at Boston University, in Harvard 
courses, and the Stanhope-Wheatcroft Dramatic 
School in New York. In 1910, after various 
newspaper experience, she identified herself 
with the Review of Reviews and later became 
editor of its literary department. Her works 


491 


FOUNDATIONS 


include Wild Apples (1916), Neighbors of Yes- 
terday (1916), and Rockflower (1922); all of 
these are poetry. 


FOSTER, MaximMILtiaAn’ (1872- ) ee 80 
American author born in San Francisco and 
educated at Andover Academy (Mass.). His 


career started in the newspaper field, which he 
abandoned for magazine work. Since 1902 he 
has published several plays and novels, which 
include Keeping Up Appearances (1911), The 
Whistling Man (1913), The Trap (1920), The 
Silent Partner (1923), and others. During the 
War he was official correspondent for the United 
States government in France. 

FOSTER, WILLIAM TRUFANT (1879- ji 
An American educator (see Vor. IX). He re- 
signed from the presidency of Reed College in 
1920 and accepted the directorship of the Fran- 
eis D. Pollak Foundation for Economic Re- 
search (1920- ). He wrote Should Students 
Study? (1917). In 1923 he wrote Money, on 
the gold policy for the United States, with 
Waddill Catchings. 

FOUGNER, G. SELMER (1884— yo VAn 
American journalist, born in Chicago, Ill. He 
was educated at the Sorbonne, Paris, and began 
his newspaper career as a member of the ed- 
itorial staff of the Paris Herald (1906-09). 
He was later with the New York Press (1909- 
12), the New York Sun (1912-17), correspon- 
dent at the mediation conference between the 
United States and Mexico (Niagara Falls, 
1914), London correspondent for the New York 
Sun (1915), manager of the Press Bureau of 
New York for the Liberty Loans (United States 
Treasury, 1917-20), director of newspaper pub- 
licity for the second, third, fourth and fifth 
loans, and for many organizations and com- 
mittees of the War. He also edited Paper, The 


Publisher’s Guide, and L’Exportateur Amér- 
icain. 

FOULKE, WILLIAM Duprey (1848— { 
An American civil service reformer (see VOL. 


IX). In September, 1923, he was head of a 
delegation which visited President Coolidge and 
urged reform of the methods of appointing post- 
masters. In 1923 he was elected president of 
the National Civil Service Reform League. 
FOULOIS, BENJAMIN DELANAUF (1879- __). 
An American army officer, born in Connecticut. 
He enlisted in the army as private and in 1901 
was commissioned 2d lieutenant. He became 
Ist lieutenant in the Signal Corps in 1908, and 


in 1914 was appointed captain of the Aviation 
‘Section of that corps. 


From that time he was 
constantly on aviation duty and was the senior 
military aviator in the point of service. He 
commanded the air service troops on the Mex- 
ican border in 1916-17 and in 1917-18 was Chief 
of the Air Service, A. E. F. He was the Amer- 
ican member of the Aviation Committee of the 
Supreme War Council from 1917 to 1919, and 
from 1920 was assistant military observer for 
the American Commission at Berlin, Germany. 
He was promoted to be brigadier-general in the 
Service Corps in 1917. 

FOUNDATIONS. The _ interval between 
1914 and 1924 did not witness striking develop- 
ments in the method of constructing founda- 
tions though there were naturally many improve- 
ments in the organization and execution of the 
work, due to better appliances and incidental 
improvements. The tendency more freely to 
employ steel and concrete piles in a large meas- 
ure replaced wooden piles, while steel inter- 


FOUNDATIONS 492 


locking sheet piling was found more useful than 
timber sheeting. In foundation construction 
reinforced concrete had become an indispensa- 
ble construction material as it was able to with- 
stand tension more than granite masonry or 
timber. The foundation work of the most im- 
portant character naturally had to do with 
large office or public buildings, such as _ hotels, 
State or municipal buildings, opera houses or 
similar structures, and foundations for bridge 
piers where it was necessary to build these 
either in the stream or in lowland. 

In modern building construction the founda- 
tion not only supported the skeleton steel frame 
which with modern construction was constantly 
increasing in height, but also had to be con- 
sidered in connection with the increased space 
in the basement and cellars for machinery for 
other purposes. As a result there were involved 
not merely the piers to carry the main columns 
of the structure, but also a continuous exterior 
wall which not only served as a foundation for 
the exterior columns but also acted as a retain- 
ing wall or coffer dam to resist the pressure of 
soil or soil and water on the outside of the wall 
and permeate the cellar excavation to be carried 
below water level. A typical instance of such 
modern construction was shown in the Federal 
Reserve Building completed in New York in 
1924, where 2,910,000 cubic feet of space, or 
182,000 square feet of floor area was provided 
below curb level for machinery, vaults for se- 
curities, storage of various kinds and other gen- 
eral purposes. The deepest pier in this build- 
ing went down 118 feet below the high curb 
on Nassau Street and the deepest floor was 80 
feet below the same level. 

In bridge foundation construction possibly the 
most notable work in the period between 1914 
and 1924 was that in connection with the an- 
chorages and piers for the suspension bridge 
across the Delaware between Philadelphia and 
Camden. An essential element of the Camden 
anchorage was two reinforced concrete cribs, 
each 40 feet by 140 feet in plan, which by means 
of excavation were sunk through silt, sand and 
gravel of the river bank to rock 110 feet below 
high water level on the Delaware River. For 
the river piers pneumatic caissons were em- 
ployed which were fitted with horizontal locks 
and galleries in the body of the pier so as to 
afford safety and more convenient access to the 
working chamber. These pneumatic caissons 
were built of steel and reinforced concrete 70 
feet by 180 feet, and were sunk to a depth of 
over 75 feet. This did not show a very striking 
development either in size or method as the 
caisson for the New York and Brooklyn suspen- 
sion bridge, though made of timber, was 172 
feet by 102 feet, while that for the Eads Bridge 
at St. Louis was of boiler plate, 60 feet by 82 
feet. 

By 1924, however, a great deal of the prac- 
tice had been standardized, an important ad- 
dition to the modern caisson being a patented 
excavacating lock through which an ordinary 
bucket could pass in and out of the compressed 
air without being detached from the hoisting 
rope. There was employment of improved air 
compressors. However most of the improve- 
ments in caissons for deep foundations involved 
such adjuncts as telephones and electric lights 
in the working chamber, and a better under- 
standing of the physiological effects of com- 
pressed air. There was also developed the use 


FOX 


of the hospital lock so that the workmen were 
better protected and less exposed to danger, not- 
withstanding the fact that their employment un- 
der conditions of air pressure was regulated and 
restricted by local statutes or ordinances. 
The modern tendency in using piles in founda- 
tions was to substitute those of concrete for 
timber piles, and several types of the former 
were being used extensively. One leading ad- 
vantage was that the concrete pile when proper- 
ly made was absolutely permanent under prac- 
tically all conditions of use including both wet 
and dry service. Obviously their use did away 
with the possible danger of decay in case of 
water level below the cut-off level which was 
likely to happen under conditions where much 
subterranean construction acts to alter the nat- 
ural water level. The simplest form of modern 
pile was one of reinforced concrete pile which 
had been cast and seasoned before driving and 
was used in the same manner as one of timber. 
There was also developed a steel shell and driv- 
ing mandrel which was left in the ground and 
acted as a form in which the concrete could be 
poured. Still another type was a pipe which 
was closed at the bottom by a loosely fitting cast 
iron point. This pipe was sunk in the ground 
and then after being filled with concrete was 
removed, leaving the concrete pile and the point 
in the ground. Another system employed an 
open pipe which was driven in the ground and 
the material inside excavated by using a jet of 
compressed air. The vacant space thus formed 
could be filled with concrete, both pipe and 
concrete filling being left in the ground. For 
driving such pipes a hydraulic jack was em- 
ployed and the method was found to be partic- 
ularly useful in underpinning buildings. 


“FOURTEEN POINTS.” See War, Dr- 
PLOMACY OF THE, War Aims. 
FOWLER, CuArLES Evan (1867— ). ‘An 


American engineer, born in Bartlett, Ohio. He 
studied engineering at the Ohio State Univer- 
sity and in 1887 began active practice. He de- 
signed and built many important railroad and 
other bridges and was consulting engineer for 
the Williamsburg Bridge in Manhattan. He 
also built many large plants and performed 
other work in Manila, Mexico, Cuba and many 
cities of the United States. He was a member 
of several scientific engineering societies and 
wrote much on building construction, including 
Engineering and Building Foundations (1919) ; 
World Ports and Harbor Data (1921). 

FOX, Dixon Ryan (1887- ). An Ameri- 
can historian and professor, born at Potsdam, 
N. Y., and educated at Columbia University. 
He became assistant professor of history there 
in 1919. His works include Decline of Aris- 
tocracy in the, Politics of the United States 
(1919), Historical Atlas of the United States 
(1920), and an Outline of Early American His- 
tory (1922). 

FOX, FONTAINE (TALBOT, JR.) (1884— ie 
An American newspaper cartoonist born in 
Louisville, Ky., best known for his creation of 
“Fontaine Fox’s Funny Folk,” “Fontaine Fox’s 
Cartoons,” “The Toonerville Trolley,” all col- 
lected in book form, and many other cartoons. 
He has been connected with the Wheeler Syn- 
dicate since 1915, and since that year has been 
furnishing humorous cartoons to some 100 news- 
papers. 

FOX, Pure (1878- ). An American 
astronomer, born in Manhattan, Kan. He grad- 


FOX 


uated from the Kansas State Agricultural Col- 
lege in 1897, and from Dartmouth in 1902, tak- 
ing postgraduate courses in Berlin. After 
serving on the faculty of Dartmouth College, he 
became Carnegie research assistant at the 
Yerkes Observatory at the University of Chicago 
in 1903, and from 1907 to 1909 was instructor 
in astro-physics at the University of Chicago. 
From 1909 he was professor of astronomy and 
director of the Dearborn Observatory at North- 
western University. He served in the War as 
major of infantry, and as assistant chief of 
staff in the 7th Division. 

FOX, WILLIAM (1879- ). A motion 
picture producer born in Hungary and brought 
to the United States in infancy. He began his 
career as a theatrical manager in Brooklyn in 
1904 and became president of the Fox circuit 
of theatres and the Fox Film Corporation. His 
best known productions include Les Misérables, 
Tale of Two Cities, Romeo and Juliet, A Daugh- 
ter of the Gods, Salome, Cleopatra, Evangeline, 
Over the Hill, The Queen of Sheba, etc. He did 
excellent work for the Red Cross in its drives 
during the War. 

FRAENKEL, Siramunp (1868- paren 
Austrian biochemist, known for his exhaustive 
works. Born in Krakau, he received the de- 
gree of M.D. from the University of Vienna and 
was appointed professor extraordinary of med- 
ical chemistry there. His Areneimittelsynthese, 
devoted to the synthetic medical drugs and the 
relations between chemical constitution and 
- physiological action, appeared in 1901, and has 
gone through several editions and a translation 
into English. Descriptive Biochemie appeared 
in 1907 and Dynamische Biochemie in 1911. 
His latest volume, Prakticum der Medizinische 
Chemie, was published in 1918. 

FRAMPTON, SIR GEORGE JAMES, 
(1860— ). An English sculptor (see VoL. 
IX). Among his later works, marked by the 
decorative quality and fine modeling that dis- 
tinguish his productions, were the LEKdith 
Cavell Memorial, London, the statues of Queen 
Mary for Victoria Memorial Hall, Calcutta, and 
for Government House, Delhi, and the portrait 
busts of King George and Queen Mary for the 
Guildhall. 

FRANCE. A country of Western Europe, 
bordered on the south by the Mediterranean Sea 
and Spain, on the east by Italy, Switzerland 
and Germany, on the north by Belgium and 
Luxemburg, and the English Channel, and on 
the west by the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic 
Ocean. Since the Treaty of Versailles its ter- 
ritory has been increased by the addition of 
Alsace and Lorraine (q.v.), which had been in 
the possession of Germany since 1870. Before 
the War, France was divided for administrative 
purposes into 87 departments (including the 
territory of Belfort, the remnant of the Haut- 
Rhin department left to France after the 
Franco-Prussian war of 1870). The Treaty of 
Versailles in 1919 restored Alsace-Lorraine to 
France, adding the three departments, Haut- 
Rhin, Bas-Rhin, and Moselle. The area of 
France was 207,054 square miles in 1913, and 
has been increased by the restoration of Alsace- 
Lorraine to 212,659 square miles. The popula- 
tion of France (the old area) in 1911 was 39,- 
604,992, with a population density of 191. per- 
sons to the square mile, but war losses brought 
the population down to 39,209,518, with an av- 
erage density of 184 to the square mile, in spite 


493 


FRANCE 


of the new territories added, which had in 1921 
a population of 1,709,749, with a density of 305 
to the square mile. Of the total area of France 
in 1916 (136,101,760 acres) 52,694,680 acres 
were arable, 11,528,111 acres. were natural pas- 
tures, 24,084,143 acres forest and woodland, 10,- 
960,417 acres uncultivated, and the remainder 
cultivated in miscellaneous ways. 

Population. The capital and largest city of 
France, Paris, had a population of 2,906,472 ac- 
cording to the census of 1921. The Department 
of the Seine, which comprises Paris and its sub- 
urbs, had a population of 4,411,691 in an area 
of 185 square miles, approximately the same 
as the area included in the City of Chicago. 
Other important cities are Marseilles (popula- 
tion 586,341 in 1921), the chief Mediterranean 
port and in most respects the leading port of 
France; Lyons (population 561,592 in 1921), 
the centre of French silk manufacture, at the 
confluence of the Rhone and Sadne Rivers; Bor- 
deaux (population 267,409), the chief port of 
southwestern France, the outlet of the Garonne 
valley; Lille (population 200,952), the textile 
and industrial city of northern France, before 
the War one of the most rapidly growing 
French cities, and in 1924 quickly recovering 
from war-time devastation; Nantes (population 
183,704), on the Loire River near its mouth, 
the outlet for the valley of central France; 
Toulouse (population 175,434), an inland city 
on the upper Garonne River, in the centre of 
an important agricultural and viticultural re- 
gion; St. Etienne (population 167,967), an im- 
portant centre for silks, ribbons, and other in- 
dustries; Strasbourg (population 166,767), 
formerly in German territory, an important riv- 
er port and manufacturing city on the Rhine; 
and Le Havre (population 163,374) at the 
mouth of the Seine, a port of entry for Paris, 
of rising importance. The population of 
France, even in times of peace, tends to increase 
with extreme slowness. Several years in the 
period before the War showed excess of_deaths 
over births; for instance, those of 1890, 1891 
and 1892, and 1911. In 1920 and 1921 the 
birth-rate increased, the excess of births over 
deaths being 160,000 and 117,000 respectively. 
In 1922, however, the excess dropped to 71,000, 
making a percentage of increase of less than 
two-tenths of one per cent. There is no state 
religion in France, but the dominant faith is 
Roman Catholicism. The higher clergy in 
France numbered 2500, of whom 153 were in 
Paris. There were 31,500 curates and 9000 
vicars in the country, besides 4000 ecclesiastics 
teaching in the universities and in the Catholic 
institutions. Protestantism in France was rep- 
resented chiefly by synodal Presbyterianism. 
There were 850 associations of the Protestant 
faith in France, served by more than 1000 pas- 
tors and evangelists. The Protestant popula- 
tion of France was estimated at about 1,000,000. 
Judaism and Mohammedanism (the latter chief- 
ly in Algeria) were also represented in France. 

Education. Educational freedom is_ pro- 
vided for by law in France. There were, con- 
sequently, a number of private schools main- 
tained by individuals and associations, but all 
had to conform to national standards of learn- 
ing and morality, and the state alone had the 
right to award diplomas and degrees, through 
examination of the aspirants. The public 
schools formed the bulk of the French educa- 
tional system; together they made up the so- 


FRANCE 


ealled “Université de France,’ divided into 
three orders—primary education, secondary ed- 
ucation, and higher education. The most ele- 
mentary schools in France were the écoles ma- 
ternelles, a sort of kindergarten; in 1912-13, 
there were 3976 of these schools, and in 1921- 
22 only 3431, due to the slowness of reéstablish- 
ing schools of this type in the devastated re- 
gions; the number of pupils attending was 608,- 
315 in 1912-13 and 246,985 in 1921-22. Next 
were the primary schools proper, numbering 
83,095 with 159,982 teachers and 5,669,251 pu- 
pils in 1912-13, and 79,347 with 119,316 teach- 
ers and 4,452,000 pupils in 1920-21. In 1912- 
13, there were 83 primary normal schools each 
for males and females, with 4629 male and 
4959 female pupils; while in 1922-23, there 
were 86 normal schools for males with 4538 
students, and 86 for females with 5093 pupils. 
Secondary education for boys was given in 343 
schools in 1913 to 100,203 students and in 367 
schools in 1922 to 114,910 students, while sec- 
ondary education for girls was given in 138 
schools in 1913 to 33,282 students, and in 154 
schools in 1922 to 45,047 students. Higher ed- 
ucation was given to 41,109 students in 1913, 
of whom 16,763 were under the law faculty, 
8247 students studying medicine, 6639 science, 
and 6398 letters. In 1924, there were 17 uni- 
versities in France, at Aix-en-Provence, Algiers, 
Besaneon, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont-Ferrand, 


Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, . 
Paris, Poitiers, Rennes, Strasbourg and Tou- - 


louse. The oldest was the University of Paris, 
founded in 1200, the newest that at. Algiers, 
founded in 1885. The only illiteracy statistics 
available for France were those in connection 
with conscription for the army. In 1912, the 
percentage of illiterate conscripts was 4.18 and 
in 1921 it was 4.07. In the earlier year, 7694 
could neither read nor write, and in the latter 
year, 6660. 

Agriculture. France is preponderantly an 
agricultural country, notwithstanding the great 
importance of French manufactured products, 
but the proportion of rural inhabitants was 
steadily, though gradually, decreasing. Accord- 
ing to the 1911 census, the rural population 
was 22,096,000 out of a total of 39,605,000, and 
according to the 1921 census, for the same area, 
the rural population was 20,119,000 out of a 
total of 37,500,000; for the new area of France 
in 1921, the rural population was 21,004,000 out 
of a total of 39,210,000. The proportion of per- 
sons actually engaged in agricultural work was 
slightly less; in 1911, the working population 
of France was 20,931,000, while the agricultur- 
al workers numbered 8,517,000. Thus in 1911 
the ratio of agricultural workers to total work- 
ers was 407 to 1000, and the ratio of rural pop- 
ulation to total population 558 to 1000. Wheat 
production, though increasing, was still below 
pre-war in France. Other crops were also 
slightly below normal, but generally greater in 
1923 than in 1922, The table gives the relative 
acreage and quantities of the principal French 
crops, in 1923 and before the War. 


Crops Area Production 
(1000 acres) (1000 metric tons) 
1913 1923 1913 19238 


WWHCRt Game ts c-i0, sachs. o8 16,163 138,650 8,692 7,905 
Oats’ enter kes pate 9,877 S041 5,183 5,479 
Ryo lie Mae... oe 2,956 92,170)" 1,271 939 
Barleyia siee)-ies og 1,889 1,744 1,044 1,023 
POtatOGsS# wapie. cea (>. oc ses 3,792 3,542 13,586 9,534 
Stigar™ peetem «4s -- - 577 365 5,939 8,222 


494 


that level. 


FRANCE 


Wine production fluctuated greatly from year 
to year but the acreage of vines did not change 
very rapidly. In 1913, the area devoted to 
vines in France was 3,803,000 acres, and the 
wine production 1,167,764,000 gallons (an un- 
usually small production) ; in 1923, the acreage 
was reduced to 3,506,000 acres while the crop 
reached 1,509,314,000 gallons. Forage crops in 
1913 covered 37,836,000 acres with a production 
of 96,000,000 metric tons; the area was _ in- 
creased by the addition of Alsace-Lorraine to 
39,064,000 acres in 1921, with a production of 
only 58,000,000 metric tons. The number of 
horses in France.on Dee. 31, 1922, was 2,778,- 
000 compared with 3,222,000 on Dec. 31, 1913, 
but represented a considerable recovery from 
the war-time figure of about 2,250,000. Beef 
cattle on Dec. 31, 1922, numbered 13,576,000, 
compared with 14,788,000 on Dec. 31, 1913, but 
this also was a recovery from the war slump 
to 12,250,000. Sheep have been gradually de- 
clining in number for many years; at the end 
of 1882, there were 16,131,000, and at the end 
of 1922, only 9,782,000; during the War, how- 
ever, the number went as low as 8,991,000. 
Raising of swine was also less important than 
formerly, but was increasing after the end of 
the War. On Dec. 31, 1913, there were 7,036,- 
000 swine in France; on Dee. 31, 1918, there 
were 3,980,000; and on Dec. 31, 1922, there were 
5,196,000. Milk production in France, while 
still below pre-war, was gradually approaching 
In 19138, the total amount of milk 
produced was 128,072,800 hectolitres (1 hecto- 


litre equals 26.42 gallons) ; in 1921, it was down 


to 106,503,550 hectolitres; but increased to 
117,038,120 hectolitres in 1923. Milk for feed- 
ing calves was used to the extent of 28,986,430 
hectolitres in 1913 and 25,536,830 hectolitres 
in 1923. Butter-making consumed 43,639,180 
hectolitres in 1913 and 38,972,540 hectolitres in 
1923, while cheese consumed 14,589,430 and 22,- 
330,270 hectolitres, respectively. 

Fisheries. The French fishing industry was 
greatly damaged by the War, not only by the 
requirement of fishermen for service in the 
army, but also by the requisitioning of boats 
and equipment. At the end of 1921, the num- 
ber of vessels was only 23,301, in spite of in- 
creases since 1918, as compared with 29,451 in 
1912, The number of steam and motor vessels 
was increasing, but sailing craft still predom- 
inated. Statistics of the value of the catch 
were not available for a post-war year. In 
1912, the value of fresh fish was about 88,000,- 
000 franes, as follows: cod, 26,000,000 francs; 
herring, 13,000,000 franes; sardines, 9,000,000 
frances; mackerel, 7,000,000 franes; tuna fish, 
5,000,000 frances; and oysters, about 28,000,000 
francs. 

Food Imports. Imports of foodstuffs, in 
spite of smaller crops after the War, except in 
the case of potatoes, did not equal pre-war 
quantities. See table on page 495 for quantities 
imported and exported in 1913, 1922, and 1923. 

Minerals. The leading minerals produced in 
France were coal, iron, gold, lead, zinc, silver, 
copper, antimony, manganese, tungsten, bauxite, 
iron pyrites, mineral oils, salt potash, and 
stone of various kinds, but not all of these 
were produced in important quantities. Coal 
production in 1913 reached 40,844,000 tons, and 
during the War dropped to hardly more than 
half that amount. After the War the produc- 
tion of coal in the Saar Valley (q.v.), which 


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CHE LIBRARY 
| OF THE 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 


FRANCE 


495 FRANCE 
IMPORTS EXPORTS 
Commodity 1913 1922 1923 1913 1922 1923 
; (Quantities in metric tons) 

WE RNORLE, A eiid ciets seth ieis olsis cial w wie Maines 1,555,651 675,198 1,416,795 1,605 18,399 13,247 
MRRP tetchs otnbe Sistah eas + ¥ diel pisia-« Stare sesienele 580,481 360,018 129,763 2,697 6,656 38,252 
PPD OW PM ie SE ton, os xs, ore, «) 0; Vin Gann 116,038 52,864 69,730 9,525 10,466 21,547 
EUV UMIEE Ise ESTO ep ete Sis oo. tov g ea ener ere 46,638 258 37,179 158 2h, 10 7 883 
Mainot, os Ganesh as et A 590,817 534,556 563,759 2,367 3,019 2,719 
CORE BELOW | a hciaers « « mw wie,<0) ete 10,053 2,603 6,891 20,498 42544 44,785 
POLE DOGS tits a tw tis Sus ss wucee o el onan ainesws 193,580 371,092 296,003 181, 096 140,025 219 406 
was to be administered by France for a period Industries. French metallurgical industries 


of 15 years, and which amounted to about 10,- 
000,000 tons a year, was added to French pro- 
duction. Even so, this did not greatly exceed 
pre-war production, though the latter half of 
1923 showed an average of about 4,500,000 a 
month, which, had it characterized the whole 
year, would have made the yearly total 54,000,- 
000 tons; the actual 1923 production, however, 
was only 47,832,000 tons. All of these figures 
included lignite, production of which reached 
about 900,000 tons per year. In January, 1924, 
French coal production, exclusive of the Saar, 
was 3,794,000 tons, compared with a monthly 
average of 3,404, 000 tons in 1913. This was 
one of the first and the most striking instances 
of an advance over pre-war coal production 
within the actual confines of France. Produc- 
tion of iron ore in France after the War includ- 
ed the production of Alsace-Lorraine, which in 
1913 was 21,133,600 tons. In 1913, France pro- 
duced 21,918,000 tons of iron ore, but it was ex- 
traordinarily great in that year, having been 
19,160,000 tons in 1912 and 16,639,000 tons in 
1911. In 1923, production reached 23,325,564 
tons, including the production in Alsace-Lor- 
raine. French gold production after the War 
was negligible; in 1913, about 150,000 tons of 
ore were mined, yielding 2250 kilograms of gold 
1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds); in 1920, only 4137 
tons of ore were produced. The amount of 
lead ore produced in 1913 was 17,081, and in 
1920 was 4808 tons. Zine ore production was 
46,577 tons in 1913 and fell to 4247 tons in 
1920. Copper ore production was very small, 
being 521 tons in 1913 and 373 tons in 1920. 
France ranked second to China in antimony 
production, with 21,672 tons of ore in 1914, ris- 
ing to 33,462 tons in 1917, and sinking to 4411 
tons in 1921, Bauxite (the ore of aluminium) 
was produced in fairly large quantities in 
France. In 1913, French production was 309,- 
000 tons out of a world production of 536,000 
tons. In 1921, it had dropped to 139,902 tons, 
but was again increasing. In the first 10 
months of 1923, 269,600 tons were mined. In 
1913, production of iron pyrites was 311,167 
tons, and in 1921, 172,370 tons. Mineral oil 
production in France was 49,584 tons in 1913, 
and in 1921, with the addition of the produe- 
tion of Alsace-Lorraine, it was 55,574 tons. 
Salt was produced from sea water and was 
also mined in France; the production of mined 
salt dropped from 900,000 tons in 1913 to 541,- 
000 tons in 1915, but increased again to _1,- 
048,000 tons in 1922; sea salt production was 
382,000 tons in 1913 and 433,000 tons in 1920. 
Potash production, owing to the acquisition of 
Alsace-Lorraine, where the most important beds 
were found, was much greater than before the 
War; in 1913, the production of potash salts 
was 355,341 tons, with 56,000 tons of pure 
potash content, this figure representing a con- 
siderable increase from. previous years; in 1923, 
production was 1,026,400 tons containing 248,- 
523 tons of pure potash, 


17 


were, by 1924, fairly active, and the addition of 
the Alsace-Lorraine industrial area increased 
the amount of French production. In 1913, 
French pig iron production was 5,208,000 met- 
ric tons; in 1923, it was 5,304,000 tons, and in 
January, 1924, reached the high monthly mark 
of 586,000 tons, compared with a 1913 monthly 
average of 434,000 tons. Crude steel produc- 
tion advanced similarly; 4,692,000 tons were 
produced in 1913, 4,980,000 tons in 1923, and 
540,000 tons in January, 1924. Exports of 
Trench metallurgical products in 1913 amount- 
ed to 1,008,000 tons; in 1919, exports had 
dropped to 367,000 tons; but by 1923 they had 
risen again to 2,536,000 tons, more than twice 
their pre-war amount. The number of blast 
furnaces in operation at the end of 1923 almost 
reached the pre-war figure, with 125, as against 
129 in 1913. The machine tool industry in 
France was recovering, especially in 1923, from 
the depression it experienced immediately after 
the War. During the War a large stock of ma- 
chines was imported from Great Britain and 
the United States which had to be disposed of 
gradually before the native industry could re- 
sume normal operations. Imports from the 
United States, because of the high dollar ex- 
change, were restricted in 1923, and imports 
from Germany also declined considerably, 
though for very different reasons, among them 
the stagnation of German industry, the diffi- 
culty the Germans had in making deliveries, 
and the prejudice against German goods. In 
this way the French industry was greatly stim- 
ulated and an increasing proportion of such 
machinery was being bought in France. The 
local market for metal-working machinery has 
been stimulated by the revival of a number of 
industries requiring the machines. Automobile 
manufacture was also gaining in volume, with 
increasing sales both at home and abroad. The 
following table shows the development of the 
export trade in automobiles, ‘with the advance 
over pre-war volume as well’as prices: 


# 
Year Weight e Value 
(metric quintals) (millions of francs) 

AQTS” Deve aentlanee othehe ce 258,000 227 (gold) 
1919) HEROD, Dees SOs. 59,000 @ 125 (paper) 
BU PAO Wes ic A oie mio eg or 514,000 884 os 
LOZ Tee uit cansreeccwe cha aetras 376,000 666 Ey 
LODQT eva eh te rccatd 341,000 557 ss 

LO QS 4 ber vic vets w atthe le eaetays 407,000 B12 he 

% 


The chemical industries of France, always 
important, were becoming more so from an in- 
ternational standpoint. Production and expor- 
tation of perfumes and soaps also reached a 
level above pre-war. The foreign trade in 
chemicals and in perfumes and soaps is shown 
in the table on page 496. 

The textile industries did not, in 1924, vary 
greatly in amount of equipment from pre-war, 
notwithstanding the setback given to the cot- 
ton, wool, and linen industries of northern 
France by the wanton devastation of the Ger- 


FRANCE 
man occupation. In 1913, with a total of 16,- 
000,000 sheep, the French production was about 


EXPORTS OF CHEMICAL PRODUCTS 
(in metric quintals) 


Year Miscellaneous Perfumes and 
chemicals soaps 
COTS oss. eae 11,126,000 514,000 
TOTORS S or. PRE 4,019,000 302,000 
LOQOIER. 5.4 ROE 9,197,000 527,000 
POD rete etee 9,645,000 466,000 
LOOM aeriins, Laasedt: 15,506,000 544,000 
POS) Wik a uo REN 16,463,000 658,000 


30,000,000 kilograms of wool, an average of 
1.875 kilograms per head.. In 1922, when the 
number of sheep was about 9,500,000, the pro- 
duction was estimated at 19,000,000 kilograms, 
an average of 1.930 a head. - The Roubaix- 
Tourcoing district on the Belgian border was 
the principal woolen manufacturing district of 
France. In 1913, a monthly average of 4955 
metric tons of wool tops was recorded in this 
region, and in 1923 a monthly average of 5451 
metric tons; other production in this region 
(yarn, noils, ete.) brought the total monthly 
average for 1913 to 8714 metric tons, and to 
8330 metric tons for 1923. Imports of raw 
wool, by 1924, were at a higher rate than be- 
fore the War, as were exports of woolen cloth, 
which reached about 25,000 metric tons in 1923, 
compared with 23,000 in 1912., Exports of 
woolen yarns were also increasing over recent 
years, but comparable figures for 1913 were not 
published. The equipment of the woolen indus- 
try at the end of 1922 was as follows: spindles 
for woolen yarns, 679,131 (against 712,000 in 
1913); spindles for worsted yarns, 2,292,409 
(against 2,500,000 in 1913); mechanical looms, 
55,000, the same as pre-war (there were also 
several thousand hand looms in operation but 
the exact number was unknown); combing 
units, 1757 (against 2500 in 1913). The total 
output of woolen goods was estimated at 66,- 
000,000 pounds in 1922, compared with 30,000,- 
000 pounds in 1921, showing the considerable 
recovery in this industry. The cotton industry 
was still considerably below normal in output 
and the year 1923 did not show any pronounced 
increase in activity over the previous year. 
Cotton spinning in 1922 was not more than 
two-thirds of the 1913 amount, and approxi- 
mately the same true of 1923. Weaving 
in 1922 improved distinctly over the years im- 
mediately preceding, but was still considerably 
below the degree Sf activity shown in 1914. 
In 1922, the avgrage monthly production per 
loom in lengths, of approximately 100 meters 
was 5.07, compared with 7.70 in May, 1914. 
There were 9,605,000 spindles for spinning cot- 
ton in Francesat the end of 1922, and 1,223,214 
for twisting. Mechanical looms numbered 180,- 
560 and hand looms 27,800. Culture of raw 
silk and silk manufacture were both important 
industries th France, but, while the former had 
been declining for a long period, the latter con- 
tinued to maintain, and tended to increase, its 
importance. Production of silk cocoons was at 
a maximum in 1867, when a weight of 14,083 
metric tons was reached; by 1913 the weight 
of cocoons had declined to 4423 tons; while in 
1915 the low point of 1739 tons was reached. 
In 1923, a return to 3130 tons was achieved. 
The value of finished silk goods increased great- 
ly in the past few years, due mainly to the de- 
preciation of the france and the increased prices 
even in terms of gold values. In 1913, the 


496 


FRANCE 


value of the production of silk goods in the 
Lyon district was 467,700,000 franes ($93,540,- 
000 with the franc at about five to the dollar) ; 
in 1923, it was 2,812,000,000 franes ($187,500,- 
000 with the frane at about 15 to the dollar). 
In the latter total is included artificial silk to 
the value of 370,000,000 francs. In 1922, there 
Were in France 600 factories with a total of 
1,200,000 spindles for silk spinning and throw- 
ing, and the total silk conditioned was 6613 
metric tons. Export trade in textile goods is 
shown in the table, revealing the practically 
complete recovery in silk and wool, with a con- 
siderable deficiency still existing in the cotton 
goods trade. 


MANUFACTURED GOODS AND FABRICS 


EXPORTED 
(quantities in metric quintals) 
Year Cotton Wool Silk 
VOU BRB. oH ills ohthad 554,000 234,000 62,000 
DL OP rie 6 io 5 (wel ie ole Blears 350,000 55,000 60,000 
DOME. sis 0. -c sosletaa nie 479,000 143,000 76,000 
LO ek. tt eens 587,000 156,000 57,000 
ODO RMOIET.. fs shiek he hae 437,000 183,000 63,000 
LOS oe ea... Ki Sekes eee 447.000 255,000 76,000 


Ship construction in France in 1923 was at a 
low ebb both as compared with the two previous 
years and as compared with 1913. There were 
certain favorable features, however, toward the 
end of the year. Formerly French shipyards 
were largely dependent on orders from the govy- 
ernment, and building for private interests 
might be called supplementary. In 1924, with 
the low cost of the frane, French builders had 
contracts for vessels from a number of foreign 
companies, including orders from Holland, Nor- 
way, Egypt, and even Great Britain. The 
monthly average of gross tonnage launched in 
1923 was 8054, compared with 15,376 in 1922, 
and 14,674 in 1912. Tonnage under construc- 
tion at the end of 1923 was 110,725 gross tons, 
compared with 188,525 on Dee. 31, 1922. 

Unemployment in practically all French in- 
dustries was negligible in 1923. In fact, there 
was a continual influx of labor from other coun- 
tries less favorably placed. No statistics were 
available comparing the situation with the pre- 
war period. 


Foreign Trade. French foreign trade in 
1923 made a very favorable showing. Imports 
were valued at 32,614,560,000 franes (equiva- 


lent to $1,982,965,000 with the frane at the av- 
erage for the year, $0.0608), compared with 
23,930,600,000 francs (equivalent to $1,959,849,- 
000 with the frane at $0.0820) in 1922, and 
with 8,421,300,000 francs in 1913 (equivalent to 
$1,625,311,000 with the frane at par of ex- 
change, $0.193). Exports in 1923 were valued 
at 30,431,510,000 franes (equivalent to $1,849,- 
141,000), compared with 20,642,000,000 frances 
in 1922 (equivalent to $1,692,640,000), and 
with 6,880,200,000 frances in 1913 (equivalent to 
$1,327,879,000). Thus the unfavorable balance 
in 1923 was $133,824,000 or 7 per cent, com- 
pared with $267,209,000 or 16 per cent in 1922, 
and with $297,432,000 or 22 per cent in 1913. 
From the point of view of visible trade balance, 
therefore, France was by 1924 considerably bet- 
ter off than before the War. Itemized into 
main classes of commodities, the foreign trade 
of France in 1923 showed a tendency to revert 
to the normal distribution; i.e. exports of man- 
ufactured goods far outweighing foodstuffs and 
raw materials, and imports of raw materials 
being by far the most important group in the 


FRANCE 


incoming trade. The accompanying table gives 
the figures in franes for the three years, 1913, 
1922, and 1923. In considering actual values, 
the average of the franc in the three years, as 
shown in connection with the trade totals, 
should be borne in mind. Of the imports of 
raw materials, 583,997,000 franes covered coal, 
coke, ete., in 1913, to the amount of 22,866,967 
metric tons; 2,397,763,000 franes in 1922 to 
the amount of 28,987,108 tons; 3,644,794,000 
francs in 1923 to the amount of 30,672,847 met- 
rie tons. 


FRENCH IMPORTS 
Kind of merchandise 1913 1922 1923 
(values in thousands of francs) 
Foodstuffs 1,817,579 5,833,887 7,478,917 
Raw materials 4,945,732 14014485 20781 890 
Manufactured articles 1,658,021 4,050,956 4,353,753 
Totals 8,421,332 23,930,328 32,614,560 


FRENCH EXPORTS 


Kind of merchandise 1913 1922 1923 
(values in thousands of francs) 

Foodstuffs 838,898 1,882.007 3,189,258 

Raw materials 1,858 091 5.807.208 9,348,456 


Manufactured articles 3,617,046 12.271,586 16 232,406 
Parcel post packages 566.182 1,418,142 1,660,990 


Totals 6.880,217 21.378.943 30,431,510 


The 10 leading countries receiving French ex- 
ports are shown in the order of their impor- 
tance in 1923 in the accompanying table (this 
disregards products of French colonies and thie 
Saar Valley, which are listed with the foreign 
countries in the French statistics.) 


COUNTRIES RECEIVING FRENCH EXPORTS 
1923 1922 1913 
(values in thousands of francs) 

Great Britain @eies., os). 6,154,663 3,960,500 1,453,700 


Belgium-Luxemburg @ 
Economic Union ....5,805,836 4,015,454 1,108,500 
422,600 


NIved) etatese ac ee oe. 2,490,644 2,006 754 


Swiizerland irs. ith. 24: 2,113,007 1,001,007 406,100 
CAV Tiss. hoy 84 1,181,352 795,090 305,800 
CLEL DIA YORE wit bisis lar «aie 1,085,566 1,959,828 866,800 
Dili eweea., ropes te dicks ore O7j35P 518,099" 7151 200 
Netherlands’ 2272.40. 244%.. 630°551 "1 395) 752 82,700 
ATECNLING anes 44. bots, 612,643 314245 199,900 
ine Vall a ee ee ee 251,938 158,412 86,400 


@For 1913 the statistics cover Belgium alone, as 
the Union was not formed until 1922. 


A similar table shows the principal sources of 
French imports. 


PRINCIPAL SOURCES OF FRENCH IMPORTS 
1923 1922 1913 
(values in thousands of francs) 
igreat Britains eee. 5,272,169 3,407,420 1,109,400 
timted “States. . ene e. 5,049,060 3,863,873 894,700 
Belgium Luxemburg 4 
Economic Union ....2,404,112 1,736,892 556,300 


PEON EIN G, 8) ope 2 asi cued Suse L2G 620 796,366 369,300 

PERPEDSOOD y Ve hens 1223758 803587 240.500 
IORI AINY 2 ete ss eee eG 1,048,331 1,297,513 1,068,800 
INetheriands)) .!o233.5 00% 1,002,288 700,475 113,800 
EE ZNMS spas +! sone eevahe te 691,303 464.041 174,300 
SOTSTUYERMEE SPO u sts tte. ccs ce crete: a 607,911 349,792 281.600 
PW EZEPIAN Cy isvs.a > so sels 8 601,635 540,097 135,200 


«See note regarding exports. 


The principal classes of commodities in the 
import trade of France were coal, which occu- 
pied first rank with a value of 1,925,991,000 
francs in 1922, but was in third place in 1913; 
raw cotton, second in 1922, with a value of 
1,710,872,000 francs, and also second in 1913; 
raw wool, third in 1922 with 1,669,038,000 
francs, but in first place in 1913; raw silk, 
fourth in 1922 with 1,295,176,000 franes and 


497 


FRANCE 


fifth in 1913; machinery made of iron and steel, 
‘fifth in 1922 with 890,897,000 franes, and sev- 
enth in 1913. Except the last item, all of the 
foregoing principal commodities have been the 
raw materials for French manufactures; the 
fact that the manufactured product, machinery, 
which in 1913 came seventh, was in fifth place 
in 1922, is an indication that in some respects 
France had not entirely regained her position 
as a manufacturing nation. In sixth place in 
1922 were imports of oilseeds and oil fruit, 
with a value of 837,336,000 franes, which had 
been in fourth place in 1913; in seventh place 
in 1922 were wines, with 798,991,000 frances, 
eighth in 1913; in eighth place in 1922, crude 
and refined mineral oils, with 748,575,000 
franes, thirteenth in 1913; in ninth place in 
1922, coffee, with 636,209,000 francs, tenth in 
1913; in tenth place, woods for building, with 
602,059,000 franes, eleventh in 1913. Wheat 
had dropped to twelfth place as an import item, 
with a value of 443,644,000 francs, whereas it 
had occupied sixth place with 335,884,000 
francs in 1913. The leading commodity in the 
French export trade in 1922, which was also 
leading in 1913, but by a much narrower mar- 
gin, was silk fabrics, with a value of 1,377,847,- 
000 francs; second came women’s clothing, with 
a value of 1,065,000,000 francs, having risen 
from tenth place in 1913; third were cotton 
fabrics, with 1,059,521,000 francs, falling from 
second place in 1913; fourth, pig iron, iron and 
steel, with 1,003,445,000 francs, rising from rel- 
ative insignificance in 1913, as a result of the 
addition of Alsace-Lorraine with its important 
metallurgical industries; fifth, wool fabrics, 
with 850,658,000 francs in 1922, falling from 
fourth place in 1913; sixth, paper and paper 
manufactures, with 793,034,000 francs, eighth 
in 1913; seventh, raw wool, with 679,346,000 
francs, third in 1913; eighth, machinery with 
573,945,000 francs, twelfth in 1913; ninth, man- 
ufactured rubber (including automobile tires) 
with 535,928,000 francs, sixteenth in 1913; and 
tenth, tools and metal goods, with 500,529,000 
frances, thirteenth in 1913. The general trend 
seemed to be toward an even greater concentra- 
tion of the export trade on manufactured com- 
modities than before the War. 

Trade with the United States. Raw cotton 
continued to be by far the most important com- 
modity imported by France from the United 
States, but the percentage of imports of Ameri- 
can cotton to total French cotton imports de- 
clined from 79 per cent in 1921 to 69 per cent 
in 1922 and to 62 per cent in 1923. The value 
of cotton imports from the United States in 
1923 was 1,929,602,000 franes, out of a total im- 
portation from the United States in that year 
amounting to 5,049,060,000 franes, or practi- 
cally two-fifths of the total. The United States 
was still the chief source of French supplies of 
crude and refined mineral oils, which formed 
the second most important item in the trade in 
1923. The proportion supplied by the United 
States rose from 74 per cent in 1921 to 77 
per cent in 1922 to 81 per cent in 1923. Im- 
ports from the United States of copper, the 
third item in the trade, formed about three- 
fourths of the total French imports of copper. 
The share of the United States in the French 
cereal import trade was constantly diminishing, 
amounting to only 17 per cent in 1923, com- 
pared with 30 per cent in 1921, but imports 
from the United States were still very impor- 


FRANCE 


tant, exceeding every other single country ex- 
cept Argentina. All kinds of machinery were 
imported from the United States in consider- 
able quantities. In 1923, coal was also among 
the leading commodities imported from the 
United States, but this was abnormal, due to 
the unsettled conditions in Germany, and the 
strikes in Engand during a portion of the year 
which restricted imports of coal from that 
country. The other commodities of importance 
among French imports from the United States 
were sugar, in which, however, the United 
States was losing ground in favor of the Dutch 
East Indies; salted and. preserved meats, of 
which in 1923 the United States sent 66 per 
cent of the total French importation; raw hides 
and skins, the United States ranking fourth as 
supplier; automobiles, of which this country fur- 
nished nearly 90 per cent of the French imports; 
and lumber, with our share steadily increasing, 
yet amounting only to 6 per cent in 1923. 
French exports to the United States of greatest 
importance were for the most part those lead- 
ing in the exports of France to all countries. 
There was no commodity of such outstanding 
importance, however, as was cotton in the case 
of imports. The United States was the second 
best customer of France for silk and artificial 
silk fabrics—the most important item in the 
trade in 1923, with a value of 386,513,000 
frances—and next to Great Britain. Ready- 
made clothing occupied second place with a 
value of 331,959,000 franes in 1923, and this 
amount was far from representing the total 
American purchases of French clothing, as it 
did not take into account the extensive pur- 
chases of French clothing made by American 
tourists in France, and carried home in their 
trunks. Other leading items in order of their 
importance in 1923 were published matter, 
cinema films, ete., raw hides and skins, cotton 
fabrics, and woolen fabrics, each of which was 
valued at more than 100,000,000 francs; syn- 
thetic perfumes and essential oils, articles of 
leather or artificial leather, and rags, with val- 
ues over 50,000,000 franes; and chemicals (ex- 
cluding potash), perfumes and soaps, raw silk 
and silk floss, seeds for sowing, paper and table 
fruits, with a value of more than 30,000,000 
franes each. 

Reconstruction. The chief difference be- 
tween pre-war and post-war France lay in the 
condition of northern and northeastern France, 
overrun by the German forces from 1914 to 
1918. The extent of the damage and of the 
reconstruction accomplished and to be accom- 
plished was dealt with in publications issued 
by the ministry of the liberated regions, but it 
was impossible for any statistical publication 
to convey an idea of the amount of work and 
expense necessary to restore the region to its 
former degree of productivity, if indeed com- 
plete restoration was possible. Outside of the 
cost of the War itself, no factor was so potent 
in creating the harassed situation of the French 
treasury as the cost of reconstruction, which 
the impossibility of obtaining reparations threw 
wholly on the shoulders of France. In 1914, 
the population of the devastated departments 
of France was 4,690,183; by the Armistice it 
had dropped to 2,075,067, the population having 
been largely driven to other sections, thus plac- 
ing a burden on those sections and on the 
French government. The reflux of the popula- 
tion to the devastated provinces was nearly 


498 


& 


FRANCE 


complete, by 1924, if war deaths are taken into 
account. In January, 1924, the population of 
the region was 4,253,677. The number of build- 
ings in the district in 1914 was 1,190,066 and 
of these 893,792 were damaged or destroyed 
during the War, comprising 866,844 houses and 
agricultural structures, 17,616 public edifices, 
and 9332 industrial establishments, employing 
at least 10 workmen. About 39 per cent of the 
buildings were totally destroyed, and 61 per 
cent damaged to a greater or less degree; the 
destruction was greatest in the Nord depart- 
ment, where the important cotton wool textile 
factories were, and again are, located; 33 per 
cent of the factories damaged were in this de- 
partment. To January, 1924, the number of 
establishments entirely restored was 438,710 
(slightly over 50 per cent), of which 423,145 
were houses ‘and agricultural structures, 7602 
public edifices, and 7963 factories, the latter 
approaching the nearest to pre-war conditions. 
Much of the reconstruction was carried out 
through “Coéperatives of Reconstruction”; ad- 
vances made to these societies amounted to 2,- 
015,559,347 franes in 1921; 2,253,495,517 in 
1922, and 2,304,920,000 in 1923. Municipal life 
was suspended in 3255 communes during the 
War, and was resumed in 3239, leaving only 69 
permanently deleted. The number of public 
schools (primary, secondary, and advanced) in 
the devastated regions was actually greater 
than in 1914, being 7846 on Jan. 1, 1924, com- 
pared with 7400 in 1914, but the number of pu- 
pils declined from 668,000 to 497,477; the num- 
ber of private schools sank from 1060 to 849, 
and pupils from 131,700 to 88,385. The amount 
of money allotted by the Republic to refugees 
and for temporary succor reached a total of 
1,161,087,936 frances, and this amount must be 
considered in addition to all sums spent for 
reconstruction. Donations received by the 
French administration from private persons 
and associations in France were valued at 6,473,- 
609 francs, and from foreign sources at 8,484,- 
755 francs, besides money gifts of 23,111,311 
francs from France and 17,396,874 frances from 
abroad, making a grand total of 55,466,549. 
The total amount of the damage to French 
property was estimated, in January, 1924, at 
85,000,000,000 franes, of which 25,420,000,000 
covered industrial property,  20,213,599,000 
francs farm property, and 39,366,401,000 francs 
other property. To this total should be added 
the following: 


Francs 
. Interest on the 1914 value of the 


damage,’ ';. sis Camicecheteds rive SR 3,000,000,000 
. Labor, and purchases made directly 
by the ‘state, “ease see eee 5,500,000,000 


- Rebuilding of railways, 
Reorganization of public services, 


ASA ee eh. t 2,650,000,000 
.2,700,000,000 
. Assistance rendered to persons, ....1,400,000,000 
. Expenses of administration, ..... 1,200,000,000 


Ooo po 


This brought the total above 100,000,000,000 
francs. Up to Jan. 1, 1924, the amount of 
work actually accomplished was estimated at 
52,658,930,313 francs. With this staggering 
expense to add to the cost of the War, it was 
scarcely remarkable that the financial situation 
of the government had become unenviable, or 
that the failure to receive the reparations de- 
creed against Germany had caused serious dis- 
tress, as well as extreme distrust and dislike 
of the German people. 

Finance. Before the War, French budgets 


FRANCE 


had a practical balance of receipts and expendi- 
tures, though in some years expenses showed a 
greater or less excess. The accounts for the 
“fiscal period” 1913 (i.e. amounts properly at- 
tributable to the year 1913, whether received 
or spent in that year or in 1914) showed reve- 
nues amounting to 5,103,000,000 franes and ex- 
penses amounting to 5,349,700,000 frances, with 
an excess of expenses amounting to 246,700,000 
francs. The budget for the year 1914 provided 
for a slight surplus, but war expenses upset the 
calculations, and initiated the period of large 
budgets which continued ever since. The table 
shows expenses from 1914 to 1921, distributed 
according to their character, whether military 
expenses, interest and sinking fund on the debt, 
civil or ordinary expenses, reconstruction ex- 
penses, and the debit balance of special ac- 
counts. 


499 


FRANCE 


and foreign loans about 20 per cent. The 
French budget after the War was made up of 
three main divisions, the general budget (cov- 
ering ordinary and extraordinary receipts and 
expenses), the annexed budgets (covering the 
various state monopolies and services), and the 
special budget of expenses called ‘‘recoverable,” 
arising from war and_ reconstruction costs, 
which were chargeable against German repara- 
tions. It should be noted that in view of the 
failure to receive reparations due, these “re- 
coverable” expenses up to 1924 only served to 
increase the deficit. The general budget for 
1922 showed expenses amounting to 24,687,958,- 
948 francs and revenues amounting to 24,702,- 
059,912 francs, giving a surplus of 14,100,964 
frances, while the general budget for 1923 
showed expenses of 23,402,487,556 frances and 
receipts of 23,437,954,832 francs, with a surplus 


FRENCH EXPENSES FROM 1914 TO 1921 


Debit Balance 


Year Debt Charge Other Civil War Reconstr’n Spec. Accts. Total 
(values given in millions of francs) 
Pe on 8 A Tt ee pee 1,360 2,005 6,894 4 108 10,371 
EO Me ceva ct teh cn cio o> ssa, 5 Sen's] sooteeae 1,835 2,479 16,594 15 1,197 22,120 
TS Coens Pee aN Son .. venesiic os 3,434 2,817 26,348 345 3,904 36,848 
LL OM RCer S42 ete Stohr sie. saa tis ieaaie ior fo 4,965 4,129 31,895 689 2,983 44,661 
OW SUE ees ek Roee Selec els sua apa siedetetaraie 7,189 5,482 41,370 A495 2,113 56,649 
a HES ee ies tr Rae oi eee 8,089 9,758 23,310 9,604 3,387 54,213 
BVV SLT CISLO Ciskss auetiete fates 's fe ke outdneila Yarn 26,872 26,670 146,476 VIsto2 13,692 224,862 
LG AO Faas att oh keh cease iblela ie Sich suahs-teieus > 15,201 115855 10,286 15,709 5,092 58,143 
LO 2 Lemeeettes cist Wa cca tas cds, nica ohne wees gs 16,000 10,778 8,702 13,829 2,714 52,023 
IBOStAWA IPE DCTIOG is siditey craictes ot kane ders 31,201 22,633 18,988 29,538 7,806 110,166 
CELLO MALO Lalmerenats terete css ie <a, asuvaged 58,073 49,303 165,464 40,690 21,498 335,028 


The most striking features of the tabulation 
were the steadily increasing burden of the pub- 
lie debt, and the steady contraction of military 
expenses after the end of the War. Receipts in 
the same period are indicated below: 


Revenue receipts 


VO TART LOM SS crypt Same SIE « Oasna 37,821 
1920 and 1921 (viz., 1920, 19,821; 1921, 

Qi BAS) ps ora cl nes Shee eel ee anemec ah oe eel Bore ,364 

Rotalerevenue Teceipts? see ns wo ees 79,185 
Receipts from borrowing to Dec. 31, 1921 

IPORMAN GN te ONS mins a oega crak sac dicts, arcu. se. 104,092 

Floating debt 

SRI REe Of s WEANCE its. otstohe ake ehtterol eh sls Zs 24,600 

EGER UD Va DILSog “GLC sale seetere 1s spapese onctie 61,741 

Oth eI LeLialee OATS sis 5.8 eel etetars foto cecil 190,433 
Foreign loans—realized and to be repaid at 

at OLsreXChHANne OM 1. tikes Mai visis obs s 35,563 

Mota lsPOLrow Inet LECClDUS ta tiers ac crelerer et ave ners 225,996 

Grand” total «recem sive acai 2 tii. ciate cere = tans, x 305,181 


Authorized expenditure in excess of receipts. 29,847 


In the absence of final data, the two sides of 
the account, expenditures and receipts, cannot 
be reconciled. Apparently the excess of “ex- 
penditures authorized” above “receipts real- 
ized” represents expenditures authorized but 
not made and for which it was therefore not 
necessary to provide resources. (The tables 
and data which are given above are from 
French Public Finance by Harvey E. Fisk.) 
The resources with which to meet the expenses 
of the war period were derived 181% per cent 
from taxation, 65.17 per cent from borrowing 
at home, and about 16.33 per cent from foreign 
loans. The Bank of France furnished 15.27 per 
cent of the amount, national defense bills 28.77 
per cent, other temporary loans 35.93 per cent 


of 35,467,276 francs. The tables on the next 
page itemize expenses in the two budgets. 
Economies in expenses of various kinds, and 
increases in ordinary and permanent sources of 
revenue alone prevented a considerable deficit 
from appearing in the general budget for 1923. 
The annexed budgets, 12 in number, balanced 
at 3,661,094,017 frances for 1922 and at 5,225,- 
890,356 franes for 1923; surpluses or deficits in 
these budgets were transferred to the general 
budget, increasing receipts or expenses there as 
the case might be, leaving them always in bal- 
ance. The “special budget of recoverable ex- 
penses” for 1922 showed expenses of 10,558,534,- 
377, with order and miscellaneous receipts 
amounting to 1,309,855,000 francs, leaving ap- 
proximately 9,250,000,000 francs to he raised 
by borrowing. The special budget for 1923 
showed expenses amounting to 13,581,690,114 
frances, with revenues of 3,508,660,000 frances, 
leaving 10,073,000,000 francs to be met by bor- 
rowing. In addition to the above items were 
amounts set aside for the “upkeep of troops of 
occupation in foreign countries,” set at 520,- 
816,700 frances for 1922 and 1,030,936,710 franes 
for 1923. No receipts were shown against 
these expenditures, but according to the law of 
Dec. 31, 1918, the expenses were to be added on 
the reparations due from debtor governments. 
The public debt of France was large even be- 
fore the War. It was divided into the follow- 
ing categories: perpetual debt (also called con- 
solidated); term or amortizable debt, floating 
debt, and annuities (dette viagére). In 1913, 
the perpetual debt amounted to 21,922,000,000 
frances, the amortizable debt to 3,388,000,000 
frances, and annuities (dette viagére) to 6,146,- 
000,000 francs, making a total funded debt of 


FRANCE 500 


31,456,000,000 franes; treasury bills amounted 
to 410,000,000 franes, other floating debt to 1.- 
671,000,000 francs and surety bonds to 100,000,- 
000 francs, making the total unfunded debt 2,- 
181,000,000 franes; as there was in 1913 no 
foreign debt, the total public debt amounted at 
that time to 33,637,000,000 francs, or about 
$6,500,000,000 at par of exchange. No foreign 
debt was recorded at this period, the whole 
amount being raised within the country. The 
latest available statement of the French public 
debt was that of Dec. 31, 1923. At that time 


FRANCE 


Bank of France was 3,342,800,000 franes in gold 
and 629,300,000 francs in silver, making a to- 
tal of 3,972,100,000 francs. The average note 
circulation of the bank in the same year was 
5,665,300,000 francs, making the percentage of 
metallic reserve to note circulation just over 70. 
On Dec, 20, 1923, the gold reserve in the bank 
was 3,676,000,000 frances, that held abroad, 1,- 
864,000,000 francs and the silver reserve 296,- 
000,000 franes, making a total reserve of 5,836,- 
000,000 franes. On the same date the note cir- 
culation was 37,630,000,000 francs, and the per- 


ESTIMATES OF GENERAL BUDGET EXPENDITURES, 1922 AND 1923 


Items 


1922 1923 


Ministry of Finances: 


WublcAdebty sj Bae tO aS. Uy. RL Ue A APR VO Rot 6 

Other /SCTWIDER (4: fo ny Bem Std lle tenn dnine bea aale F 
PNETSURE WHOL. td SLICE. VA to et tte anaes Semeheme tants Riles a) sae men oe 
Ministry of. Foreion, Afiairs lise lec tee ci een Meme ec 
Ministry) of, the) «.nterior.. sssmusc aden PuSee kolere Rc a ae 
IMIBASTE VT HOLS NV Grape dicdel fhe Hints, se eet. casge Coca bee be ee 
Ministrys ote the) aNayyie ache evs tle pitiene ote cere ieee annonce 
Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts ....... 
Ministry vot Commerte ‘and, Induetty 25 ie os ee se ee 


Ministry of Labor 


Ministry of Pensions, Premiums, and War Allotments.............. 
Ministry of Hygiene, Assistance, and Social Welfare. . 
LOGE LE Maen Mer ate sie tae Monies ie vciie tsycitekane donner rare tenet 


, Shee ERO De 12,647,161,236 
Pe: ee 1,832,515,331 


on oe 0) oops ese (8 0 eye 6, 9) so & Siena ~' =) \a leis eo! ¥ 


Winistry sof (Colonies ett arial. akties ie re en none anes 
Ministry of, Agriculture ieie see at eerie ere on teres ee ie 
Ninistry: Of) PiDlic ay CURSE ta deiee ce Pete etencisae Paice eee 
Maimistryot. liberated. Rep lonse mie rei teaee ve Rteret cr ie 


Se oi: 693 Sia 24,687,958,948 


Francs 
12,008,378,586 


Francs 


ohel a re maOMe Mate ty ts os 0 169,385,096 166,299,384 
Balers of) ots nee 153,630,891 122,860,953 
cle RAPIER x 5's 244,026,116 224,441,762 
BO sc 3 4 0 ceo ae 3,426,284,959 3,566,765,327 
Er etbeg MEWERS is y's oo, 5 797,804,914 1,028,237,008 
A Bee enc. 0.0) ee 1,428,567,213 1,586,928,075 
Ree tgs ees ae 28,331,562 24,736,140 
5 Sia sS ee 160,729,241 156,902,600 
SPN s\n Cs aan 237,096,708 231,913,717 
BFA is Nee ce eae 168,514,560 177,804,405 
Sa) dd 3) ee 2,704,345,798 1,533,029,266 
eke oc. Sikes 186,323,000 174,895,000 

206,857,000 173,368,000 
Boht bd) qd ier amcaeeNs 296,585,323 401,321,866 


23,402,487,556 


ESTIMATES OF GENERAL BUDGET RECEIPTS,- 1922 AND 1923 


Items 


AXES HANG STEVENUCS. © Home ete tecieroneie cheng ietserieteeete cies ohne 
Statesmonopolies and, sindustries err-use e cheNsle is coon Gre ete 
States domains: Tee eS oe eM ae ee A bred 


Order receipts 


Special receipts 
Algerian receipts 


TOUS Poyeta cravene on Reker cece cnet akin Dakin asa erica aN 


the total internal debt was shown as 270,708,- 
103,000 franes of which the major items were: 
rentes of various categories (consolidated per- 
petual and amortizable issues), 110,515,995,000 
frances; national defense bills (short term), 55,- 
848,000,000; 2 to 10 year treasury bonds 
(also short term), 24,516,000,000; long and 
short term Credit National issues (forming 
part of the reconstruction debt), 23,978,000,000 
frances; and advances from the Bank of France 
(floating debt), 23,300,000,000 frances. The ex- 
ternal debt amounted to 38,794,936,000 gold 
franes, but owing to the depreciation of the 
frane this was the equivalent of 146,800,000,000 
paper francs at the value of the paper frane in 
on that date. The total debt, internal and ex- 
ternal, on Dec. 31, 1923, therefore, was approx- 
imately 417,508,000,000 paper frances, equiva- 
lent, with the frane at $0.051 as quoted in New 
York on that date, to $21,293,000,000. It was 
a curious fact that although the debt rose from 
349,585,000,000 paper francs on Dec. 31, 1922, 
to 417,508,000,000 paper francs a year later, the 
greater depreciation of the franc on the latter 
date caused the amount of the debt in gold dol- 
lars to sink from $25,660,000,000 to $21,293,- 
000,000. Aside from budget deficits and the in- 
crease in the public debt the chief reason for 
the depreciation of the French currency in 1924 
was the large note circulation of the Bank of 
France as compared with the metallic reserve. 
In 1913, the average metallic reserve of the 


2 o> tah eae 15,753,0384,327 
bets O73, ieee 2,910,179,748 


Miscellaneous budget receipts eMC ay te ue NR SET g 


Ce i 


eecreceocestecwee steerer eee eee wee ee eee eee e 


$00 0 & ROR Ieeae Ieee 24,702,059,912 


1922 1923 


Francs 
17,101,602,616 


Francs 


Bais il i See 183,330,900 236,222,400 
SUR ORe) echt)! atars, 797,943,937 805,829,426 
soy o 6 no Rees Oye 176,461,000 260,990,100 
F< oi stoke oec 4,870,000,000 3,025,000,000 
Ficib, Shy:, Sas SEPA 11,110,000 10,332,000 


23,437,954,832 


centage of metallic cover to note circulation 
15%. 
Transportation. France was well provided 
with means of communication, internally by 
means of railways, rivers, and canals, and ex- 
ternally by the same means and also through 
harbors and ports and with the help of an ex- 
tensive merchant marine. The principal rail- 
way systems of France (pre-war boundaries) 
were state railways, 5623 miles in 1923; Paris- 
Lyon-Méditerranée, 6078 miles; Nord, 2380 
miles; Orléans, 4641 miles; Est, 3122 miles; 
and Midi (south), 25386 miles; making a total 
of 24,430 miles in 1923, compared with 24,417 
miles in 1913. The railways of Alsace-Lorraine, 
1405 miles in length, should be added, making 
a total length of 25,835 miles in 1923. Pas- 
sengers carried numbered 547,886,000 in 1913 
and 591,664,000 in 1921, a total distance of 
19,410,000,000 kilometers in 1913, and 24,138,- 
000,000 kilometers in 1921. The amount of slow 
freight carried was 208,019,000 tons in 1913 
and 23,905,000,000 kilometers in 1921. Statis- 
tics for local railways were not available after 
1912; in that year, their length was 6158 miles 
and the number of passengers carried 48,170,- 
000; tramway lines had a length of 4218 miles 
and carried 37,143,000 passengers. Car load- 
ings in 1913 averaged 60,741 daily and in 1923, 
56,865 daily. However, the average load was 
12 tons per car in 1923 and only 9.1 tons in 
1913. On Dee. 31, 1920, the French merchant 


FRANCE 


marine comprised 13,292 sailing vessels of 433,- 
441 net tons, with crews of 48,449 men, com- 
pared with 15,824 vessels, 601,983 tons, and 
67,453 men on Dec. 31, 1913; and 2246 steam 
vessels, with 1,084,511 tons, 20,268 seamen, and 
13,402 mechanics and stokers in 1920, compared 
with 1895 vessels, of 980,433 tons, with 18,552 
seamen, and 12,725 mechanics and stokers in 
1913. The amount of idle tonnage in French 
ports steadily decreased in 1923 from 530 ves- 
sels of 845,254 tons on Jan. 15, 1923, to 334 
vessels of 448,000 tons on Jan. 15, 1924. The 
net tonnage entering French ports was 2,979,- 
000 in 1922 comnared with 2,876,000 in 1913 
and departing tonnage 2199 compared with 
2176. Coods tonnage discharged averaged 2,- 
383,000 tons per month in 1922 compared with 
2.657,000 in 1913, while goods loaded averaged 
583,000 tons compared with 868,000. The table 
shows the cargo traffic of the principal French 
ports in 1913 and 1923. 


CARGO TRAFFIC OF FRENCH PORTS 
Port 1913 1923 
Entered Departed Entered Departed 
(in metric tons) 


Dunkirk . 2,880,400 1,005,600 4,619,900 522,800 
Le Havre . 2,747,900 920,500 3,554,500 929,500 
Rouen 5,147,700 449,900 8,550,000 344,800 
St. Nazaire 1,490,900 252,200 1,317,700 205,400 
Nantes . 1,611,800 352,400 1,887,400 207,600 
Bordeaux .. 3,302,900 1,302,500 3,317,900 1,504,500 


Marseilles .. 5,886,200 3,052,400 5,327,500 1,907,200 


The length of navigable rivers in France was 
4211 miles and the length of canals 3280 miles. 
In 1913, shipping tonnage on the rivers totaled 
21,057,000 tons and on the canals 20,840,000 
tons; in 1923, river tonnage was 17,799,000 tons 
and canal 16,085,000, both representing satis- 
factory increases over 1922 though less than 
1913. 

History. On Dec. 1, 1913, 
Barthou cabinet was overthrown. The Radi- 
eal-Socialists who had been most instrumen- 
tal in forcing Barthou out of office filled 
seven of the 12 ministerial posts in the 
new cabinet formed by Gaston Doumergue. 
Joseph Caillaux, to whom still. attached the 
stigma of the Morocco settlement of 1911, and 
who for this reason was impossible as prime 
minister, became Minister of Finance and was 
directing genius of the cabinet. Although Pre- 
mier Doumergue was in fact an active Radical- 
Socialist he did not, in view of the forthcoming 
elections, adhere strictly to the principles which 
the Radical-Socialist Party had recently enun- 
ciated at its Unification Congress of Pau, and 
concentrated his attention on the financial pro- 
posals of Caillaux rather than on the delicate 
question of the Three Years Law. Nevertheless 
the impending electoral combat had produced a 
clear-cut cleavage between the two most power- 
ful political groups: the Radical-Socialists and 
the Unified Socialists coéperated toward the re- 
duction of military service from three to two 
years, while in opposition to this “pacifist” bloc 
Barthou, Millerand, and Briand had organized 
the Federation of the Left with a programme 
of electors] reform and of national defense 
based on the Three Years Law. In March, 1914, 
the cabinet became involved in scandal. The 
shooting of Gaston Calmette by Madame Cail- 
laux and the subsequent disclosures revealing 
an old financial scandal forced both Caillaux 
and his lieutenant Monis (Minister of Marine) 
to resign during the latter part of March. 


501 


the moderate | 


FRANCE 


Meanwhile the electoral campaign was on, cen- 
tring for the most part on the question of the 
Three Years Law. The elections held in May 
produced the following line-up in the new 
Chamber: Unified Socialists 102; Independent 
and Republican Socialists 30; Unified Radicals 
136; Alliance Democratique 100; Independent 
Radicals and Left Republicans 102; Progress- 
ists and Republican Federation 54; Action 
Libérale 34; Right 36; Independents 16. The 
bloe of the Radicals and Socialists had more 
than held its own. Nevertheless the Doumer- 
gue cabinet, in accordance with custom, re- 
signed before the meeting of the new Chamber. 
A ministerial deadlock ensued in the course of 
which a Ribot cabinet was smashed by the 
Radical-Socialist bloc within 24 hours of its 
formation. After a fortnight of difficulties 
René Viviani succeeded in forming a new cab- 
inet on the basis of a policy of national defense. 
The success of his policy, faced as it was with 
strong Radical-Socialist opposition, would have 
been greatly in doubt had not the revelations 
as to the unpreparedness of the French army, 
which were made in the Senate on July 13, suf- 
ficiently aroused the Chamber to support the 
Premier and vote the military credits. 

While the French public was deeply absorbed 
in the sensational trial of Madame Caillaux 
during the latter part of July, President Poin- 
caré, accompanied by Premier Viviani in his ca- 
pacity as Foreign Minister, set out to visit 
France’s ally, Russia. The Kronstadt Confer- 
ence brought a further cementing of the alliance 
between France and Russia. The French 
statesmen returned to Paris on July 29, just 
after the Austrian ultimatum had been deliv- 
ered to Serbia. When war between Russia and 
Germany seemed unavoidable the German gov- 
ernment requested of the French government a 
definite answer as to the attitude of France in 
case of a Russo-German conflict. In view of 
her alliance with Russia, France felt compelled 
to answer that she ‘‘would consult her inter- 
ests.” Orders for mobilization were issued in 
France and Germany on August 1, and two 
days later war was declared by Germany on 
France. See WAR IN EUROPE. 

The French people received the news with 
patriotic fervor. Their outward calmness was 
marred, outside of a few minor occurrences, on- 
ly by the assassination of Jean Jaurés, the 
great Socialist and pacifist, on July 31 by 
Raoul Villain, who acted under the influence of 
the extreme Royalists. Confronted with a sit- 
uation which called for the greatest efforts and 
sacrifices, the parliamentary factions abandoned 
all partisan strife and concluded a truce, known 
as the “Union Sacrée,” to which even the So- 
cialists subscribed. The draining of man pow- 
er from all walks of life took place without 
friction and a financial panic was averted by 
a moratorium. Measures were taken to pro- 
vide for the maintenance of an adequate food 
supply, and a rigid censorship was imposed. 
In order to deal more effectively with the un- 
favorable military situation and to make the 
government more representative, Premier Vivi- 
ani resigned on August 26, on the eve of the 
Battle of the Marne, and formed a new cabinet 
which was composed of stronger men and in- 
eluded even Socialists. The first steps of the 
new government were measures for the defense 
of Paris, which by this time was _ seriously 
threatened by the rapid German advance. For 


FRANCE 


this purpose General Galliéni, a capable and 
resolute soldier, was appointed military gov- 
ernor of Paris. But the military situation be- 
came so threatening that the government moved 
to Bordeaux, September 2, and returned to Paris 
only in December, 1914. When Parliament was 
re-opened in Paris on Dec. 22, 1914, Premier 
Viviani in a passionate address outlined the 
war aims of France, declaring that France 
would not “lay down her arms until she had 
avenged outraged right, regained forever the 
provinces ravished from her by force, restored 
to heroic Belgium the plenitude of her material 
prosperity and her independence, and broken 
down Prussian militarism.” Soon the depu- 
ties manifested that they wished to be consulted 
as to the methods of realizing these aims and 
that they intended also to express freely their 
criticism of the government’s conduct of the 
war. The parliamentary attacks were concen- 
trated on the Ministry of War, which was then 
in the hands of Alexandre Millerand, and par- 
ticularly on the Army Medical Service and on 
munitions supply, which the campaigns of 
1914 and the early months of 1915 had proved 
to be sadly deficient. Millerand, however, with- 
stood stubbornly all attacks and it was another 
factor, the failure of the Balkan policy, which 
caused the fall of the Viviani government on 
Octs 22, 1915, 

A new coalition government, with the motto 
“Peace Through Victory” was formed by Aris- 
tide Briand who gave ministerial posts to mem- 
bers of practically all political parties, inclu- 
sive of the Royalists and the Socialists. Dur- 
ing the din of the battle raging around 
Verdun in the spring and summer of 1916 the 
deputies, acting upon reports of lack of provi- 
sion in the defense of the fortress, demanded a 
secret session of Parliament for the discussion 
of both details regarding effectives and the re- 
sponsibilities of general officers commanding in 
the field. Briand was forced to accede to this 
request and in consequence a very stormy ses- 
sion was held July 16-22, 1916. The Battle 
of the Somme and Rumania’s entrance into the 
War on the Allied side, which was regarded as 
a great diplomatic success of the Briand cabi- 
net, served to prolong the life of the gov- 
ernment. In December, 1916, Briand recon- 
structed his cabinet by including a number of 
capable business men and by giving the Minis- 
try of War to General Lyautey (q.v.), but 
when the Chamber shortly afterwards drove 
Lyautey from office and severely criticized Bri- 
and’s economic policy the cabinet resigned, on 
Mar. 17, 1917. The succeeding ministry under 
Ribot differed from the outgoing ministry only 
in that it contained as Minister of War, a Rad- 
ical-Socialist, Paul Painlevé, who on May 15, 
1917, made important changes in the army com- 
mand by appointing General Pétain Comman- 
der-in-Chief in place of General Nivelle and 
General Foch Chief of Staff at the War Office. 

During the spring and summer of 1917 the 
seemingly interminable duration of the War 
and the terrible losses and sacrifices, coupled 
with grave economic troubles, seriously affected 
the morale of the French people and produced 
Widespread war-weariness. The symptoms of 
this state of mind were “defeatism,” industrial 
unrest, and mutinies at the front. Socialists 
increasingly took a stand of opposition to the 
War. Caillaux and other  Radical-Socialist 
leaders who had always more or less openly op- 


502 


FRANCE 


posed the French war policy were carrying on 
a campaign for a “White Peace,” ie. a peace 
without victory. The situation became so crit- 
ical during the summer of 1917 that immedi- 
ate energetic action seemed imperative to pre- 
vent a breakdown. During August Georges 
Clemenceau made a vehement attack in the Sen- 
ate on Minister of the Interior Malvy for the 
way in which he had permitted the spread of 
defeatism and pacifism. This brought about 
the fall of Malvy on Aug. 31, 1917, and a week 
later that of the entire cabinet. Paul Pain- 
levé, a Radical-Socialist, succeeded Ribot as 
Premier on September 12 and inherited his 
troubles. Upon the speedy fall of the Pain- 
levé Ministry Clemenceau assumed office and 
began to clean the Augean stable of treason 
and of neglect. He abandoned coalition and 
the political dillydallying of his predecessors 
and declared that he would pursue but one pol- 
icy, that of vigorously prosecuting the War. 
In pursuance of this policy he assumed, aside 
from the Premiership, the Ministry of War as 
the all-important cabinet post and filled his 
ministry for the most part with men who had 
been little before the public eye but stood out 
for ability and energy and were thoroughly 
faithful to his policy. He put a speedy end to 
the defeatist campaign by ordering the arrest 
of its more important leaders. At the end of 
1917 the prosecution of Caillaux was ordered; 
the arrest of this former Prime Minister and 
leader of the great Radical-Socialist Party took 
place on Jan. 14, 1918. A series of treason 
trials followed now in rapid succession. The 
first case to come up before the Paris Court- 
martial was that of Bolo Pasha, an adventurer 
of low birth and a shady past, who had at- 
tempted to buy the Journal with German mon- 
ey and had also invested money in other news- 
papers for defeatist purposes. The trial re- 
sulted, Feb. 14, 1918, in a verdict of death for 
Bolo Pasha and of three years’ imprisonment 
for his tool Parchére. Two weeks later the 
Bonnet Rouge trial began. Seven persons, in- 
cluding Duval, the editor of the Bonnet Rouge, 
a defeatist newspaper, and Leymarie, Malvy’s 
secretary, were charged with complicity in com- 
merce with the enemy. Upon overwhelming 
evidence Duval was condemned to death and 
the others to prison terms ranging from two 
to 10 years. Duval was executed a few days 
before the opening of public proceedings against 
Malvy on July 16, 1918. Malvy, a leader of 
the Radical-Socialist Party and a lieutenant of 
Caillaux, had been Minister of the Interior 
from 1914-1917 in five successive cabinets. In 
this capacity he had assisted Caillaux and his 
associates in their efforts to obstruct the prose- 
cution of the War and to bring about an under- 
standing with Germany. It was charged that 
by his failure to combat the enemy agents in 
France he had been guilty of negligence in of- 
fice and had thus favored the cause of Ger- 
many and aided in bringing about the formida- 
ble mutiny which broke out among 118 batta- 
lions at the front subsequent to Nivelle’s un- 
successful attack on the Chemin des Dames in 
1917. The Senate, sitting as a High Court, dis- 
missed Daudet’s charge that Malvy had com- 
municated Nivelle’s plan of attack to the Ger- 
mans, but found him guilty of having failed as 
Minister of the Interior to combat the plan to 
destroy the morale of the country and the dis- 
cipline of the army, in other words of having 


FRANCE 


committed negligence equivalent to treason) 
The Court condemned him to five years’ exile 
but without civil degradation. Malvy left im- 
mediately for Spain, protesting his innocence. 
Senator Charles Humbert, an influential mem- 
ber of the Military Committee of the Senate, 
Pierre Lenoir, and others were brought to trial 
before the Third Court-martial on Mar. 31, 
1919, because of charges in connection with the 
purchase of the Journal with enemy money. 
Senator Humbert and Sadoux were acquitted, 
Lenoir condemned to death, and Desouches sen- 
tenced to five years’ imprisonment. The final 
act of the treason drama, the trial of Joseph 
Caillaux, did not take place till the spring of 
1920. Although he seemed to be at the bottom 
of the defeatist campaign and was suspected of 
having plotted to seize the government by a 
coup d’état and conclude peace with Germany, 
the High Court found Caillaux guilty on Apr. 
23, 1920, of having had relations with enemy 
agents and of having given information of the 
greatest value to the enemy, but exonerated 
him of having guilty intentions. Caillaux was 
sentenced to two years’ imprisonment, 10 years’ 
loss of civic rights, and five years’ residence 
within a district to be designated by the Court. 
Since he had served his term already, he took 
up his domicile in the assigned district, where, 
with consistency and with his admitted bril- 
liance, he carried on a struggle to recover his 
former prestige. 

The importance of the treason trials lies not 
so much in the sensational disclosures as to 
the existence of war-weariness, defeatism, and 
mutiny in France; or in the trial of former 
premiers, ministers, and senators, as in the fact 
that they mark the temporary conclusion of a 
struggle, started long before the War, between 
two great French policies. The one policy, led 
by Caillaux, aimed at peace and conciliation 
with Germany and on this basis at a concert of 
the continental European nations under French 
and German leadership. The other policy, led 
by Clemenceau, stood for a military victory 
over Germany, an Entente with England, and 
the fulfilment of French national aspirations, 
especially on the eastern frontier. Both Cail- 
laux and Clemenceau were unscrupulous and de- 
termined in the pursuit of their policies. Cail- 
laux had been slowly preparing the way for his 
success ever since the outbreak of the War. 
The climax came with the war-weariness and 
the mutinies following Nivelle’s abortive at- 
tack on the Chemin des Dames early in 1917. 
It was then that Clemenceau made his great 
effort for the rooting out of all elements op- 
posed to the most energetic prosecution of the 
War. The treason trials mark the victory of 
Clemenceau’s policy over the Caillaux policy. 
Having disposed of the anti-war elements Clem- 
enceau set to work organizing all energy in the 
country to prosecute the War. He refused to 
follow his predecessors in the policy of deceiv- 
ing public opinion and stated to the country the 
sombre truth as to the military and political 
situation. He supplied the weakened army 
with new soldiers by drastically draining of- 
fices, factories and fields of dispensable man- 
power. At the same time he instituted rigor- 
ous measures to ensure an adequate food sup- 
ply. His rationing system had not, however, 
the same success which similar measures had 
in Great Britain and Germany because of the 
disinclination of the French people to submit 


503 


FRANCE 


to strict alimentary discipline. Clemenceau al- 
so dealt sternly with the Socialist and Syndi- 
calist opposition which raised its head during 
the summer of 1918. French morale improved 
st :adily notwithstanding severe trials, such as 
the Parisians experienced during the bombard- 
ment and air raids in the spring and the sum- 
mer of the last year of the War. If the de- 
sired end, military victory over Germany, was 
finally achieved it was in no small measure due 
to the iron rule of Clemenceau. 

Immediately after the Armistice the politi- 
cians made a determined effort to reéstablish 
the cabinet system and to divest Clemenceau of 
that one-man power which he had exercised 
during the War and which had enabled him to 
hold the country together till the final victory. 
In opposition to such designs Clemenceau made 
clear in the debates in the Chamber during No- 
vember, 1918, that he had no intention of giv- 
ing up his powers as peace-maker and that, 
outside of a general outline, he would not take 
the whole country into his confidence in regard 
to his peace policy. In this attitude he was 
sustained by the Chamber by a vote of 398 to 93. 
Clemenceau conducted the peace negotiations 
(see PEACE CONFERENCE) in secrecy, aided not 
by eminent French politicians but by his own 
faithful and trusted collaborators. This caused 
considerable resentment in Parliament. More- 
over, able as Clemenceau had been as War Pre- 
mier and as peace negotiator, he had failed in 
his economie and labor policies. Extremist ag- 
itation and the failure of the government to 
remedy economic distress, and particularly the 
high cost of living, brought about a number 
of serious strikes during the first half of 1919. 
When the Peace Treaty came up for discussion 
in the Chamber in September, 1919, the Left 
censured the spirit of harshness in which it 
had been conceived, while the Nationalist dep- 
uties maintained that it did not go far enough 
in providing France with security, especially 
since Germany was permitted to retain the left 
bank of the Rhine. A rejection of the Treaty 
being out of the question, it was finally rati- 
fied by 372 votes against 52. 

Great interest centred in the elections of 
1919, the first since 1914. With the aid of 
Alexandre Millerand, Clemenceau organized an 
electoral phalanx, the National Bloc, composed 
of the more conservative parties, to combat So- 
cialism and Bolshevism. The elections to the 
Chamber, held on Nov. 16, 1919, resulted in a 
decisive victory for the National Bloc and in a 
defeat for the Socialists and the Radical-So- 
cialists. The balance of power was_ shifted 
from the Left and the Left Centre to the mod- 
erate Centre and the conservative Right. More- 
over, since the two parties which had hitherto 
opposed anti-clerical legislation, the Progres- 
sists and the Action Libérale, made the great- 
est gains, the election signified, for the time 
at least, a Catholic revival. It was quite evi- 
dent from the results that the election was an 
expression of the spirit of the War and not of 
peace. The most important business before the 
new Parliament was the election of a successor 
to Raymond Poincaré as President of the 
French Republic. Clemenceau, though not ea- 
ger, was induced to stand for election, but was 
defeated by Paul Deschanel in the Republican 
Caucus ballot which was held before the elec- 
tion. Thereupon the National Assembly chose 
Deschanel by 734 out of 888 votes on Jan. 17, 


FRANCE 504 


1920. On the following day the Clemenceau 
Ministry resigned and Alexandre Millerand 
formed a new cabinet, in the composition of 
which he followed Clemenceau’s example of 
choosing men of practical experience rather 
than brilliant politicians. 

The new government was soon called upon to 
deal with very serious strikes which began In 
Iebruary, 1920. These were caused by extrem- 
ist sections in the French labor movement and 
were unpopular with the great mass of the 
French people; they failed disastrously by the 
end of May, dealing a severe blow to the Con- 
fédération Générale du Travail. The chief aim 
of the Millerand government was the ap- 
plication of the terms of the Peace Treaty, 
and toward this end Raymond Poincaré was 
appointed President of the Reparations Com- 
mission on February 20. The successive Con- 
ferences at Boulogne, Spa, and Hythe pro- 
duced very few results. The  unsatisfac- 
tory trend of the Reparations policy engen- 
dered no little discontent in Parliament and 
Millerand might have had to contend with 
very strong opposition had it not been for the 
‘guecess of his labor policy and of his Polish 
policy. In accordance with the French post- 
war policy of erecting Poland as a strong “buf- 
fer” state between Russia and Germany in or- 
der to prevent a union of interest between these 
two former Powers the Millerand government 
during the summer of 1920 gave successful aid 
to Poland in its struggle with Soviet Russia. 
The national approval accorded to this policy 
made, in conjunction with other factors, Mil- 
lerand the logical candidate for the Presidency 
when President Deschanel was forced to resign 
on account of illness on Sept. 16, 1920. Mil- 
lerand accepted the candidature and issued a 
statement declaring that, if elected, he would 
continue the same policy which he had pursued 
while Premier. He was duly elected on Novem- 
ber 26 by 695 out of 892 votes and immediately 
thereafter let it be known that he intended to 
increase the powers of the presidential office 
and to assume a greater control over foreign 
affairs than his predecessors had done. A new 
ministry was formed by Georges Leygues, but 
this cabinet was clearly intended as a make- 
shift and gave way in the middle of January, 
1921 to a cabinet under Aristide Briand. 

The return to power of the parliamentary 
veteran Briand marked a revival of government 
by coalition and an attempt to modify the 
French Reparations policy and above all im- 
prove the somewhat strained relations with 
England. Ever since the Peace Conference 
there had been gradually increasing disagree- 
ment between France and Great Britain (q.v.) 
as to the application of the terms of the Treaty. 
The French interpreted the English counsel for 
moderation as an attempt to whittle down 
France’s share after England had been fully 
indemnified by the German colonies, markets 
and ships. They reasoned, moreover, that the 
English could well afford to be lenient with 
the Germans since England as a result of the 
Allied victory had been secured against any 
possible German aggression, while France, sit- 
uated on the continent, had to reckon with a 
rapid recovery of a neighbor possessed of great 
powers of recuperation. Whatever the merits 
of this contention were, it produced on the part 
of the French public and government a tenden- 


FRANCE 

cy to use the policy of the strong arm in con- 
tinental European affairs and it brought dis- 
eord into the Franco-British relations. This 
estrangement was also fostered by other points 
of divergence in policy, such as Franco-British 
differences in the Near East, notably in Syria; 
the conflict between the French pro-Turkish and 
the British anti-Turkish policy; the British ne- 
gotiations for resumption of trade with Soviet 
Russia and the vehement opposition of the 
French to Soviet Russia because of the Poles 
and the Russian debt; the refusal of the British 
to follow the French in giving unconditional 
support to the Poles in the Danzig and Upper 
Silesian questions; ete. Briand made an earn- 
est effort to remove the diplomatic friction be- 
tween the two countries but from the outset he 
encountered the opposition of the conservative 
elements under the leadership of Poincaré. 
Further dissatisfaction in France was produced 
by the results of the Washington Conference at 
the end of 1921. (See WASHINGTON CONFER- 
ENCE.) By virtue of the fact that this Con- 
ference concerned itself chiefly with problems 
of the Pacific, France was placed at this meet- 
ing in a position of less importance than either 
the United States, Great Britain, or Japan. 
The Agreement on Naval Limitation, subscribed 
to by Briand was felt to be disadvantageous to 
France. This discontent delayed the ratifica- 
tion of the Five Power Naval Treaty by France 
until July 7,-1923. The hostility toward Bri- 
and in the Chamber, resulting from what was 
considered his too conciliatory attitude, reached 
such intensity after the Cannes Conference, Jan. 
6-12, 1922, that he deemed it best to resign 
(Janek, ee 

The reaction against Briand’s policy brought 
Poincaré into office. The new Prime Minister 
stated from the outset that he preferred strong 
methods and the old diplomacy to conciliation 
and conferences and in consequence a distinct 
change for the worse took place almost imme- 
diately in Franco-British relations. Poincaré 
had inherited from his predecessor a pledge to 
attend the forthcoming Genoa Conference (Apr. 
10-May 19, 1922), and, while refusing to go 
himself, he felt bound, in compliance with the 
obligation entered into by Briand, to send a 
delegation which was headed by Louis Barthou, 
the President of the Reparations Commission, 
as his personal representative. Owing to Poin- 
caré’s insistence that neither the Peace Treaty 
nor Reparations should be subject to discussion 
at the Conference, the Genoa meeting had at 
best only a moral effect. The Hague Confer- 
ence, held in June of the same year, which was 
intended to be a continuation of the Genoa 
Conference, likewise ended in failure, since no 
agreement could be reached with the Soviets. 
In the Turkish question France found herself 
during 1922 often in a rather embarrassing op- 
position to Great Britain and it was only after 
the sweeping Turkish victory in August, 1922, 
that the two Powers recognized the harmful ef- 
fects of their disagreement and arrived at more 
effective codperation in regard to Turkey. But 
the Reparations problem, and the connected 
problems of the inter-Allied debts and of se- 
curity for France, tended more and more to 
produce serious divergence of opinion between 
France and Great Britain, all the more so in 
view of Poincaré’s reversion to strong methods 
at the close of 1922. At the conference with 


FRANCE 


Great Britain, held in Paris during the open- 
ing days of 1923, Poincaré announced his in- 
tention of seizing from Germany productive 
guarantees with the view of holding them till 
Germany fulfilled her obligations under the 
Peace Treaty. Accordingly French troops were 
ordered on Jan. 10, 1923, to occupy the 
Ruhr. (See REPARATIONS.) This action not 
only caused anger abroad and among France’s 
allies, but also evoked protests from the Left 
groups in the French Chamber. When it came 
to a showdown, however, the Chamber, with the 
exception of the Communists and some of the 
Socialists, supported Poincaré in his venture. 
The Ruhr occupation involved a heavy drain 
on French resources and complicated still fur- 
ther the already very serious French finanei- 
al situation. During his premiership Poincaré 
strove with zeal to consolidate French military 
supremacy by encouraging the afterward dis- 
credited Separatist movement in the Rhineland 
and by cementing France’s relations with the 
Little Entente (q.v.). The French policy to- 
ward the latter aimed at the building up of a 
wall of defense for France out of the succession 
states which had been constructed by the Peace 
Conference on the ruins of the former three 
great Powers of the European continent. By 
rendering political, military, and financial as- 
sistance to these new states France bound them 
to her in close alliance and thereby sought to 
prevent the possible rise of these former Pow- 
ers in challenge to her own hegemony on the 
European continent. Meanwhile the failure of 
Poincaré’s Ruhr and Rhineland ventures and 
the comparative isolation of France among the 
Powers resulting from his policy had greatly 
diminished his popularity at home. Already 
during the summer of 1923 a number of by- 
elections had gone against the government and 
the Radical-Socialists and the Unified Socialists 
had formed the “Bloc des Gauches” for the’ pur- 
pose of offering a compact political organiza- 
tion in the forthcoming elections in opposition 
to Poincaré’s and Millerand’s “Bloc National.” 
Moreover the Prime Minister was seriously em- 
barrassed in the early spring of 1924 by a do- 
mestic crisis due to the dwindling of the value 
of the france and the increase in the cost of liv- 
ing. Poincaré’s proposal to meet the critical 
financial situation by an increase in the taxes 
amounting to 20 per cent, while a credit to his 
courage, did not improve his chances in the im- 
pending elections. In the face of strong oppo- 
sition the government’s tax bill was carried on 
Feb. 22, 1924. Poincaré took drastic measures 
to stop the continued fall of the france but the 
currency crisis was not remedied until Morgan 
and Company stepped into the breach with a 
loan. All tuese measures were used by the op- 
position against Poincaré in the Chamber and 
in the constituencies. When defeated on March 
26 on an unimportant issue Poincaré resigned 
but resumed office two days later with a recon- 
structed cabinet. In regard to the Dawes Re- 
port of Experts Poincaré after some hesitation 
signified his approval, but raised and left open 
the all-important question of “sanctions” in 
case of German default. He also refused to de- 
clare his willingness to evacuate the Ruhr. 
His attitude was, however, of less importance 
than formerly in view of the results of the 
elections on May 11, 1924, which indicated a 
defeat of the “Bloc National” by the “Bloc des 


595 


FRANCE 


Gauches.” The composition of the new Cham- 
ber was as follows: Conservatives 11; Repub- 
lican Entente 137; Left Republicans 92; Na- 
tional Radicals 34; Radical Socialists 127; In- 
dependent Socialists 39; Unified Socialists 101; 
Communists 29. The government strength was 
roughly 274, while tie opposition was able to 
muster at least 296. . 

The radical opposition immediately brought 
strong pressure to bear against Poincaré and 
Millerand. They aimed not only at the fall 
of the Poincaré government, which was a 
foregone conclusion, but at the resignation of 
President Millerand as well. They charged the 
President with having gone outside the non- 
partisan sphere within which the President of 
the French Republic is confined by tradition 
and the spirit of Republican French govern- 
ment. The chief reason for their opposition to 
Millerand was, however, the fact that the lat- 
ter was, in conjunction with Poincaré, the 
mainstay of the nationalist policy inaugurated 
by Clemenceau during the War. Upon the as- 
sembling of the Chamber on June 1 the Poin- 
caré government stepped out of office. Deter- 
mined opposition, however, was encountered 
from President Millerand, who was not willing 
to relinquish his office without a serious fight. 
A tense parliamentary crisis ensued in conse- 
quence. Millerand attempted to gain time by 
appointing the stop-gap cabinet of Francois- 
Marsal, on June 8, but the radical opposition, 
which numbered by this time 307 deputies, 
would have no relations with it and forced it 
out on June 10. A message of the President 
was met by a vote of 329 to 214 in the Cham- 
ber and of 154 to 144 in the Senate in favor of 
the technical motion to adjourn all discussion 
of the message, whereupon President Millerand 
resigned his office on June 11. On June 12 the 
moderate Radical-Socialist Doumergue, Presi- 
dent of the Senate was elected President by 515 
votes against 309 for the more advanced Radi- 
cal-Socialist Painlevé, President of the Cham- 
ber, and two days later Herriot formed a Radi- 
cal-Socialist cabinet. Since the Radical-Social- 
ist Party, the Party of Caillaux, was now in 
power, supported by the Socialists, and since 
the new Premier had been Caillaux’s successor 
as the leader of this party, the change in the 
French government may reasonably be regarded 
as a step in the direction of the policy of Cail- 
laux. This development was signified by the 
immediate passage of an Amnesty Bill with 
specific clauses granting amnesty to Caillaux 
and Malvy. Any rapid and complete overturn 
of French policy in consequence of the Kaleido- 
scopic events in French parliamentary affairs 
during the late spring and the early summer 
was precluded, however, by the rather precari- 
ous position of the new government. Its ma- 
jority depended entirely on the whole-hearted 
support of the Socialists and even with the aid 
of the latter its majority was a very narrow 
one in face of the large Nationalist Bloc in the 
Chamber. As a result the Herriot government 
had to take into consideration the wishes of 
the Nationalists and could not at once abandon 
the Poincaré policy entirely. On the whole the 
“Bloc des Gauches” stood for complete accord 
with England, a betterment of Franco-German 
relations through conciliatory methods on the 
part of France, for international action as over 
against isolated French action in regard to 


FRANCE 


Reparations, and against the occupation of the 
Ruhr.1 The dependence of the government on 
the Nationalists was amply manifested by the 
Premier’s attitude in his conferences with Pre- 
mier Macdonald and during the London Con- 
ference in July, 1924, which deliberated on the 
application of the Dawes Report. Under pres- 
sure from the Nationalists Herriot, in spite of 
his admitted conciliatory attitude, defended the 
French claim to impose “sanctions” in case 
of German default, opposed the admission of 
German delegates on an equal basis with the 
Allies and the immediate evacuation, military 
and economic, of the Ruhr, and reaffirmed the 
contention of former Premiers Briand and Poin- 
caré that the 15 year period of occupation in 
the Rhineland could not be considered to have 
begun until the Germans had made substan- 
tial payments on Reparation accounts. His 
stand on these questions was, however, gener- 
ally interpreted as being a temporary conces- 
sion to the large Nationalist minority in the 
Chamber. At the end of July it was reported 
that the London Conference had reached a 
thorough understanding on the questions of the 
application of the Dawes Report and that a 
compromise had been effected between the 
French and Anglo-American viewpoints where- 
by adequate machinery would be provided to 
deal with a possible German default. This re- 
port, if substantiated, would indicate that in 
the future isolated French action against Ger- 
many will be superseded by common action on 
the part of the Powers, and in the last analy- 
sis it would mean a victory of the French mod- 
erates over the intransigents led by Clemenceau, 
Poincaré, and Millerand. See also the follow- 
ing articles: FRENCH LITERATURE; SCULPTURE; 
NAVIES OF THE WorRLD; RHINELAND; SAAR 
BASIN; PEACE CONFERENCE AND TREATIES. 

FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844-1924). A French 
novelist (see VoL. IX). In 1914 he published 
La Révolte des Anges (The Revolt of the An- 
gels) and later Ce que Disent Nos Morts 
(1916), On Life and Letters, Series IV (1924), 
and The Latin Genius (1924), translated by 
Wilfrid Jackson. In October, 1920, he married 
Mlle. Emma Leprévotte. He received the Nobel 
Prize in literature in 1921. 

FRANCIS, Davip RowLanp (1850-— ). 
An American merchant (see VoL. IX). He be- 
came United States Ambassador to Russia in 
1916, but returned to the United States when 
the Bolsheviks overthrew the Czar’s government. 

FRANCK, Harry ALVERSON (1881- ya 
An American traveler and author, born at 
Munger, Mich. He studied at Michigan, Co- 
lumbia, and Harvard Universities in this coun- 
try and did graduate work abroad. His trav- 
els, interrupted now and then by periods of 
teaching, have taken him to South America 
(1911-15), the West Indies (1919-20), and the 
Orient (1922-— ). He is the author of A 
Vagabond Journey around the World (1910), 
Four Months Afoot in Spain (1911), Tramp- 
ing through Mexico, Guatemala, and Hon- 
duras (1916), Vagabonding down the Andes 
(1917), Vagabonding through Changing Ger- 
many (1919), Working North from Patagonia 
(1921), and others. 

FRANCKE, Kuno (1885- ). A German- 
American .scholar and author (see Von. IX). 

1In internal affairs it favored chiefly reduction 


of the taxes and of military service and a resumption 
of anti-clerical legislation. 


506 


FRANKLIN 


He became professor emeritus and honorary 
curator at Harvard in 1917 and was president 
of the Modern Language Association of America 
(1917). He wrote A German-American Con- 
fession of Faith (1915); The German Spirit 
(1916); Personality in German Literature be- 
fore Luther (1916); Die Kulturwerte der Deut- 
scher Litteratur von der Reformation bis zur 
Aufkldrung (1922); and Die Kulturwerke der 
Deutschen Litteratur in Ihrer Geschictlichen 
Entwicklung (1923). 

FRANK, GLENN (1887— ). An American 
author and editor, born at Queen City, Mo., and 
educated at Kirkeville State Normal School and 
at Northwestern University (1912). In 1921 he 
became editor-in-chief of the Century Magazine. 
He published The Politics of Industry (1919) 
and is co-author of The Stakes of the War 
(1918), and The League of Nations—The Prin- 
ciple and the Practice (1919). 

FRANK, REINHARD (1860- ). A Ger- 
man jurist and Privy Councilor, born at Red- 
dighiiuser Hammer, and educated at the univer- 
sities of Marburg, Munich, and Kiel. In 1887 
he became lecturer at Marburg, and subsequent- 
ly held professorships at Giessen (1890), Halle 
(1900), Tiibingen (1902), and Munich (1914). 
In 1920-21 he was rector of the University of 
Munich. His numerous publications include 
Wollfsche Strafrechtsphilosophie und ihr Ver- 
héltnis zur Kriminalpolitischen Aufklirung im 
Achtzehnten Jahrunderts (1887); Naturrecht, 
Geschaftliches Recht und  WSoziales Recht 
(1891); Strafrechtliche Fille zu Akademis- 
chem Gebrauch, 5th ed. (1912); Schutestrafe 
und Vergeltungstrafe (1908); Die Belgische 
Neutralitét (1915); Kann Wilhelm IT Ausgelie- 
fert Werden? (1919); and Sinn und Tragweite 
des Auslieferunggesetzes (1920). He became 
editor of the Vergleichende Darstellung des 
Deutschen und Ausléindischen Strafrechts and 
the Pitaval der Gegenwart. He was also made 
a member of the Kommission fiir das Strafge- 
setzbrauch. 

FRANKFURTER, Fetrx (1882- ). An 
American lawyer and educator, born in Vienna, 
Austria. He came to the United States in 
1894 and in 1902 graduated from the College 
of the City of New York. He studied law at 
Harvard and from 1906 to 1910 was United 
States Attorney of the Southern District of 
New York. From 1914 he was professor of law 
at the Harvard Law School. During the War 
he acted as major and judge-advocate, and as 
secretary and counsel of the President’s media- 
tion commission. In 1918 he was appointed 
chairman of the War Labor Policies Board. 
He was also a member of the board of directors 
of the Institute for Government Research, and 
was the author of Cases Under the Interstate 
Commerce Act. 

FRANKLIN-BOUILLON. See Turkey. 

FRANKLIN, Epwarp Curtis (1862-— by 
An American chemist, born at Geary City, Kan., 
and educated at the University of Kansas, in 
Boston, and at Johns Hopkins. He was an as- 
sistant in chemistry at Kansas, where in 1899 
he attained the chair of physical chemistry. 
In 1903 he was called to the associate profes- 
sorship of organic chemistry in Leland Stan- 
ford Junior University, where in 1906 he be- 
came full professor. Dr. Franklin has had oth- 
er scientific connections, notably that of pro- 
fessor of chemistry with the hygienic labora- 
tory of the United States Public Health Serv- 


FRANKLIN COLLEGE 


ice (1911-13), physical chemist of the Bureau 
of Standards (1918), and similar posts with 
other government advisory boards. His origi- 
nal investigations have had to do with liquid 
ammonia as an electrolytic solvent, the ammo- 
nia system of acids, bases, and salts, and vari- 
ous other preparations of which ammonia is an 
important constituent. These for the most 
part have been published in the American 
Chemical Journal or the Journal of the Ameri- 
can Ohemical Society. He was chosen presi- 
dent of the American Chemical Society in 
1923, 

FRANKLIN COLLEGE. An institution at 
Franklin, Ind., founded in 1834. The number 
of students increased from 206 in 1914 to 400 
in 1924, the faculty rose from 14 to 27 mem- 
bers, and the library increased from 19,100 to 
26,048 volumes. The endowment increased from 
$312,500 to $800,000 during the same period, 
and the total income from $49,498 to $155,970. 
Departments of Biblical literature, sociology 
and economies, and art were established. A 
campaign was begun to raise $250,000 for build- 


ings. C. E. Goodell succeeded E. A. Hanley as 
president. 
FRANZ, SHEPHERD Ivory (1874- J. 


An American psychopathologist (see Vor. IX) 
attached to the United States Government Hos- 
pital for the Insane. After 1914 he edited the 
Psychological Bulletin and was associate editor 
of Psychobiology. He was appointed member 
of the psychology committee of the National 
Research Council in 1917 and served as presi- 
dent of the American Psychological Association 
for the year 1920. 

FRANZ, WILHELM (1859- ). A. Ger- 
man professor of English philology at Jena 
and Tiibingen. His works include Die Grund- 
zuge der Sprache Shakspeares (1902), Orthog- 
raphie, Lautgebung und Wortbildung in den 
Werken Shakspeares (1905), Shakspeares Gram- 
matik (1909), Die Treibende Kraft im Werden 
der Englischen Sprache (1906), Der Wert der 
Englischen Kultur fiir Deutschlands Entwick- 
lung (1913), Britanien und der Krieg (1915), 
Shakspeare als Kulturkraft in Deutschland und 


England (1916), Die Feindschaft der Angel- 
sachsen (1917), and Deutsche Empfindung im 
Kampf mit Angelsichsischem Kriegswillen 
(1918). 


FRAZER, Sir JAMES GeEoRGE (1854- }. 
A British anthropologist and folklorist (see 
Vor. IX). His work, The Golden Bough, orig- 
inally published in 2 volumes in 1890, rewritten 
and expanded to 12 volumes (1911-15), was re- 
published in an abridged edition in 1922. He 
is also the author of Folklore in the Old Testa- 
ment (1918); and Sir Roger de Coverley 
and Other Literary Pieces (1920). He _ pub- 
lished Apollodorus, with an English translation 
(1921). 

FRAZER, JoSePH CHRISTIE WHITNEY 
(1875- ). An American chemist and edu- 
eator, born at Lexington, Ky. He graduated 
from the Kentucky State University in 1897 
and took postgraduate courses at Johns Hop- 
kins. From 1901 to 1907 he was assistant and 
associate in chemistry at that university, and 
from 1907 to 1911 was chemist at the United 
States Bureau of Mines. From the latter date 
he was professor of chemistry at Johns Hop- 
kins, and from 1921 was also B. N. Baker 
professor. 

FREDERICK, Pavutine (Mrs. C. A. RUTH- 


5°7 


FRENCH 


ERFORD) (1885— ). An 
born in Boston. She made her début in New 
York in 1902. She played in many Broadway 
productions including Innocent and Don’t Shoot 
and made her screen début in Mrs. Dean’s 
Defense. She later appeared in film versions 
of Zaza, Tosca, The Woman on the Indea, 
Bonds of Love, The Paliser Case, Madame X, 
and The Glory of Clementina. 

FREDERICQ, PAu (1850-1920). A Flem- 
ish historian (see Vout. IX). The German gov- 
ernment exiled him from Belgium during the 
War because of his activity in strengthening 
the morale of the Belgians. After the Armi- 
stice he was appointed rector of Ghent Univer- 
sity, but weakness from imprisonment caused 
his death. He was g member of the Académie 
Royale de Belgique and the Académie des Pays- 
Bas. 

FREE BAPTISTS. See BAprTists, FREE. 

FREE VERSE. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH 
AND AMERICAN. 

FREEMAN, Epwarp Monroe (1875— }. 
An American botanist, born at St. Paul. He 
graduated from the University of Minnesota 
in 1898 and did graduate work there and at 
Cambridge. He became professor of botany and 
plant pathology at the University of Minnesota 
in 1908 and has been dean of the College of 
Agriculture, Forestry and Home Economics at 
that university. Professor Freeman is the au- 
thor of Minnesota Plant Diseases. 

FREEMAN, LEwis RANSOME (1878— p. 
An American author, born at Genoa Junction, 
Wis., and educated at Leland Stanford Junior 
University. He has spent much of his time in 
traveling and as foreign war correspondent, 
with the British, French, and Italian armies 
(1915-17) and in Germany (1918). He wrote 
Many Fronts (1918), Stories of the Ships 
(1919), Sea Hounds (1919), To Kiel in the 
Hercules (1919), In the Tracks of the Trades 
(1920), Hell’’s Hatches (1921), The Yellow- 
stone to New Orleans (1922), When Cassi 
Blooms (1922), and other books. 

FREEMAN, ROBERT (1878- yas An 
American clergyman, born in Edinburgh, Scot- 
land. After engaging in mission work in Penn- 
sylvania and New York for four years, he was 
ordained in the Baptist ministry in 1900; 
thereafter he held various pastorates until 1910. 
He was moderator of the Synod of California 
in 1920-21. During the War he directed the 
first expeditionary division of the Y. M. C. A. 
and in 1917-18 was director of religious work 
in France: Other offices which he has filled are 
director of the San Francisco Theological Sem- 
inary and trustee of Occidental College. He is 
author of The Hour of Prayer (1914) and The 
Land I Live In (1921). 

FRENCH, Daniet Cuester (1850- y. 
An American sculptor (see Vor. IX). He was 
awarded a medal of honor at the Panama Pa- 
cific Exposition, in 1915, and a gold medal of 
honor by the National Institute of Arts and 
Letters, in 1918. From 1910 to 1915 he was a 
member of the National Commission of Fine 
Arts. His output during 1914-24 was as aston- 
ishing in quality as in quantity. It includes 
“Sculpture” (marble, St. Louis Museum) ; fig- 
ures symbolic of Manhattan and Brooklyn on 
Manhattan Bridge; “Memory” (marble, Metro- 
politan Museum, New York City), his finest fe- 
male nude; a statue of Lafayette, Easton, 
Penna.; the Dupont fountain, Washington, D. 


American actress, 


FRENCH 


C.; and especially, a colossal bronze Lincoln for 
the Lincoln Memorial at Washington. 

FRENCH, JOHN DENTON PINKSTONE 
(1852-— ). A British field-marshal (see 
VoL. IX). He commanded the English forces 
in France from the beginning of the War till 
the end of 1915. His operations were ham- 
pered until the last three months by lack of 
artillery ammunition. He resigned in Decem- 
ber, 1915, and was made Viscount French of 
Ypres and High Lake. He was then made com- 
mander-in-chief of the United Kingdom, hold- 
ing that post till May, 1918, when he was ap- 
pointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. He re- 
signed in 1921 and was made an earl on return- 
ing to England. See War IN EvurRopE, Western 
Front. 

FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA. A 
French possession in west central Africa com- 
prising the colonies of Gabun, Middle Congo, 
Ubangi-Shari, and Chad. Its area is estimated 
by the French at 982,049 square miles, exclud- 
ing the Cameroon (q.v), of 166,489 square 
miles, which forms a separate colony joined to 
Equatorial Africa. By the census of 1921 it had 
a population of 2,845,936, of whom 1932 were 
whites. The largest cities had the following 
populations: Libreville, 20,000; Brazzaville, 
40,000; Fort Lamy, 10,000. The tropical prod- 
ucts continued the sources of economic wealth. 
Caoutchouc, lumber, ivory, palm kernels, palm 
oil, were the principal exports in 1921. Coffee 
and cacao were beginning to receive attention. 
Large herds of cattle, sheep, camels, horses, and 
ostriches were the property of the natives, but 
the lack of transportation eliminated them from 
the export trade. In 1920, total exports were 
23,524,154 frances as compared with 21,181,768 
francs in 1913. Imports in 1920 were 8,807,- 
612 frances as compared with 21,181,768 francs 
in 1913. The fall of the franc after the War 
made the actual decrease in trade greater. The 
territory still lacked railroad communication 
in 1921. In February, 1921, a line was com- 
menced from Brazzaville to the Atlantic ocean 
(300 miles). The general budget in 1922 
called for an expenditure of 9,358,542 francs. 
The four colonial budgets included expenditures 
of 15,673,000 frances. Deficits were characteris- 
tic of the period 1912-22, in 1922 a subvention 
of 4,000,000 frances being necessary for admin- 
istrative purposes. Colonization continued tar- 
dy “because of the difficulties of transport. To 
hasten the country’s settlement, the French 
Chamber passed, in 1920, a measure calling for 
the expenditure of 171,000,000 francs on rail- 
way, port, road, telegraph, and river develop- 
ments. 

FRENCH ESTABLISHMENTS IN 
INDIA. Five provinces in India belonging to 
the French empire. These were Pondicherry 
(170,785 inhabitants in 1921), Karikal (53,583 
population), Chandernagore (25,119 popula- 
tion), Mahé (11,218 population), Yanam (4683 
population). Total area, 196 square miles; to- 
tal population, 265,388. Chief towns were: 
Pondicherry (46,605), Oulgaret (22,307), Vil- 
lenour (21,033). Principal products were rice, 
sugar cane, cotton, manioc, cacao, coffee, ground- 
nuts. Imports in 1920 were 25,583,190 frances; 
in 1913, 10,837,115 franes. Exports for 1913, 
1920, 1921, were 43,720,095 francs, 24,554,280 
francs, 23,805,649 francs. The budget for 1922 
was 2,630,170 rupees. 

FRENCH ESTABLISHMENTS IN 


508 


FRENCH INDO-CHINA 
OCEANIA. See Paciric OcEAN ISLANDS, 
Society Islands. 

FRENCH INDO-CHINA. The _ general 


name for the French possessions in southeast 
Asia. It is made up of the following units: 
(1) Colony of Cochin-China, 22,000 square 
miles; population in 1921, 3,795,613, of which 
7469 were Europeans; largest city, Cholon, 93,- 
947 population; (2) Protectorate of Annam, 
39,758 square miles; population in 1921, 5,637,- 
751, of which 1642 were Europeans; largest 
city, Binh-Dinh, 74,400 population; (3) Pro- 
tectorate of Cambodia, 57,900 square miles; 
population in 1921, 2,462,585, of which 1368 
were Europeans; largest city, Pném-Penh, 74,- 
643 population; (4) Protectorate of Tonking, 
40,530 square miles; population in 1921, 6,850,- 
453, of which 6332 were Europeans; largest 
city, Hanoi, 73,948 population (5) Protectorate 
of Laos, 96,500 square miles; population in 
1921, 818,755; largest city, Vien-Tiane; (6) 
Kwangchow Wan territory, 190 square miles; 
population, 182,371; (7) Territory around Bat- 
tambang, population 500,000. Total area, 256,- 
878 square miles; total population in 1921, 19,- 
747,528 (18,000,000 estimated in 1914); num- 
ber of Europeans, 23,700. The activities were 
largely agricultural, the country being one of 
the most important rice districts in the world. 
Cinnamon, sugar, and tea were also grown in 
central Annam. Minerals mined were coal and 
lignite, antimony, tin, wolfram, iron, and zinc. 
Cotton was becoming important in Cambodia. 
In 1922, total exports were $115,700,000 of 
which 80 per cent was rice; other exports were 
fish, pepper, hides, coal (almost 1,000,000 met- 
ric tons in 1922), cotton, rubber, and sugar. 
Exports in 1913 totaled $69,051,800 (conver- 
sions made at current rate; the franc was worth 
$0.09 in 1922). Imports in 1922 were $96,900,- 
000 as against $61,247,600 in 1913. Leading 
imports were cotton tissues, cotton thread, iron 
and steel, machinery, and mineral oils. Im- 
ports in 1922 were furnished in the following 
proportions: France, 40.5 per cent; Hongkong, 
29 per cent; Singapore, 6 per cent; England, 3 
per cent; China, 3.6 per cent; United States, 
1.7 per cent; India, 10 per cent. Exports in 
1922 were taken in the following proportions: 
France, 17.3 per cent, Hongkong, 40 per cent; 
Dutch East Indies, 12 per cent; Singapore, 7 
per cent. It was evident that for the first time 
France was approaching the British Empire in 
the question of trade. The United States, the 
Philippines, and Cuba were large purchasers of 
rice. 

In 1922, 775 ships of 1,576,287 metric tons 
entered the port of Saigon, Cochin-China. 
Other ports, though of less importance, were 
Tourane (Annam), Haiphong (Tonking) and 
Kwangchow Wan. Railways in 1922: 1293 
miles (no building since 1914). The general 
budget for 1921 balanced at 54,878,400 piastres 
(1 piastre = $0.52), though excesses, never less 
than 7,000,000 piastres, occurred annually. The 
debt of Indo-China in July, 1922, was 383,494,- 
000 francs. Local budgets for the separate 
areas totaled 71,647,310 piastres in 1923. 
Money in circulation Sept. 30, 1923, 89,562,408 
piastres. 

The French colonial policy was consistently 
enlightened. In 1918 and 1920, new codes of 
law were promulgated while educational prog- 
ress steadily made headway. In 1917, the vari- 
ous technical and professional schools were 


FRENCH LITERATURE 


united to form the University of Indo-China 
and in 1918, a European college was opened at 
Hanoi. During the War, France was able to 
draw upon the region for troops, money, boats, 
provisions, and raw materials. 

FRENCH LITERATURE. The changes in 
the field of French Literature during the decade 
1914 to 1924 can be concretely illustrated by 
the following tables. 

In 1911, V. Giraud, in his Maitres de UV Heure, 
mentions these eight leaders of French thought: 
Loti, Brunetiére, | Faguet, de Vogiié, Bourget, 
Lemaitre, Rod, France. One must add Maeter- 
lineck and Bergson. 

In 1914: drop Rod (inherited from time of 
realism), Vogiié (identified with Russian liter- 
ature invasion); Faguet loses, Bruneti¢érism is 
absorbed by others; France is practically out. 
Retain Loti (Exotism), Lemaitre (National- 
ism), Bourget (Catholic philosophy); Bergson 
and Maeterlineck (Intuitionism). Add: Barres 
and Maurras; Péguy and Psichari; Claudel and 
Jammes; Régnier and Verhaeren; Romain Rol- 
land; André Gide; and, if you consider the 
quantity of readers, Henri Bordeaux. 


In 1918: drop Faguet, Lemaitre (dead), 
Loti, Psichari; Bergson and Maeterlinck. 
Keep: Bourget, Barrés, Maurras; Péguy, 
Claudel, Jammes (all, with variations, being 


traditionalists); Romain Rolland, plus Bar- 


busse (who won notice by his impracticable 
pacifism): André Gide, plus Riviere and 
Thibaudet (adogmatic intellectualists) ; H. Bor- 
deaux. Add no one. 

In 1924: drop Romain Rolland, Barbusse. 
Keep Barrés, Bourget, Maurras; Péguy, 
Claudel, Jammes; Gide, Rivére, Thibaudet, and 
Bowientish Add: Proust; Dorgelés; Carco; 
Giraudoux (?); Morand (?); Tasserre CPs 


Benjamin Crémieux (the solid critic of the 
Nouvelles Littéraires). 

From this, it is easy to see that Varillaud and 
Rambaud’s Enquéte sur les Maitres de la jeune 
Littérature (1923), which turns in favor of 
Bourget, Barrés and Maurras, is not representa- 
tive; at the same time it shows the persistence 
of the ideas represented by those three men; 
the two last are brothers in arms (and so is 
H. Bordeaux) of Bourget who still remains 
from the list of 1911. Now let us enter in- 
to some details. There are three periods to 
study: the pre-war, the war, and the post-war 
period. 

Pre-War Period. Seven months only, dur- 
ing which the movement started during the pre- 
ceding decade continued normally, namely: 
away from dilettantism, estheticism, skepticism 
and cynicism, towards social reform, national 
traditionalism, and Catholicism. The follow- 
ing books might be remembered as particularly 
telling. In poetry Ch. Péguy’s Hve. In prose 
M. Barrés’s Grande Pitié des Eglises de France; 
and in prose fiction: Juliette Adam’s Chrétienne 
—to refute her own Paienne of some years be- 
fore; E. Bauman’s Le Baptéme de Pauline Ar- 
del. Pierre Hamp continues his series Pete 
des Hommes by Enquéte (about the various 
trades in France). Lichtenberger’s Le Sang 
Nouveau,—the blood of those who are going to 
win the war. J. des Gfichons, Vive la Vie! 
On the stage Claudel scores once more, with 
L’Otage, of the most consistent Catholicism; 
while Curel, Devant le Miroir, and Croisset in 
L’Epervier describe the hypersensitive soul of 
the generation. Sacha Guitry cultivates the 


5°9 


FRENCH LITERATURE 


tone of indifference still dear to some then, and 
which he is going to keep up all through the 
War. 

War Period. It will start at once on Aug. 
3, 1914, but will not stop altogether in 1918; 
indeed war publications were coming in even 
in 1924 and promising to continue indefinitely. 
With the first cannon shot all literature, includ- 
ing periodical literature, stopped for several 
weeks except only the Revue des Deua Mondes, 
L’Illustration, and Revue Hebdomadaire (the 
latter in form of a newspaper); and Le Temps, 
Les Débats, Le Matin, L’Echo de Paris—but 
they contained articles from the pens of mas- 
ters, like Barrés (Echo de Paris), Maeterlinck, 
Lavedan, Doumic, Gourmont, Maurras, Masson- 
Forestier, ete. 

Promptly, as soon as the rear was somewhat 
reorganized, this war prose came out in book 
form. Some of the most noteworthy of these 
collections of articles are: Barrés, the series 
L’Ame Francaise et la Guerre (Union sacrée, 
Saints de France, Croix de Cuerre, etc.) ; Lave- 
dan, Grandes Heures; A. France, Sur la Voix 
Glorieuse; Loti, La Grande Barbarie; Maeter- 
linck, Débris de Guerre; P. Adam, Maurras, 
Abbé Wetterlé; the Socialist Hervé (Aprés la 
Marne, La Patrie en Danger). Tinayre, La 
Veillée des Armes will remain as one of the 
fine books of the great first hours of the War. 
Then in 1915 Romain Rolland published in book 
form his much resented Au-Dessus de la Mélée, 
of Tolstoian inspiration. In the course of the 
year 1915, the first soldier diaries began to ap- 
pear, preceded by the gallant, but hardly. very 
trustworthy volume of fiction Gaspard, by René 
Benjamin. One after the other they came out, 
especially in 1916, these books which will re- 
main as a stirring testimonial to the horrors 
of the great War: Paul Lintier, Ma _ Piéce 
(followed by Tub: 1233); Lettres @un Soldat 
(by the painter Lemercier, but published anon- 
ymously); Rédier, Méditations dans la Tran- 
chée ; Gerievoix, Sous Verdun; Dupont, En Cam- 
pagne; Major Henches, ete. Hugues LeRoux 
published the story of his son Aw Champ d’Hon- 
neur. The year 1917 is again very rich: Jean 
des Vignes Rouges’s Bourruw, Soldat de Vau- 
quois is one of the notable war books, and the 
same year the much discussed Le Feu came out, 
written by Barbusse. (The chief objection to 
it in France was that it was spreading discour- 
agement at a time when all needed so much 
courage.) M. Berger, Le Miracle du Few will 
also remain as one of the best war books; and 
even more so Adrien Bertrand’s Appel du Sol 
(which was awarded the Prix Goncourt— 
awarded also to R. Benjamin and to Barbusse). 
Marcel Nadaud’s Chignole is a remarkably alert 
account of military aviation. The year 1917 
was also the year of Duhamel’s Vie des Martyrs 
(later followed by Possession du Monde, the 
Goncourt prize for 1918); the author tells of 
the heart-breaking scenes he witnessed as a 
major in hospitals near the firing line. As the 
struggle lasts the diaries become - more pathetic, 
more shocking, sometimes harder in their moral 
appreciations of events. We will just give a 
few names here and refer for titles to the bib- 
liographies named below: Dieterlen, Péricard, 
Le Bail, Dupont, Tuffrau, Belmont (Lettres) 
Erlande, Milan, Franconi, Binet-Valmer, Grim- 
auty, Julia, Grandvilliers, Malherbe (Goncourt 
prize 1917 for Flamme au Poing), Fribourg 
(Croire), Giraudoux, Fonck, Pirenne, a_ Bel- 


FRENCH LITERATURE 


gian (Vainqueurs de VYser). The volumes of 
the Brothers Tharaud, La Reléve and Randon- 
née de Samba Disuff, deserve a special mention 
here; so does Y. (Larrouy)’s Odyssée dun 
Transport torpillé. The fourth year of the war 
is at hand, and the diaries become less numer- 
ous, but often more bitter, eg. Léon Werth 
(Clavel soldat), M. Berger (Jean Darboise, 
auxiliaire), Barbusse (Clarté); and, after the 
Armistice, what in the opinion of many remains 
the best war book: Dorgelés, Croix de Bois. 
Some sad stories are told by Zavie, Prisonnier 
en Allemagne, Hennebois, Journal Wun Grand 
Blessé, Blanche, En Représailles, Max, Mes Sia 
Evasions. 

Here must be added a reconstitution of the 
phases of the war by Dumur, in his triology in 
Zola style: Nach Paris, Boucher de Verdun, 
Les Défaitistes. Books not dealing directly with 
the War and the army, and yet remarkable, 
are: Isabelle Rimbaud, Dans les remous de la 
bataille; Donnay, Lettres a@ une Dame Blanche 
(Red Cross); Géraldy, La Guerre, Ma- 
dame... (one of the most widely read for 
some time): Blanche, Cahiers dun Artiste (a 
diary at the rear). Pierre Hamp will tell us 
of Les Métiers Blessés in consequence of the 
ruthless destructions by the enemy. In 1818, 
the poet H. Ghéon gave the story of his con- 
version in L’Homme né de la Guerre. A witty 
picture of the English in France during the 
War was given by André Maurois, Les Silences 
du Colonel Bramble. 

Among the books which relate war achieve- 
ments and which betray distinct literary value 
a few must be retained here: Le Goffic, a series 
of volumes the first of which is Dixmude, un 
chapitre de VHistoire des Fusiliers marins; H. 
Bordeaux, Les Derniers jours du Fort de Vaua, 
and Les Prisonniers délivrés. Jean de Pierre- 
feu (who gave out the daily war bulletins), 
Au G.Q.G@. (Grand Quartier Général); M. A. 
Leblond, Galliéni; then Bédier’s sober and im- 
Eien ye DEffort Francais, and Madelin’s Ver- 
un. 

Of books of more recent years, and which con- 
tinued to stir the public, let us mention: in 
1920, Parmentier’s L’Ouragan; in 1921, Cl. 
Anet’s Quand la Terre trembla; and in 1923 R. 
Dorgelés’s Le Réveil des Morts which contribut- 
ed much to call attention to the improvements 
that could be made in the work of reconstruc- 
tion in the devastated regions. 

Of the novels which without depicting actual 
war episodes, take the War as _ background, 
these are a few samples: Prévost, Adjutant 
Benoit; Rosny, L’Enigme de Givreuse (a case 
of double personality in a soldier); Bazin, Les 
Nouveaux Oberlé; Estaunié, L’Appel de la 
route; Romain Rolland, Clérembault. From 
minor authors: Villetard, Monsieur Bille dans 
la Tourmente; Ch. de Rouve, Francaise du 
Rhin; Foley, Sylvette et son Blessé; Jeanne 
Landre, L’Ecole des Marraines; Colette Yver, 
Mirabelle de Pampelune (and other stories), 
Les Cousins Riches (the Americans); Marcel 
Boulenger, Charlotte en guerre. Some humor- 
ous stories: De la Foucardiére, Scipion Pégou- 
lade (a sort of Tartarin de Tarascon); M. 
Prévost, Mon cher Tommy; Boissiére, L’Eatrav- 
agant Teddy de la Croix Rouge anglaise ; Deko- 
bra, Sammy, Volontaire Américain; Valmy- 
Baisse, Le Retour @Ulysse. 

Short stories were published in fabulous 
number: Contes véridiques des Tranchées, by 


510 


FRENCH LITERATURE 


many “poilus”; 
Bazin, Bordeaux, Farrére, 
Mille, ete., ete. 

The theatre of the war period is not extreme- 
ly important. At first, old plays exalting de- 
votion to the mother-country provided what 
was needed: Corneille’s Horace, Sophocles’s 
Gidipe roi, Bornier’s Fille de Roland, Sardou’s 
Patrie, Kistemaeker’s Flambée, Lavedan’s Ser- 
vir. Then early in 1915 new plays began to 
appear: Fronson’s Kommandantur, depicting 
the invasion of Belgium (Fronson is a _ Bel- 
gian); Donnay’s charming Impromptu du Pa- 
quetage; Claudel’s Nuit de Noél; E. Morand’s 
Les Cathédrales, spectacular mourning over es- 
pecially Rheims and Strasbourg. In 1916, Ba- 
taille gave an unpleasant description of the ef- 
fect of war on women in L’Amazone; while’ 
Hennique and Veber offered a cheerful two-act 
vaudeville Le Poilu. In 1917 came Bernstein’s 
Elévation, hailed by many even down to 1924 
as the best war play produced; Porto-Riche 
gave his realistic Marchand dEstampe; F. 
Porché, his ingenious and very successful alle- 
gorical Les Butors et la Finette; Farrére and 
Népoty offered La Veillée des Armes. In 1918, 
there were two good plays again: Kistemaeker, 
Un Soir au front, and Maeterlinck, Bourgeois 
de Stilemonde (which was first represented in 
America). In 1920, the exquisite Maison de 
Diew by Fleg; the opportune (or inopportune) 
Les Américains, by Brieux; and the two plays 
—hboth painful for different reasons—Donnay, 
Chasse @ Vhomme, and Méré’s Les Captives. 
In 1922, F. de Curel scored with Terre Inhu- 
maine. 

In the domain of poetry again relatively few 
collections can be recorded as absolutely above 
par. It would not be right to leave unnoticed 
Botrel’s Chants de Rosalie (“Rosalie” was the 
bayonet), Chants du Bivouac, Chants de Route ; 
he was called the “bard” of the trenches. 
Then: Claudel, Trois Poémes de Guerre. In 
1916, Bataille, La Divine Tragédie; Zamacois 
L’Inéffacable; Paul Fort, Poémes de France; 
and especially Verhaeren, Les Ailes Rouges de 
la Guerre. In 1917 the exquisite Couronne 
douloureuse, by H. Ghéon; and two of the most 
popular productions—rightly so—L. Mercier, 
Priéres de la Tranchée, and the instantly fa- 
mous jewel La Passion de notre Frére le Porlu. 
Champsaur’s L’Assassin Innombrable is quite 
extraordinary; and even more so is, in 1918, 
Apollinaire’s Calligrammes, Poemes de Paix et 
de Guerre. The same year came out the very 
striking poems, Nous ...de la Guerre, by 
Henry-Jacques; and Mme. Delarue Madrus, 
Souffles de Tempéte. In 1919, Rostand’s Vol 
de la Marseillaise; and J. Suberville’s strong 
Fifre de Bernadouw, and Fosse aux Lions. In 
1921, F. Porehé republished with other poems 
his L’Arrét sur la Marne (in the collection 
Commandements du Destin), and Suberville, 
Le Soldat Inconnu, which won for the author 
the Grand Prix de Poésie. In 1922, Henry- 
Jacques had another collection of his original 
poems Symphonie Héroique. See the anthology 
of the war poets, Prévost and Dornier, Le Vivre 
épique. 

Yor bibliography on the literature of the 
War, see: Baldensperger, Avant-guerre dans la 
Inttérature; Jean Vic, La Littérature de la 
Guerre; Albert Schinz, French Literature of 
the Great War (New York, N. Y.). For mili- 
tary slang, the best book is Esnault, Le Poilu 


then collections by Arnoux, 
Gus-Bofa, Frapié, 


FRENCH LITERATURE 


tel quon le Parle. Bearing on the question of 
language in post-war Europe, see Meillet, 
Langues de VEurope nouvelle (1918). 

Post-War Period. Just as the war litera- 
ture did not stop on Nov. 11, 1918, so did the 
post-war literature not begin at this date ex- 
actly; as early as 1917 there is a distinct tend- 
ency on the part of some writers to ignore the 
monstrous accident of the war. 

Poetry. Some volumes from 1917 to the 
end of 1923 which cannot be passed without 
mention, if it were only on account of the fame 
of the authors, are: Rostand, Cantique de 
VAigle (posthumous) ; Gérard Rosemonde (Ma- 
dame Rostand), Pipeawx (crowned by the 
French Academy); H. de Régnier, Vestigia 
Flamme; Comtesse de Noailles, Forces Eter- 
nelles; Claudel, Messe de La-Bas; Fr. Jammes, 
La Vierge et les Sonnets; Paul Fort, Ballades 
Francaises (continuation); Jules Romains, 
Europe, and Puissances de Paris. Among the 
best known of the poets of the new generations 
are Paul Vallery, Binerviclle. To get an idea 
of the extra-modern poetry, see Paul Morand, 
Lampes @ Arc; and the cubists and dadaists, 
Blaise Cendras, Du Monde entier; A. Salmon, 
Prikaz; Cocteau, Poésies. 

Drama. In the theatre we witness at first 
an attempt to go back to pre-war subjects: 
Claudel is continuing the series of Annonce 
faite d@ Marie, and L’Otage, by Le pain dur; 
Bataille gives Scur d’Amour; Zamacois, César- 
in, Ecrivain Public; Saint-George Bouhélier, 
Vie @une Femme. In 1920, pre-war standards 
still obtain with Curel, L’Ame en Folie; Bern- 
stein, L’Animateur; Saint George Bouhélier, 
Esclaves; DuBois, L’Hérodienne. But attempts 
at renewal are made successfully by M. Magre, 
La Mort Enchainée; Pierre Frondaie, L’Appas- 
sionata; Lenormand, Les Ratés; perhaps Vild- 
rac, Paquebot Tenacity; Cocteau scores with 
a disconcerting farce, Boeuf sur le toit. In 
1921-23, the hold of the younger genera- 
tion asserts itself. Besides Brieux (L’Avocat, 
L’Enfant), Curel (Comédie du génie), Bataille 
(Chair Humaine), Bernstein (Judith), and the 
three revivers of Don Juan, Rostand (posthu- 
mous), Bataille, and H. de Régnier, there are 
those who belong to what may be called an in- 
termediate generation, like P. Fort (Louis XJ, 
Homme Curieux), Géraldy (Aimer), Porché 
(Dauphine and Chevalier de Colomb), Ghéon 
(Pauvre sous VHEscalier). The younger group 
claims attention aggressively: Lenormand (Man- 
geurs de Réves); Simoun (Dent rouge); Nat- 
anson (Hnfant Truqué, Amants Saugrenus) ; 
Pierre Frondaie (L’Insoumise, Le Reflet); J. J. 
Bernard (Feu qui Prend Mal); Sarment (Mar- 
adage de Hamlet, Pécheurs Wombres); Crome- 
lynk (Cocu Magnifique); Cocteau (Mariés sur 
la Tour Hiffel); Régis et Veynes (Bastos le 
Hardy). The most famous theatres open to the 
young authors in 1924 were: L’Cuvre, Le 
Vieux Colombier, L’Atelier, La Chimére, La 
Flamme, with such men as directors as Lugne 
Poé, Copeau, Dullin, Pitoeff, Baty. 

The Novel. Reaching the chapter of the 
novel since the War, we face such a deluge of 
works of interest that nothing can be done with- 
in the space allotted us except to group the va- 
rious tendencies, give the names of the most im- 
portant writers in each group and refer for all 
details to the New International Year Books, 
1914-24 (and perhaps to the article “Le Kko- 
man Francais depuis la Guerre,” by Albert 


511 


FRENCH LITERATURE 


Schinz, in Modern Language Journal, 
1923). 

Authors representing the great classical lit- 
erary style, and aiming to create works of last- 
ing beauty: Ch. Géniaux, Estaunié, A. de 
Chateaubriant (Grand Prix du Roman in 1923, 
for La Briére). Catholics: Bourget, H. Bor- 
deaux, Ardel, Bauman, Mauriac, Renaitour. 
Novelists dealing with the world beyond: Mar- 
celle Tinayre (Priscille Séverac), H. Bordeaux 
(Fantéme de la Rue Michel-Ange), Pérochon 
(Les Ombres). Provincial and regional novel- 
ists: Bazin, Pérochon (Néne, Prix Goncourt, 
1920), J. de Pesquidoux, Bordeu, H. Pourrat, 
R. Escholier (Cantegril), J. des Gachons, and 
the most famous of them all, L. Hémon, author 
of the Canadian novel, Maria Chapdelaine. 
Psychologists: André Gide, J. Romains, Mar- 
cel Proust (Prix Goncourt, 1919), who had a 
tremendous following which, however, was al- 
ready subsiding when he died in 1922; Char- 
donne (L’Epithalame); Lavedan, Martin Du 
Gard (Les Thibaut); Benda, Riviére; Lucien 
Fabre (Rabevel, Prix Goncourt, 1923). Novel- 
ists of deep gloom and sentimentality: Ar- 
noux, Jaloux, Chéreau, Josepivici, t’Serstevens; 
and three women, André Corthis (Grand Prix 
du Roman, 1921, for Pour Moi Seule), Machard, 
Vioux. Pictures of moral disequilibrium in 
consequence chiefly of the War: Marcel Pré- 
vost (Don Juanes), Rosny, Margueritte, Mme. 
Colette. Novelists depicting the life of char- 
acters outside regular society: Careo (Grand 
Prix du Roman, in 1922, for L’Homme traqué), 
Mac Orlan, Cl. Anet, Berger, Kessel. The “In- 
différents” to use the name chosen by one of 
them, i.e. who take the attitude of interested 
and amused, sometimes cynical, observers of 
our present nerve-wrecked world: H. de Rég- 
nier, Fr. de Miomandre, Giraudoux, Paul Mo- 
rand (most before the public eye in 1924 for his 
two collections of stories Ouvert la nuit and 
Fermé la nuit). Young Cocteau belongs either 
here, or to a group of extreme modernists, some 
of whom had adopted the flag of Dadaism, 
like Aragon, Ph. Soupault, Delteil. Humorists 
would be: Duvernois, H. Béraud (Prix Gon- 
court for Le Martyre de VObése, 1922), Bil- 
lotey. The great king of the roman d’aventure 
is Pierre Benoit, author of L’Atlantide; Rou- 
quette, Exotism: Loti, Farrére, Rhais, and 
later Barrés (Jardin sur lVOronte); Bordeaux 
(Yamilé sous les Cédres). A very special place 
belongs to the Brothers Tharaud with their re- 
markable knowledge of the Near Eastern, large- 
ly Semitic, countries (A VOmbre de la Croix 
is their masterpiece). 

Historical Novels: Louis Bertrand, Tan- 
créde, Martel; H. Béraul (Vitriole de Lune 
crowned by the Goncourt in 1922). Pre-histor- 
ical novels: Rosny, Forbin, Jean d’Esme. 

Other Literary Genres. The most impor- 
tant during the period under consideration 
was that of personal recollections arranged 
with a special purpose, and at times with poet- 
ical evocations of the past, like A. France’s 
Petit Pierre, Loti’s Prime Jeunesse, Jammes, 
A. Gide, Willy; or many diaries of young au- 
thors who wrote about their years of forma- 
tion so as to present a picture of their whole 
generation, or classes at least of their genera- 


May, 


tion. The following claimed attention most: 
Oudart (Ma Jeunesse); L. Werth (Dia-neuf 
Ans); Cazin (Décadi); A. Obey, Chadourne 


(Inquiéte Adolescence); Benj. Crémieux (Pre- 


FRENCH LITERATURE 512 


mier de la Classe); Gilbert des Voisins (L’Hn- 
fant prit Peur); and the sad Diable aw corps, 
—written by Radiguet when he was 17 (it is 
said). He died in 1924. Another genre is the 
literary biography, brilliantly represented by 
A. Maurois’s Ariel, Vie de Shelley, and by H. 
Bordeaux, Amours du_ passé. Accounts of 
travel have been raised to the level of art in 
Chadourne’s Pot au Noir. Again we must men- 
tion the Brothers Tharaud with their remark- 
able descriptions of the Near-Eastern nations 
of Europe. Then Pierre Hamp continues his 
series of beautiful books on French trades 
and industries. The (so far two) series of 
the famous barrister Me. Henri-Robert, Les 
Grands Procés de lHistoire, have been much 
read. 

History of Literature and Literary Events. 
As the year 1924 opened, the first volume of 
Bédier and Hazard, Histoire de la Littérature 
Frangaise illustrée came from the press—in ev- 
ery way a remarkable achievement. Simulta- 
neously an illustrated edition of Lanson’s well 
known History of French Literature was pub- 
lished serially. Most worthy of mention are al- 
so the volumes XII and XIII of Hanotaux’s 
Histoire de la Nation Frangaise, in 15 volumes 
(they are called Histoire des Lettres). Vol. 
XII, Des Origines a@ Ronsard, is by Picavet, 
Jeanroy, and Bédier; Vol. XIII, De Ronsard 
ad nos Jours, is by F. Strowski. In America, 
Nitze and Dargan, of the University of Chicago, 
published an English History of French Litera- 
ture. For modern times there was Le Goffic, 
La Littérature Francaise au XIX* et aw XX°* 
Siécle. A very valuable serial publication con- 
cerning contemporary writers is Vingt-Cing 
Ans de Littérature Frangaise, de 1895 a@ 1920, 
under the direction of E. Monfort. Not quite 
satisfactory is Lalou’s little book on Histoire 
de la littérature Francaise Contemporaine, de 
1870 ad nos jours. Mostly an accumulation of 
names and titles is found in F. Parmentier, 
Littérature Frangaise de 1885 a nos jours; in 
America, French Literature of the Last Half 
Century, by Cunliffe and de Bacourt. Pierre 
Vaillant and H. Rambaud’s Enquéte sur les 
Maitres de la Jeune Littérature (Bourget, Bar- 
rés, Maurras, 1923), has been mentioned al- 
ready as having failed to inquire from all quar- 
ters, which impeaches their findings. A work 
on a great scale which led the author to the 
Academy even before the completion is Abbé 
H. Brémond’s Histoire du Sentiment Religieux 
dans la Littérature depuis le XVII° Siécle. 
Other important works that space allows us to 
mention are: Thieme, of the University of 
Michigan, Essai sur UHistoire du Vers Fran- 
cais; P. Champion, Hist. de la Poésie au XV® 
et au XV°* Siécle; Nolhac, Ronsard et VHu- 
manisme; Ducros, Rousseau (3 vols.) ; Pierre 
Kohler, Madame de Staél; Vincent, Georges 
Sand (4 vols.) ; Arbelet, Stendhal (2 vols., in 
connection with the new edition of Stendhal’s 
works); J. Larat, Tradition et Exotisme dans 
UVGuvre de Nodier; H. Girard, Emile Des- 
champs (2 -ols.); Estéve, Leconte de L’Isle; 
Ibrovaec, José-Maria de Hérédia; Antoine, Sou- 
venirs du Théatre Libre. New valuable edi- 
tions which render the study of great French 
authors more and more profitable are: Villon, 
Ronsard, Montaigne, Paseal, Stendhal, Lamar- 
tine (Lanson, Méditations), Hugo (Béré, Lé- 
gende des Siécles, Vianey, Contemplations). 
As to language: another volume by Brunot 


FRENCH WEST AFRICA 


came out, Le Frangais en France et hors de 
France au XVII*° Siécle (Brunot has also 
made an attempt at reviving interest in the 
teaching of grammar in a large volume La 
Pensée et la Langue), and there was Bonaffé, 
Anglicismes et Américanismes dans la Langue 
Francaise. 

A time has never been in France without lit- 
erary quarrels of some sort. During the War 
there was the Barbusse episode, many maintain- 
ing that the book had been dishonestly used for 
pacifist propaganda; in 1919, Pierre Louys 
startled the world in ascribing to Corneille 
some of the best of Moliére’s plays; in 1920, 
the accusation was brought against P. Benoit 
that he had plagiarized Sir Rider Haggard’s 
She, for his Atlantide; the same year the epi- 
sode of Dadaism came to a climax in the ar- 
tistic and literary world; in 1922, it was the 
shock of Margueritte’s Gargonne; in 1922-23, 
the “querelle des manuels littéraires” (well sum- 
marized in Chronique des Lettres Francaises, 
January, 1923). 

Among the innumerable literary prizes, some 
are of real importance. Let us recall a very 
few: Grand Prix de Littérature went to Mme. 
Gérard d’Houville (1918), the Brothers Tha- 
raud (1919), E. Jaloux (1920), Mme. de No- 
ailles (1921), P. Lasserre (1922), F. Porché 
(1923). The Grand Prix du Roman went to 
Camille Mayran (1918), Ch. Géniaux (1919), 
André Corthis (1920), Villetard (1921), F. 
Careco (1922), A. de Chateaubriant (1923). 
The Prix Goncourt went to: Benjamin (1915), 
A. Bertrand and Barbusse (1914 and 1916), 
Malherbe (1917), Duhamel (1918), Proust 
(1919), Pérochon (1920), R. Maran (1921), 
Béraud (1922), L. Fabre (1923). The Prix de 
la Vie Heureuse, or Prix Femina went to: 
Dorgelés (1918), (1919), E. Goyon, a_ poet 
(1920), Escholier (1921), Lacretelle (1922), 
Jeanne Galzy (1923). 

Many jubilees were celebrated; with peculiar 
splendor those of Moliére, Pasteur (not only a 
man of science but also a member of the 
French Academy), Renan and Pascal. Many 
deaths occurred in the decade: in 1914, Le- 
maitre, Masson-Forestier, Mistral, L. Séché, Ch. 
Péguy; 1915, Hervieu, R. de Gourmont, Stuart 
Merril, J. H. Fabre (the entomologist), Lafon, 
Paul Acker, Rob. d’Humiéres; 1916, Faguet, de 
Ségur, de Vogiié, Verhaeren, Clermont; 1917, 
A. Bertrand; 1918, G. Ohnet, Rostand, Péladan, 
Guill. Apollinaire; 1919, Tailhade, Ch. Morice; 
1920, P. Adam, Lintilhac; 1921, Montesquiou; 
1922, Bataille, Boutroux, Capus, Lavisse; 1923, 
Aieard, Loti, Barrés. 

FRENCH SOMALI COAST. See Somatrr- 
LAND. 

FRENCH WEST AFRICA. A. single 
administrative unit of the French colonial em- 
pire since Jan. 1, 1921, comprising the follow- 
ing colonies: Senegal, area 74,112 square 
miles, population in 1921, 1,225,523 (4321 non- 
African); Guinea, 95,218 square miles, popu- 
lation, 1,875,996 (1357 non-African); Ivory 
Coast, 121,976 square miles, population, 1,545,- 
680 (835 non-African) ; Dahomey, 42,460 square 
miles, population, 261,746 (214 non-African) ; 
French Sudan, 617,600 square miles, popula- 
tion, 2,474,589 (983 non-African) ; Upper Volta, 
154,400 square miles, population, 2,974,142 
(191 non-African) ; Mauretania, 347,400 square 
miles, population, 261,746 (214 non-African) ; 
Niger Territory, 347,400 square miles, popula- 


a oe 


——————— er eee, hm eee 


FREUD 


tion, 1,084,043 (216 non-African). Total, 1,- 
800,566 square miles, with a population of 12,- 
283,962, of whom 6829 were French and 1826 
other non-Africans. Dakar, the seat of the 
administration and the leading port, had 32,440 
inhabitants in 1921, of whom 2331 were French. 
Other towns were: Saint Louis, 18,117 (620 
French) ; Rufisque, 11,307 (168 French); Bam- 
ako, 14,496; Kayes, 11,322; Conakry, 8850. 
Forest and agricultural products were of great- 
est economic importance. In Senegal, the Su- 
dan, and Guinea the groundnut was of leading 
importance. In 1920, from Senegal alone 286,- 
777 tons were exported. Cotton culture, worked 
by natives, figured largely in Senegal, the Su- 
dan, Dahomey, and the Ivory Coast. The total 
production in 1918 was 854,000 kilos. Other 
important activities, as reflected in the foreign 
trade, were palm kernels, palm oil, logs, gum 
arabic, hides and skins, and caoutchouc. Agri- 
cultural experiments indicated that the follow- 
ing were possible of development: cacao and 
coffee in Dahomey and the Ivory Coast, tobac- 
co, vegetables, etc. Gold and salt were worked 
in paying quantities. Exports for the whole 
government in 1920 and 1921 were 588,694,000 
francs and 259,764,000 francs, as compared with 
118,567,000 franes in 1912. Imports for the 
years 1912, 1920, 1921, were 134,782,000 francs, 
653,910,700 franes and 372,497,000 francs. In 
1920, 8629 vessels of 5,109,573 tons entered the 
ports of French West Africa, while 8462 ves- 
sels of 5,080,965 tons cleared. This compares 
with the 2431 vessels of 4,172,000 tons which 
entered in 1911. Communications were facili- 
tated by the navigability of the Senegal] and 
the Niger Rivers. In 1920, 2658 kilometers of 
railway were in operation. The principal sys- 
tems included: Dakar-Saint Louis (263 kilo- 
meters), Thiés-Kayes (444 kilometers), Kayes- 
Niger (555 kilometers), Guinea railways (662 
kilometers), Ivory Coast railways (316 kilo- 
meters), Dahomey railways (375 kilometers). 
Besides, roads fit for motor traffic totaled 5400 
kilometers. Kilometers of telegraph lines in 
1922 were 23,278. The general budget for the 
whole administration was, for 1923, 72,142,000 
francs, as compared with 56,250,000 franes in 
1911. In 1922, the local budgets for the sep- 
arate colonies totaled 172,500,000 frances. At 
Dakar, the governor-general, assisted by a 
council of native chiefs, administered the af- 


tairs of the whole government. Lieutenant- 
governors were in charge of the individual 
colonies. 

FREUD, Siecmunp (1856- ). An Aus- 


trian physician (see Vor. IX) and originator 
of the psycho-analytic method for the treatment 
of neuroses. The international reputation of 
Freud increased after the War, and his works 
obtained a vogue even in such countries as 
France, where psycho-analysis had been pre- 
viously regarded as too extravagant in its 
claims. The pathological cases in the armies 
during the War put Freud’s theories to some- 
thing like an empirical test, and it was _ rec- 
ognized by Freud’s own disciples that sex was 
not the controlling factor. Freud himself in 
his writings after 1914 tended to make less use 
of the principle of sexual symbolism and relied 
more on the direct intuitions afforded by the 
psychological situations. The conception of 
the libido continued to play an important rdéle 
but without complete identification with con- 
crete sex experience. See CONSCIOUSNESS AND 


513 FRIES 


THE UNCONSCIOUS; AXSTHETICS; PSYCHOL- 
oGy, ABNORMAL, AND PsYCHOANALYSIS; PER- 
CEPTION. 

Freud’s works after 1914 include Totem and 
Taboo (1915); Wit and Its Relation to the Un- 
conscious (1916); Leonardo da Vinci (1916); 
Delusion and Dream (1917); The History of 
the Psycho-analytic Movement (1917); Reflec- 
tions upon War and Death (1918) ; Massenpsy- 
chologie und Ichanalyse (1921; English trans- 
lation, Group Psychology and the Analysis of 
the Ego, 1922), and General Introduction to 
Psycho-analysis (1921). 

FREY, Emit (1838-1922). A Swiss states- 
man and former president of the Swiss Con- 
federation (see VoL. IX), who died near Basel, 
Switzerland, in 1922. After the War he was 
one of the technical experts attached to the 
Swiss delegation at the Genoa Conference. 

FRIDAY, Davi (1876- ). An Ameri- 
can economist and educator, born at Coloma, 
Mich. He graduated from the University of 
Michigan in 1908, and was a member of the fac- 
ulty of that university from 1908 to 1916, when 
he was appointed professor of economics at 
New York University. In 1918 he was head of 
the department. From 1919 he was professor 
of political economy at the University of Mich- 
igan. He served as statistician and expert to 
many important commissions, and was also ad- 
viser to several governmental departments and 
boards. He was a member of several learned 
societies and was the author of Problems in 
Accounting, 1915; Readings in Economics, 
1915; Profits, Wages and Prices, 1920. 

FRIENDS, ReEwLicious Society or. The 
Friends, commonly known as Quakers, are com- 
posed of four branches: the Society of Friends 
(Orthodox), Society of Friends (Hicksite), Or- 
thodox Conservative Friends (Wilburite) and 
Friends (Primitive). The Orthodox branch, 
which is by far the largest, decreased from 98,- 
356 members in 1914 to 85,612 according to fig- 
ures supplied in 1923, and the number of meet- 
ing houses from 775 to 714, and the number of 
ministers from 1315 to 1252. During the war 
the Friends, whose tradition is for non-resis- 
tance, were very active in relief work in 
France, Germany, Holland, Poland and Russia. 
In 1919 the denomination had 650 relief work- 
ers in France, about half of them being Amer- 
ican, and half British. They conducted eight 
general hospitals, one maternity hospital, two 
convalescent hospitals, a tuberculosis hospital 
and tuberculosis village, a home for old women 
and several children’s homes. The maternity 
hospital after the War was presented to the 
French government. The society also took en- 
tire charge of the reconstruction work between 
Verdun and the Argonne Forest. In 1919 and 
1920 there were 15 workers in Serbia and 90 
doctors and nurses fighting the typhus in Po- 
land. After January, 1920, the Society took 
complete charge of the relief work in Germany. 
Altogether under their auspices over’ 5,000,000 
received one warm meal a day for a greater or 
less length of time. Relief work was also 
maintained on an extensive scale in Poland and 
in Russia. 

FRIES, ARcHIBALD (1864- ). An Ameri- 
can railway official, born in Cincinnati, Ohio. 
He was educated in the public schools of that 
city and began his railroad employ in a clerical 
capacity with the Ohio and Mississippi Rail- 
road. For several years he was employed in 


FRIESEKE 


various important capacities by the Baltimore 
and Ohio Railroad and served as general traffic 
manager of the Eastern Lines, 1916-18. His 
jurisdiction was extended over the entire sys- 
tem. During the War he served as traffic man- 
ager to the Railroad Administration. 

FRIESEKE, FReperick Cari (1874- F 
An American painter (see Vor. IX). Among 
other recognitions received by him during the 
period, were a grand prize at the Panama-Pa- 
cific Exposition, in 1915, also the Palmer Gold 
Medal, Art Institute of Chicago, in 1920; and 
a gold medal, Philadelphia Art Club, in 1922. 
In his later works, among them “The Blue 
Gown,” “Golden Locket,’ ‘Lady in Rose,’ he 
was still decidedly the impressionist chiefly in- 
terested in representing female figures and the 
nude. 

FRISCHEISEN-KOHLER, Max  (1878- 

). A professor of philosophy and _ peda- 
gogy. His works include Probleme des Hwig- 
en Friedens (1915), Grenzen der Eaxperiment- 
alen Methode (1918), and Simmel (1919); 
he edited Ueberweg’s History of Philosophy and 
translated Shaftesbury and Hobbes. 

FRITCH, Louis CHARLTON (1869- ti. 
An American engineer, born in Springfield, Ill. 
He took an engineering course at the Univer- 
sity of Cincinnati and was division engineer of 
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in that city 
until 1899, when he became superintendent. 
He acted successively as assistant to the gen- 
eral manager, assistant to the president, and 
consulting engineer for the Illinois Central 
Railroad until 1909, when he became chief engi- 
neer of the Chicago Great Western Railroad. 
From 1914 to 1917 he was general manager for 
the Canadian Northern Railway and was gen- 
eral manager for the S. A. L. Railway, Nor- 
folk, Va., and vice-president of the C. R. I. & 
P. R. R. from 1918. He was president also of 
the R. I. and Oklahoma Railway Company and 
was president of several important corporations. 

FROST, Roperr (1875— ). An Ameri- 
can poet born in San Francisco and educated 
at Dartmouth and Harvard. After teaching 
English in the Pinkerton Academy (Derry, N. 
H.) and teaching psychology (1911-12) at the 
New Hampshire Normal School, he went to 
England and published there his first two vol- 
umes of prose. On his return to America he 
did some active farming at Derry, Conn., and 
culled therefrom a knowledge of rural life in 
New England, as was illustrated in his North 
of Boston (1914), which immediately placed 
him in the front rank of contemporary Ameri- 
can poets. In most cases his pictures of 
Yankee shyness prove an intimate understand- 
ing and love of his neighbors which could come 
only through close contact. And in his hands 
the folk speech of these people possesses a beau- 
tiful and melancholy dignity. In 1916-20, he 
was professor of English at Amherst College; 
then was poet in residence at the University of 
Michigan; and in 1923 returned to the faculty 
of Amherst. He has also written A Boy’s Will 
(1913), Mountain Interval (1916), New Hamp- 
shire (1923), and many poems for the maga- 
zines. 

FROTHINGHAM, PAUL REVERE 
(1864- ). An American clergyman, born at 
Jamaica Plain, Mass., and educated at Har- 
vard University. After preaching for some 
years at New Bedford, Mass., he became min- 
ister of the Arlington Street (Unitarian) 


514 


FURMAN 


Church in Boston in 1900. He was preacher to 
Harvard University at various periods between 
1899 and 1921. He is the author of William 
Ellery Channing; His Messages from the Spirit 
(1907); A Confusion of Tongues (1917); We 
Believe (1917); and Our Debt to Great Britain 
(1919). 

FRUIT. See HORTICULTURE. 

FRYATT, CHARLES (1872-1916). A _ Brit- 
ish sea-captain, born near Harwich, Essex. In 
1904 he became chief officer in the service of 
vessels of the Great Eastern Railway Company. 
During the first two years of the War he cap- 
tained the Brussels between Harwich and Rot- 
terdam. In July of 1916 word was received 
in England that Captain Fryatt’s ship had been 
captured by the Germans and that he had been 
arrested and was to be tried by court martial 
on a charge of having attempted to ram a Ger- 
man submarine. Almost immediately after the 
execution had been carried out at Bruges on 
July 28, 1916, an order was received from Ber- 
lin to postpone sentence. Great indignation 
was felt by the British, who considered this 
another act of treacherous murder on the part 
of the Germans. 

FUAD I (AHMED FUAD PASHA) (1868 
King of Egypt, son of the late Khedive Ismail 
Pasha. He became Sultan on Oct. 9, 1917, and 
after the termination of the British Protector- 
ate over Egypt in February, 1922, he was pro- 
claimed king (March 16). King Fuad is the 
eighth ruler of the dynasty of Muhammad Ali, 
who made himself absolute ruler of Egypt by 
force of arms in 1805. 

FUCHS, Emin (1866- ). An Austrian 
sculptor, painter and medallist. He was born 
in Vienna and studied under Tilgner and later 
in the academies of Vienna and Berlin. In 1890 
he won a traveling scholarship and spent five 
years in Rome. In 1896 he won the gold medal 
at Munich with the group “Mother Love.” He 
then went to London, where he executed a series 
of important commissions for the royal family, 
portraits, sculptures, and medals, and became 
very popular. In the United States he designed 
medals for the Hudson-Fulton Celebration and 
Hispanic and Numismatic Societies and the J. 
Pierpont Morgan Memorial Medal, and painted 
a number of portraits of distinguished men and 
of society women. His work is pleasing rather 
than powerful. An important exhibition of his 
works was held in New York in 1921. 

FUERTES, Louis Agassiz (1874— ) 
An American illustrator and mural painter 
(see VoL. IX). In his specialized field, bird 
and animal life, he illustrated several series for 
the National Geographic Magazine, 1914-19, 
Burgess’s Bird Book for Children (1917), and 
Burgess’s Animal Book for Children (1920); 
and executed paintings for the New York Zo- 
ological Society. 

FULLERTON, Georce Stuart (1859- ) 
An American professor of philosophy (see VoL. 
IX). His works after 1914 include Germany 
of To-day, a defense (1915), and a Handbook 
of Ethical Theory (1922). 

FUNCTIONALISM. See BEHAVIORISM. 

FUNDAMENTALISM. See ReEticious Con- 
TROVERSIES. 

FURMAN, FRANKLIN DERONDE (1870- . 
An American engineer and educator, born in 
Ridgely, Md. He graduated from the Stevens 
Institute of Technology in 1893, and from the 
same year was professor of mechanism and ma- 


— 


FURNESS 515 


chine design at that institution. He was a 
member of several engineering societies and 
wrote History of the Stevens Family of HEngi- 
neers; History of Stevens Institute of Tech- 
nology; Questions and Problems in Machine De- 
sign; Questions in Hngimeering Drawing. He 
also contributed articles to magazines. 

FURNESS, CAROLINE ELLEN (1869- js 
An American astronomer and educator, born in 
Cleveland, Ohio. She graduated from Vassar 
College in 1891 and took postgraduate courses 
at Columbia. She became a member of the fac- 
ulty of Vassar College and from 1915 was 
Maria Mitchell Professor. She performed re- 
search work at the Yerkes Observatory and in 
Europe, and was a member of several scientific 
and other societies. She was the author of sev- 
eral star catalogues and Introduction to the 
Study of Variable Stars (1915). She also con- 
tributed articles to American and European 
journals. 

FURNISS, Harry (1854— ). A British 
earicaturist, artist, author and lecturer (see 
Vout. IX). Among his later works were Our 
Lady Cinema (1914); More about How to Draw 
in Pen and Ink (1915); Deceit (1917); Stig- 
gins (1920). He has been characterized as vig- 
orous, versatile, brilliant in draftsmanship, fac- 
ile in execution. During this period he also 
gave numerous humorous lectures throughout 
England, and wrote many scenarios. 

FURSE, DAME KATHARINE (1875- ). 
An English woman, born at Bristol, the daugh- 
ter of John Addington Symonds. In 1914 she 
founded and directed the Voluntary Aid De- 
tachment, a department under the Red Cross in 
France. She was director of the Women’s Roy- 
al Naval Service, 1917-19. In recognition of 
her admirable work, she received the Order of 
the Royal Red Cross (1916) and the Order of 
the British Empire (1917). 

FURTH, HENRIETTE (1861- ). Identified 
with child welfare work at Frankfort. She 
was a student of labor problems, especially 
those connected with factory work of women 


FYFE 


and with sex reforms. She is the author of 
Die Frauen im Kriege (1917) and Zur Sozial- 
isirung der Oeffentlichen Wolfahrtspflege (1920). 

FURTWANGLER, WitHEtM (1886- 7; 
A noted German orchestral conductor, born in 
Berlin. Having completed his studies in Mun- 
ich under Beer-Walbrunn, Rheinberger and 
Schillings, he began his career in Zurich. 
From 1911 to 1914 he was principal conductor 
at the Opera in Liibeck, directing also the con- 
certs of the Verein der Musikfreunde. In 1915 
he succeeded Bodanzky in Mannheim, where he 
remained four years and established a reputa- 
tion which brought him invitations for guest- 
appearances with the foremost German and 
Austrian orchestras. He was regular condue- 
tor of the Vienna Tonkiinstlerorchester (1919- 
20) and of the symphony concerts of the Ber- 
lin Staatsoper (1920-22), succeeding Richard 
Strauss. In 1922 he was chosen Nikisch’s suc- 
cessor as conductor of the famous Gewandhaus 
concerts in Leipzig and of the Philaharmo- 
nische Gesellschaft in Berlin. In 1923 he 
aroused great enthusiasm in London. 

FUTURISM. See PaInTING, SCULPTURE, AND 
Music. 

FYFE, H. HAMILTON (1869 ). An Eng- 
lish author and journalist, born in London and 
educated at Fettes College in Edinburgh. His 
career in journalism started as a reporter in 
1889, and after approximately 13 years of hold- 
ing various positions as reviewer, dramatic crit- 
ic, ete., he edited the Morning Advertiser (1902- 
03), subsequently becoming dramatic critic for 
The World (1905-10), eorrespondent of the 
Daily Mail (1907-18), lecturer in Spain and 
Portugal (1917), attaché in the British War 
Mission to the United States (1917), ete. He 
has published many books and plays, which in- 
clude The Real Mexico (1914); The Meaning 
of the World Revolution (1919); The King- 
dom, the Power, and the Glory: A Morality 
(1920); The Widow’s Cruse (1920); The Mak- 
ing of an Optimist (1921), and The Fruit of 
the Tree (1921). 


SG: 


ABRILOVITCH, Ossie (1878- 

). A Russian pianist (see VOL. 

IX). Besides being recognized as 

one of the greatest pianists of his 

day, he won fame as an orchestral 

conductor. From 1910 to 1914 he 

was conductor of the Konzertverein in Munich, 

but he did not abandon his career as a pianist 

During 1912-13 he won veritable triumphs in 

several European capitals with his series of six 

historical concerts illustrating the development 

of the piano-concerto from Bach to Rachmaninov. 

After the outbreak of the War he came to the 

United States, giving the same cycle and arous- 

ing the same enthusiasm. In 1918 he became 

conductor of the Detroit Symphony Orchestra, 

which under him won a place among the premier 
orchestras of the country. 

GAILOR, Tuomas FRANK  (1856- ys 
An American Protestant Episcopal bishop (see 
VoL. IX). He became chairman of the House 
of Bishons of the Protestant Episcopal Church 
in 1916, and president of the Presiding Bishop 
and Council in 1919. He has received honor- 
ary degrees from Oxford (1920) and Oglethorpe 
University (1921). 

GALE, Zona (1874— ). An «american 
writer (see Vor. IX). She wrote Neighbor- 
hood Stories (1914); Heart’s Kindred (1915); 
A Daughter of To-Morrow (1917); Birth 
(1918); Peace in Friendship Village (1919) ; 
The Secret Way (1921); The Neighbors, a one- 
act play; and Miss Lulu Bett, the dramatic 
version of which received the Pulitzer Prize of 
$1000 as the best play of the year produced in 
New York (1920). Mister Pitt, a dramatized 
peplon of Birth, was produced in New York in 

924, 

GALICIA, East. In the determination of 
the southeastern boundary of Poland, and in 
particular the disposition of the former Aus- 
trian province of Galicia, the Peace Conference 
was confronted by one of its most vexing prob- 
lems. In fact it was not until March, 1923, 
that the matter could be considered as settled, 
and then only after a fashion. The question of 
West Galicia roused little controversy; the dis- 
trict was solidly Polish, and’the Supreme Coun- 
cil, in assigning it to Poland by the “Certain 
Frontiers” Treaty of Aug. 10, 1920, was clear- 
ly recognizing Polish historical and ethnical 
rights. But the eastern two-thirds of the prov- 
ince raised other questions. In East Galicia 
the majority of the inhabitants were Rutheni- 
ans, i.e. Ukrainians; the 1910 census showed a 
population made up of 59 per cent of Ruthenians, 
27 per cent Poles, and 13 per cent Jews. Be- 
sides the question of race, religious and cultur- 
al antipathies existed. The Poles are Roman 
Catholic; the Ruthenians, Greek Orthodox Uni- 
ate. From 1867 on, when Galicia became a 
single province, the Poles were the leading force 
in Galician affairs, for they lived in the towns 
and headed the professions and the trades, 
while 91 per cent of the Ruthenians were de- 
pendent on agriculture. In fact, by 1910, 62 
per cent of the Ruthenians were illiterate, 
against only 23 per cent of the Poles. In spite 


of these differences the two groups lived fairly 
amicably side by side until 1880, when a 
Ukrainian movement, aided to some extent by 
Austria, appeared among the Ruthenians and 
roused fanatical nationalistic animosities. Part 
of this movement sought the creation of an in- 
dependent Ukrainia, another part union with 
the people of the Russian Ukraine in Russia, 
Ruthenian interest centred in the question of 
race, while the Poles, in addition to their cul- 
tural and commercial dominance, sought East 
Galicia for military and economic reasons. 
They stressed the necessity for a common fron- 
tier with Rumania and a united front against 
Soviet Russia; a junction with Rumania would 
mean Polish control of the headwaters of the 
Dniester and thus facilitate Polish trade in 
the Black Sea area; Poles pointed out that 
they needed the great oil fields of Galicia for 
the economic well-being of their new state. 
With the collapse of Austria, the so-called Re- 
public of the West Ukraine was set up and an 
attempt was made to incorporate the whole of 
East Galicia in a Ukrainian state. The Poles 
naturally objected and bitter fighting between 
irregular troops went on until May, 1919, with 
the important city of Lemberg as the chief 
point of contention. In May large Polish con- 
tingents appeared in the country; by June the 
Ruthenian resistance had broken down, and Po- 
land was in possession of the whole as far east 
as the Zbrucz. The Peace Conference had up 
to this time tried valiantly to cope with the 
problem. Undoubtedly, as the British con- 
tended, the Ruthenians were entitled to some 
sort of self-determination, and it was manifest- 
ly unfair to cede the territory to Poland out- 
right. No group, however, seemed willingly to 
consider a transfer of East Galicia east of the 
Lemberg-Drohobyez line to Russia. But the 
Poles presented the delegations with a fait ac- 
compli, and it was no doubt with relief that 
on June 19 the Poles were authorized to con- 
tinue their military occupation of the whole 
country. Plain justice, nevertheless, demanded 
a consideration of Ruthenian claims, and to the 
end of 1919 the Supreme Council concerned it- 
self with plans for the guarantee of Ruthenian 
autonomy. But the French succeeded in block- 
ing all these attempts, so that up to 1923 the 
province remained legally, according to the 
Treaty of St. Germain, in the hands of the Al- 
lies, while the Poles maintained their de facto 
possession. Undoubtedly the just disposition 
of the province had presented almost insuper- | 
able obstacles; the League of Nations could not 
handle the task in 1919, for it was not yet func- 
tioning, while none of the European powers was 
in a position to take up the onerous duty of 
protection and srdministration in a_ region 
where hatreds were so implacable. Something 
might have been done, commentators agreed, 
nonetheless, to safeguard the interests of the 
Ruthenians. As things were, 4,500,000 Ruth- 
enians were under the domination of a Polish 
minority, with no provision for the protection 
of their liberties or the ascertainment of their 
wishes. On Mar. 14, 1923, the capstone was 


516 


GALLAGHER 


placed on the situation when the Council of 
Ambassadors, in definitively laying down the 
boundaries of Poland, assigned East Galicia to 
Poland. It was evident that the seeds of a 
new irredentism had been planted to trouble 
ultimately the peace of Europe. See PoLAnn, 
History; War IN Europe, Fastern I’ront. 

GALLAGHER, MicHarxt JAMES (1866-— ye 
A Roman Catholic bishop, born at Auburn, 
Mich., and educated at Mungret College, Lim- 
erick, Ireland, and at the University of Inns- 
bruck, Austria. He was ordained priest in 
1893, and after filling several pastorates and 
holding various offices he became bishop of 
Grand Rapids in 1916. In 1918 he was trans- 
ferred to Detroit. 

GALLI-CURCI, Ametitra (1889- lace 
brilliant Italian coloratura soprano, born at 
Milan. Among the world’s great singers, pres- 
ent or past, her case is without parallel as the 
only example of an artist achieving distinction 
without technical training under a_ teacher. 
While studying at the Conservatory in Milan 
she devoted herself exclusively to the piano, un- 
der Appiani, with the ambition of becoming a 
pianist, and with such success that in 1903 she 
won the first prize. Later, on discovering that 
she was gifted with a fine natural voice, she 
began a unique system of self-instruction. She 
had records made of her voice, and these she 
studied carefully, her exceptionally keen ear 
enabling her to discover and remedy imperfec- 
tions. However, she acknowledged her indebt- 
edness to Mascagni and William Thorner for 
advice. In 1909 she made her début as Gilda 
in Rigoletto at the Teatro Costanzi, in Rome, 
winning instantaneous success, which secured 
her appearances at several important Italian 
opera houses during the same year. The next 
year she made her first tour of South America, 
after which she sang again in Italy. In 1912 
she was again in South America; in 1914 she 
made her first tour of Spain, and in 1915 she 
sang in Havana. Then came her sensational 
success with the Chicago Opera Association 
(Nov. 18, 1916), of which she was a regular 
member until 1924. But all these triumphs 
were eclipsed by the ovations she received at 
her first appearance in New York (Jan. 28, 
1918), when the Chicago company visited the 
metropolis for a four weeks’ season. These 
visits were repeated annually till 1922. Be- 
ginning with 1923 Galli-Curci appeared every 
season as guest artist at the Metropolitan 
Onera House. Strange to say, London did not 
hear her till the fall of 1924. She was married 
in 1910 to the painter Luigi Curci, whom she 
divorced in 1920. In 1921 she married Homer 
Samuels, her accompanist. 

GALLIENI, Josepu Simon 
A French general and statesman. 
Europe, Western Front. 

GALLIPOLI. See Wark IN Evropr, Turkish 
Front. 

GALLOWAY, BEverLy THOMAS (1863- he 
An American botanist (see Vor. IX). In 
1913-14 he was Assistant Secretary of Agricul- 
ture, and in 1914-16, dean of the State College 
of Agriculture of Cornell University. From 
the latter date he was pathologist of the office 
of seed and plant introduction for the United 
States Denartment of Agriculture. 

GALLOWAY, Crartes WILLIAM (1868— 

). An American railway official, born in 
Baltimore, Md. He began his railway career 


(1849-1916). 
See WAR IN 


517 


GALSWORTHY 


as a messenger in the telegraph department 
of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1883. 
He served that road in various capacities and 
became superintendent of transportation in 
Baltimore in 1906. He served as general man- 
ager of the Baltimore and Ohio from 1912 to 
1916 and as vice-president and general manager 
of the Baltimore and Ohio Southwestern from 
1916 to 1918. He was Federal manager for the 
western lines of several railways during the 
War, and from 1920 he was vice-president in 
charge of operation and maintenance for the 
Baltimore and Ohio system. 

GALLSTONE DISEASE. During the dec- 
ade 1914-24 new methods of diagnosis and treat- 
ment of gallstone disease were introduced by Dr. 
Lyon of Philadelphia and his disciples which 
were incorporated in his large monograph on 
non-surgical drainage. By means of the duo- 
denal sound it is possible to obtain bile under 
all kinds of circumstances and subject it to 
analysis. The discovery that the bile in gall- 
stone disease may be entirely normal is con- 
trary to the old belief that stones cannot form 
in the presence of healthy bile. The cholagogue 
action of various substances can be studied by 
introducing them into the duodenum through 
the stomach and watching their action on the 
flow of bile. It becomes evident that the em- 
pirically recognized cholagogue substances are 
scientifically justified, for magnesium sulphate, 
olive oil, sodium phosphate and a number of 
others all appear to possess this property of ex- 
pelling bile from the gall bladder into the duo- 
denum. It is also possible by means of any 
one of these substances introduced into the 
duodenum to cause the escape of stones, or 
what is better, to prevent their formation by 
occasional resort to the sound. 

The claim that the use of the latter may 
sometimes precipitate a severe attack of gall- 
stone colic in a patient in whom the stones 
might never have caused trouble if left alone 
may be viewed from various angles. Thus we 
may entirely disbelieve in this possibility in the 
absence of complete proofs, or we may look on 
it as a rare event of little practical impor- 
tance to the public at large; finally, we may 
regard the expulsion of a quiescent stone as a 
good thing. Dr. Hedinger of Basel has fur- 
nished considerable evidence in support of the 
belief that gallstones are really amenable to so- 
lution, or at least to a partial solution, in their 
own bile. To what extent therapeutics will 
profit by such a discovery is at present prob- 
lematical. 

GALLWITZ, Max C. W. von (1873- }e 
A German artillery general, born at Breslau, 
and educated at the Gymnasium and military 
academy. He entered the artillery service in 
1870 and was progressively promoted until he 
became lieutenant-colonel in 1896. He was 
made department chief in the War Ministry the 
following year. His promotions continued, and 
he became major-general in 1902. In 1903 he 
had the direction of the army in the war min- 
istry; in 1906 he was made commander of the 
15th division; and in 1911, general of artillery 
and inspector of field artillery. During the en- 
tire period of the War he was artillery corps 
commander. In 1918 he was made commander- 
in-chiéf of several armies. He was raised to 
the nobility in 1913. 

GALSWORTHY, Joun_ (1867- ). ‘An 
English author (see Vout. IX). Among his lat- 


GAMBIA 


er works are The Little Man and Other Satires 
(1915); The Freelands (1915); A Sheaf (vol. 
i, 1916); Beyond (1917); Five Tales (1918) ; 
A WSheaf (vol. ii, 1919); WSam#’s Progress 
(1919); Addresses in America (1919); Tatter- 
demalion (1920); The Forsyte Saga (1922); 
and the plays, The Mob (1914); A Bit o’ Love 
(1915); The Skin Game (1920); Sia Short 
Plays (1921); A Family Man (1921); Loyalties 
(1922), and Windows (1922). In all his later 
works appear the author’s usual intellectual 
fineness and careful and thoughtful weaving. 
GAMBIA. A British colony and protectorate 
at the mouth of the River Gambia in West 
Africa. Area of colony proper, 4 square miles, 
(population, 9000); area of the protectorate 
4130 square miles (population in 1921, 200,- 
000). The chief export from Gambia was 
groundnuts, with a total of 64,178 tons in 
1923, compared with 66,000 tons in 1914. This 
made up 96 per cent of the total shipments. 
Other exports were palm kernels and _ hides. 
Total exports for 1923, £884,309 as compared 
with £926,127 in 1914. The British Empire 
took 49 per cent of the exports in 1923, France 
39 per cent, and Germany 7 per cent. Imports 
for 1923 were £709,013 as compared with £688,- 
007 in 1914. The British Empire supplied 69 
per cent, France 13 per cent, Germany 7 per 
cent, and the United States 5 per cent in 1923. 
Most of the sugar imported was from France, 
and the tobacco from the United States. Kola- 
nuts and cotton goods were other imports. In 
1913, 625,132 tons entered and cleared; in 1923, 
1,052,982 ‘tons. Revenues in 1913 were £124,- 
990; 1920, £268,788; 1922, £204,244. Expendi- 
ures in 1913 were £95,210; 1920, £171,160; 1922, 
£430,312. The last figure included £200,000 in- 
curred by the demonetization of the five-frane 
pieces which had so depreciated during and after 
the War that it was necessary to collect them 
for shipment to England to be melted down. The 
United States, during and after the War, sup- 
planted Germany in the Gambian import trade. 
In 1919 American shipments rose to $900,000. 
The natives persisted in devoting themselves 
exclusively to the groundnut industry to the 
neglect of food crops. During the War this 
caused a real food stringency because of the 
lack of shipping. 
GANDHI, MonanpsAs KARAMCHAND 1869- 
). An Indian nationalist leader, born 
at Porbander, India. He went to London 
in 1888 to study law. After careful observa- 
tion of Christianity and western civilization, 
he returned to India in 1893, but soon after- 
ward went to South Africa to practice law. 
He was brutally mistreated by the white men 
in South Africa, but he bore his burden by de- 
veloping a philosophy of passive resistance. 
On the outbreak of the War he raised a vol- 
unteer ambulance corps in London of the resi- 
dents there and in 1917 was active in raising 
a corps of Indian recruits in Kheda. He went 
into retreat in 1916 at Ahmedabad and there 
came under the influence of the teachings of 
Tolstoi. On the passing of the Rowlatt Act, he 
encouraged the “noncodperative” movement and 
agitation against the British Government and 
so had much to do with the Punjab disturbance 
of 1919. Through the union of the Hindus and 
Mohammedans, Gandhi promised to effect an 
impregnable native opposition to the British 
and eventually the demolition of their govern- 
ment in India. When the All-India Congress 


518 


GARBAGE AND REFUSE 


met on Dec. 24, 1921, at Ahmedabad, he was ap- 
pointed sole executive, and thus virtual dictator 
of the noncodéperative forces. 

For his part in the Punjab and other dis- 
turbances, he was tried in March, 1922, and 
sentenced to prison for six years. While many 
looked on and feared a gigantic uprising in 
India in defense of the man whom the Indians 
looked on not only as a reformer but as a saint, 
Gandhi admonished them not to resort to arms, 
but to get out their spinning wheels and spin. 
He went to rae cheerfully, and no disturb- 
ance occurred. During his imprisonment, re- 
ports from India were that Gandhi’s economic 
policies and philosophical teachings were being 
discredited. In the early part of February, 
1924, Gandhi was released unconditionally by 
order of the British government. See InpIa. 

GANS VON LUDASZY, Jurtus (1838— 
1923). A prominent Austrian journalist and 
popular author, born in Vienna. He studied 
law and medicine, but practiced neither. His 
becoming a contributor to Vienna newspapers 
led eventually to his becoming editor of the 
Wiener Neue Freie Presse, a position which he 
held from 1902 to 1915. His first work was 
a thesis, Die Wirtschaftliche Energie: System 
der Oekonomistischen Methodologie (1893). He 
later published Also Sprach Confucius (1900). 
Thereafter he devoted himself to drama and 
fiction. Among his plays, most of which were 
produced in Vienna, are Bessere Leute (1902), 
Der Sonnenstaat (1904), and Die Trennende 
Briicke (1913); among his stories, Die Heilige 
Schlange (1912), Die Macht der Schatten 
(1914), Die Grosse Siinde (1915), Der Tan- 
zende Stern (1917), and Der Turm der Liebe 
(1920). 

GANT, SAMUEL GoopWIN (1869- ). An 
American surgeon and proctologist, born at 
Knoxville, Mo., and educated at the Missouri 
Medical College. He practiced for some years 
in Kansas City, Mo. In 1899 he removed to 
New York City to become professor of surgery 
(proctology) in the New York Postgraduate 
School of Medicine, succeeding Professor Kel- 
sey. For some years he conducted private sur- 
gical hospitals and joined the staff of Broad 
Street Hospital. He has published numerous 
works covering diseases of the colon, rectum, 
and intestinal tract as a whole: Diagnosis and 
Treatment of Diseases of the Rectum (1896; 
rev. 1902); Constipation and Intestinal Ob- 
struction (1909), reissued in 1916 in revised 
form as Constipation, Obstipation, and Intesti- 
nal Stasis; Diarrheal, Inflammatory, Obstruc- 
tive, and Parasitic Diseases of the Gastro- 
intestinal Tract (1915); and Diseases of the 
Rectum, Anus and Colon (3 vols., 1923). 

GANZ, Rvupotr  (1877- ). A Swiss 
pianist (see Vor. IX). In 1921 he transferred 
his main activity from the field of piano play- 
ing to that of conducting, when he accepted the 
conductorship of the St. Louis Symphony Or- 
chestra. 

GARBAGE AND REFUSE DISPOSAL. 
The net changes in garbage and refuse disposal 
between 1914 and 1924 left the various proc- 
esses in much the same relation to each other 
as at the beginning of the period, although per- 
haps with some shifting as to preferences 
shown by the different cities for one method or 
another and certainly with some marked changes 
in the processes themselves. In Europe the War 
resulted in almost complete cessation of this 


GARBAGE AND REFUSE 


municipal service in many cities or else in ma- 
terial changes of method. In the United States 
and Canada the garbage and refuse collection 
’ service was not affected in any such degree as 
it was in Europe, but notable shifts were made 
in methods of disposal. The latter were de- 
signed more particularly to effect the recovery 
of material from the garbage and refuse, espe- 
cially food values usable for feeding to hogs. 
In the many army camps, besides hog feeding 
through contract service, there was a remark- 
able salvage of all sorts of camp waste, both 
that generally associated with municipal refuse 
and other waste materials peculiar to army 
camps. 

Stimulated by the United States Food Ad- 
ministration, by rigid demands for municipal 
economy, and by the willingness of contractors 
to take municipal garbage for utilization, sev- 
eral American municipalities either materially 
increased the amount of garbage already being 
disposed of by feeding to hogs or else took up 
that method of disposal systematically for the 
first time. Of the latter, notable instances 
were Newark, N. J., Baltimore, Md., and Buf- 
falo, N. Y. This was due both to the size of 
the cities and the nature of the contracts en- 
tered into, which was characterized at the time 
as “taking the gamble out of garbage.” These 
contracts provided that the contractor would 
pay the city for the garbage as delivered to him 
at a price per ton of garbage based on the 
wholesale price of hogs on the Chicago market. 
In England, hog feeding was somewhat resorted 
to, but apparently not so far as in the United 
States. 

United States Food Administration Statis- 
tics. The most extensive statistics on gar- 
bage and refuse collection and disposal ever 
made available in the United States were gath- 
ered by the United States Food Administration 
in 1917. They covered, as far as_ possible, 
places of 10,000 population and over. Of 779 
of these places for which data were presented, 
526 had a systematic collection, 171 had no 
collection service, and 82 places were not re- 
ported. Of 524 cities reporting whether the 
refuse was collected by the city, by contract, or 
privately, 84 reported collection by the city 
alone, 96 by contractors, 36 privately; that is, 
without contract and presumably with little 
supervision by the city; 308 had a mixed sys- 
tem of collection. Disposal methods were re- 
ported for 698 places with a population total- 
ing nearly 44,000,000. Of these, 345, with a 
population over 11,000,000, reported disposal by 
feeding, doubtless mostly to hogs; 102 places 
with a population of 7,000,000 reported incin- 
eration; 37 places with a population of 18,500,- 
000 reported disposal by reduction, or the re- 
covery of grease and fertilizer base; and 214 
places with 7,000,000 population gave the meth- 
od of disposal as burning, burying, or dumping, 
the former probably meaning for the most part 
burning waste paper and other combustible ma- 
terial on dumps. It should be understood that 
these figures are for the total populations of 
the cities in each class and not the populations 
actually served by the several methods enumer- 
ated, which would probably be very much less. 
The gross total population of the cities re- 
porting utilization by either reduction or 
feeding was about 30,000,000. These figures 
cannot be accepted as even approximate for 
methods of disposal. in 1924, even after al- 


519 


GARBAGE AND REFUSE 


lowing for increases in population. After the 
War some reduction plants were closed, there 
was probably a material net reduction in 
the population from which garbage is fed to 
hogs, and some of the incinerating plants 
closed during the War were reopened, some 
closed, and others built. The basic data col- 
lected by the Food Administration and reported 
by cities and States was printed in tabular form 
in the Hngineering News-Record for Oct. 17, 
1918. 

In the United States, probably in much lesser 
degree in other countries, garbage and refuse 
disposal is in many respects the most unsatis- 
factory of the various municipal services. In 
Europe, work in this field is on a more perma- 
nent and generally satisfactory basis than in 
the United States. It is not so much the col- 
lection service that is bad in America, although 
that is incomplete in a large percentage of 
municipalities and often poor, as it is the final 
means of disposal. The incompleteness of the 
American service, both as to collection and dis- 
posal, is in part due to the variety and extent 
of the demands on American municipal treasur- 
ies, but the poorness of the service performed 
and the constant shifting from one method of 
disposal to another and the very frequent aban- 
donment or at best the very poor operation of 
disposal plants is due most of all to the failure 
of American cities to regard the garbage and 
refuse disposal service, and for that matter the 
collection service as well, as essentially an en- 
gineering problem. Shift from one method of 
disposal to another, utterly inadequate oper- 
ating. service of disposal plants, and the aban- 
donment of plants representing large capital in- 
vestments are common; together they result in 
the waste of very large sums of money. So sel- 
dom does a city turn to an engineer experienced 
in garbage collection and disposal for prelim- 
inary studies to determine the best method to 
be adopted, for the preparation of plans and 
specifications, and for supervision of contracts, 
that there are very few engineers specializing 
in garbage disposal, compared with the large 
number of water-works and sewerage special- 
ists. 

Methods of Disposal Outlined. The chief 
methods of garbage disposal in use in various 
parts of the world in 1924 were dumping on 
land or into water; earth burial or covering 
with ashes instead of with dirt; incineration, 
with or without attempts at heat utilization; 
reduction, for the recovery of grease and fer- 
tilizer base, or in rare cases, for the conversion 
of garbage into stock food, which must still be 
considered as in the experimental stage; and 
fermentation, the end product to be used as a 
fertilizer, a new method introduced in several 
Italian cities and tried in a small way in the 
United States. Although no exact figures are 
available, it is probable that throughout the 
world more garbave and other municipal refuse 
are disposed of by dumping in land or in water 
than by any other method. Water dumping 
was long the chief method of disposal practiced 
by New York City; it was then given up for 
disposal by reduction for some years but was 
returned to with a political change in admin- 
istration for a considerable part of the city. 
In Richmond and Queens Boroughs most of the 
New York garbage is disposed of by incinera- 
tion and early in 1924 a 300-ton incinerating 
plant was put in use in Manhattan Borough; 


GARBAGE AND REFUSE vga0 


at the same time another large plant was under 
construction, and presumably others were pro- 
jected for that borough. The land dumping of 
garbage and refuse, if little or no attempt is 
made to take the proper care of the dumps, is 
likely to give offense from odors, from scatter- 
ing papers, and from smoldering fires on the 
dumps, but it is possible so to handle the dumps 
as to keep them from being much of a nuisance. 
Earth burial or the depositing of garbage in 
relatively shallow layers and covering it with a 
few inches of earth, or covering it instead with 
ashes, may be an eminently sanitary and satis- 
factory method of garbage disposal. It has 
been in use for some years at Seattle, Wash., 
after the abandonment of three refuse destruc- 
tors or incinerators, and similarly at Ottawa, 
Canada, and in other places. The change from 
incineration to dumping and covering with 
earth or ashes at Seattle was made by the 
Health Department and was called the sanitary 
fill method of disposal. 

Incineration was for several decades the chief 
method of disposing of mixed refuse in Eng- 
land, where anything but dumping was used, 
but much British refuse was worked into the 
soil for its physical improvement and for such 
fertilizing value as the refuse might contain. 
Following the War a marked change was made 
in British incinerating or refuse destructor 
practice; instead of sending all the garbage, 
ashes, and other refuse through the furnaces, 
the ashes and garbage were screened out for 
utilization on land; such low grade commercial 
materials as paper, rags, etc., were picked out 
on movable belts, and only the coarser clinker 
and unburned coal was passed for burning. 
The same general method was practiced for sev- 
eral years at Paris in some degree and was 
being extended on a large scale to cover the 
mixed refuse of the entire city. 

Municipal Methods. Collectors gather the 
Paris mixed refuse in a fleet of 700 motor 
trucks and deliver it to sorting, screening, 
grinding, and destructor plants operated by an- 
other company. The disposal company pro- 
duces fertilizer and brick from the refuse and 
utilizes heat from the destructors for the gen- 
eration of electricity, the latter being sold to 
the city and utilized to drive pumps of water 
and sewage pumping stations. The four sepa- 
rate disposal stations were being enlarged in 
1923 to a destructor capacity of 122 metric tons 
an hour and a projected further increase in ca- 
pacity will bring the latter up to 160 metric 
tons an hour (see Engineering News-Record, 
Nov. 22, 1923). Tests on the refuse of Munich 
made by the Bavarian State Institute for the 
Growth and Protection of Plants led to the con- 
clusion that it would be wasteful to use for fuel 
the finer portions of refuse having low calorific 
value but rich in fertilizing material. It was 
concluded that the most economical use of 
refuse where soil deficient in humus is at hand 
is to devote sifted fine refuse to agricultural 
purposes and to send the remaining refuse only 
to the destructor (Zeitschrift des Bayerischen 
Revisionsvereins, Nos. 7 and 8, 1921). 

Reduction as a means of garbage disposal has 
been confined almost wholly to the United 
States, where the method was employed during 
a considerable number of years in most of the 
larger cities of the country which have what 
might be called improved means of garbage dis- 
posal. Originally all these reduction works 
were built and operated by private companies 


GARBAGE AND REFUSE 


under municipal contracts, but for some years, 
one after another was taken over by the city 


or else, in a few cases, municipal plants were 


built de novo or to replace the old privately 
built plants. In 1924 there were municipally 
owned reduction plants in New Bedford, Mass.; 
Schenectady, Syracuse, and Rochester, N. Y.; 
Philadelphia and Washington; Cleveland, Col- 
umbus, and Dayton, Ohio; Indianapolis, Ind., 
and Chicago. The Syracuse plant was leased 
for operation for a few years to the contractor 
who built it. Other cities where the garbage 
was being disposed of by reduction in 1924 were 
Boston, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, and Detroit. 
Where reduction is practised, only garbage, not 
mixed refuse, can be disposed of. The same is 
almost as true of disposal by feeding to hogs, 
although these animals will do much sorting 
over of mixed refuse. 

Hog feeding as a method of garbage disposal 
was still in use in Newark and Buffalo in 1924; 
the Buffalo piggery had been taken over by the 
city a few years earlier, and the city was under 
a court injunction brought by the town in 
which the piggery was located, to close the 
piggery. The matter of actual closing was in 
the courts for some time pending investigations 
and negotiations by Buffalo for a site for dis- 
posal by some method not yet decided on up te 
May 1, 1924; the choice presumably lay between 
another piggery and incineration. Hog feed- 
ing is the general means of garbage dis- 
posal throughout New England; it was long 
practiced at Providence, R. I., and Worcester, 
Mass. 

Fermentation by the Beccart system, named 
after an Italian, was practised in Florence 
and some other Italian cities for several years. 
A demonstration plant was built by American 
promoters of the process at Paterson in 1921. 
Late in 1923 a working-scale Beccari plant was 
put in operation by the village of Scarsdale, 
N. Y. It consists of four covered concrete cells, 
each about 8x9 feet in plan and 10 feet high, 
into which the garbage is dumped through open- 
ings in the top. A tower or chimney common 
to the four cells contains overlapping shelves 
on which is placed material designed to absorb 
the gases given out by the fermentation process, 
with a view to recovering any fertilizing value 
they may contain. The moisture in the gar- 
bage is drained out through a false bottom. 
Means are provided for introducing air to pass 
through the cells. Reports from the Italian 
plants are that after the garbage has remained 
in them for 30 days or so, it has been con- 
verted by fermentation to a substance similar 
to garden soil or humus, with a high fertilizing 
value. For a description of the Beccari system 
as used in Italy, see Engineering News-Record, 
Feb. 15, 1923, and for a description of the 
plant at Florence, see The American City, Feb- 
ruary, 1923. 

Collection of mixed refuse generally costs 
more than the final disposal of the material; 
for economical service both of collection and of 
disposal, the, two should be carefully correlated 
after engineering studies, which should be con- 
tinuous in order to make readjustments neces- 
sary for economy and efficiency. Increasingly, 
motor-drawn vehicles are being used for collec- 
tion, especially where there is a long haul after 
loading is completed. Theoretically refuse col- 
lection districts should be so laid out that the 
material collected could be hauled to a central 
disposal plant in each district; this would ma- 


; 
: 
| 


a 


GARBER 


terially reduce the haul as compared with that 
entailed by the use of only one disposal plant. 
Great practical difficulty is experienced in 
American cities when an attempt is made to 
locate district disposal plants; the people resid- 
ing or doing business in the immediate vicinity 
usually protest that the plant will be a nui- 
sance. The arguments advanced may be fal- 
lacious, but when brought to bear on the coun- 
cilmen they are likely to be effective, as was 
shown by experiences at Philadelphia, Minne- 
apolis, and St. Louis. Most disposal plants in 
America are located in the outskirts of the city 
or beyond the municipal boundary lines. In 
some cases the disposal plant is so remote that 
special transportation after house-to-house col- 
lection has been effected is required, making 
use either of trailers or even of railway trans- 
portation, steam or electric. The latest and 
most comprehensive book on this whole subject 
is Hering and Greeley’s Collection and Disposal 
of Municipal Refuse (New York City, 1921). 

GARBER, DaAniet (1880- ). An Ameri- 
can painter (see Vor. IX). Among his later 
awards were the first Altman prize for figure 
painting, 1917, and the first Clark prize and 
gold medal, 1921. In “Buds and Blossoms,” 
“A. Summer Phantasy,” and “The Hawk’s 
Nest,” he showed a continuance of interest in 
nature in her brighter and sunlit moods. 

GARDEN, Mary (1877- ). An Ameri- 
can soprano (see VoL. IX). In January, 1921, 
she was appointed director-general of the Chi- 
cago Opera Association. She assumed control 
under most unfavorable circumstances, when the 
company was suffering from complications re- 
sulting from a dual directorship with divided 
responsibilities. That in the one year of her 
administration she failed to reconcile the war- 
ring factions and bring order out of the finan- 
cial chaos is not surprising. In spite of all 
handicaps, she maintained the high standard 
of the performances and even added to the 
glory of the company with a tour which was 
an unequivocal artistic success, though it re- 
sulted in financial disaster. During her term 
as director she continued to appear in her usual 
roles. When the new Chicago Civic Opera 
Company was organized in 1922, she was en- 
gaged as one of the principal artists. 

GARDNER, EDMUND GARRATT (1869- he 
An English writer (see VoL. IX). Among his 
later works are The Book of St. Bernard on the 
Love of God (1916) and The National Idea of 
Italian Literature (1921). 

GARFIELD, Harry Avuaustus (1863- . 
An American educator, born at Hiram, Portage 
County, Ohio, the son of President James A. 
Garfield. He taught Latin and law and prac- 
ticed law from 1888 to 1903 in Cleveland, Ohio. 
Subsequently he became professor of politics at 
Princeton University (1903-08) and president 
of Williams College (1908 ). President 
Wilson appointed him United States Fuel Ad- 
ministrator in August, 1917. In this position 
Garfield did not receive the entire support of 
the public, because he did not favor public own- 
ership of coal mines but asked for a fair chance 
for both capital and labor. The coal strike set- 
tlement did not receive his approbation, and 
in 1919 he resigned. 

GARIBALDI, Giuseppe (1879- yeitAn 
Italian soldier, son of the great Garibaldi, born 
in Melbourne, Australia. He took part in the 
Greco-Turkish War in 1897 and afterwards 


521 GARRETT 


fought with the revolutionists in Venezuela. 
Here he was imprisoned by Castro but escaped. 
After serving on the Panama Canal under Gen- 
eral Goethals, he entered the service of Madero 
in Mexico and was made chief of staff. He 
served in the Balkan Wars of 1912, and at the 
outbreak of the War raised an Italian legion 
of 14,000, which fought with the Allied troops 
in France. When Italy entered the war, he 
joined the Italian army and served with great 
distinction. He was created brigadier-general 
in June, 1918, and retired from the army in 
June, 1919. 

GARLAND, HAMLIN (1860-— ). An 
American poet and writer (see Vou. IX). 
Among his publications are A Son of the Middle 
Border (1914) and A Daughter of the Middle 
Border (1921). He became a member of the 
American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1918. 

GARNER, JAMES WILFrorD’ (1871- h 
An American professor of political science (see 
Vout. IX). Among his later writings are Civil 
Government for Indian Students (1920), Idées 
et Institutions Politiques Américaines (1921), 
International Law and the World War, 2 vols. 
(1920). He edited Hssays on Southern History 
and Politics (1914). He was Hyde lecturer in 
the French universities (1921) and Tagore lec- 
turer in the University of Calcutta (1922). 

GARNETT, Porter (1871- ). A writer, 
critic and play producer, born in San Francisco, 
who has contributed to several San Francisco 
papers and literary and dramatic periodicals. 
He edited the Grove Plays of the Bohemian 
Club in 1918 and has published The Bohenian 
Jinks, A Pageant of May, Descriptions of the 
Panama-Pacific International Exposition, and 
Stately Homes of California. He became asso- 
ciate professor of graphic arts at Carnegie In- 
stitute of Technology in 1922 and established 
there in 1923 the Laboratory Press, the first 
private press devoted to educational purposes. 

GAROFALO, RAFFAELE, BARoNn (1852— fe 
An Italian jurist (see Vor. VIII). His pub- 
lications after 1913, many of them speeches be- 
fore the Senate, include Sull’ Ordinamento 
Giudiziario (1914); Le Aggressioni alla Forza 
Pubblica e «1 Delinquenti Abituali (1914); La 
Neutralita dell’ Italia (1914); Per VAssicura- 
zione Obbligatoria contro gl’Infortuni sul Lavoro 
in Agricoltura (1917); ‘Enrico Pessina, Filo- 
sofo e Legislatore” (in vol. xlv of the Atti della 
Reale Accademia di Scienze Morali e Politiche, 
1918); and I Deliquenti Abituali, gli Sciopert, 
il Bolscevismo (1919). His Oriminology was 
translated into English in 1914 as the seventh 
volume of Modern Criminal Science. 

GARRETT, ALEXANDER CHARLES (1832- 
1924). An American Protestant Episcopal 
bishop (see Vou. IX), who died at Dallas, Tex., 
on Feb. 18, 1924. On the death of Daniel Syl- 
vester Tuttle in April, 1923, the Rt. Rev. Alex- 
ander Garrett became presiding bishop. At 
that time he was 91 years old and totally blind. 

GARRETT, Garer (1878-— ). An Ameri- 
can economist and journalist, born at Pana, III. 
He was financial writer on the New York Sun 
(1903-05), New York Times (1906-07), Wall 
Street Journal (1907-08), New York Hvening 
Post (1909-12), editor of the New York Times 
Annalist (1912-14), assistant editor of the 
New York Tribune (1916-19), and _ financial 
writer of the New York Evening Post 
(1919- ). He has written Where the Money 
Grows (1911), An Empire Beleaguered (1916), 


GARRISON 522 


The Blue Wound (1920), The Driver (1921), 
The Mad Dollar (1921), and many essays of an 
economic and political nature. Mr. Garrett has 
been described as a writer of stories with action 
and the freshness of bare facts. He contribut- 
ed regularly to the Saturday Evening Post and 
other magazines. 

GARRISON, FIeLp1Ing Hupson (1870- ). 
An American physician, known especially as a 
historian, librarian, and editor, born in Wash- 
ington, D.C., and educated at Johns Hopkins 
and Georgetown Universities. He entered the 
army medical service. Having already served 
in that capacity in his student days, he was 
made an assistant librarian in the Surgeon- 
General’s Library. On the retirement of Dr. 
Billings he sueceeded him as head librarian. 
In 1903 he became editor of the Index Medicus. 
His chief publications comprise An Introduc- 
tion to the History of Medicine (1913), a work 
of which it is impossible to speak too highly; 
John Shaw Billings, a biography (1915), and 
Notes on the History of Military Medicine 
(1922). 

GARVIE, ALFRED ERNEST (1861- Ve Vine 
British Congregational theologian (see VOL. 
IX). He added to his numerous publications 
The Missionary Obligation (1914), The Evan- 
gelical Type of Christianity (1915), The Pur- 
pose of God in Christ (1919), The Christian 
Preacher (1920), The Old Testament in the 
Sunday School (1921), and other volumes. 

GARVIN, JAmes Louis (1868- diy hiAn 
English journalist and Imperialist, born at 
Birkenhead, Cheshire. By his writings for the 
Newcastle Chronicle, the EHastern Morning 
News, the London Daily Telegraph, and the 
Fortnightly Review, he made himself popular 
as a brilliant publicist. He was editor of the 
weekly Outlook (1905-12), the evening Pall 
Mall Gazette (1912-15), and The Observer 
(1908). The circulation and prestige of the 
latter increased enormously with his editorship. 
He has published Imperial Reciprocity (1903), 
Compatriot Club Lectures (1906), Tariff or 
Budget (1909), The Economic Foundation of 
Peace (1919), and other books, the majority of 
them giving proof of his affinity with the Un- 
ionist party. In 1920 he was appointed to 
write the official biography of Joseph Chamber- 
lain, whom he had supported since the latter’s 
colonial secretaryship in 1895. 

GARY, Expert Henry (1846- ) bapAgi 
American corporation official (see Von. IX). 
In 1917 he was appointed a member of the 
United States section of the international high 


commission. He later resigned from this posi- 
tion. 
GARY, Hampson (1873- ). An Ameri- 


can lawyer and diplomat, born at Tyler, Tex., 
and educated at the University of Virginia. In 
1894 he was admitted to the bar and engaged 
in private practice and politics. In 1913-14 he 
was standing master in chancery in the United 
States District Court, and in the latter year be- 
came connected with the Department of State 
as a special war counsel. From 1917 to 1919 
he was in Egypt as diplomatic agent and consul 
general, with the rank of minister resident. In 
1919 he was in Paris with the American Com- 
mission to Negotiate Peace and in the following 
year was made Envoy Extraordinary and Minis- 
ter Plenipotentiary to Switzerland. After 1921 
he practiced law in Washington, D.C. 
GASES, INERT, See CHEMISTRY. 


GAYLORD 


GAS, ry WARFARE. See CHEMICAL WAR- 
FARE; STRATEGY AND TACTICS. 

GAS, Natrurat. See NatrurAL GAS, 

GAS ENGINES. See INTERNAL CoMBUS- 
TION ENGINES, 

GAS LAW. See CHEMISTRY, PHYSICAL. 

GASOLINE. See PETROLEUM. 

GAS TURBINE. See INTERNAL-COMBUSTION 
ENGINES. 

GAS WORKS. See MUNIcIPAL OWNERSHIP. 

GAULT, Ropert HArvEy (1875— Fale Wa 
American psychologist, born at Ellsworth, Ohio., 
Nov. 3, 1875, and educated at Cornell and Clark 
Universities. He has been a member of the 
faculty of Northwestern University since 1905. 
In 1911 he became the editor of The Journal of 
the American Institute of Criminal Law and 
Criminology. After 1914 he also edited Crim- 
inal Science Monographs. He was part author 
and editor of the report of the Chicago Council 
for the Investigation of Crime (1915). 

GAUTIER, (CHARLES) LUCIEN (1850- _). 
A Swiss theologian (see VoL. IX). He was 
president of the Pastorale Suisse (1916-17), 
central president of the Société Suisse des 
Vieux Zofingiens (1915-19), and president of 
the board of delegates of the South African 
Swiss Mission (1918-20). In 1919 he became 
a member of the International Committee of 
the Red Cross. One of his later publications 
was Le Prophéte Jérémie (1916). 

GAUVAIN, AUGUSTE (1861- pie: 
French editor and publicist, born at Vesoul, and 
educated in law at the University of Paris and 
the Ecole des Sciences Politiques. After edit- 
ing a professional legal journal, he became in 
1908 foreign editor of the powerful and con- 
servative Journal des Débats. His political ar- 
ticles were widely quoted on both sides of the 
Atlantic. During the War he was honored by 
the French government with the cross of the 
Legion of Honor; he also received honorary 
decorations from a number of foreign orders. 
A member of the Academy of Moral and Politi- 
eal Science, Gauvain was a prolific writer on 
questions of current politics. The list of his 
writings ineludes Les Origines de la Guerre 
Européenne (1915), L’Europe avant la Guerre 
(1917), L’Affaire Grecque (1917), La Question 
Yougo-Slave (1918), L’Encerclement de VAlle- 
magne (1919), and L’Hurope au Jour le Jour 
(12 vols., six of which were crowned by the 
Institute). Gauvain also wrote Books I and 
III of the ninth volume of the Histoire Contem- 
poraine de France and frequently contributed to 
the French periodical press. 


GAYLEY, CuHartes Mirrts§ (1858- ): 
An American author (see Von. IX). He was 
dean of the faculties (1918-20) and adminis- 


trator (1919) of the University of California. 
Among his later works are Shakespeare and the 
Founders of American Liberty (1917) and, in 
collaboration, Lyric, Epic and Allied Forms of 
Poetry (1919). 

GAYLORD, FRANKLIN AUGUSTUS 
(1856— ). An American clergyman and so- 
cial worker, born at Yonkers, N. Y., and edu- 
eated at Yale University, Union Theological 
Seminary, and the Collége de France. In 1887- 
93, he was general secretary of the Young Men’s 
Christian Association at Paris, France. In 
1894 he was ordained to the Presbyterian min- 
istry, and from 1895 to 1899, he held the pas- 
torate of Trinity Congregational Church in 
New York City. He was in St. Petersburg as 


4 


GEDDES 


the general secretary of the Russian Y.M.C. A. 
(1899-1911), and in 1911 he was made director 
of the Russian Society for Moral and Physical 
Development of Young Men. In 1916 he was 
secretary of the American Hospital for Wound- 
ed Russian Soldiers, and in 1918-19, secretary of 
the International Committee of the Y. M.C.A., 
which he also represented in Odessa, Russia 
(1919-20), and other cities. He is the author 
of English translations of Russian verse. 

GEDDES, SIR AUCKLAND CAMPBELL 
(1879- ). A British scientist and diplomat, 
educated at Edinburgh University. He was 
professor of anatomy at Edinburgh, Dublin, and 
Montreal (McGill University). He served in 
the South African War, and in the war of 1914- 
18, he was a brigadier-general in the Territorial 
Force. Appointed minister of national service 
in 1917, he showed great efficiency in utilizing 
the services of the whole nation in the prosecu- 
tion of the War. In 1919 he was made presi- 
dent of the Board of Trade. In 1920 he was 
British ambassador at Washington. He _ re- 
signed from this post in December, 1923. 

GEDDES, Sir Eric CAMPBELL (1875- ). 
A British politician, born in India, and educat- 
ed at Oxford Military College and Merchiston 
Castle School in Edinburgh. He first acquaint- 
ed himself with railways in the United States 
(Baltimore and Ohio system) and later in Eng- 
land became manager (1906) of the Northeast- 
ern Railway Company, of which he was general 
manager on the outbreak of the War in 1914. 
After that time he was deputy and director 
general of munitions supply (1915-16), direc- 
tor general of military railways, and inspector 
general of transportation. The credit for the 
efficiency of British communication in France 
was attributed to him. Lloyd George, wholly 
ignoring the fact of Sir Eric Geddes’ non-par- 
liamentary experience, appointed him to suc- 
ceed Sir Edward Carson as First Lord of the 
Admiralty. After the Armistice he was charged 
with the demobilization of many government 
departments, and on the formation in 1919 of a 
new Ministry of Transport, he left the Admi- 
ralty to preside over it. He was much criti- 
cized (1920-21) for his apparent lack of econ- 
omy in the new ministry, in the contemplated 
government return of the railways to the orig- 
inal companies. In the spring of 1921 he in- 
troduced a bill for reorganizing the railways, 
and in the following August he was appointed 
by the Chancellor of the Exchequer adviser on 
all questions of national expenditure (August, 
1921—March, 1922). Sir Erie was knighted in 
1916 and in 1917 was created K.C.B. and G.B.E. 
In 1923 he was a member of the British War 
Cabinet and head of the British tire and rub- 
ber industry. 

GEIKIE, Str ARCHIBALD (1835- ). A 
British geologist (see Vor. IX). Among his 
later writings are The Birds of Shakespeare 
(1916), Annals of the Royal Society Club in 
the. Highteenth and Nineteenth Centuries 


(1917), and John Mitchell, M.A., F.R.S., of 
Queen’s College, Cambridge (1724-93) (1918). 
GEIL, WILLIAM EpDGAR (? }e An 


American explorer and author, born at Doyles- 
town, Pa., and educated at Lafayette College. 
He made journeys into Western Asia, China, 
and Africa, penetrating as far as Mt. Douglas, 
to study primitive races. He lectured on his 
observations in Australia, Japan, China, India, 
Great Britain, and the United States. In 1919- 


523 


GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY 


20 he explored the five sacred mountains of 
China. Among his works may be mentioned 
The Great Wall of China (1911) and Adven- 
tures in the African Jungle Hunting Pygmies 
(1917). 

GELERT, Grere Meriset-Hess (1879-1922). 
A distinct personality among the women writ- 
ers of Germany and Austria. She was born at 
Prague. Five years were spent at the universi- 
ty of Vienna in the study of philosophy, sociol- 
ogy, and biology; she was also a pupil of Freud. 
Her first works were novels, Fanny Roth, Annie 
Bianca, and Die Stimme (1907), and although 
they were later followed by Die Intellektuellen 
(1911), a picture of German intellectuals, and 
a volume of stories of the occult, Geister 
(1913), her reputation rests on her works on 
the sex problem, on woman, and marriage. 
They are Die Sexuelle Krise (1909), which has 
been translated into English; Betrachtungen 
zur Frauenfrage (1914); Krieg und Ehe 
(1916); Das Wesen der Geschlechtlichkeit 
(1916) ; Die Bedeutung der Monogamie (1917) ; 
and Die Ehe als Erlebniss (1919). 

GELS. See PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. 

GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD. See 
EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 


GENERAL STAFF. See ARMIES’ AND 
ARMY ORGANIZATION. 
GENERATORS, Etecrric. See ELECTRIC 


PoWER STATIONS AND GENERATING APPARATUS. 

GENETICS. See HEReEpITY. 

GENOA CONFERENCE. See PEACE Con- 
FERENCE AND TREATIES; REPARATIONS. See also 
Russia, History. | 

GEOGNOSY. See GEOLoeyY. 

GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, AMERICAN. 
A society established in 1852 for the dissemina- 
tion of geographical information. From No- 
vember, 1917, to December, 1918, it was the 
headquarters of a body of experts known as the 
Inquiry, which studied conditions in Europe 
during the War under the direction of the De- 
partment of State; later the director of the So- 
ciety and some of these experts attended the 
Peace Conference where they served on various 
territorial and economic commissions. In 1919 
the Society conducted a survey of the boundary 
between Guatemala and Honduras, at the re- 
quest of the governments concerned, to be used 
as the basis for the recommendation of the Sec- 
retary of State of the United States for a final 
boundary in the disputed region. In the fol- 
lowing year the Society inaugurated a_ pro- 
gramme of research in the geography of His- 
panic America, the results of which were pub- 
lished in a map of Hispanic America on the 
scale of 1: 1,000,000 accompanied by a series 
of explanatory monographs and articles. Plans 
adopted in 1921 for the foundation of a school 
to train men in modern methods of survey- 
ing were well advanced in 1924. The course, 
opened to qualified students, would require 
eighteen months; shorter courses would be ar- 
ranged for students desiring to take them. 
The Society in 1921 assisted the Department of 
Justice in the study of the Red River Boundary 
in dispute between Oklahoma and Texas and in 
the same year sent W. L. G. Joerg on a mission 
to Europe for the purpose of studying the 
status of geography in European universities 
and geographical institutions. 

In 1916 the Geographical Review (monthly 
1916-1921; quarterly since 1921) superseded 
the Bulletin of the American Geographical So- 


GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 524 


ciety as the organ of the Society. In 1916 a 
new series of publications in book and pam- 
phlet form was begun; of these an average of 
more than one volume a year was_ published. 
The Society’s library and map collection, which 
were considerably enlarged during the past 
decade, formed probably the most complete 
collections in America devoted exclusively to 
the subject of geography. In 1916 John 
Greenough succeeded Archer M. Huntington as 
president; Dr. Isaiah Bowman was director after 
1915. 

GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, Narionar. An 
organization founded in 1888 for the increase 
and diffusion of geographic knowledge. Prob- 
ably the most important of its activities be- 
tween 1914 and 1924 was its investigation of 
the circumstances of the eruption of Mt. Kat- 
mai in Alaska, one of the greatest in modern 
times. Six expeditions sent out under Dr. 
Robert F. Griggs discovered the huge new cra- 
ter of the volcano, eight miles in circumference, 
nearly large enough to engulf Vesuvius, and the 
remarkable Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, 
the greatest fumarole region known. Besides 
investigating and mapping the valley, the ex- 
pedition mapped a hundred miles of uncharted 
or erroneously charted coastline and discovered 
a new harbor and four large lakes. Collections 
of incrustations, gases, and lavas were brought 
back and studied in the laboratory, and the 
processes of reforestation of the ash-devastated 
area were studied by botanists. Through these 
researches it was hoped that new light might 
be thrown on the composition and condition of 
the materials in the earth’s interior and the 
problems of vulcanology. As a result of the 
Society’s activities, the region about Katmai 
was made a national monument by presidential 
proclamation. 

An archeological expedition under Dr. Hiram 
Bingham was sent in 1914-15 to Machu Picchu, 
the ancient capital of the Incas, high in the 
Andes of Peru. The expedition unearthed a 
number of buried highways, towns, temples, etc., 
and showed that the region about the city was 
probably the most densely populated of the New 
World in pre-Columbian times. They discov- 
ered that the Incas made pottery resembling 
that of early Greece, performed surgical oper- 
ations, built wonderful staircase forms, domes- 
ticated 80-odd species of plants, including po- 
tatoes and corn, and laid stones weighing tons 
with the utmost nicety. Over 12,000 photo- 
graphs were taken showing Peruvian types and 
Tuins, as well as geologic, topographic, and 
physiographic features of the Andes. Another 
expedition was sent to Chaco Canyon, N. M., 
to excavate Pueblo Bonito, a colossal apartment 
house at least 1000 years old, with 300 rooms 
on the first floor, and probably five stories high. 
Portions of the fourth story walls were still 
standing. Cross sections of the beams discov- 
ered there were expected to furnish much in- 
formation concerning the age, history, and geo- 
graphical position of the forests which supplied 
building materials used in the dwellings. 

A biological expedition was sent to the in- 
terior of China to make a survey and especially 
to find a specimen of the largest nonanthropoid 
species of monkey known, the rhinopithecus 
brelichi, of which only one skin was extant. 
Other explorers, going to the Burma-Tibet fron- 
tier in search of plants, were especially success- 
ful in bringing to the United States blight- 


GEOLOGY 


resisting chestnuts. They also hoped to find 
how Indian corn was transplanted into China 
in pre-Columbian times, when it was known as 
imperial wheat. The Society participated in 
an expedition to the islands off the coast of 
Lower California, collecting marine fossils, 
plants, fishes, and rare forms of animal life, 
and in one to Labrador, which mapped a large 
and previously unknown area and collected bio- 
logical specimens. Early in 1924, the Society 
dispatched an expedition to southern Mexico 
under the leadership of Prof. Byron Cummings 
to investigate and unearth the ruins of Cuicuil- 
co beneath the Pedregal lava flow. It was be- 
lieved that these excavations would disclose 
evidences of a civilization in America antedat- 
ing that of the Pharaohs in Egypt. 

The membership of the Society increased from 


°300,000 in 1914 to 900,000 in 1924. To fulfill 


its purpose of diffusing knowledge it published, 
besides its monthly magazine sent to all mem- 
bers, daily and weekly bulletins for the press, 
bulletins for schools and Sunday schools, and 
scientific monographs on the discoveries of the 
Katmai expeditions. The president and editor- 
in-chief in 1924 was Gilbert Grosvenor; vice- 
presidents, Henry White and John Oliver La- 
Gorce; secretary, O. P. Austin. Headquarters 
were in Washington, D. C. 

GEOLOGY. Progress in this science during 
1914-24 was substantial, representing the ef- 
forts of many workers in the different depart- 
ments rather than a few signal discoveries or 
researches. If anything may be described as 
distinctive in the general trend of studies, it 
was undoubtedly the emphasis on the practical 
phases, economic or political geology, for which 
the War may be held responsible. This tend- 
ency still may be discerned in the output of 
most public surveys, which were inclined to 
give less attention to subjects of theoretical in- 
terest than they formerly did and was further 
illustrated by the growing participation of geol- 
ogists in industrial undertakings, chiefly oil 
and natural gas production and-~ mining. In 
contrast with its stimulative influence on work 
in this field, the War was accountable for much 
that was wholly regrettable, including the sus- 
pension of codperative effort on the preparation 
of a world map and other plans of international 
scope, as well as for the partial or complete 
demoralization of scientific activities in some of 
the European countries. 

General Geology. Geognosy. The effects 
of radio-active energy on the cooling of the 
earth have been given a quantitative expres- 
sion; they put a new aspect on estimates of 
geological time. The presence of radio-active 
substances in all the constituents of the crust 
may be regarded as definitely established by 
the work of Strutt and others. The heat 
given off in this way would appear to counter- 
balance almost completely the loss by conduc- 
tion and radiation of the original stored heat; 
perhaps it exceeds such loss under certain con- 


‘ditions, so that the cooling process is very slow. 


Lord Kelvin’s classic studies, made before the 
discovery of radium, indicated a maximum of 
40,000,000 years for the age of the earth; that 
is, the time required for it to have cooled to its 
existing state, an estimate which geologists for 
the most part accepted, even though a more lib- 
eral figure would have accorded better with 
their own data. On the new basis the period 
of earth evolution would be lengthened to many 


SS ee Eee 


OO  ———— ae 


GEOLOGY 


times that amount, and 1,000,000,000 years is 
regarded as not improbable. Arthur Holmes 
ealeulated from radium ratios that the oldest 
igneous rocks exposed at the surface, largely 
granites, probably originated — 1,500,000,000 
years ago. The fossiliferous rocks extending 
back to Cambrian time, which is the span of 
historie geology, were accumulated in a mini- 
mum of 550,000,000 and a maximum of 700,- 
000,000 years, according to Barrell, who would 
assign a period of similar magnitude for the 
Pre-Cambrian formations. 

That the earth as a whole has a high degree 
of rigidity comparable to steel, and is likewise 
extremely viscous, was deduced by Michelson 
from experimental observations of tidal move- 
ments in the solid rocks. The old theory of a 
thin envelope about a fluid body would appear 
untenable on a physical basis. It is probable 
that the interior is very hot, sufficiently so to 
melt any rock material under atmospheric con- 
ditions, but’ the pressure produces a degree of 
immobility approaching a solid for the body as 
a whole. Other indications of deep-seated con- 
ditions are found in the study of earthquake 
tremors, the heaviest of which are world-wide 


in their travels but do not pass directly 
through the earth in the shortest paths. They 
indicate a zonal structure. Oldham inferred 


that three concentric layers exist, of which the 
crust or lithosphere is the thinnest, not more 
than 40 miles in depth. The next layer, asthe- 
nosphere, is possibly 2000 miles thick and is 
rigid under stress of short duration so as to 
transmit vibrations from distant sources. The 
innermost layer, the core, is likewise very thick 
and seems to deflect tremors, indicative of a vis- 
cous condition rather than of a rigid solid. 
The temperature gradient calculated from ob- 
servations made in deep shafts and borings af- 
fords a method of estimating the thickness of 
the crust. Daly collected data from Europe 
and America on which he based the conclusion 
that 40 kilometers (roundly 25 miles) is the 
most likely figure for the outer layer. 
Experimentation with mineral melts analog- 
ous in composition to some of the simpler igne- 
ous rocks has provided some new information 
about the erystallization of these materials. 
One of the problems that has been given atten- 
tion is the cause of variation in igneous intru- 
sions, the process of magmatic differentiation, 
so-called. An original mass or magma of unl- 
form composition may split during consolida- 
tion into several types of variant textures 
and mineral ingredients. Bowen would explain 
these effects as a result of the crystallizing 
process, itself a natural inherent influence in 
all magmas. The process may be considered as 
occurring in two stages, an early stage when 
erystal settling is the main feature, and a lat- 
er stage in which pressure acts to compress the 
crystal mass and to squeeze out the residual 
liquid which is later cooled to the crystallizing 
point. The one or the other agency, or their 
combined operation, serves to explain magmat- 
ic differentiation. From theoretical considera- 
tions purely, other writers have argued in favor 
of the effects of liquid immiscibility, convection 
currents, and inmelting of foreign materials; 
and it is recognized that the subject is still 
open to investigation. : 
The structure of coral reefs, about which 
Darwin’s theories have been generally accepted 
as most satisfactory, was given renewed consid- 


525 


a 


GEOLOGY 


eration by several geologists. Daly remarked 
certain features of atolls, for example the flat 
floors that characterize some of the basins en- 
closed by the rings of coral, which seem incon- 
sistent with reefs built around subsiding vol- 
eanic islands. He suggested that the corals 
may have built upward on relatively flat plat- 
forms produced by wave cutting at a time when 
the sea was at a lower level than now. The 
water stored up in the form of ice during the 
Pleistocene period may have caused a lowering 
of tidal waters by as much as 150-300 feet, 
when waves could have eroded benches and plat- 
forms well below the present range of their 
activity. On them the corals started their op- 
erations anew as soon as the waters reached a 
favorable temperature. 

According to Davis, the flat floors of atoll 
lagoons can be explained by the leveling effects 
of sedimentation in periods of intermittent 
subsidence of the islands; coral reefs also oc- 
cur on many of the Pacific islands that bear 
no marks of a cessation of growth that would 
be expected if the seas had been lowered and 
cooled during Pleistocene time. Borings on the 
Funafuti atoll were interpreted by Skeats as 
evidencing a slow, progressive, upward growth, 
without any breaks in the succession of coral 
rock corresponding to the estimated position of 
a glacial platform. Most of the coral species 
found at depth still exist in the vicinity. The 
evidence from that locality supports Darwin’s 
conclusions. In the West Indies and Florida, 
Vaughan found that all offshore reefs have 
grown on recently depressed platforms and that 
there are no instances of long-continued sub- 
mergence of coral areas or of the development 
of barrier reefs from fringing reefs The work 
of corals as constructional agents is not of first 
importance in that region; other organisms 
like bacteria, foraminifera, and mollusks con- 
tribute more to rock formation by abstraction 
of calcium carbonate from sea water. 

Dynamic Geology. Isostasy has acquired 
rank as a working principle among most of the 
American geologists, apparently, who have giv- 
en attention to the problem of slow crustal 
movements. The work of Hayford and later of 
Bowie, both of the United States Coast and 
Geodetic Survey, has given strong support to 
the theory. Accurate gravity determinations 
were assembled by Bowie from the United 
States, Canada, India, and other countries, rep- 
resenting all conditions of topographic relief, 
and they were found to fall in line with previ- 
ous deductions. Isostasy, it may be explained, 
assumes that every variation of topographic re- 
lief is accompanied by a variation of density of 
the underlying rock column down to a uniform 
level, that of isostatic compensation. Thus, 
mountain areas are deficient in density, while 
oceanic depths are of relatively high rock den- 
sity. Denudation of an elevated surface causes 
or is compensated for by a rising of the area, 
whereas loading of a depression is accompanied 
by sinking. Bowie regards the compensation 
as practically complete at a depth about 60 kil- 
ometers for the United States as a whole; in 
mountain regions the depth is greater, 95-111 
kilometers. Compensation is effected by a flow 
of material at the mentioned depths, in ac- 
cordance with the fluctuating load at the sur- 
face. 

Exemplification of the broad crustal swings 
both up and down that seem to call for expla- 


GEOLOGY 526 


nation by the isostatic principle is to be found 
in the changes of level in northeastern North 
America during Pleistocene time. At the _ be- 
ginning of the ice invasion the region was high- 
er than it has been at any subsequent period, 
although the exact relation of the surface with 
reference to sea level can be stated only in gen- 
eral terms. Over this surface, which was per- 
haps from 1000 to 5000 feet higher than now, 
spread a thick mantle of ice which collected 
first in the Labrador and Laurentian highlands 
and moved gradually to the south and south- 
west, finally covering an area of several hun- 
dred thousand square miles to an extreme depth 
of perhaps 5000 feet. Following the maximum 
ice accumulation, the land surface began to 
sink under the weight, the movement continu- 
ing until the ice had retreated from the south- 
ern part of the region and until a considerable 
area had been depressed nearly to sea-level and 
marine waters invaded a smaller portion of it. 
The general withdrawal of the ice from the 
whole region so lishtened the crust that an 


adjustment by reélevation took place. This. 


last movement has reached a maximum, accord- 
ing to Fairchild, of 1000 feet in the area_be- 
tween the St. Lawrence River and James Bay, 
the measurement being based on the altitudes of 
marine deltas formed by streams that flowed 
into the sea at the time of maximum depres- 
sion. The elevation increased from south to 
north. 

The relation of folds and faults to isostatic 
adjustment remains an outstanding problem, 
about which opinion, as yet, has found little 
common ground. The view that they represent 
the effects of stored-up stresses finding sudden 
relief is in apparent conflict with the evidences 
for a relatively thin crust that responds easily 
to variations of load. Folds and _ overthrust 
faults represent the effort of the crust to ad- 
just itself to a shrinking circumference. R. T. 
Chamberlin, in a study of the Colorado Rockies, 
found that the amount of shortening was 8 
miles in a distance of 140 miles across the axis 
of the main uplift. The depth to which the 
rocks were affected by disturbance ranged from 
13 miles minimum to 107 miles maximum. 
In the Coast and Sierra Nevada ranges adjust- 
ments occurred mostly by faulting, according 
to Willis. The faults, which are high-angle 
thrusts, resulted from compression that brought 
about rotation of the mountain blocks along the 
fault planes. The cause of rotation was stress, 
set up by erosion and sedimentation, not suf- 
ficient to involve isostatic adjustment. 

Kober explained mountain-making as an ef- 
fect of compressive forces, which have their 
source in continued contraction of the earth. 
Adjustments have taken place by thrusting and 
folding in restricted zones, whereas the larger 
masses or plates of continental extent have be- 
haved as rigid units. The zones of folding may 
receive an excess of material so as to be over- 
loaded, when isostasy comes into play and the 
zones subside, possibly to an extent that brings 
them into the range of sedimentation. With a 
heavy accumulation of sediments the isogeo- 
therms eventually begin to rise, and the in- 
crease of temperature sets in play chemical re- 
actions and causes expansion, thereby upsetting 
equilibrium, which leads to adjustment by fold- 
ing or thrusting. Crustal movements, in the 
view of T. C. Chamberlin, have not effected 
widespread interchanges of land and sea. The 


GEOLOGY 


continents and oceans are fixed in position, al- 
though migrations of shore-line have taken 
place frequently and are now in progress. Ex- 
amples may be found of the engulfing of crustal 
blocks and folds, or of the upraising of the 
ocean floor into land, but they are isolated. 
The Antillean region, by its position between 
the two Americas and the two great ocean ba- 
sins, has been particularly unstable, as_ in- 
stanced by the occurrence of deep-sea deposits 
on Barbados and other islands. 

Metamorphism as an influence in the forma- 
tion of mineral deposits is a subject to which 
practical students of geology have devoted 
much attention, with some important contribu- 
tions to theory. One of the more significant re- 
sults has been the broader recognition of the 
part played by igneous rocks in producing 
changes. Their field of operation, it is now 
regarded, may extend over such areas as are 
comparable to those of pressure or regional 
metamorphism, if, in fact, they have not been 
responsible for effects generally assigned in 
the past to the latter agency. Regions in 
which igneous rocks do not appear at the sur- 
face may still have been under their influence, 
for there is every reason to suppose that many 
deep-seated intrusions, like granite batholiths, 
are buried in the sedimentary layers out of 
sight. The heat, gases, and mineralizing solu- 
tions emanating from such bodies in the crys- 
tallizing stages would reach over extended 
zones, effecting those chemical and _ physical 
changes often ascribed to regional metamor- 
phism. For the réle of the igneous rocks in the 
formation of ores and valuable mineral depos- 
its, see Hconomic Ceology. 

Stratigraphic Geology. The classification 
of the Pre-Cambrian formations in their order 
of sequence constitutes one of the outstanding 
problems of geology, about which a great deal 
of discussion has centred in late years, with 
many solutions proposed. Practically all stu- 
dents of the subject agree that the old idea of 
a dual division into Laurentian and Huronian 
or Archean and Algonkian, based on the thesis 
that there exists an earlier group of igneous 
rocks, chiefly granite, on which rests the 
altered sedimentary Algonkian or MHuronian 
group, does not reflect the real conditions. Ac- 
tually, the succession is much more complex 
than that, for sediments seem to have been laid 
down at recurrent intervals all through the 
Pre-Cambrian, and there are igneous forma- 
tions of several different periods of intrusion. 
The sequence varies, also, between one region 
and another, and it is doubtful if any classifi- 
cation can be made, adapted to meet all con- 
ditions. The tendency now is to apply such 
methods and terminology as corresponds best 
with the local features and not to attempt to 
correlate the formations of one area, like that 
of Lake Superior, for example, with the Pre- 
Cambrian of Great Britain or Scandinavia. 
For the arrangement given in the article Ge- 
ology, in the 1915 Edition of the New INTERNA- 
TIONAL ENCYCLOP&DIA, may be substituted the 
following scheme, which is fairly representa- 
tive of the later research in the Pre-Cambrian 
areas of the eastern United States and Canada. 
The formations are named in order of age, the 
oldest being at the bottom: 


6. Keweenawan. Continental sediments and lavas. 
_ 5, Animikian, Marine sediments. Iron ore forma- 
tions of Lake Superior. 


te 


a 


GEOLOGY 


4, Huronian. 
8. Algoman. 
2. Sudburyan. 


Marine and continental beds. 
Later Laurentian granites. 

Marine deposits. 

1. Basement Complex. Includes first 
granites. Grenville schists and _ limestones, 
greenstones, and Coutchicing schists. 
undetermined. 


Laurentian 
Keewatin 
Sequence still 


The climate of past ages may be inferred, ac- 
cording to Schuchert, from the character of the 
sediments and of the fossils contained in them. 
Life forms have always been responsive to cli- 
matie influences, just as they are now. There 
is evidence of widespread glacial climates dur- 
ing at least four periods; two of them occur 
in the Pre-Cambrian and two in later periods. 
In the lower part of the Huronian of Canada 
are found slate conglomerates, which represent 
hardened bowlder clays. In the later Pre-Cam- 
brian, glacial conditions are indicated by the 
tillites of Norway and southern Australia. 
The Permian period contains evidences of ex- 
tensive glaciation in the equatorial and south 
temperate zones, notably in South Africa, Bra- 
zil, India, and other countries. The Pleisto- 
cene was the last of the great glacial periods. 
Changes of land surface are mainly responsible 
for the wide variations of climate; other causes 
are the variable supply of heat stored in the 
oceans and the fluctuating content of carbon 
dioxide in the atmosphere. 

In many parts of America the Cretaceous 
system shows no well-defined natural bounda- 
ries between the Jurassic system below~and the 
Tertiary system above. It appears that no 
general unconformability reflecting a  wide- 
spread earth movement exists at the close of 
the Jurassic, but sedimentation seems to have 
been continuous in one area or another. Thus, 
the Morrison formation of the Rocky Mountain 
region has been considered by some geologists 
to be of upper Jurassic age, by others lower 
Cretaceous, and by still others as containing 
members of each of the two systems. Correla- 
tion with the European Cretaceous is suggested 
by Osborn as the best method of settling the 
difficulty; he would place most value on the 
evidence of fossils. On the question of draw- 
ing a line between the Cretaceous and Tertiary 
systems, the consensus of opinion is to make 
the close of the Cretaceous coincident with the 
passing of the age of reptiles, indicated by the 
extinction of the great families of terrestrial 
dinosaurs. This view accords with the classi- 
fication adopted by European geologists. As 
applied to the formations of the west, the plan 
is to draw the limits at the top of the Lance 
formation and to place the Puerco and Torrejon 
beds containing the remains of the oldest mam- 
mals in the Tertiary system. 

Structural Geology. Can the varied ele- 
ments of earth structure be fitted into a broad 
plan expressive of the origin and history of 
the separate features? This is the problem 
that underlies the more interesting or signifi- 
cant studies in the recent literature of struc- 
tural geology, for which the notable contribu- 
tions of Eduard Suess have been both incentive 
and guide. A later work is Kober’s Der Baw 
der Erde (1921), which develops the theory 
that there are two fundamental units of crustal 
structure, great rigid plates serving as_ but- 
tresses to movement and narrow elongated 
zones, separating the plates, of weak or labile 
nature. The latter serve for relief of defor- 
mative forces set up by the shrinkage of the 
crust; they define the position of geosynclines 


18 


527 


GEOLOGY 


and of the great mountain systems, shifted 
somewhat in the course of geological time. 
Such zones, or orogens, are frequently defined 
by two parallel mountain systems with folds 
overturned away from each other toward the 
adjacent rigid plates. Between the parallel 
systems are broad intermontane regions of lit- 
tle folding. A cross-section of an orogen is 
more or less symmetrical, although each moun- 
tain system by itself has the asymmetrical 
structure so well described by Suess. The 
Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Balkans, and Cau- 
casus make up one parallel system, and the 
Apennines, Dinaric Alps, the Hellenic, Taurus, 
and Iranian mountains make up the other, the 
former overthrown to the north and the latter 
to the south. Kober believes a similar orogen 
may be found in the Rocky Mountains on the 
one side and the Sierras and Coast ranges on 
the other; also in the Andes as the eastern 
member of a zone of which the western part 
has foundered and disappeared in the Pacific. 
The existence of westward overfolding in the 
Appalachians is regarded as indicative of an 
eastern submerged member, now a part of the 
continental shelf. 

Detailed studies of the structure and history 
of the Appalachian and Rocky Mountain sys- 
tems were presented before the Geological So- 
ciety of America (Bulletin, June, 1923). Al- 
though written for the specialist, the papers 
contain summaries of interest to the general 
student. 

Observations in regard to the levels of marine 
beaches in northeastern North America have 
practically demonstrated a widespread uplift 
of the land surface since glacial time. Fair- 
child found that the rise between the St. Law- 
rence River and James Bay amounted to as 
much as 1000 feet. There has been a differen- 
tial warping of the surface, the elevation in- 
creasing from south to north, with an uparch- 
ing into a dome south of James Bay. Raised 
beaches on the west coast of Greenland and in 
Ellesmere Land, according to Ekblaw, may be 
assigned to a similar uplift since the glacial 
period, the maximum being about 650 feet. 

Economic Geology. This department felt 
the effects of intensive activities in nearly all 
its branches, mining geology, oil geology, and 
underground waters and engineering phases of 
geology. One of the economic sequels of the 
War was an increased public and national in- 
terest in mineral resources, and there was a 
general stock-taking in these possessions all 
over the world. The control of the undeveloped 
oil fields became a matter of especial concern 
among the larger nations, with the realization 
that they were certain to play a considerable 
part in future commercial and naval operations. 
The location and development of petroleum 
fields had become almost a distinct department 
of geology, with its own technic and practi- 
tioners, who had extended their operations into 
the remote corners of the globe. 

Out of the great volume of contributions on 
economic subjects, a few only may be selected 
for mention in this review. In the group of 
general works may be named the Atlas of Eco- 
nomic Geology (1921), published by the United 
States Geological Survey. It is a study of the 
geographic distribution of the valuable miner- 
als and brings out clearly the political aspects 
of the world’s supplies. It will be noted that 
the United States is well endowed in most of 


GEOLOGY 


the basic materials like coal, iron ore, copper, 
lead, zine, and oil, but still has no adequate re- 
sources of potash or nitrate and is absolutely 
dependent on other countries for nickel, plati- 
num, and tin. Great Britain with its colonies 
and its strong commercial position in other 
countries controls the precious metals and in 
the future is likely to dominate the oil situa- 
tion. Political and Commercial Geology and 
the World’s Mineral Resources (1920) is a 
compendium of statistics and special articles 
on the important minerals by American writers. 
In the same category is a series of short mono- 
graphs by various British authorities, on the 
mineral resources of the Empire, which have 
appeared from time to time. 

In the list of textbooks for students, prom- 
inent place should be given to the translation 
of Beyschlag, Krusch, and Vogt’s comprehen- 
sive treatise, of which the English version, The 
Deposits of the Useful Minerals and Rocks: 
Their Oriain, Form, and Content (1916), was 
made by Truscott. Leith’s Economic Aspects 
of Geology (1921) and Emmons’ General EKco- 
nomic Geology (1922) also were intended for 
students. Grabau’s Principles of Salt Deposits 
(1920) was the most important contribution of 
recent date on the salines; potash, soda, and 
magnesia salts.. Lindgren’s Mineral Deposits 
appeared in a second edition (1919). Works 
on oil geology include American Petroleum In- 
dustry (1916) by Bacon and Hamor, and Prac- 
tical Oil Geology by Hager (1916). Both of 
these cover such technical matters as mapping, 
drilling, and oil production, as well as_ the 
study of the occurrence and distribution of 
petroleum. 

The control of geological structure on the ac- 
cumulation of oil-pools has been worked out so 
completely that it is now a well established 
principle, which is directing the search in all 
new fields. Less is known about the motive 
force that impels the oil in its travels under- 
ground. McCoy has sought to explain this by 
capillary action, on the basis that water has a 
greater capillary force in small openings than 
oil has and consequently drives the latter ahead 
of it into the larger openings, which are found 
under domes. Other geologists have sought ex- 
planation in hydrostatic pressure and in gravy- 
ity; in any event it is well known that in most 
accumulations underground waters have an im- 
portant bearing on the localization of the oil. 
Another direction pursued by recent investiga- 
tion is the relation between the character of oil 
and the degree of alteration or metamorphism 
of the enclosing rocks. Strata that have been 
much altered by compression or heat have lost 
their oil. An indication of the possibilities in 
this regard may be obtained, according to David 
White, by estimation of the fixed carbon ratios 
in the shale or coal that overlies the oil hori- 
zon; if the ratio exceeds 75 per cent of the total 
carbon there is little likelihood of a productive 
pool. Formations with a relatively high fixed 
carbon yield oils of the lowest gravity and most 
commercial value. Formations with lignitic 
beds are characterized by the lowest grade oils 
of all. It would appear that as organic matter 
is altered into substances having progressively 
higher carbon, through the elimination of oxy- 
gen, nitrogen, and a portion of the carbon, the 
distillates in the rocks become progressively 
higher in hydrogen. . 

For the study of ore deposits the most sig- 


528 GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY 


nificant feature in the contributions of the last 
decade has been the general trend toward the 
igneous or magmatic theories of vein origin, as 
pppoe to the explanation by meteoric (atmos- 
pheric) waters which once received wide accept- 
ance. Although nearly all writers are agreed 
that the intrusive rocks have supplied the ma- 
terials out of which veins were formed, there 
is not the same unanimity of opinion about the 
methods by which the minerals have been trans- 
ported and finally arranged in the veins and 
lodes. It is recognized, however, that certain 
kinds of ores, magnetite, for example, may orig- 
inate by direct cleavage or differentiation of 
the igneous rock during the crystallizing stage. 
These occur in their original environment. 

On the other hand many deposits, like those 
of gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc, are often 
found at some distance from any intrusion that 
can be regarded as source and in formations 
distinctly older than the deposits themselves. 
For such it is obvious that the ores must have 
been transported in fluid or molten condition 
out of the parent magma. The ageney may 
have been highly heated waters and gases 
evolved by the intrusion in cooling, the fluids 
passing upward and outward from regions of 
high pressure to those of low pressure; this is 
the view commonly accepted. With the gradual 
cooling and relief of pressure of the mineralized 
solutions as they move away from their source, 
the dissolved substances are deposited in the 
reverse order of solubility, and there results a 
general zonal arrangement which is frequently 
illustrated by the change of the mineral con- 
tents of veins in passing downward from the 
surface or outward from the igneous mass. 
This is the barest outline of the prevalent theo- 
ries. A more detailed presentation will be 
found in the textbooks on mineral deposits al- 
ready enumerated, and in the recent work by 
Spurr, The Ore Magmas (1923). 

GEORGE, Grace (1880- ). An Ameri- 
can actress (see Vou. IX). She established 
the Playhouse Company in repertoire in 1915 
and starred in The New York Idea. WUer later 
starring vehicles included Major Barbara, The 
Earth, Captain Brassbound’s Conversion (1915—- 
16), Eve’s Daughter (1917), L’Elévation (1917- 
18), She Would and She Did (1919), Quick 
Work (1919), The Ruined Lady (1920), The 
New Morality (1921), Marie Antoinette, To 
Love, The Exquisite Hour, and All Alone Susie. 

GEORGE V (GrorGE FREDERICK ERNEST 
ALBERT) (1865— ). King of Great Britain 
and Ireland and of the Dominions beyond the 
Seas and Emperor of India (see Vou. IX). 
During the War, King George set an inspiring 
example by cutting down his personal expenses 
and by contributing freely from his private 
purse to relief work. In 1917 he renounced all 
German titles. 

GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY. 
A coeducational nonsectarian institution at 
Washington, D. C., founded in 1821. The uni- 
versity increased its enrollment from 1347 in 
1913 to 4652 in 1923-24. The faculty was in- 
creased from 234 in 1916 to 321 in 1923-24 and 
the productive funds from $104,670 to $554,052. 
During the decade there were four different 
presidents; Charles Herbert Stockton, Ph.D., 
was succeeded in 1918 by William Miller Col- 
lier, L.H.D., LL.D., who held office until 1921, 
when Howard Lincoln Hodgkins, Ph.D., became 
president pro tempore and was succeeded in 


GEORGIA 


1923 by William Mather Lewis. A law school 
building was bought and equipped in 1920, 
three lots were bought in 1919, and a large 
bequest of real estate was left to the university 
in 1921 by Gen. Maxwell Van Zandt Woodhull. 
A fund for the education of Filipinos was estab- 
lished in 1918 by Mrs. Larz Anderson. 

GEORGIA. Georgia is the twentieth State 
in size, covering 59,265 square miles, and the 
twelfth in population; capitol, Atlanta. The 
population increased from 2,609,121 in 1910 
to 2,895,832 in 1920, a gain of 11 per cent. 
The white population increased from 1,431,802 
to 1,689,114; Negro, from 1,176,987 to 1,206,- 
365; native white, from 1,416,730 to 1,672,928; 
and foreign born, from 15,072 to 16,186. The 
urban population of the State showed an _ in- 
crease of from 538,650 to 727,859; the rural, 
from 2,070,471 to 2,167,973. The growth of the 
principal cities was as follows: Atlanta (q.v.), 
from 154,839 to 200,616; Savannah, from 65,064 
to 83,252; Macon, from 40,665 to 52,995; and 
Augusta, from 41,040 to 52,548. 

griculture. As Georgia is one of the lead- 
ing cotton-producing States, the ravages of the 
boll weevil during the decade 1914-24 greatly 
affected agricultural conditions. The pest had 
practically covered the State by 1916. Its ef- 
fect will be indicated by a comparison of acre- 
age and production for various years during 
this period: in 1913, 5,318,000 acres and 2,317,- 
000 bales; in 1917, 5,195,000 and 1,884,000; in 
1919, 5,220,000 and 1,660,000; in 1921, 4,172,000 
acres and 787,000 bales. In 1923 the estimated 
production was 700,000 bales. In the southern 
part of the State the yield in 1922 reached a 
record low mark. For the general effects of the 
boll weevil on agriculture during the decade see 
the articles BoLL WEEVIL and COTTON. 

While the population of the State increased 
11 per cent in the decade, the number of farms 
increased by 6.8 per cent (from 291,027 in 1910 
to 310,732 in 1920). In 1910 the total acreage 
of land in farms was 26,953,413, as compared 
with 25,441,061 in 1920. The improved land in 
farms increased from 12,298,017 acres in 1910 
to 13,055,209 acres in 1920. While the total 
percentage of land in farms declined from 71.7 
per cent in 1910 to 67.7 in 1920, the percentage 
of improved land increased from 45.6 to 51.3. 
The total value of farm property in the State 
showed an apparent increase, from $580,546,381 
in 1910 to $1,356,685,196 in 1920; and the aver- 
age value of farm property from $1995 to 
$4366. In interpreting these values, however, 
and, indeed, all comparative values in the de- 
cade 1914-24, the inflation of currency. in the 
latter part of that period is to be taken into 
consideration. The index number of prices 
paid to producers of farm products in the 
United States was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 1920. 
Of the 310,732 farms in 1920, 102,123 were 
operated by their owners, as compared with 98,- 
628 in 1910; 1655 by managers, as compared 
with 1419; 206,954 by tenants, as compared 
with 190,980. The white farmers in 1920 num- 
bered 180,545, as compared with 168,468 in 
1910; colored farmers, almost entirely Negroes, 
130,187, compared with 122,559. Farms free 
from mortgage in 1920 numbered 64,061; in 
1910, 78,004. Those under mortgage numbered 
23,135 and 18,257 in 1920 and 1910, respective- 
ly. The number of dairy cows increased from 
405,710 to 484,122; “beef cows,” from 245,303 
to 282,067; mules, from 294,985 to 406,351 in 


529 


GEORGIA 


1920; while sheep decreased from 153,250 to 
72,173. The number of swine rose from 1,836,- 
246 in 1910 to 2,178,914 in 1920, this increased 
production of pork being typical of a change to 
more diversified farming, with a larger produe- 
tion of food used in the State. The estimated 
production of the chief farm crops in 1923 was 
as follows: corn, 50,828,000 bushels; wheat, 1,- 
739,000; oats, 9,042,000; potatoes, 1,558,000; 
sweet potatoes, 11,598,000; tobacco, 12,067,000 
pounds; hay, 513,000 tons; and peaches, 5,716,- 
000 bushels. Comparative figures for 1913 are: 
corn, 63,023,000 bushels; wheat, 1,708,000; oats, 
9,240,000; potatoes, 972,000; hay, 350,000 tons; 
and tobacco, 1,800,000 pounds. 

Mining. Georgia is not important as a 
mineral-producing State. It has practically no 
metal mining, and of the non-metals, the most 
important are clay products, stone, fuller’s 
earth, and cement. There is also produced a 
small quantity of coal, a considerable amount 
of bauxite, mineral waters, iron ore, and mica. 
The comparative value of the clay products and 
other minerals in the decade 1914-24 will be 


seen in the following figures. In 1914: clay 
products, $2,263,034; stone, $2,238,789; coal, 
166,498 tons. In 1917: clay products, $2,426,- 
671; stone, $1,797,098; coal, 119,028 tons. 


In 1920: clay products, $5,572,999; stone, $3,- 
651,415; coal, 50,156 tons. In 1922, clay prod- 
ucts, $4,157,601; stone, 3,349,293; coal, 60,636 
tons. The total value of the mineral produc- 
tion in 1921 was $8,650,003; in 1920, $12,178,- 
695; in 1919, $9,429,972; in 1918, $8,312,051; 
and $5,704,856 in 1914. 

Manufactures. Georgia has shown a steady 
increase in the value of its industrial products 
in the last three census periods. In 1919, 12 
cities of more than 10,000 inhabitants, forming 
18 per cent of the total population, reported 
45.7 per cent of the value of the State’s manu- 
factured products. There were in the State in 
1909, 4792 manufacturing establishments; in 
1914, 4639; and in 1919, 4803. The persons en- 
gaged in manufacture numbered 118,036, 118,- 
565, and 141,012; and the capital invested in 
those years amounted to $202,777,665, $258,325,- 
811, and $448,700,194, respectively. The value of 
the products rose from $202,863,262 in 1909 to 
$253,270,511 in 1914, and in 1919 to $693,237,- 
097; but this increase was in great measure due 
to changes in industrial conditions brought 
about by the War. The increase shown in the 
average number of wage earners, however, in- 
dicates a considerable growth in the manufac- 
turing activity of the State. The most impor- 
tant industry in point of value of products is 
the manufacture of cotton goods, the value of 
which in 1909 was $48,037,000; 1914, $59,982,- 


000; 1919, $192,186,000. Cottonseed oil and 
cake rank second, with products valued in 
1909, at $23,641,000; 1914, $32,715,000, and 


1919, $99,320,000. Fertilizers, in third place, 
amounted in 1909 to $16,800,000; 1914, $29,- 
046,000, and 1919, $47,480,000. Lumber and 
timber products were fourth: in 1909, $24,632.- 
000, 1914, $22,115,000; and 1919, $43,066,000. 
The chief manufacturing city of the State is 
Atlanta, where in 1909 were 483 manufacturing 
establishments; in 1914, 423, and in 1919, 503, 
with products valued at $33,038,000, $41,279,- 
000, and $113,992,000, respectively. Savannah, 
ranking second in industrial importance, had 
135 establishments in 1909, with a product val- 
ued at $6,540,000; in 1914, 128 with $6,343,- 


GEORGIA 


000; and in 1919, 146 with $18,087,000. In 
Macon there were 79 establishments in 1909, 70 
in 1914, and 135 in 1919, with products valued 
at $10,052,000, $18,867,000, and $57,721,000 
in those years. 

Education. The development of education in 
the State in the decade 1914-24 was marked. 
A notable aid in this was the passage by the 
Legislature of 1918 of an act codifying the 
school laws of the State; providing for a State 
Superintendent of Schools, a State Board of 
Education, and a State Board for Vocational 
Education. Laws for the consolidation of 
schools were passed by a later Legislature. In 
1920 an act was passed providing for the physi- 
cal education and training of pupils; so was a 
compulsory school attendance law; and in the 
same year the provisions of the Smith-Hughes 
Law, giving Federal assistance to the States for 
vocational education, were accepted. The Leg- 
islature of 1922 conferred on several counties 
of the State authority to levy taxes for vocation- 
al purposes; provided for the employment and 
pay of county agents and home administration 
agents, and for the employment and payment 
of agricultural teachers and home economics 
teachers in vocational high schools. The total 
enrollment in the schools of the State in 1913 
was 590,808; in the white schools, 360,554; 
and in the colored, 230,254. The total enroll- 
ment in the white schools in 1922-23 was 
470,242; in the colored schools, 275,193. In that 
year the total number in the primary and elemen- 
tary grades was: in the white schools 411,744; 
in the colored schools, 272,072; a total of 683,- 
816. In the white high schools were enrolled 
58,498, and in the colored high schools 3121: a 
total of 61,619. In 1919-20, according to the 
census of the Bureau of Education, there were 
enrolled in the elementary and _ kindergarten 
schools 645,790; in the secondary schools, 45,- 
128. No school census had been taken in the 
State later than 1918. The percentage of illit- 
eracy in the State decreased from 24.1 in 1910 
to 18.4 in 1920; among the native white popu- 
lation, from 9.2 per cent to 6.7; among the 
foreign born whites, from 5.9 to 5.6; among the 
colored, from 43.8 to 35.8. 

Finance. See STATE FINANCES. 

Political and Other Events. Georgia re- 
mained strongly Democratic in politics in the 
decade 1914-24. “Within that period there were 
spirited conflicts between different factions 
which contributed considerable political activ- 
ity and excitement. In 1914, following the 
death of Senator Bacon, William S. West was 
appointed to serve out his unexpired term. 
The latter’s death and the expiration of the 
term of Senator Hoke Smith in March, 1915, 
made it necessary to. elect two senators in 
1914. Senator Smith was reélected and Thom- 
as W. Hardwick, a representative in Congress, 
was elected to fill the term of Senator Bacon. 
Nathaniel E. Harris was elected governor. Po- 
litical events in 1915 were subordinated to the 
agitation in the case of Leo M. Frank, a man- 
ufacturer, who in 1914 was tried and convicted 
of the murder of a young girl in Atlanta. He 
was sentenced to be hanged on June 22, but an 
appeal was taken by his counsel to the United 
States Supreme Court, which refused to inter- 
fere, declining to order a writ of habeas cor- 
pus. Petitions were circulated throughout the 
State and other parts of the country for com- 
mutation of sentence, and hearings were held 


530 


GEORGIA 


by the State Prison Commission. This body de- 
clined to recommend the commutation of the 
death sentence. Disregarding this action, Gov- 
ernor Slaton commuted Frank’s sentence to life 
imprisonment. For several days the governor’s 
home was threatened by mobs. On June 26 he 
retired from office and was succeeded by Na- 
thaniel E. Harris. On August 16, Frank was 
seized in prison by a band of men, carried to 
an isolated spot, and hanged. This act was de- 
nounced by the officials of the State and by 
Governor Harris. The Grand Jury carried on 
investigations, but no clew to the instigators of 
the deed was found. The activities of 1916 cen- 
tred about the election of a governor. Hugh 
M. Dorsey, who had acted as prosecutor in the 
ease of Leo M. Frank, received the nomination 
and was elected. In the presidential election 
of this year, President Wilson received 125,831 ° 
votes and Charles E. Hughes 11,225 votes. The 
Prohibtion laws of the State were upheld by 
the court on Jan. 12, 1916, and on May 1 these 
laws went into effect, making the selling of 
liquor much more difficult than under the form- 
er law. On Mar. 22, 1916, a serious fire swept 
over a large area in Augusta and destroyed 
many business blocks and residences. The loss 
was over $5,000,000. In 1917 an investigation 
of the lynching evil was carried on by a com- 
mission appointed by the governor. The report 
of the commission declared that the number of 
lynchings in the State was grossly exagge- 
rated. On Mar. 21, 1917, a disastrous fire in 
Atlanta destroyed a considerable portion of the 
city and caused a property loss of about $5,500,- 
000. Elections were held in 1918 for United 
States senator. Senator Hardwick was de- 
feated for renomination by William J. Harris, 
who was later elected. In the presidential vot- 
ing of this year, James M. Cox received 107,- 
162 votes and Warren G. Harding 42,730. In 
1920 Mr. Hardwick was elected governor. He 
took office on June 25 and promised to “vindi- 
cate the majesty and impartiality of the law.” 
In 1922 Governor Hardwick was defeated for 
the renomination by Clifford L. Walker, who 
was elected. On Oct. 3, 1922, Mrs. W. H. Fel- 
ton was appointed United States senator to 
succeed Thomas E. Watson, deceased. She was 
the first woman to hold such a position. The 
appointment was purely honorary, as the elec- 
tion was held for senator within a few days, 
and Walter F. George, former judge of the 
State Supreme Court, was elected, defeating 
former Gov. Thomas W. Hardwick and two oth- 
er candidates. The presidential primary elec- 
tions were held in the State in March, 1924. 
The Democratic candidates were Senator Oscar 
W. Underwood and William G. McAdoo, the 
latter winning a majority of the votes and be- 
ing thus assured of the 28 votes of Georgia in 
the Democratic convention. Mr. McAdoo was 
born in Georgia. 

Legislation. The Legislature of Georgia 
meets biennially, in even years. In 1918 the 
Legislature of June 26 ratified the Federal 
Prohibition Amendment, authorized the codifi- 
cation of school laws, provided a budget system, 
and passed measures providing for aid to re- 
turned soldiers. Departments of warehouses 
and archives and history were created. In 
1922 the Legislature amended the motor-vehicle 
law, increased the tax on gasoline to $0.03, cre- 
ated a committee to consider tax measures, and 


GEORGIA 


amended the school laws to provide for Bible 
reading in the schools. 

GEORGIA, Soviet REPUBLIC OF. One of the 
three Transcaucasian republics that emerged in 
1917. It is made up of the former Russian 
governments of Tiflis and Kutais and the dis- 
tricts of Batum and Artuin. Its boundaries 
enclose an area of 25,520 square miles; its pop- 
ulation in 1920 was put at 2,372,403. The peo- 
ple were largely Christians and belonged to a 
distinct racial group called Georgian. The ex- 
istence of this racial consciousness together 
with remnants of a certain political solidarity, 
whose inspiration centred in an 18th century 
Georgian kingdom, made for an advanced cul- 
tural outlook. Georgians, speaking a common 
language and possessing a tradition, looked 
down on the Armenian traders of the towns and 
the unruly Tatar mountaineers to the north. 
The capital, Tiflis, had a population of 346,766 
(1915). Other cities were Kutais (85,151), 
Sukhum (61,974), and Batum (39,000). A 
university with six faculties was founded at 
Tiflis in 1918 and in the next year had 45 pro- 
fessors and 1500 students. 

Industry and Trade. Agriculture engaged. 
the attention of 90 per cent of the population, 
most of whom were a small peasantry as a re- 
sult of the partition of the large estates. Corn 
was the most important crop, though other 
grains received attention. In 1915 all these 
yielded 30,000,000 poods (1 pood = 36 pounds). 
Cotton, silk, tobacco, the vine, fruits, were oth- 
er agricultural products. Because of the prim- 
itive means of tillage the agricultural possi- 
bilities of the country were scarcely touched. 
After the Russian Revolution the disorganized 
life of the country led to a great dearth of food- 
stuffs, so that in 1920 the estimated deficit was 
placed at 21,700,000 poods in Tiflis and Kutais 
alone. Its economic wealth, however, was estab- 
lished in its mineral deposits. The greatest 
manganese deposits in the world, producing 44 
per cent of the world’s supply in 1913, were to 
be found at Chiaturi in the basin of the Kuiril 
River. Production, which had been about 66,- 
000,000 poods annually before the War, fell to 
3,300,000 in 1919 but rose to 7,800,000 in 1923. 
Other minerals were naphtha, copper ore, coal, 
lead, and iron ore. It was estimated that the 
country had available for use in industry 4,- 
000,000 horse power in its rivers. All the basic 
industries were nationalized by the Soviet ré- 
sime and the following were used for purposes 
of exchange in foreign markets: manganese, 
timber, tobacco, silk, and copper. There were 
970 miles of railways. A through line, extend- 
ing across the country, connected Batum and 
Poti on the Black Sea with Baku on the Cas- 
pian Sea, by way of Tiflis. Branch lines ran 
to the coal mines of Tkhibuli, the manganese 
mines of Chiaturi, the mineral springs of Bor- 
jom, as well as to Signakh, Telavi, and the 
Armenian frontier. By way of Batum com- 
munication was possible with the whole Cas- 
pian country, as well as Asia Minor and Cen- 
tral Asia. A pipe line connecting Batum with 
Baku brought Europe into contact with the rich 
oil fields of Azerbaijan. In 1919 steamers 
opened regular service between Batum and Mar- 
seilles, British ports, Italian ports, and New 
York. 

History. After the Russian Revolution, 
representatives of the three Transcaucasian 
states gathered at Tiflis, Georgia, and there on 


531 GEORGIA UNIVERSITY 


Sept. 20, 1917, founded the federal republic of 
Transcaucasia. It was inevitable, however, that 
the three states should go their separate ways. 
Georgia’s attempt to rule the destinies of the 
new state, Azerbaijan’s essentially Islamic out- 
look, and KErivan’s territorial ambitions, were 
the rocks on which the federal republic foun- 
dered. On May 26, 1918, with the Bolsheviks 
in Baku and the Turks in Batum, as a result 
of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, the federal repub- 
lic was dissolved. On the same day the Georgi- 
an National Council prociaimed the indepen- 
dence of Georgia. Thenceforth, to the conclu- 
sion of the War, Georgia, because of a compact 
made with Germany, remained a dependency 
of the Central Powers, with its ports, mines, 
and railways in the possession of German and 
Turkish forces. By the armistice of October 30 
the country was cleared of German and Turkish 
troops, only to find itself policed by British. A 
British force entered Batum in December, and 
for presumably strategic reasons, seized the 
railways of the country. Control was not relin- 
quished, and evacuation did not come until the 
summer of 1920. 

From 1920 until 1922 affairs never remained 
peaceful for long. In 1919 Georgians had been 
menaced by General Denikin’s forces; but with 
the passing of this peril, in the spring of 1920, 
a Russian Soviet army pushed its way into 
Transcaucasia. Baku fell and Tiflis must have 
yielded too, had it not been for the distraction 
which the opening of the Polish campaign af- 
forded. Russia for the time granted Georgia 
peace, even promising the Batum region de- 
spite the claims of the Turkish Nationalists. 
But the necessity for a Turco-Russian under- 
standing with respect to a common frontier 
again made the region the scene of military 
operations late in 1920. The Turks invaded 
Erivan and with much bloodshed subdued the 
population. The Bolsheviks, following soon aft- 
er, overthrew the republican government and 
established a Soviet republic. The procedure 
in Georgia was very much the same. A Turk- 
ish army entered the country and _ occupied 
Batum against practically no resistance, while 
Russian troops invaded from the opposite di- 
rection and fostered Bolshevik uprisings in the 
towns. On Jan. 27, 1921, Georgia received be- 
lated de jure recognition from the Allies. In 
the course of a few months, however, the Con- 
stituent Assembly was dispersed, the Social 
Democratic government headed by Jordiana was 
in flight; and supported by Russian arms, a 
Soviet government, established by Mdvani in 
March, ruled the country. Batum was restored 
to Georgia by a Russo-Turkish treaty in March, 
1921. In December, 1921, the young republic 
was incorporated with the Armenian and Azer- 
baijan Soviet republics into a Transcaucasian 
federation, with its capital at Tiflis, with Tiflis 
taking orders from Moscow. Thus by the end 
of 1921, Russia again dominated the political 
and economic life of her old Transcaucasian 
governments. This state of affairs received full 
legal sanction in the treaty of Dec. 30, 1922, 
which was signed by Russia, the Ukraine, the 
three Transcaucasian Soviet republics, Bokhara 
and Khiva, and which set up the Union of So- 
cialist Soviet Republics. With the treaty’s pro- 
mulgation, Georgia’s history as an independent 
political state ended. See AZERBAIJAN, ARME- 
NIA, RUSSIA. ; 


GEORGIA, University or. A State institu- 


GEORGIA SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY 532 


tion at Athens, Ga., founded in 1785. The 
student enrollment increased from 632 in 1914 
to 1618 in 1923-24. The endowment in 1923 
was $435,000, and the income was $85,000 from 
State appropriations and $175,000 from other 
sources. During the 10-year period about $400,- 
000 was spent on the erection of new buildings. 
The alumni subscribed over $1,000,000 for en- 
dowment and the building programme. Me- 
morial Hall, erected in memory of those alumni 
who fell and those who served in the War, was 
being completed in 1924 at a cost of $275,000. 
Chancellor, David C. Barrow, LL.D. 

GEORGIA SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY. 
An institution for scientific and technical edu- 
cation, founded in 1888 at Atlanta, Ga. It 
forms a part of the University of Georgia. 
The enrollment of the school increased from 
1002 in 1914 to 1865 in the year 1923-24, the 
faculty from 62 to 138 members, and the li- 
brary from 13,000 to 17,000 volumes. A power 
station and engineering laboratory, and an ad- 
dition to the mechanical engineering building 
were built in 1920, the building for the depart- 
ments of physics and architecture was completed 
in 1923, and plans were approved for a building 
for the School of Ceramics. A campaign for 
the improvement of the plant netted over $1,- 
000,000 in 1922. Marion Luther Brittain, 
LL.D., succeeded K. G. Matheson, LL.D., as 
president in 1922. 

GERALDY, Paunt (1870- ). ‘A French 
playwright, best known in America for two 
works. Aimer was produced. in New York with 
Grace George in 1922, under the title To Love. 
The Nest, adapted by Miss George from his 
Noces @WArgent, was played in New York in 
1922. He has written much for periodicals, in- 
eluding Vanity Fair. 

GERARD, JAMES Watson’ (1867- a 
An American lawyer and diplomat (see VoL. 
IX). In 1917, on the declaration of war by 
the United States, he was recalled from his post 
of minister at Berlin and took up the practice 
of law in New York City. He published My 
Four Years in Germany (1917) and Face to 
Face with Kaiserism (1918). 

GERMAN EAST AFRICA. The largest 
and most important former colonial possession 
of Germany. It had an area of 384,170 square 
miles and a population in 1913 of 7,659,898 na- 
tives and about 15,000 non-Europeans. Euro- 
peans, chiefly Germans, numbered 5336. Slav- 
ery had existed, but in 1914 the Reichstag 
moved for its abolition. The chief exports were 
rubber, copra, ivory, vegetable fibre, and coffee 
and by 1910 were valued at £1,040,269, and in 
1913, £1,777,552. The chief imports were pro- 
visions, textiles, hardware, and iron and by 
1910 were valued at £1,932,938, and in 1913, 
£2,667,925. More than half of the trade was 
with Germany and was carried almost com- 
pletely in German bottoms. Trade passed 
through the ports of Dar-es-Salaam, Bagamoyo, 
Pangani, Kilva, Lindi, Mikindani, and Tanga, 
and over the Usumbara Railway (219 miles) 
and the Tanganyika railway (787 miles). The 
last budget framed by the German government 
(1914) called for expenditures of £1,188,500 
and revenues of £825,500. Up to 1917, the Ger- 
man administration continued unhampered and 
in spite of being cut off from foreign aid main- 
tained its position with comfort until the Brit- 
ish and Belgian advances finally compelled it 
to flee (November, 1917). (See War In Ev- 


GERMAN LITERATURE 


ROPE, Colonies.) Governments were set up by 
Belgium and Great Britain in the territories 
occupied by their troops, but in May, 1919, the 
whole of German East Africa was turned over 
to Great Britain as a mandate territory. By 
agreement with Belgium (September, 1919) the 
provinces of Urundi and Ruanda in the north- 
west were ceded under mandate to the Belgian 
Congo. In January, 1920, the territory was re- 
named Tanganyika Territory (q.v.). 

GERMAN LITERATURE. German litera- 
ture in the eventful decade 1914—24 offers valu- 
able material to the student of national psychol- 
ogy. Love of the fatherland, right or wrong, 
had been so assiduously fostered in German 
homes and so methodically drilled into the peo- 
ple in barracks and universities, that it reached 
something like an ideal culmination a year be- 
fore the outbreak of the War, when the cen- 
tenary of the so-called Wars of Liberation was 
celebrated all over the country and commem- 
orated in lyrics, drama, and fiction. It was but 
a short step from the prevalent sentiment and 
sentimentality of that year to the emotional 
frenzy of 1914. In some works which appeared 
during the first half of the year a trend of 
thought appears which in the light of the fol- 
lowing summer could be called prophetic, did 
not documentary evidence prove that the people 
expected and approved the government’s plan 
to expand and enrich the fatherland at the 
expense of its neighbors. Such a work was the 
drama Kriegein Tedeum by Carl Hauptmann, 
the brother of the more famous Gerhart. His 
poet’s eye saw visions of what might be: in an 
indefinitely localized milieu a plot of diplomat- 
ic intrigue and domestic conflict, followed by 
mobilization, and ending in the horrible wreck- 
age of war. Some works still echoed the fes- 
tive patriotic notes of the centenary, as Walter 
Blém’s Geschichte eines Jungen Freiheitshelden 
and Franz Adam Beyerlein’s Das Jahr des 
Erwachens. But with the declaration of war 
the glorious past gradually gave way to what 
was considered a glorious present. A flood of 
war poetry poured forth, some of it contained 
in the anthology Der Heilige Krieg, which 
among other violently patriotic outbursts gave 
wide circulation to Ernst Lissauer’s “Hymn of 
Hate.” 

The spirit of the people was more or less 
truthfully reflected in the literature of this 
time of turmoil. But it should be remembered 
that a busy and rigid censorship promptly sup- 
pressed every voice of protest against the vio- 
lation of international law and other iniquities 
of the government. Only very keen observers 
and students of German literature were aware 
of the existence of such a publication as Forum, 
founded by Wilhelm Herzog, to which the gifted 
Heinrich Mann contributed, but which was 
quickly confiscated. Fritz von Unruh’s drama, 
Das Geschlecht, also disappeared from the 
boards. It is to be regretted that the works 
of Heinrich Mann, a far more original writer 
than his brother Thomas, and those of von 
Unruh, both men who have long ranked high in 
contemporary German letters, are unknown in 
America. The dramatic output of the year was 
unimportant. With the exception of the play 
by von Unruh, which profoundly stirred its au- 
diences, and Paul Ernst’s Manfred und Be- 
atrice, which appeared in book form and was 
warmly received, no really noteworthy dra- 
matic event was recorded. In fiction the vet- 


a ii a 


GERMAN LITERATURE 


eran Adam Miiller Guttenbrunn revived mem- 
ories of the German-Czech conflict in Bohemia 
in Deutscher Kampf. E. von Keyserling in 
Abendliche Hiuser gave us a new story of 
the effete aristocracy, and Carl Hauptmann’s 
Schicksale dealt with his favorite types of com- 
plex psychology. The most noteworthy poeti- 
eal products rising above the voluminous war 
poetry were Stefan Georg’s Der Stern des 
Bundes and Anton Wildgans’s Vae_ Victis. 
Richard Meyer published his Weltlitteratur im 
Zwangstigsten Jahrhundert. Ricarda Huch’s 
Der Dreissigjihrige Krieg and Dr. Hermann 
Onckens’s Historisch-Politische Auféistze were 
the outstanding additions to history. Nietsche 
was the subject of Otto Ernst’s Der Falsche 
Prophet, Fritz Lienhard’s Parsifal und Zara- 
thustra and Elisabeth Fo6rster-Nietzsche’s trib- 
ute to her brother, Der Hinsame Nietzsche. 

The second year saw no decrease of literary 
activity. A pathetic example of the nationalis- 
tic frenzy which swept off their feet intellec- 
tuals, and so-called lower classes as well, was 
Carl Hauptmann, who in Aus dem Grossen 
Kriege had the bad taste to make the ruins of 
a Belgian cathedral the scene of one of these 
one-act plays. Emil Ludwig’s Kronprinz Fried- 
rich was a drama dealing with Frederick the 
Great’s tragic youth. The most popular play 
was Schoénherr’s Weibsteufel, which subsequent- 
ly found its way to America. In the unabated 
flood of war lyrics only the proletarian poet of 
Vienna, Alfons Petzold, sounded a broadly hu- 
man note. But the year saw the début of one 
who has since risen to the foremost rank, Franz 
Werfel, who published his Hinander. Fiction 
was represented by Wolzogen, Bartsch, Geissler, 
Lucka, Felix Salten, and others, among them 
Carl Bleibtreu, who from his safe retreat in 
Switzerland sent out his Bismarck, with the 
bombastic subtitle, “A World-Novel.” The most 
important purely literary work was Erwin 
Rohde’s Der Griechische Roman und Seine Vor- 
léufer. Valuable additions to biography were 
Ricarda Huch’s Wallenstein and Wilhelm Bode’s 
~ Stunden mit Goethe. Prompted by the spirit of 
the time, Thomas Mann wrote his Friedrich und 
die Grosse Koalition, Jacob Wassermann his 
Deutsche Charaktere und Begebenheiten, and 
Hans von Helmolt began his history, Der Welt- 
krieg. Houston Stewart Chamberlain and Hans 
von Wolzogen also took up their pens in defense 
of the Hohenzollern policy. A voice in this 
wilderness was that of Annette Kolb, a Ger- 
man-French writer, who in her essays Wege und 
Umwege arraigned the German press for sowing 
hatred among the nations. The anonymously 
published protest J’accuse was confiscated, and 
Hermann Fernau’s Gerade weil Ich ein Deut- 
scher Bin had a similar fate. 


As the great slaughter continued in the fol- 


lowing year with no end in sight, literary pro- 
duction in Germany showed a slight decrease. 
In drama, concessions to the spirit of the time 
could be seen in Sudermann’s Die Entgdétterte 
Welt, Schénherr’s Volk in Not, and Wedekind’s 
Bismarck. In fiction one novelist, Eduard Stil- 
gebauer, won the distinction of having his 
war story, Inferno, confiscated. Helene Bohlau 
wrote a charming story of the Goethe period, 
Der Gewiirzige Hund, Gabriele Reuter Das Neue 
Land, Georg Hermann another story of old Ber- 
lin, Heinrich Schoen, Jr., Gustav Meyrinck Der 
Golem, which was later seen in America on the 
screen, and Max Brod a story of Kepler’s time, 


533 


GERMAN LITERATURE 


Tycho Brahes Weg zu Gott. The lyrical war 
madness continued, but in an anthology of that 
year, entitled Vom Jiingsten Tage and contain- 
ing contributions from the youngest generation, 
a new spirit struggled for expression, and a 
new personal note was struck by Franz Werfel. 
Critics and historians seemed to have lost some 
of the vaunted German NSachlichkeit and objec- 
tivity, for Dr. Ernst Elster’s Deutschtwm und 
Dichtung and Dr. Rudolf Eucken’s Die Trdger 
des Deutschen Idealismus can hardly be ranked 
among valuable contributions to criticism. The 
most interesting work in that line was Dr. 
Heinrich Nohl’s Typische Kunststile in Dich- 
tung und Musik. Valuable for history of the 
drama were Ernst Possart’s Erstrebtes und 
Erlebtes and Dr. Heinrich Stiimcke’s Vor der 
Rampe. Noteworthy essays were Alexander von 
Gleichen Russwurm’s Der Narrenturm, Hein- 
rich Lhotzky’s Vom Heiligen Lachen, and Emil 
Lucka’s Grenzen der Seele. The aged Ernst 
Haeckel contributed to war literature Welt- 
kriegsgedanken wtiber Leben und Tod, and the 
erratic Polish author Stanislaus Przybyszewski, 
once identified with the Young Germany of the 
1880’s, showed his peculiar attitude in Polen 
und der Heilige Krieg. 

Thus literature moved on until the year when 
America’s entrance into the War was to turn 
the tide. The spirit of minority of German and 
Austrian authors manifested itself in the found- 
ing of Neues Vaterland, a publication which 
was to continue the policy of the suppressed 
Forum. Among its contributors were Dr. Ru- 
dolf Goldscheid; the Viennese economist, Wal- 
ter Schiicking, and Kurt Eisner; its: pamphlets 
were widely circulated in Switzerland and 
wherever the German censor could not inter- 
fere. Dr. Alfred Fried, the pacifist, published 
his Kampf um die Vermeidung des Weltkrieges 
and Annete Kolb her Briefe einer Deutschfran- 
zosin; Hermann Fernau continued his brave 
protest against modern German tendencies. 
The greatest dramatic success of the year, after 
the suppression of von Unruh’s Das Geschlecht, 
was Stefan Zweig’s Jeremias. Two ‘younger 
playwrights, Walter Hasenclever and Georg 
Kaiser, came into prominence. The fiction out- 
ut was meagre. But Karin Michaelis, the 

anish-German writer, published a _ thrilling 


_story of the wanderings of homeless Polish war 


victims, Opfer. The poets who had most vocif- 
erously joined in the war ery before seemed 
now to have lost their voice. Only Max Pul- 
ver’s epic Merlin, Walter Hasenclever’s Tod und 
Auferstehung, and Bruno Frank’s Requiem de- 
serve mention. Literature, criticism, and his- 
tory fared no better. It is noteworthy that 
Wahle in the Goethe Jahrbuch called attention 
to Goethe’s French sympathies. Ricarda Huch 
published a study of Jeremias Cotthelf, the vil- 
lage novelist. Dr. Adolf Stern’s seventh vol- 
ume of his Geschichte EHuropas appeared, cav- 
ering the period from 1848 to 1870. Thomas 
Mann, true to his Prussian sympathies, wrote a 
new biography of Frederick the Great. 

The year of the Armistice saw literary pro- 
duction at its lowest ebb, but it witnessed the 
publication of such works as Hermann Fernau’s 
Wie Deutsche Geschichtsschreiber einst Urtei- 
len Werden, Dr. Wilhelm Miihlon’s Die Ver- 
heerung Europas, and Prof. G. F. Nicolai’s Bi- 
ologie des Krieges, which did much to open the 
eyes of thinking people. No great premiére was 
recorded on the German stage. The older gen- 


GERMAN LITERATURE 


eration was represented by Arthur Schnitzler’s 
Die Schwestern, founded on an episode in the 
life of Casanova, and Carl Hauptmann’s trilogy, 
Die Goldenen Strassen. Of the younger men, 
Georg Kaiser scored a success with Von Morgen 
bis Mitternacht, a play in the popular “kino” 
style, which was given by the Theatre Guild in 
New York; a performance of Paul Ernst’s Man- 
fred und Beatrice confirmed his claim to a place 
among leading German dramatists of the day. 
The outstanding works of fiction were Gerhart 
Hauptmann’s Merlin, E. von Keyserling’s vol- 
ume of stories, Im stillen Winkel, and novels 
by the Swiss writers Ernst Zahn and J. C. 
Heer. Little poetry deserved mention except 
Wilhelm Schmidtbonn’s Der Wunderbaum and 
Emanuel von Bodmann’s Schicksal und Seele. 
A collection of the critical writings of Paul 
Schlenther was the most important publication 
of its kind. Among the biographies and mem- 
oirs were Dr. Karl Lamprecht’s Kindheitserin- 
nerungen; among the volumes of correspond- 
ence, La Mara’s Letters of Liszt; and among 
historical works Dr. Alfred Friedjung’s Auf 
dem Wege zum Weltkrieg. War literature, de- 
creasing in volume, was represented only by 
Eberhard Bucher’s Kriegsdokumente. 

After the Armistice a change of spirit might 
have been expected. Those who held optimistic 
views on the subject were disappointed. Self- 
righteous pride in what Germany had shown the 
world, although it did not attain the goal of its 
ambition, became the keynote of an avalanche 
of war books. Count Czernin’s Im Weltkriege 
opened the procession. But men like Walter 
Rathenau were beginning to be heard; his little 
books, Nach der Flut, Der Kaiser, and Der Neue 
Staat, reflected a saner spirit. Dr. Kurt Mtih- 
sam published a book with the significant title, 
Wie Wir Belogen Wurden. Otherwise the fall 
of the old régime failed to show any immediate 
effect. The most important dramatic event of 
the year was Richard Beer Hofmann’s Jakobs 
Traum. Sudermann’s Das Héhere Leben added 
one more to his many recent failures. Schon- 
herr’s Kénigreich appeared in a new revised 
and improved edition. Wedekind’s Felia und 
Galathea and Elins Erweckung,- and Stefan 
Zweig’s Legende des Lebens made no deep im- 
pression. The fiction of the year showed the 
authors’ sudden interest in their neighbors, as 
in Sudermann’s Lithauische Geschichten. Lien- 
hard’s Westmark, Skowronnek’s Das _ Schlei- 
chende Gift, Soyka’s Der Entfesselte Mensch, 
and others. Schnitzler wrote another Casanova 
story, Casanovas Heimfahrt; Frenssen wrote 
Die Briider; Gabriele Reuter, Die Jugend einer 
Idealistin; and Heinrich Mann, Professor Un- 
rat. Noteworthy poetical productions were 
Christian Morgenstern’s Stufen, Schaukal’s 
Versen, Lissauer’s Die Hwigen Pfingsten, and 
Walter Heymann’s posthumous, Fahrt und 
Flug. A work showing the German love of re- 
search was Max Scherrer’s Kampf und Krieg 
im Deutschen Drama von Gottsched bis Kleist. 
War memories were perpetuated in Richard 
Dehmel’s Kriegstagebuch and Georg  Herr- 
mann’s Randbemerkungen, 1914-17. The last 
work of the beloved Austrian, Peter Altenberg, 
bore the title Mein Lebensabend. A history of 
the Russian Revolution was published by that 
keen observer, Alfons Paquet. Grete Meisel- 
Hess concluded her thoroughgoing studies of 
the sex problem in a two-volume work, Das 
Wesen der Geschlechtlichkeit. 


534 


-Beltraffio to Picasso. 


GERMAN LITERATURE 


The year 1920 brought more explanations. 
Hans von Helmolt brought out Hin Vierteljahr- 
hundert Weltgeschichte, 1894-1919, and when 
the socialist Karl Kautsky gained access to the 
government archives and published some _in- 
criminating documents relating to the War, he 
attempted to discredit the evidence in Kautsky 
der Historiker. Literary production assumed 
almost pre-war proportions, but a change of 
spirit had not taken place. Works voicing dis- 
approval of the course pursued in the past or 
striking a note different from the prevalent self- 
righteous patriotism, were still rare exceptions. 
Among the few such can be noted Bernhard 
Kellermann’s story of Armistice Day, Der 
Neunte November, and the gruesome picture of 
ruin and wreckage in Bolshevist Russia, Ararat, 
by Arnold Ullitz. Heinrich Mann’s Der Ehr- 
geizige can be classed with this minority. The 
remaining works of fiction deserving of notice 
are Carl Hauptmann’s Der Morder und die 
Lilienweisse Stute; Bruno Wille’s Glasberg, a 
story of his youth; Johannes Schlaf’s Miele, 
Jakob Wassermann’s Der Wendepunkt, and 
Clara Viebig’s Das Rote Meer. In drama Fritz 
von Unruh created a sensation with the second 
work of his trilogy Platz, and Heinrich Mann 
with Der Weg zur Macht. The new plays by 
Gerhart Hauptmann, Der Weisse Heiland and 
Hirtenlied which was written long ago, hardly 
added to his fame. Carl Hauptmann’s love of 
far-fetched titles was evident in his new work 
Gaukler, Tod und Juwelier. 

In the poetry of the year Franz Werfel ap- 
peared with Der Gerichtshof, and an almost for- 
gotten poet of the previous generation, Hugo 
Salus, with Das Neue Buch. Julius Bab com- 
piled two anthologies Die Deutsch Revolutions- 
lyrik and Der Deutsche Krieg im Gedicht. Lit- 
erature and criticism were represented by Emil 
Ludwig’s volume on Goethe, Etta Federn’s 
Hebbel, and Dr. Heinrich Mayne’s Fontane, 
Among biographies and memoirs, the most im- 
portant was Hermann Oncken’s Ferdinand Las- 
salle. Gustav Frenssen’s (riibeleien belongs to 
books of personal reflections and impressions. ° 
Collections of folktales of South American In- 
dians, the Caucasus, Russia, and other coun- 
tries, were numerous during this year, and a 
few books of travel also rose to literary im- 
portance, among them Bernhard Kellermann’s 
Hin Spaziergang in Japan and Stefan Zweig’s 
Fahrten, Landschaften, und Stddte. Books of 
a certain ethical import were Hermann Hesse’s 
Zarathustras Wiederkehr, ein Wort an _ die 
Deutsche Jugend and Wilhelm Uhde’s singularly 
interesting work, Die Freude, containing lessons 
for a new reading of life in quotations from 
Schiller to Paul Claudel and illustrations from 
Jakob Schaffner’s Hrlé- 
sung vom Klassenkampf gives voice to the old 
socialist creed. Fritz Mauthner’s Der Atheis- 
mus und Seine Geschichte im Abendlande is an 
erudite work but hardly of wide appeal. 

The literature of the last three years of this 
decade returned to pre-war quantity and qual- 
ity. The writers who had learned a_ lesson 
from the terrible calamity brought on the world 
by the lust for power were still few in number, 
and their voices were little heeded. No new 
note was struck in fiction. As the group once 
identified with what was known as the literary 
revolution of the 1880’s reached middle age, 
their work differs little in spirit and form from 
the literature of the older generation which 


GERMAN LITERATURE 


they were fighting 40 years ago. One of the 
surviving veterans of that older generation, 
Adam Miiller Guttenbrunn, has written a story 
about Lenau, Ddmonische Jahre. But of that 
Young Germany of the 1880’s, only a few are 
producing works of striking individuality. The 
latest products of that group are Carl Haupt- 
mann’s Drei Frauen, Bruno Wille’s Hélderlin 
und Seine Heimliche Maid, Jakob Wassermann’s 
Der Wendekreis, and Johannes Schlaf’s Wand- 
lungen. Gustav Meyrink’s new mystery story, 
Der Weisse Dominikaner, bids fair to rival Der 
Golem. Idolde Kurz has published a new vol- 
ume of short stories, Legenden. Franz Werfel 
entered the field of fiction with Der Spielhof. 
The poetical output of these three years was 
negligible in quality, even if such names ap- 
peared on the record as Arno Holz, the author 
of Die Blechschmiede, Gerhart Hauptmann with 
his epic Anna, and Ciisar Flaischlen with a 
volume called I.n Schloss der Zeit. Only Stefan 
Georg’s Drei Gestinge maintains the high stand- 
ard of his somewhat precious style. Essays 
and criticism began to flourish as before. A 
history of Polish literature by A. Bruckner de- 
serves mention. Goethe and Shakespeare were 
continually made subjects of research and com- 
ment. Ejichendorf, Keller, Lenau, and others 
were also much interpreted. Interesting mem- 
oirs came from Carl Ludwig Schleich, Rudolf 
Eucken, and Gabriele Reuter. A work which 
attracted special attention was a posthumous 
volume, Aus den Nachgelassenen Schriften eines 
Friihvollendeten, by Otto Braun, who fell early 
in the War and is looked on as something of 
a literary prodigy by German critics. Eduard 
Fuchs has added to his books on caricature Die 
Juden in der Karrikatur. Among the many 
volumes on contemporary history, both the ex- 
Kaiser’s Gestalten und Hreignisse and the ex- 
Crown Prince’s Hrinnerungen received more pub- 
licity than they merited. The same can be said 
of the explanatory volumes by von Tirpitz, von 
Ludendorff, von Moltke, and others, which were 
supplemented by innumerable booklets and pam- 
phlets of a more or less incendiary and provoca- 
tive character, describing the future destruction 
of France, the next war, etc. To this category 
belongs also the booklet by Hermann Scheffauer, 
a German-American who took up his residence 
in Berlin during the War and wrote Blood 
Money: Woodrow Wilson and the Nobel Prize. 
In drama alone, German literature of the last 
three years of the decade shows some signs of a 
revival. The older generation had no share in 
it. Gerhart Hauptmann treats an Aztec sub- 
ject in his Indipohdi; in his Peter Brauer he 
returns to his former manner. Schonherr, be- 
coming almost too prolific, followed his grue- 
some Kindertragédie, which scored a deserved 
failure in New York, with two plays in lighter 
vein, Vivat Academie and Maientane. Wede- 
kind’s posthumous Die Junge Welt and Fulda’s 
Des Esels Schatten failed to make any profound 
impression. Anton Wildgans began a trilogy 
in his Cain, to be followed by Moses and Chris- 
tus. Trilogies being in order, Sudermann, too, 
was presenting one under the title of Das 
Deutsche Schicksal. But not one of these writ- 
ers seems to have been deeply enough stirred 
by the great cataclysm to have conceived new 
ideas about the world and mankind or to have 
seen the problems of life in a new light. This 
was reserved for three men who only during 
these turbulent years came to the fore: Fritz 


535 


GERMAN SOUTHWEST AFRICA 


von Unruh, Franz Werfel, and Ernst Toller. 
Of the older generation, only the Austrian Karl 
Kraus, who spent his life in fighting the cor- 
ruption of the Viennese press, dared to expose 
the dastardly policies of the Central Empires in 
a tragedy called Die Leteten Tage der Mensch- 
hett. 

Fritz von Unruh had made his début about 
1910 with a play called Offiziere, which was fol- 
lowed by Prinz Louis Ferdinand, and the novel 
Opfergang. Stiirme, a play of his youth, was 
rewritten. Then followed his trilogy consisting 
of Das Geschlecht, Platz, and Dietrich, the pro- 
logue of which, Rosengarten, is a most remark- 
able piece of writing and proved dramatically 
effective. The works of von Unruh, with their 
philosophical outlook and broadly human sym- 
pathies, found warm admirers among French 
critics. Franz Werfel, too, proved at the very 
outset of the War that his vision was not to be 
dimmed. His early verse and fiction were over- 
shadowed by the originality and power of his 
dramas, Spiegelmensch and Bocksgesang. The 
latest of these remarkable newcomers is Ernst 
Toller, a young idealist whose participation in 
the communist uprising in Munich sent him to 
prison. He at first saw man collectively, as in 
that stupendous drama Masse Mensch, and also 
in the Maschinenstiirmer. His next work was 
Der Entfesselte Wotan, but his latest, Hinke- 
mann, proves that he does not lack the gift to 
limn an individual’s tragic fate. The plays of 
these three men, as also the latest lyrical prod- 
uct of Franz Werfel, Schwalbenbuch, make 
them the protagonists of a new spirit in Ger- 
many. 

GERMAN NEW GUINEA. A former ter- 
ritory of the German Empire in the western 
Pacific. It fell to Australian troops on Sept. 
12, 1914. The Treaty of Versailles partitioned 
the islands of the territory as follows: those 
north of the equator, the Caroline, Marshall, 
Pelew, and Ladrone Islands, with the exception 
of Guam, to Japan under mandate; those south 
of the equator, the Bismarck Archipelago, the 
German Solomon Islands, and Kaiser Wilhelms- 
land (on New Guinea) to Australia; and Ger- 
man Samoa to New Zealand. See PACIFIC 
OcEAN ISLANDS and NEw GUINEA. 

GERMAN REFORMED CHURCH. See 
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES. 

GERMAN SOUTHWEST AFRICA. For- 
merly the oldest German colony in Africa, but 
since 1920 a British mandate territory, admin- 
istered under the name of the Southwest Africa 
Protectorate, by the Union of South Africa. It 
had an area of 322,400 square miles, and in 
1913, a native population of about 200,000. 
Whites, mostly Germans, numbered 14,816. 
The colony was of particular value to Germany 
because of the ease with which white colonists 
could be acclimated. Cattle raising, gold, dia- 
mond, and copper mining were the leading ac- 
tivities; the exports in 1912 were valued at 
$7,734,762. The imports, made up of foodstuffs, 
iron and iron products, textiles, ete., were 
worth $9,290,330. Trade was exclusively with 
Germany, the port of Swakopmund being its 
chief centre. Internal routes of communication 
were over the Otavi Railway (417 miles), Swa- 
kopmund-Windhoek Railway (237 miles), 
Northern Railway (314 miles), and Southern 
Railway (339 miles). For administrative pur- 
poses, the budget of 1913 balanced at $7,804,- 
258, of which a little less than half, or $3,481,- 


GERMAN WEST HUNGARY 


226, had to be furnished as an imperial subven- 
tion. Under General Botha, leader of the Un- 
ion of South Africa forees, the German admin- 
istration was compelled to flee the country, so 
that by July, 1915, the British occupation was 
complete. Germany renounced her sovereignty 
in the Treaty of Versailles with the result that 
in May, 1919, the Supreme Council assigned the 
territory under a mandate to the Union. On 
Dec. 17, 1920, the League Council approved the 
transfer. See War IN Europe, Colonies, and 
SOUTHWEST AFRICA PROTECTORATE. 

GERMAN WEST HUNGARY. See Bur- 
GENLAND. 

GERMANY. A federal republic organized 
under the constitution of Aug. 11, 1919, embrac- 
ing territory in Central Europe between France, 
Belgium, and Holland on the west, and Poland 
on the east. The Treaty of Versailles redefined 
Germany’s territorial limits and assigned the 
provinces of Alsace and Lorraine (q.v.) to 
France, a small district comprising the towns 
of Eupen and Malmédy (q.v.) to Belgium, 
North Schleswig (q.v.) to Denmark, and a large 
block of territory to Poland (q.v.), including 
parts of East and West Prussia which were 
made into the Danzig corridor (q.v.), and some 
parts of the territory of Upper Silesia (q.v.), 
which were ceded to Poland in accordance with 
the decisions of a committee appointed by the 
League of Nations after a plebiscite held in the 
district in 1922. The Saar Basin (q.v.) was 
handed over to the administration of a commis- 
sion appointed by the League of Nations, and 
a plebiscite to be held at the end of 15 years 
was provided for to decide the sovereignty of 
the territory. According to the figures of the 
census of 1910, the area and population of 
Germany were: 


Inhabi- 
Area in Number of tants 
sq. km. inhabitants per 
sq. km. 
German pre-war area 542,622 64,925,993 120 
Ceded territory 70,588 6,476,200 92 


The estimated total of the population of Ger- 
many on July 1, 1914, was 67,790,000. The 
census of Oct. 8, 1919, on the basis of territory 
as of Jan. 1, 1923, showed: 


Inhabi- 
Area in Number of _ tants 
sq. km. inhabitants per 
sq. km. 
German present area 472,034 59,852,682 UpAy/ 
Occupied territories only 36,674 10,710,166 292 


The estimated total of the population of Germany on 
Jan. 1, 1928, was 62,281,000. 


Overseas emigration from Germany via Ger- 
man and foreign ports was as follows: 1913, 
25.843: 1920, 8548; 1921, 23,451: 1922, 36,527; 
1923 (11 months only), 101,320. In pre-war 
years the rapid industrial expansion tended to 
prevent the large emigration which had char- 
acterized the early part of the nineteenth cen- 
tury. Figures for the year 1923 would seem 
to indicate a revival of emigration from Ger- 
many. This was of particular significance as 
an indication of living conditions within the 
country. According to the occupation census of 
1907, the total number of wage earners was 30,- 
232,000, of whom 27,274,000 were in the post- 
war territory. This included all persons en- 
gaged in any kind of occupation and those liv- 


536 


- GERMANY 


ing on their own means, such as pensioners, pu- 
pils, institutional inmates, etc. The number of 
workers in agriculture and forestry for the 
post-war territory of Germany was 8,554,000; 
in mining and industry, 10,451,000; in trade 
and transportation, 3,229,000; in personal serv- 
ices, 431,000; in government employ, 1,511,000. 
The number of workers of 1924 in agriculture 
and forestry was about identical with that of 
1907; that in mining and industry increased by 
about 20 per cent, and in trade and transporta- 
tion by 20 per cent. A decrease took place in 
the number of government employees through 
the abolition of compulsory military service, 
thus decreasing the army from 800,000 to 100,- 
000 men. The total number of persons occu- 
pied in Germany was, in 1924, about 33,000,000, 
of whom 16,000,000 were workmen. 

Agriculture. The total area in 1914 was 
94,109,836 hectares. The area of the ceded ter- 
ritories amounted to 7,021,287 hectares, leaving 
a post-war area of 47,088,549. The 1924 area, 
inclusive of the Saar Basin, was divided as fol- 
lows: arable soil, 21,589,043 hectares; horticul- 
tural land, 478,586; grass land, 5,358,734; pas- 
ture, 2,288,984; fruit orchards, 48,885; vine- 
yards, 70,187. The entire arable land available 
for agricultural purposes was thus 29,854,419 
hectares. Forests amounted to 12,699,875 
hectares, and barren area used neither for 
agriculture nor forestry, to 4,534,255 hectares. 
The following indicates crops before and 
after the War (area of cultivated soil in hee- 
tares) : 


SS SS SS SR 


Per cent 
1923 1923 Increase 
Crop Area in Area in or 

Decrease 
Wheatid, 01s.. Sahn 1,974,098 1,478,417 -11.8 
SpeltPrmepn fe whee 272,493 128,471 -—52.8 
Rye bio Geos 6 ae 6,414,143 4,366,481. —17.0 
Spring barley!" 22. ; 1,654,020 1,193,350 -13.6 
ats SERRE. 2)..ckER.e 4,438,209 3,344,705 -—14.8 
Potatoes elas. ite 3,412,201 2,726,859 — 2.7 
Supar) sbeets pee eee 569,082 383,557 —17.8 
Fodder’) Beets re uae 1 iat oan 756,559 BM, 2 
Fodder grass ...... 8,162,055 7,673,467 — 6.7 

Crops in Tons 
Wheat). fitd te on ace 4,655,956 2,896,814 -28.4 
Spelt hee cehe olerslee terse 438,469 159,270 -63.6 
EVO te AAR ALE. Speed 12,222,394 6,681,622 -—34.1 
Total bread grains .. 17,316,819 9,737,706 -—33.4 
Spring jbarley “208 3,673,254 2,126,846 -—-—30.0 
Wats Gitta hiasicls toe eae 9,713,965 6,106,776 29.1 
Potatoes: yi elses ae 54,121,146 32,580,553 —26.0 
Sugar) beets VtU2 ke 16,918,782 8,695,722 -37.8 
woader. Abeats,” Fi cet wat hs Gene 2LO6GAIO1L4A Teele 
LAY ties sis bee eee 42,029,032 34,517,991 — 6.4 
Crops in Tons per Hectare 

Autumn wheat 2235 1.97 -18.3 
Spring wheat ..... 2.39 1.90 —20.8 
Speliny hal AAR eee an abeoyil 124 23.0 
Autumn rye ~~ ..... 1.92 1.54 —20.6 
ppring’ rye i cit 1.34 1.18 —12.6 
Spring barley ..... 2.22 alg —19,1 
Oatse its eet ee e 2.19 1.83 -16.8 
Potatoes. saree. cpse 15.86 11.95 —23.9 
pupar ‘beets hey. tel A. 29i73 22.67 —24.4 
Lay: | see ab eee) og 5.15 4.50 —12.3 


The following indicates live stock before and 
after the War: 


Animals Dec. 1, 1913 Oct. 1, 1923 
Horses. we erate 4,558,329 3,650,808 (Dec. 1, 1922) 
Cattle ()). See 20,994,344 16,652,831 

Swine .titwel.: 25.659 940 (17,225;855 

Sheep fk has, 6 5,520,737 6,094,022 

FOALS fee oe tes 3,548,484 4,658,607 

Poultry Vito. 82,163,922 65,204,617 (Dec. 1, 1922) 


THE LIBRARY 
OF THE 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 


SCALE OF STATUTE MILES 
20 40 60 80 100 
SCALE OF KILOMETERS 
40 80 120 160 


Important towns are shownin heavy face type, 


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iHE LIBRARY 
OF THE 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 


GERMANY 537 GERMANY 
The increase in number of sheep and goats re- Toad sai rane 
. . cles « ae 
flected the lowered production of grains for an-  @rain and Fodder (in, Hundtedi/kilageame) 
imal feeding and more especially the decline in WOT? «ni pha\gon e- hd ae 3,525,418 5,395,928 
imported animal foodstuffs, such as cottonseed ater See rene ar ae ty 8 ee 
: .s po cee WAR EAE ASL a io 32,382, 2,670, 
meal. Sheep and goats require a minimum of Geta eee fie PPO 51050223 905 664 
imported animal foodstuffs. The number of CTT at hoi ghey Sb, ogo ahadic 9,186,450 10,854,161 
live stock slaughtered showed a considerable de- ML OUMGMET ainte ssi x des 4m Salans 1,390,543 358,624 
y 9 ‘ Live stock (number) 
crease in 1923 as compared with pre-war fig- Tomaatehied. 4 Pt 143.586 44.216 
ures. Oxen were slaughtered to the number of Cattlagy aie 1s <hisshe ew ane i260\752 61,802 
364,026 in 1913 and 155,784 in 1923, a decrease peer Steet eet e eee eee SE ai 
: . 2 a S Rie 616 la we « © 6) 6) ate. eis oe 
of 57.2 per cent; bulls, 359,878 in 1913 and 184, Sime Wee Lee italiad bon 148,422 101,544 


500 in 1923, a decrease of 48.7 per cent; cows, 
1,095,160 in 1913 and 774,304 in 1923, a de- 
crease of 29.3 per cent; bullocks and heifers, 
580,419 in 1913 and 472,185 in 1923, a decrease 
of 18.6 per cent; calves, 2,872,412 in 1913 and 
2,133,342 in 1923, a decrease of 25.7 per cent; 
swine, 11,769,889 in 1913 and 4,028,534 in 1923, 
a decrease of 65.8 per cent; sheep, 1,489,706 in 
1913 and 799,962 in 1923, a decrease of 46.3 per 
cent; goats, 318,014 in 1913 and 135,050 in 
1923, a decrease of 57.5 per cent; horses, 106,- 
342 in 1913 and 119,128 in 1923, an increase of 
12 per cent. It was significant that the only 
increase in slaughterings took place in the case 
of horses, showing the tendency of the popula- 
tion to turn toward cheaper meat products. 
The following indicates the consumption of 
meat in Germany before and after the War, in 
hundreds of kilograms, calculated on the basis 
of inspected slaughterings: 


Description 1913 1922 

Home grown meat ......... 26,547,129 14,464,510 
Imports of meat, meat prod- 

NE LNG Peat es Be sae 2,379,559 1,939,156 
Exports of meat, meat prod- 

Cuectsmalnustatiooss ce areretst 27,174 24,347 
Available quantity of meat for 

home consumption ....... 28,899,214 16,379,319 
Per head of population ...... 43.15 26.71 


Decrease of consumption of 


meat per head of population 16.44 or 38.1% 


Food Consumption. The average annual 
consumption in 1913 and 1914 of rye per capita 
was 153.1 kilograms. In 1922 and 1923, this 
had fallen to 91.9 kilograms. Similarly, the 
consumption of wheat and spelt together fell 
from 95.8 kilograms to 47.6 kilograms; barley 
from 108 kilograms to 30 kilograms; oats from 
128.3 kilograms to 58.5 kilograms; potatoes 
from 700.2 kilograms to 573.2 kilograms. The 
very large consumption of potatoes in Germany 
was a feature of German domestic economy. 
Germany remained still the largest producer 
and consumer of potatoes, since these were uti- 
lized not only for human food but also for an- 
imal food and the production of alcohol, starch, 
potato flour, ete. The consumption of sugar in 
Germany in 1913 amounted to 1,282,309 tons or 
19.2 kilograms per person; in 1922 this had 
risen to 1,289,107 tons or 20.7 kilograms per 
person, an increase of 7.7 per cent. The rice 
which was consumed in 1913 amounted to 167,- 
190 tons or 2.49 kilograms per person; in 1922 
the consumption was 100,654 tons or 1.64 kilo- 
grams per person, a decrease of 34.1 per cent. 
Herrings were consumed to the extent of 1,294,- 
142 barrels in 1913 or 2.89 kilograms per head. 
In 1922 the figures are 705,268 barrels or 1.73 


kilograms per head, a decrease of 40.1 per cent. 
The next table indicates imports of food and 


live stock in 1913 and 1922. 
Unemployment. The number of unemployed 
and part-time workers drawing government ben- 


efits in the unoccupied territory of Germany 
were as follows on Dec. 1, 1923: Chief recipi- 
ents, 1,465,670; additional recipients, 1,436,- 
003; short-time workers, 1,795,161. Unemploy- 
ment amounted to a total of 28.2 per cent of 
all workers in December, 1923. In the metal 
industries alone the figure was 28.3 per cent 
and in the textile industry, 11.9 per cent. 
Industry. The German output of coal 
amounted to 190,109,000 metric tons in 1913 
and 129,965,000 metric tons in 1922 for the 
same area aS was given in pre-war years. The 
actual production of coal in the present area of 
Germany under the Treaty of Versailles in 
1922 was 119,145,000 metric tons. Production 
of lignite in Germany in 1913 was 87,233,000 
and in 1922, 137,073,000. Production of coke 
was 34,630,000 in 1913 and 29,113,000 in 1922. 
In 1922 Germany delivered 18,953,844 tons of 
coal and coke calculated in terms of pit coal 
as reparation deliveries to the Allies. This was 
divided as follows: to France, coal, 4,486,250 
tons; coke, 5,585,117 tons; lignite briquettes, 
516,965 tons; to Belgium, coal, 2,312,029 tons; 
coke, 460,772 tons; lignite briquettes, 86,961; 
to Luxemburg, coal, 12,224 tons; coke, 371,847 
tons; lignite briquettes, 60,688 tons; to Italy, 
coal, 2,606,291 tons; coke, 93,794 tons. The 
production of sulphuric acid in Germany was 
1,727,381 tons in 1913 and 849,652 tons in 1921. 
Production of iron ore was 28,607,903 tons in 
1913 and 5,980,142 in 1922. The production of 
lead and zine ores was 2,888,758 tons in 
1913 and 1,192,847 tons in 1922. The _ pro- 
duction of rock salt and evaporation salts was 
2,025,484 metric tons in 1913 and 3,069,019 tons 
in 1922. Potash salts produced in 1913 totaled 
11,956,528 metric tons and in 1922 had in- 
creased to 13,076,173 metric tons. In 1913 Ger- 
many produced 16,764,000 metric tons of pig 
iron. In 1920 this had fallen to 6,004,000 tons. 
Germany produced 16,943,000 tons of steel in- 
gots in 1913 and 7,396,000 metric tons in 1920. 
Rolling mill products amounted to 13,119,000 
tons in 1913 and 5,656,000 in 1920. Cast iron, 
including steel ingots, amounted to 3,549,000 
tons in 1913 and 2,131,000 tons in 1921. There 
were 23,292 breweries in 1913 producing 69,200,- 
000 hectolitres of beer, or 103 litres per head of 
the population. In 1922, 7363 breweries pro- 
duced 31,235,000 hectolitres, or 50 litres per 
eapita. In 1913, 133 factories produced 1,083,- 
000 bottles of fruit wine. In 1921, 105 facto- 
ries produced 1,260,000 bottles of fruit wine. 
In 19138, 157 factories produced 11,808,000 bot- 
tles of sparkling grape wine; in 1921, 113 fac- 
tories produced 12,662,000 bottles of sparkling 
grape wine. For the production of spirits, dis- 
tilleries numbered 62,887 in 1913 and 44,047 in 
1922. These distilleries produced 3,753,000 
hectolitres in 1913, or 5.4 litres per capita. In 
1922, production amounted to 1,271,000 hecto- 


GERMANY 


litres, or 2 litres per head of population. There 
were 378 factories in 1913, producing 2,716,000 
tons of sugar; in 1923, 292 factories produced 
1,456,000 tons. Cigarettes numbering 12,412,- 
000,000 were produced in 1913 and 19,769,000,- 
000 in 1920. The 70 match factories of 1913 
produced 90,586,000,000 matches: in 192], 66 
factories produced 106,562,000,000 matches. A 
total of 175 factories produced 13,700,000 car- 
bon filament lamps in 1913 as compared with 
128 factories with a production of 7,200,000 in 
1921. Metal filament lamps were produced 
amounting to 93,000,000, in 1913, and 102,000,- 
000 in 1921. Incandescent gas mantles amount- 
at to 134,000,000 in 1913 and 54,000,000 in 
1921. 

The table reveals the number of German 
joint stock companies and limited liability com- 
panies in 1913 and 1923. 

The capital required by German companies 
and corporations before the War averaged 102,- 
870,000 gold marks per month in 1913. In 
1921, the monthly average was 124,230,000 gold 
marks. 

Communications. In 1913 the German state 
railways comprised 58,872 kilometers of line 
with 27,690 engines, 61,276 passenger cars, and 
631,323 freight cars. In 1921 the length of 
lines was 52,377 kilometers; engines numbered 
31,070, passenger cars 66,736, and freight cars 
668,349. The railways conveyed 1,685,900,000 
passengers in 1913 and 2,318,500,000 passengers 
in 1921; they carried 478,000,000 metric tons of 
goods in 1913 and 371,400,000 metrie tons in 
1921. The number of passenger kilometers in 


538 


GERMANY 


1913 and a net deficit of 6,892,000,000 paper 
marks in 1921. 

The freight traffic on German railways and 
inland waterways before and after the War was 
as follows: 


RAILROADS 
Per cent 
Description of goods 1913 1921 increase or 
decrease 
(in thousands of metric tons) 
Totaly + hea eae. 3 .501,118 354,607 — 29.2 
Pit coal briquettes and 
COKE yaa ete s 160,564 104,219 — 35.1 
Lignite briquettes and coke 
made therefrom 38,314 49,565 + 294 
Earth of all descriptions. 39.548 20,070 — 49.3 
StODeuk. oe een ciel co's 50,787 29,946 — 41.0 
Ores shawn ete ee 251s 8,393 — 60.6 
Pigtironwy JeGe ee . 6k 1155336 10,897 —289 
Tron and steel wares 24,283 16,828 — 30.7 
WW O0d pete raster ee 23,081 23,833 + 33 
Grant Ve aoe Sa, © 15,630 10,363 — 33.7 
Mertilizersuys.)piete. sees 16,353 165% — 28.7 
INLAND WATERWAYS 
Per cent 
increase or 
Description of goods 1913 1922 decrease 
(in thousands of metric tons) 
Total Steere ee eae ere 99,619 Dow te — Al 
Coal briquettes and coke.29,886 22,018 — 26.3 
Lignite briquettes and coke 
made theretrom., +... 1,823 3,335 + 82.9 
Barth ‘Ae we eae eae ore 11,872 5,854 — 50.7 
Stone: seiieranes 0c eset na 5,961 2,951 — 50.5 
OTeueUne © cen oe Cae ne 14,209 8,851 — 37.7 
Pie STON gas cas ae dene ener 1,484 493 — 66.8 
Iron and steel wares .... 2,129 e223 — 42.6 
W O00 Rees oo oa eee ec 5,679 1,740 — 69.4 
Grain aerate ct eerie ater. 7,058 3,342 — 52.6 
Mertilizerseertescc cca. c:< 2,891 1,504 — 48.0 


Industry 


Agriculture and forestry 

Stock breeding and fishing 
Mining and smelting 
Mining and 
Mineral industry, stones and earths 


Metal), wyorkinge eal lo. OO wk SEE OOO Ee bag 8 BEE. 
Machinery’ Reins cots ls taal tutes ewe Pe. tae ed ote ce Se ameane 
eemica, Man sleyy ‘sees tsps tel eee ke ane ta eee 
Oslst) and’ ifatay wie. he) ROD. PONE a PRR ee 
Textilesiey s.r. /f42nt 4 HACIA LM. RT ee EOE 
PACT BE vice, cpede rah kis ae ARR de feeder area aska cA Seobpepon eek A 


Leather and rubber 
Wood and wood carving 
Foodstuffs 
Clothing 

Cleaning industry 
Building trades 
Printing and photography 
Commercial trading 
TRASULATICO! Reet et ete ee Coe ie shee (Umar eee tam Maan, CEE enE ens 
Transportation 
Hotels and restaurants 
Music. theatres, etc. 
Miscellaneous 


Cue 0 (oo Oe 566 Sah 8) 0) .e) ie) iota ip eile, gb) 6) “asi ue) phate ye 


Sener ede ofS" s: 6 0 0 ele 2 0b v6ls soe ee ae 


1913 was 39,024,000,000 and 49,193,000,000 in 
1921. The number of ton kilometers was 57,- 
900,000 in 1913 and 55,668,000 in 1921. The 
revenue and expenditure of the German state 
railways was as follows: 


Passenger revenue in 1913 964,000,000 gold marks 
al a *" 1921 7,244,000.000 paper marks 
1913 2,140,000,000 gold marks 
1921 33,700,000,000 paper marks 
revenue in 1913 3,343.000,000 gold marks 
7 ** 1921 45,.132,000.000 paper marks 


Freight revenue in 
ee “cc (73 


Total 


The expenditure was 2,844,000,000 gold marks 
in 1913 and 52,024,000,000 paper marks in 
1921, leaving a net surplus of 504,000,000 in 


pete a Pe: s 6 8 oes eee 8 ew euiey ie lel je > 
Mohs Jo, G. eo ker We: clot a ehh ater el iret te fe fet Gs 


smelting mixed undertakings........... 


©, {0 81.09 eo!) Lvir 9.uPi To. (pi ak 10 |e ql patel s se) ee ae ye. oe. 5) ke 
wee -0| ‘el fe WMS, el ee he Mele elle Prete se oe > 
aon & io ie) @ Of 6) 0 0 fells 6) % vie lete. + « eda qe pitle 4 bipy Skt # lev es) 5 he ee 


Gh ole) m6, wm, 0.0 c6 eye. oe obs tis) s Je) ofels be ene ms @l eo) ® siele) elie, Al ine es 


d jote Foyle 0 ple io ss genults Hop's si 67 odig sa WONG fe! eo OE bag Ad fer sl ce 
©. ©, shake @)¢ 8 chdie hs! @ o S¥e eo st fylels o@ « 


ose, eel el lial’. che 0 ie aE os ee oe! ees ee ak © aos 


ape re) @) ome, © elite le vei) @ fy 6] 6 Sein © et8 = we S «Teg «fee bb) © 
ovlede ope (erie B levers Ce © aie fefetic «bis (6) @ hel Pie fs « 
O60 24,0) 01d oy Oy ON, a) © gee [el ofits ene co. 6) 8) © fe alia ie 5 e 


Totaly 2G He SPR o8. 2) Rigen. Pe Oa 


1913 1923 ; 
Joint stock Limited Li- Joint stock Limited Li- 
companies ability-cor- companies ability-cor- 


porations porations 

Soghl os tote) aR 4 115 36 401 
+. oletenetetewens 21 59 40 119 
ety Biche etalk 22 475 369 1,031 
St SES OC 38 3 57 23 
Bo iat hn oh can 366 2,050 737 3,310 
AG Oe 6) 3 cris 172 1,105 670 3,123 
sogstah is «aes 618 2,834 1,952 7,641 
BM cd 5 eM 172 932 557 2,371 
arene nave ys a 157 419 355 1,081 
Pane Ais Was oh 382 642 842 1,773 
ae 107 374 264 702 
eS asetene BUS. c 66 269 237 768 
= Ae ust mane 67 769 542 2,576 
Meier he 951 2,082 1,549 3,811 
dst tons some 20 288 355 1,337 
5 97 9 132 

Batic 72 1,038 267 2,035 
. aR ae 127 1,068 407 3,554 
iho uetomelals gs 835 9,409 4,145 30,874 
Sg 143 25 462 260 

oh Ae ae 500 825 605 1,982 
- ' natehere ere 68 Tak) 110 907 
SEO A Oars 61 331 71 594 
OL onset 311 862 397 2,336 
pare as! Boe 5,486 26,790 15,035 72,741 
The German mercantile marine, including 


steam and motor vessels, amounted in 1914 to 
2090 ships with 5,134,720 registered gross tons. 
In 1923, the number of steam and motor vessels 
was 1745, amounting to 2,509,768 registered 
gross tons, a decrease of 51.1 per cent. In 1913, 
1,181,000 ships were in course of construction 
in German shipyards for German _ account. 
These amounted to 1.460,041 tons. For foreign 
account there were 257 vessels under construc- 
tion, amounting to 69,926 tons. In 1922, there 
were under construction for German account, 
1253 vessels with a registered gross tonnage of 
1,393,225, and 100 vessels with a_ registered 
gross tonnage of 102,470 for foreign account. 


GERMANY 


The number of seagoing vessels entering Ger- 
man ports in 1913 under all flags was 115,$ 966, 
of which 26,637 were under foreign flags. "The 
total tonnage was 34,772,177, of which that un- 
der foreign flags amounted to 13 ,940,835. Ves- 
sels clearing amounted to 117,375, of which 26,- 
919 were under foreign flags. The tonnage was 
34,921,806, of which ‘foreign flags accounted for 
13,645,219. In 1922, vessels entering German 
ports numbered 59,427, of which foreign flags 
amounted to 12,954. Tonnage was 26,487,601, 
of which 16,208,403 were under foreign flags. 
Vessels clearing in 1922 were 61,311, of which 
foreign flags were 13, 100. Tonnage was 26,349,- 
792, of which foreign flags amounted to 16,260,- 
488. 
Commerce. 
exports and 


The following gives German 
imports for 1913 “and 1922 by 


principal classes (value in millions of gold 

marks) : 

1913 1922 

IMPORTS 
Animale Uvingwl ti 0 Pi eset BL 289.7 81.6 
MoodWandhdrink$ 4626 «. sileae. 2,796.5 1,292.9 
ae iiee INALCEIOUS ede 7 blake. of ofsiaists 4,997.1 2,829.2 
Articles partly manufactured... 1,263.3 986.4 

Articles wholly or mainly manufac- 

Gited Bee nek ee be se SG detec fi 1342231 aR ala lrsey 
Goldman Silkvens wera. ers aldo ok 437.4 8.7 
TOULAISE Pesta te ee eee 11,206.1 Grote 

EXPORTS 
Animalsgi livin ews. hs ies errs bes 7.4 12.3 
WOOO ATICs OT Keene eta os asc 1,068.7 PAO bE 
a Wea IOAterigige to eaecions eter ete 1,300.7 SOS 
Articles partly manufactured 939.8 498.8 

Articles wholly or mainly manufac- 

TANTO CIRM Pha ere, bag er chive const atsa che 2 %a 6,778.3 5,104.7 
Goldvandsstlvertc .- this aes oe os Ooad 18.8 
Totals ees ee ae. se 10,198.6 6,199.4 


A comparison of leading German imports of 
goods in 1913 and 1922 follows: 


Per cent increase 


1913 1922 or decrease 
(in thousands of metric tons) 
Coglmeeet acest ae 10,540.1 12,598.4 + 19.5 
Coke Sa eas. 594.5 288.8 — 51.4 
TMioniten hlaye 6,987.1 A, Ohbud + 71.2 
EOnie OF Oke ssc. 14,024.3 a) ECO a Seve — 21.5 
Tron balls and in- 

OtgeM NISHA 27... 11.0 325.2 + 2,856.4 
Pic evronmy ie cols 124.3 294.3 + 136.7 
ned ee Aare 4 146.7 + 36,575 
Sale aterm rc ore ce 21.4 4 — 99.0 
Chile saltpetre 774.3 31.5 — 95.9 
Artificial fertilizer 562.1 344.8 ——=. 38 7 
CGttO Das ie 477.9 2260 — 47.2 
Cotton goods 42.6 83.1 + 95.0 
Rye Gees See So2t0 539.6 + 53.1 
Wheater sf. cfs hs 2,546.0 1,392.6 — 45.3 
Bar leyaartre-l a: sac: 3,238.2 267.0 — 91.8 
Oats, sere cr teen 505.0 90.6 — 82.1 
Potatoes > Fides. 288 382.1 167.6 — 56.1 
Beet sugar ...... at 111.9 + 111,800. 0 
Coffee jnizeuiee ks 168.3 36.8 — 78. 
Fresh herring 129.8 45.5 — 64. 
Salted herring in 

barrels i) 3843 1,298.1 931 — 28.3 


A similar comparison of German exports for 
1913 and 1922 shows a decrease in all items 
with the exception of salt and salted herrings. 

Currency and Credit. The circulation of 
paper money in 1913 amounted to 2,100,000,000 
paper marks in Reichbank notes, 110 ,000, 000 in 
currency notes, and 140,000,000 in private bank 
notes, a total of 2,400,000.000 marks. Specie in 
circulation totaled 3,700,000,000 marks; a 
grand total of specie and paper money of 6,100,- 
000,000 marks was in circulation. In 1923 the 
number of Reichbank notes in circulation was 
74,941,738,917,400,000,000. Private bank notes 
in circulation were 13,063,445,500,000,000 marks, 
making a total of paper money in circulation 


539 


GERMANY 
Per cent in- 
crease or 
f 1913 1922 decrease 
(in ae ands of metric tons) 
OES A Re Sioa 4,598.4 — 85.4 
Comereer sk ck ae 6.438 908.2 — 85.9 
Tronttore: )) 65 O00, 2,613.2 LT3e1 — 93.4 
igen r Omi: si:s ists seeds 782.9 157.8 — 79.8 
Iron balls and ingots 700.8 102.1 — 85.4 
Tron girders’... 446.9 38.8 — 91.3 
Iron bars and 
shaped iron ..... ala Ny Gs WE 473.5 — 59.6 
FUSIIS\ Ween ee ee eg 300.8 286.1 — 42.9 
Balt weet eee. 432.1 963.5 + 123 
Sulphate of potash 133.4 85.2 — 36.1 
Potash and other 
Miner seltsiy os. fact 1,676.2 OTS8F1 — 45.5 
Artificial fertilizers 1,029.4 19.4 — 98.1 
Aniline and aniline 
VCS min sagehs cls Surhdbons le 39.2 — 45.3 
Woolen goods ...... 74.4 33.9 — 54. 4 
Cotton ro0ds’) 5.6 85.8 35.6 58.5 
DOU oly apes eicud Cie anette 934.5 2 99.8 
Wie a tetas crated aia care ee Spo. 4.3 =—- 992 
Oatseeeditel irs. «tae 661.7 5.6 — 99.2 
Potatoes *? ss ae oe Bo2LD 67.2 — 79.8 
Beets isurarrt hoi. os EL0.1 12.5 — 98.9 
Fresh sherringsea: aa. . 10.8 8 — 926 
Salted herrings in 
barrels) esi ee Vs: 204.5 + 4,163.6 


at the end of December, 1923, of 74,954,802,394,- 
900,000,000 marks. The value of this currency 
in gold marks was calculated as 722,000,000 on 
Dec. 31, 1922, figure one gold mark as equal 
to 1,000,000,000 paper marks.’ Average monthly 
clearings of the Reichbank in 1913 were 6,100,- 
000,000 marks. In December, 1923, there were 
197,553,153,600,000,000 marks; expressed in 
gold marks, 1,109,500,000. The circulation of 
stable currency in Germany on Dee. 31, 1923, 
expressed in gold marks, was 1,049,100,000 Ren- 
tenmarks, 240,000,000 gold loan notes, 141,900,- 
000 emergency railway notes, and 234,700,000 
gold loan emergency currency, or a total of 1,- 
665,700,000 stable value currency. The average 
amount of Treasury bills held by the public in 
1922 was 135,400,000,000 paper marks. Priv- 
ate deposits with the Reichbank average 80,700,- 
000,000. The depreciation of the German paper 
mark was accompanied by a rise in domestic 
prices; on Jan. 2, 1924, foodstuffs were 1088 


times their pre-war price. Industrial goods 
had increased 1479.1 times in price; domestic 
goods, 1153.2 times; imported goods, 1579.6 


times; the average for all classes of goods was 
1224.3 times. The gold mark value on the 
same classes of goods on Jan. 2, 1924, was as 
follows: foodstuffs had increased 8.8 per cent 
above the 1913 level; industrial goods, 47.9 per 
cent; domestic goods, 15.3 per cent; and im- 
ported goods, 58 per cent, giving a general aver- 
age of price increases for all classes of goods 
of 22.4 per cent over 1913. Retail prices of 
certain goods in Berlin showed considerable 
changes from 1913 to 1923. One kilogram of 
rice worth 26 pfennigs in 1913 was worth 35.64 
pfennigs in December, 1923; the percentage of 
increase was 36.9. A kilogram of yellow peas 
increased from 40 pfennigs to 96 pfennigs, or 
140 per cent; a kilogram of potatoes from 5 
pfennigs to 7.6, or 52 per cent; a kilogram of 
stewing beef from 180 pfennigs to 260, or 4.44 
per cent; a kilogram of pork from 160 pfennigs 
to 320, or 100 per cent; a kilogram of butter 
from 280 pfennigs to 520, or 85.7 per cent; a 
kilogram of margarine remained stationary at 
140 pfennigs; a kilogram of imported lard in- 
creased from 140 pfennigs to 168, or 20 per 
cent; a kilogram of sugar from 50 pfennigs to 
90, or 80 per cent; an egg from 9 pfennigs to 
21, or 133.3 per cent; a litre of milk from 22 
pfennigs to 32, or 45.5 per cent. 


GERMANY 


Wages. The weekly wages of skilled labor 
showed the following changes from 1913 to De- 
cember, 1923: all workmen, 35.02 marks to 16,- 
542,000,000,000 in November, 1923; miners, 
* from 37.562 to 18,582,000,000,000 in 1923; met- 
al workers from 36.2 to 29,882,000,000,000; fac- 
tory hands, from 32.99 to 29,040,000,000,000; 
typesetters from 32.84 to 25.80 gold marks; 
workmen in government employ, from 34.56 to 
24 gold marks. Unskilled labor showed the 
changes from 24.31 to 14,231,000,000,000 in No- 
vember, 1923; miners, from 24.84 to 15,492,000,- 
000,000 in November, 1923; metal workers, 
from 24.44 to 25,245,000,000,000; factory hands, 
from 26.76 to 26,590,000,000,000; typesetters, 
from 23.67 to 21.34 gold marks; workmen in 
government employ, from 23.7 to 18.72. gold 
marks. The nominal and real weekly wages of 
skilled and unskilled laborers in Berlin from 
1913 to 1923 changed, in the building trades, 
from 43.46 marks in 1913 to 33.27 gold marks 
in December, 1923, which had the pre-war pur- 
chasing power of 29.11 marks. An unskilled 
laborer received 29.15 marks in 1913, and 29.61 
gold marks in 1923, with a purchasing power 
of 25.91 in pre-war currency. Skilled wood- 
workers received 34 gold marks in 1913 and 
32.89 gold marks in 1923, with a purchasing 
power of 28.78 in pre-war currency. Unskilled 
woodworkers received 24.64 marks in 1913 and 
24.84 marks in 1923, with a purchasing power 
of 21.73 marks in pre-war currency. Skilled 
metal workers received 42.44 marks in 1913 and 
31.44 marks in 1923, with a purchasing power 
of 27.47 in pre-war currency. Unskilled metal 
workers received 30.62 in 1913 and 23.52 gold 
marks in 1923, with a purchasing power of 20- 
.55 in pre-war currency. Skilled factory hands 
received 36.18 marks in 1913 and 24.96 marks 
in 1923, or 21.84 in pre-war currency. Un- 
skilled factory hands in the chemical industry 
received 25.47 marks in 1913 and 22.8 marks 
in 1923 with a purchasing power of 19.95 marks 
in pre-war currency. Skilled typesetters re- 
ceived 34.38 marks in 1913 and 27 gold marks 
in 1923, with a purchasing power of 23.57 in 
pre-war currency. Unskilled typesetters re- 
ceived 27.03 marks in 1913 and 22.95 marks in 
1923, with a purchasing power of 24.04 marks 
in pre-war currency. Unskilled workmen re- 
ceived in government employ 34.56 marks in 
1913 and 25.57 marks in 1923, with a purchas- 
ing power of 22.37 marks in pre-war currency. 
Unskilled workmen received 23.07 marks in 
1913 and 19.87 gold marks in 1923, with a pur- 
chasing power of 17.38 marks in pre-war cur- 
rency. 

Finance. The government’s funded debt in 
1913 amounted to 4,585,800,000 marks. There 
were, besides, 220,000,000 marks in treasury 
bills, making a total of 4,805,800,000 marks. 
In 1923 the funded debt amounted to 50,126,- 
000,000; the premium loan amounted to 3,- 
850,000,000; interest-bearing treasury bills 
amounted to 6,482,000,000. This gave a total 
funded debt of 60,488,000,000 with gold mark 
value of $2000. The floating debt (discount 
treasury bills) arose to 96,874,330,250,000,000 
in November, 1923. This amount was all held 
by the Reichbank. 

For debts of the German states see table in 
next column. 

The revenues and expenditures of the govern- 
ment for the fiscal year 1922, calculated on a 
dollar index, were as follows: revenues from 


540 


GERMANY 

Prassigiye gsi). 3's eabe'e s ORO hs te 3,400,000,000 
Bayaria Pea. ssh). Ste Veber Gt eoe 213,200,000 
SORONY Mee cere «9:8 aus fine in Same 622,400,000 
WUrttemigereny, 7. . «> -\sio pre es ote 829,800,000 
Baden Vee es. od. w late bint tte euereith hice cena PMMnEEEE AR) 1 
ThuriInPisiee tiicsic ts ise ase. oe 218,000,000 
EL esse es.) oa vant Rb eh eke oes 16,600 000 
Hain Divernon «o's t. 1k ob eee te enero eo nites 3,039,200 000 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin .............-.- 107,300,000 
Older biotin toa oo! dsthcape pe « Btn al ware he 186,500,000 
BYU S WHOM ce ce 2 +. afesecgdeasiety anety BEICaES 30,400,000 
ADAG ae scot. tc eS 2 eee ener Mere ct eee 65,000 
Brémen tages 2. sl NY, ie Sete eet 945,000,000 
Lippevieeiieciiets): = os cabins se Ree ene 5,200,000 
Li becktaemmeeisr ss <6 .\s coke este ate ee eae 190,600,000 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 0" oS tot ee ae ee tree 2,700,000 
Waldeckiigmier rev... SUS ee ete eres 1,100,000 
Schaumburngeippe, pynv.-< his ete ers ke! sees eee 4,300,000 

PROURLEMC Tiers +s cs bo atmte ere On eIe. ee en 9,877.700,000 
taxation, 1,488,100,000 gold marks; revenues 


from floating debt, 2,442,300,000 gold marks; 
from sundries, 20,200,000 gold marks; total 
revenues, 3,950,600,000 gold marks. Expendi- 
tures were: repayment of funded debt, 35,600,- 
000 gold marks; interest on floating debt, 145,- 
500,000 gold marks; contribution to railways, 
643,700,000 gold marks; execution of Versailles 
Treaty, 1,498,400,000 gold marks; sundries, 
1,627,600,000 gold marks; total expenditures, 
3,950,600,000 gold marks. Revenues from tax- 
ation during the fiscal year 1922 were as 
follows: income, property and indirect taxes, 
1,143,400,000 gold marks; export duties, 162,- 
500,000 gold marks; import duties and con- 
sumption taxes, 449,900,000 gold marks; to- 
tal, 1,755,800,000 gold marks. Further analy- 
sis for revenues from taxation for the fiscal 
year 1920 showed income tax receipts of 1,214,- 
600,000 gold marks; emergency contribution, 
49,400,000 gold marks; turnover tax, 632,800,- 
000 gold marks; other property and indirect 
taxes, 372,000,000 gold marks; customs, 235,- 
100,000 gold marks; coal tax, 411,700,000 gold 
marks; other taxes on consumption, 251,100,- 
000 gold marks; export duties, 344,800,000 gold 
marks; non-recurrent taxes, 23,700,000 gold 
marks. This last analysis pf taxation is based 
on cost of living index and not on the dollar 
index. On July 23, 1914, the Reichbank gold 
reserve amounted to 1,356,800,000 gold marks. 
On Dec. 31, 1923, the gold reserve was 445,700,- 
000 gold marks, of which 21,300,000 were de- 
posited abroad. The most important German 
government asset was the state railway sys- 
tem. In 1913-14 working receipts of state rail- 
ways were 2,992,000,000 marks; working ex- 
penditures, 2,097,000,000. Total receipts were 
2,994,000,000; total expenditures, 2,542,000,000, 
of which the expenditure for debt was 441,000,- 
000; the net surplus was 452,000,000 gold 
marks. For the first nine months of 1923, the 
total receipts were 362,262,292,948,000,000 pa- 
per marks; total expenditures were 1,829,550,- 
974,239,000,000 paper marks, leaving a net def- 
icit of 1,467,288,681,291,000,000 paper marks. 
The number of persons employed on the rail- 
ways, exclusive of Alsace-Lorraine, was 740,- 
504 in 1913. In 1923 the number was 975,000. 
The number of train kilometers was 675,975,- 
418 in 1913-14 and 519,190,207 in 1923, or 76.81 
per cent of the pre-war figure. 

History. Although the War came on the 
German people rather unexpectedly and there 
Were immense popular peace demonstrations, 
organized by the Socialists, as long as it was 
only imminent, once the War had become an 
established fact it swept the German people in- 
to an orgy of. patriotism and war enthusiasm 


GERMANY 


which increased with every new victory re- 
ported. The great majority of the Germans re- 
garded the War as a struggle for their national 
existence, and the manifestoes of the Emperor 
and the other German sovereigns served to 
strengthen this belief and the patriotic ardor. 
Even the great Social Democratic party, con- 
cealing internal dissension regarding the War, 
supported the government from the start, and 
in conjunction with the other German parties, 
voted on Aug. 4, 1914, for the first war cred- 
its. On Sept. 9, 1914, the Socialist leaders 
protested against the anti-war activities of the 
International Socialist Bureau, and on Decem- 
ber 2, the Socialists in the Reichstag voted for 
a second war credit. The government made ef- 
forts to keep the support of the Socialists and 
granted certain internal measures for which the 
Socialists had clamored a long time. This un- 
divided support of the government on the part 
of the German people regardless of political 
opinion continued during the early part of 
1915, but with the entrance of Italy in the 
War on the side of the Entente, in May, signs 
of a change in the war spirit began to appear. 
In March two Socialist members of the Reich- 
stag, Liebknecht and Riihle, had defied their 
party and refused to vote for the budget. In 
the same session, Socialists ventured to criti- 
cise the General Staff. In the August session, 
on the occasion of the debate on the war credits, 
the leader of the Socialists made a demand for 
democratic reforms and expressed the hope that 
peace would soon be a reality. How the un- 
questioning faith of the German nation in the 
government’s conduct of the War had given 
way to a critical attitude became manifest in 
December of the same year when Scheidemann, 
the Socialist leader, interpellated the govern- 
ment in the Reichstag on _ possible peace 
terms and a strong Socialist majority protested 
against the annexationist spirit which was ram- 
pant in the country. At the same time an un- 
compromising minority of 18 Socialists voted 
against the war credits. It was evident now 
that in wide circles of the German people it 
was felt that the War had lasted too long al- 
ready and that peace on moderate terms must 
be concluded at the earliest possible moment. 
Germans who had supported the government 
only because they regarded the War as one of 
defense on the part of Germany began to grow 
apprehensive of the steadily increasing appetite 
of the nationalists for wide annexations. More- 
over, the internal reforms which the people ex- 
pected as a compensation for their sufferings 
and sacrifices were not forthcoming. The most 
potent factor in the slackening of war enthu- 
siasm was the food situation, which became 
more unsatisfactory with every day of the War. 

The interruption of maritime communica- 
tions with foreign countries and the ever-tight- 
ening hold of the Allies’ blockade reduced Ger- 
many, Which depended on import for most of 
its raw materials and a large part of its food 
supply, to a position where stringent measures 
had to be taken in order to prevent the army 
from being impeded by lack of war materials 
and to save the civilian population from starva- 
tion. (See BLocKADE, ALLIED.) The govern- 
ment, as a result, set up a rigid system of cen- 
tralized control in economie affairs. Maximum 
prices for certain foodstuffs had been fixed 
shortly after the outbreak of the War, but the 
prices of food continued to rise, Drastic ac- 


541 GERMANY 


tion soon became necessary to check the two 
main evils, the extravagance of consumers and 
the manipulation of the market by speculators. 
Early in 1915 all grain and flour was confis- , 
eated by the War Grain Association, and bread 
cards were introduced allowing each person a 
limited ration. A number of similar measures 
enforcing the strictest economy were put into 
effect during the course of the same year. At 
the same time provision was made to increase 
the cultivated area within the Empire and to 
curb profiteering. On May 22, 1916, a War 
Food Office was created, and subsequently meat 
and milk were rationed in the same manner as 
bread. In spite of these measures the situa- 
tion grew worse during 1916 and further action 
became necessary. Meanwhile the shortage of 
textiles led to the establishment of a War 
Clothing Office in July, 1916. As for the finan- 
cial situations, Germany attempted to meet the 
steadily mounting cost of the War through the 
issue of long-term war loans. By this system 
of piling loan on loan the financial indebtedness 
of Germany rose finally to the incredible 
amount of 161,000,000,000 marks. At this time 
little recourse was had to increased taxation, 
and only in 1916 and 1917 were new taxes im- 
posed by the Reichstag, which proved, however, 
quite inadequate. By 1918 German finances 
were approaching hopeless disorder. 

The ever-increasing sacrifices demanded of 
the German people gradually destroyed the pa- 
triotic harmony which had existed in the first 
period of the War. The disagreement between 
the navy department and the civil administra- 
tion was paralleled by conflicts between the po- 
litical parties. When in March, 1916, the So- 
cialists voted for the U-boat resolution, a mi- 
nority of 18 under Haase dissented and formed 
a new organization, the Social Democratic Labor 
Union, which henceforth showed uncompromis- 
ing opposition to the War. Further friction 
developed late in 1916 between the military and 
naval authorities and the civil administration, 
because Bethmann-Hollweg showed a _ certain 
sympathy for the democratic reforms demanded 
by the majority in the Reichstag and was, more- 
over, not at all in agreement with the military 
leaders as to war aims and war methods, espe- 
cially as to unrestricted submarine warfare. 
Lacking, however, in strength of character, he 
finally allowed himself to be dominated by the 
military leaders. Field-Marshal von Hinden- 
burg, hero of Tannenberg and idol of the popu- 
lace, and Quartermaster-General Erich von Lu- 
dendorff, who had become chief of the general 
staff and quartermaster-general, respectively, at 
the close of August, 1916, with increasing fre- 
queney assumed the right to dictate govern- 
mental policies; indeed, Ludendorff was little 
less than military dictator of Germany from 
1916 to 1918, and his influence was constantly 
exerted in favor of annexationist war aims and 
political reaction. The Chancellor’s policy of 
moderation was supported in the Reichstag by 
a majority consisting of the Centre, the Pro- 
gressives, and the Social Democrats. In oppo- 
sition were a minority of Conservatives and Na- 
tional Liberals on the Right, and on the Left 
the small group of ultraradical Socialists. 

At the end of 1916 the food situation had be- 
come so serious that further steps had to be 
taken toward the strictest economy. Condi- 
tions were aggravated by the bad harvest of 
the year. Additional restrictions were put on 


GERMANY 


a number of articles, and substitutes were in- 
troduced, which served their purpose only inef- 
fectively. To offset the shortage of labor the 
Auxiliary Service Law was enacted on Dec. 2, 
1916; it compelled all males between 17 and 
60 years of age to work. The stranglehold of 
the Allied blockade and the resulting economic 
distress reduced the civilian population to a 
state of mind where the demand of the nation- 
alists and the military authorities for the im- 
mediate application of drastic methods of war- 
fare, and especially of unrestricted submarine 
warfare, had a powerful appeal. The great 
mass of the Germans hoped for a speedy ter- 
mination of their sufferings from these meas- 
ures and saw little difference between their own 
privations and those which the submarine war 
might inflict on their enemies. Few Germans 
had any clear conception of the possible effects 
which America’s entrance into the War might 
have. Thus public opinion drifted more and 
more into a spirit of desperate recklessness and 
swung over to the viewpoint of the General 
Staff. When the Chancellor, who in spite of 
his better judgment was by this time complete- 
ly under the control of the military and naval 
authorities, announced on Feb. 1, 1917, to the 
Central Committee of the Reichstag that the 
government had decided to pursue a policy of 
unrestricted submarine warfare, the _ parties 
voiced little definite opposition. At the same 
time the majority maintained its desire for a 
speedy peace and its distrust of the govern- 
ment, which became clearly manifest in the 
great debate on war aims in May, 1917. This 
sentiment came even more strongly to the fore- 
ground during the following months because of 
the disappointing results of the submarine cam- 
paign, the energetic participation of the United 
States in the War, the feeling that Germany 
was facing overwhelming odds, and the reluc- 
tance of the government to grant electoral re- 
forms. On July 16, 1917, Erzberger, the leader 
of the Centre and of the majority, made a sen- 
sational speech in the Central Committee of the 
Reichstag, in which he repudiated submarine 
warfare and demanded immediate steps in the 
direction of peace. He was supported by the 
Centre, the Socialists, and the Democrats, the 
parties constituting the majority, which were 
now in full opposition to the Chancellor, in 
whose policy they had lost all faith. The par- 
ties of the Right were equally strongly opposed 
to the Chancellor because he did not go far 
enough to suit their extreme nationalistic tend- 
encies. Bethmann-Hollweg tried in vain to 
placate both the Right and the Left, the one 
by his statement in committee on July 10 that 
the formula of peace without annexations was 
not acceptable, and the other by inducing the 
Emperor on July 11 to issue a declaration 
promising a franchise reform in Prussia. He 
was forced to resign on July 14, 1917, and was 
succeeded by Dr. Michaelis, who also soon 
found himself in a difficult position in the 
Reichstag. On July 19 the Centrists, Social- 
ists, and Democrats carried by a majority of 
90 votes a resolution calling for a peace by 
agreement and rejecting forced annexations and 
any policy of political, economic, or financial 
coercion after the War. The resolution de- 
clared, moreover, that, in case any such peace 
should be impossible of attainment, the Ger- 
mans would stand together as one man and 
carry on a fight for their existence. Michaelis 


542 


GERMANY 


stated that he was ready to accept the Peace 
Resolution “as he understood it.” This latter 
phrase created immediate antagonism, which 
developed into open hostility during the fall of 
the year. A cabinet crisis arose in the early 
part of October when Michaelis attempted rath- 
er clumsily, in the course of a debate in the 
Reichstag, to construe the connections of some 
of the Independent Socialist leaders with the 
mutineers in the navy earlier in the year into 
something akin to treason. This sealed Mich- 
aelis’s fate, and by October, 1917, all parties ex- 
cept the Conservatives agreed that he was im- 
possible. On October 23 they informed the 
chief of the Emperor’s Civil Cabinet to this 
effect and Michaelis resigned five days lat- 
er. His successor was von Hertling, Bavarian 
Prime Minister and veteran leader of the Cen- 
tre, who appointed the Progressive leader, Pay- 
er, as Vice Chancellor in Helfferich’s place. 
The circumstances which brought about Her- 
tling’s appointment and the fact that he ac- 
cepted the Peace Resolution as a basis for his 
policy led many to regard him as the first par- 
liamentary chancellor of Germany. Hertling 
promptly denied the truth of this assumption 
and proved the bureaucratic character of his of- 
fice by introducing into the Prussian Diet a 
franchise bill which was only a tardy step in 
the direction of electoral reform, and which cir- 
cumscribed the powers of the Lower House. 
While the year 1918 opened under rather fa- 
vorable political circumstances and with great 
military success, the economic situation gave 
little cause for rejoicing. Milk, meat, and fats 
were becoming luxuries. There were now wide- 
spread transgressions of the food regulations, 
and profiteering had grown apace. The stead- 
ily increasing antagonism between town and 
country made the equitable distribution of food- 
stuffs very difficult. Likewise the scant supply 
of fuel, textiles, and other materials was a se- 
rious problem to the authorities. There could 
be no denying now that the machinery of bu- 
reaucratic central control, which had functioned 
so smoothly in former times, was beginning to 
break in many places under a pressure which 
had been too heavy and too long sustained. 
The military successes of the spring and the 
benefits accruing from the Bolshevist Revolu- 
tion, two factors which had brought about a 
temporary revival of the annexationist spirit, 
were only a partial compensation for the grave 
internal situation. The war-weariness of the 
civilian population advanced rapidly as a re- 
sult of the economic distress, and with it went 
a hitherto unknown spirit of dissatisfaction 
with a government which seemed either unwill- 
ing or unable to improve matters and abolish 
abuses. The great strikes in January, 1918, 
had been a manifestation of this sentiment, and 
it became further evident through the renewed 
pressure of the majority in the Reichstag for a 
peace by diplomacy. Moreover, the behavior of 
the military leaders in the negotiations with So- 
viet Russia and the failure of the peace treaties 
with Russia and Rumania to lead to a general 
peace undermined confidence in the government 
still further. Erzberger, who had set himself up 
as the leader of the peace movement, became in- 
creasingly hostile to the government in spite of 
the fact that both he and Hertling were leaders 
of the same party. How incapable the govern- 
ment was of grappling with the internal situa- 
tion was made evident by its only concession 


GERMANY 


to the German people at this time, a law en- 
acted by the Reichstag on June 8, 1918, by 
which the number of Reichstag deputies for the 
larger municipal and rural constituencies was 
increased and proportional representation was 
provided for the election of these additional 
deputies. 

Germany’s military strength had thus far en- 
abled the government to restrain the movement 
for peace in the Empire. But in the summer 
of 1918 military reverses presaged an internal 
crisis. On June 21, Foreign Secretary Iiihl- 
mann, in a sensational speech in the Reichstag, 
declared it was no longer possible to attain 
peace by force of arms. It is true that the 
Chancellor repudiated this statement in the 
next sitting and that Kiihlmann was forced to 
resign, but during the following month came 
the final offensive of the Allies on the Western 
front, and with it the movement for peace in 
Germany entered its last stage. The aggres- 
siveness of the Socialists increased with every 
new German reverse, and with the defection of 
Bulgaria the Hertling cabinet was forced out 
of office. Prince Max of Baden formed a new 
government with a programme of radical demo- 
cratic reforms and peace on the basis of Presi- 
dent Wilson’s Fourteen Points. The grim 
course of events made short work of his plans. 
After four years of hardship and sacrifice the 
spirit of revolution had gripped the German 
people, and in the face of the impending Allied 
military victory their former discipline had 
given way to panic and to a naive confidence 
that by complete surrender a just peace could 
be obtained. At the same time the Chancellor 
received frantic requests from the German Gen- 
eral Staff that immediate application be made 
for an armistice, since only the cessation of 
hostilities could save the German army from 
military disaster. Events followed each other 
in rapid succession. The Revolution broke out 
in Kiel in the first days of November. A series 
of mutinies occurred in the navy, and the Re- 
public was proclaimed in the principal sea- 
ports. In Munich, Kurt Eisner set up a red re- 
public on November 7. Two days later the 
Revolution had spread to Berlin, and Prince 
Max turned the government over to Ebert, lead- 
er of the Socialists. The Emperor fled to Hol- 
land on the following day, but did not sign the 
abdication document until November 28. For 
the account of the course of the diplomacy of 
the Central Powers during 1914-18, see Avs- 
TRIA-HUNGARY and WAR DIPLOMACY, 

The Revolution was now in full swing. In 
Berlin the overthrow of the Imperial govern- 
ment took place without armed resistance from 
the monarchists. Although the revolutionary 
movement had been actually engineered by the 
Independent Socialists, and the Majority So- 
cialists had not taken part until the Revolution 
was an established fact, the latter now assumed 
full charge of it and steered it into rather mod- 
erate channels to forestall the establishment of 
a Soviet republic. A provisional government 
was formed in Berlin under the title of the 
People’s Commissaries, which immediately ap- 
pointed a cabinet consisting almost entirely of 
non-Socialists. Thus the machinery of govern- 
ment was started running and Germany was 
helped over the dangerous period of disorder 
which otherwise would have led to the estab- 
lishment of an ultraradical government. Mean- 
while revolutionary Workmen’s and Soldiers’ 


543 


GERMANY 


Councils had sprung up and assumed power 
everywhere in the Reich. The chief element of 
opposition to the provisional government was 
the Workmen’s Council in Berlin, which claimed 
supreme legislative authority for the whole 
Reich. In the full realization of this serious 
situation the government called a congress of 
delegates from all the councils. At this con- 
gress, held in Berlin on Dec. 16, 1918, executive 
power was delegated to the six People’s Com- 
missaries, who thereupon issued at once a call 
for elections for a National Assembly. Thus 
the Berlin Council as the chief element of op- 
position was definitely eliminated. Foiled in 
their designs, the ultraradicals under the lead- 
ership of Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg 
organized the Spartacus League and attempted 
by force of arms to seize power and to set up 
a dictatorship of the proletariat. After minor 
disturbances the Spartacist Sailors’ Division 
started a revolt in Berlin on Dec. 23, 1918, 
which was subdued by the government by means 
of regular troops. on the following day. Prima- 
rily as a result of this drastic action of the 
government, the three Independent Socialist 
members in the Council of Commissaries, who 
favored a more revolutionary policy, resigned 
during the last days of December and were re- 
placed by Majority Socialists. In January, 
1919, a new and more vigorous Spartacist in- 
surrection occurred which was put down by 
Noske, the Majority Socialist Minister of Na- 
tional Defense, only after sanguinary fighting 
in the streets of Berlin. Renewed uprisings in 
Berlin during March and in various other cities 
during April were quelled by the Reichswehr. 
With the close of these revolts the Majority 
Socialist government had weathered the threat- 
ening danger from the Left for the time being. 

The elections to the National Assembly in 
January, 1919, showed a great increase in the 
Socialist vote, although the recruiting strength 
of the Socialist parties had suffered considera- 
bly from their internecine strife. The com- 
bined Socialist vote was 13,750,000, against 16,- 
000,000 votes for the bourgeois parties, and the 
two Socialist parties secured 185 seats in the As- 
sembly out of a total of 421. The revolutionary 
transformation which had occurred in Germany, 
and, paradoxically, the continuity of the new 
republican régime with the old order, were sig- 
nificantly exemplified in the metamorphosis of 
the political parties which entered the Nation- 
al Assembly. The German National People’s 
party (popularly, the Nationalists), with their 
42 delegates, were simply representatives of the 
old parties of the Right, ie. the Conservatives 
and Free Conservatives; they were opposed to 
democracy, to Socialists and Jews, and to the 
Treaty; they represented monarchist and mili- 
tarist reaction. The German People’s party, 
with 21 delegates, was the emaciated but influ- 
ential successor of the old National Liberal 
party, the party of big business, and soon be- 
came almost a personal faction representing the 
coal and iron king, Hugo Stinnes.) The Chris- 
tian People’s party, with 88 representatives, 
was so clearly recognizable as the quondam 
Catholic Centre that the old name was used 
more frequently than the new. The Democratic 
party, heir to the old Progressive party, showed 
surprising strength, with its 75 representatives 
and distinguished leaders, one of whom was to 
draft the new constitution. With the addition 
of 10 independents, these bourgeois parties mus- 


GERMANY 


tered 236 votes in the new Assembly, as against 
163 moderate Social Democrats, i.e. Majority 
Socialists, and 22 more radical Independent So- 
cialists. These returns showed clearly that the 
revolution begun by admirers of Russian Bol- 
shevism had taken a nonsocialist turn, but the 
danger of social revolution was not wholly 
averted. Fearing revolutionary upheavals in 
the capital, the new Parliament assembled 
on Feb. 6, 1919, in Weimar instead of Berlin, 
and elected on February 11 the Socialist Ebert 
as President of the Reich. Immediately after- 
ward a coalition cabinet, consisting of Major- 
ity Socialists, Centrists, and Democrats, was 
formed by Scheidemann. The Right, composed 
of the Nationalists and the People’s party, and 
the extreme Left or Independent Socialists op- 
posed the new government and did their best 
to block its measures. It was the ratification 
of the Treaty of Versailles, however, which 
caused the first cabinet crisis in Republican 
Germany. Scheidemann, who by previous state- 
ments had committed himself to non-ratifica- 
tion of the Treaty, resigned with his cabinet on 
June 21, in order to leave the President free to 
take the necessary steps for ratification. After 
some difficulties the Majority Socialist Bauer 
formed a new cabinet of Centrists and Social- 
ists. A majority in the Reichstag, consisting 
of the Majority Socialists, the Independent So- 
cialists, the Centre, and some of the Democrats, 
thereupon authorized the government, on June 
23, to sign the Treaty. On June 28 the Ger- 
man representatives duly affixed their signa- 
tures, and the Reichstag approved the Treaty 
on July 9. 

On July 31, 1919, the new constitution, 
drafted chiefly by Professor Preuss, was adopted 
in the Reichstag by 262 votes against 75. 
While it contained all the characteristic jurid- 
ical features of any modern constitution, it 
applied the democratic principle of equal rights 
with an almost unprecedented thoroughness and 
included a number of educational, economic, 
and social provisions which were distinctly nov- 
el. It was divided into two parts: the compo- 
sition of the Reich, and the fundamental rights 
and duties of Germans. The German Reich 
was declared to be a republic whose sovereignty 
was to be vested in the people. It was pro- 
vided that each state should have a liberal 
constitution and a parliament elected by uni- 
versal, equal, and secret suffrage. All citizens 
over 20 years of age were to receive the vote, 
women as well as men. To avoid any inequal- 
ity, elections were to accord with the principle 
of proportional representation, and the same 
democratic franchise was to govern elections to 
every German diet and municipality. The 
Reichstag was to be elected for four years. 
The President, elected for seven years by a di- 
rect vote of the people, was to have power to 
conclude treaties, receive ambassadors, etc., but 
declarations of war and peace were to be issued 
by the Reichstag, and treaties with foreign 
states were to be ratified by it. The Chancel- 
lor and the ministry were to be nominated by 
the President, and the former was to direct the 
foreign policy and to be responsible for the 
cabinet. The Imperial Council was to be com- 
posed of the representatives of the states, each 
of which was to have at least one vote; the 
votes of the large states were to be proportion- 
ate to their populations. The laws were to be 
submitted to a plebiscite if the President de- 


544 


GERMANY 


sired. Article 18, permitting the alteration of 
state boundaries by the national government 
with the consent of the population of the re- 
gions concerned, was one of many examples of 
the strongly national and centralized nature of 
the new government, as contrasted with the fed- 
eral constitution of the defunct Empire. This 
article was later taken advantage of to consoli- 
date eight Thuringian duchies and principali- 
ties (Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Al- 
tenburg, Saxe-Gotha, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, 
Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen, and the two princi- 
palities of Reuss) into a unified state of Thur- 
ingia (q.v.), and to unite Saxe-Coburg with 
Bavaria, thus reducing the number of states in 
the Reich from 25 to 17. The most important 
feature of the second part of the constitution 
was the article providing for the establishment 
of a system of industrial democracy through 
works councils and an economic parliament for 
the Reich. The latter, the Economie Council, 


‘ was to give an opinion on all bills of an eco- 


nomic and social character and was also to have 
power to propose such measures. The Council, 
however, was not to be a legislative organ. Im- 
portant also was the opening provision of ar- 
ticle 151: “The ordering of economic life must 
reconcile the principle of economic justice with 
the aim of a civilized life for everybody.” The 
most unusual clause, in many respects, pro- 
vided that in the schools of the Reich every 
effort must be made to inculcate a spirit of 
conciliation with the other peoples of the world. 

In September, 1919, the cabinet was enlarged 
by the reéntrance of the Democrats. At the 
same time the Works Councils Bill was passed 
by the Reichstag. As adopted, the bill repre- 
sented a compromise and did not by any means 
embody the radical principles which had been 
originally proposed, nor was it applied without 
further moderating compromises, bitterly as the 
Socialists protested. Another important event 
of the legislative session was the Socialization 
Law with reference to the mining industry. Re- 
publican Germany had taken over a cheerless 
economic heritage from the imperial system. Aft- 
er the Revolution, conditions had become more 
desperate month by month. The debt had risen 
to 220,000,000,000 marks, the budget amounted 
‘to 15,000,000,000 of ordinary expenditure and to 
41,000,000,000 of extraordinary expenditure. New 
sources of revenue had to be found, and with 
this end in view, Minister of Finance Erzberger 
proposed an “emergency contribution” which 
amounted to a partial confiscation of wealth. 
The measure was passed by the Reichstag on 
Nov. 17, 1919, by 238 votes against 43. 

The application of the Peace Treaty, which 
went into effect on Jan. 10, 1920, caused uni- 
versal discontent in Germany. The Allies’ de- 
mands for the extradition of the war criminals, 
including the foremost military leaders of Ger- 
many, and for the reduction of the German ar- 
my in accordance with the treaty, were especial- 
ly potent in arousing national feeling which re- 
acted directly against the republican govern- 
ment. The impotence of the latter in the face 
of the relentless pressure from the victors served 
to weaken the Republic, whose position had been 
none too secure from the beginning. Aside 
from the dangerous opposition of the revolu- 
tionary Left, there were powerful nationalist 
sections which had never become reconciled to 
the new state of affairs and which were only 
waiting for an opportune moment to reéstablish 


GERMANY 


the old order. Accordingly a counter-revolu- 
tion broke out in March, 1920. Under the 
leadership of Dr. von Kapp and General von 
Liittwitz, the monarchists, together with dissat- 
isfied troops who were to be disbanded in con- 
formity with the demands of the Allies, seized 
Berlin on March 13 and set up a new govern- 
ment. The Republican government, forced to 
seek refuge in Stuttgart in Wiirttemberg, ap- 
pealed to the workers to declare a_ general 
strike. The entire trade union movement of 
Germany responded to the call, and the organ- 
ized hostility of the workers throughout the 
Reich compelled the counter-revolutionists to 
evacuate the capital after five days of undis- 
puted military power. The Kapp Putsch, as 
the counter-revolutionary attempt was general- 
ly called, showed clearly the lamentable weak- 
ness of the republican government. The only 
reassuring element in the situation was the 
strength of republican sentiment among the 
masses of the German people and the power of 
action manifested by the trade union move- 
ment. After its return to Berlin the govern- 
ment was attacked by the radical Socialists and 
organized labor for its weak conduct and its 
ignominious flight. Unable to satisfy the de- 
mands of the trade unions for far-reaching dem- 
ocratic reforms, the Bauer government fell 
from power on March 26 and was replaced by 
a new coalition government under Hermann 
Miiller, composed of Majority Socialists, Cen- 
trists, and Democrats. A direct result of the 
Putsch was the stricter application of demo- 
cratic principles to the civil service. More se- 
rious than the Putsch itself, which was in 
reality a ludicrous attempt at a monarchist 
revolution on the part of a few reactionaries 
with very limited political vision, were its in- 
direct consequences, particularly the revival of 
radical revolutionary disturbances in the Ruhr, 
the Vogtland, and other districts. The workers 
in the Ruhr organized a proletarian army 
against the monarchists, defeated them, and 
took possession of the towns and the mines. 
Because of the revolutionary aspect of the 
movement, the Berlin government was com- 
pelled to send troops into the district; after 
some bloodshed, peace and order were restored. 
In Bavaria the March insurrection led to the 
complete consolidation of the reaction which 
had been steadily marshaling its forces since 
the overthrow of the Soviet government in 
April, 1919. Meanwhile France had become 
alarmed at the presence of large bodies of 
troops in the Ruhr, which under the treaty had 
been included in the demilitarized zone, and 
had retaliated by occupying Frankfurt and the 
Maingau. Germany appealed to the League of 
Nations, but without avail. At the Conference 
of San Remo in April, 1920, the French agreed 
to withdraw as soon as the German troops in 
the Ruhr had been reduced to the required 
strength. The action of the French, however, 
and especially their firing on civilians in the 
city of Frankfurt, was a powerful factor in 
strengthening national feeling throughout the 
Reich. Another manifestation of the restless- 
ness prevailing in 1920 was the tragic shooting 
of demonstrators before the Reichstag building 
on January 13. 

The elections for the first German Reichstag 
on June 6, 1920, were unfavorable to the coal- 
ition. Both the Right and the Left gained as 
a result of the year’s events. The representa- 


545 


GERMANY 


tion of the various parties in the Reichstag was 
as follows: Majority Socialists, 110; Independ- 
ent Socialists, 80; Centrists, 67; Nationalists, 
65; German People’s party, 61; Democrats, 45; 
Christian Federalists, 21; minor parties, 11. 
In view of the changed parliamentary situation 
a new coalition cabinet was formed by the 
Centrist Fehrenbach; it consisted of Centrists, 
Democrats, and members of the German Peo- 
ple’s party. The new government soon had to 
face difficulties in regard to reparations; after 
considerable wrangling, these ended with the ac- 
ceptance of the Allies’ demands by the Ger- 
mans. Each move of coercion on the part of 
the Allies weakened the none too stable repub- 
lican government. Nationalist feeling was fur- 
ther strengthened by the decision of the Am- 
bassadors’ Conference awarding a small part 
of the plebiscite area in East Prussia to Poland, 
although the plebiscite had resulted in an al- 
most unanimous German vote. Due to the in- 
sistent demands of the Allies, the Reichstag 
passed measures in July to bring about the dis- 
armament of the civilian population, the actual 
application of which was, however, rather dif- 
ficult. An important event of the latter part 
of the year was the disposal of the problem of 
socialization of mines. Of two proposals pre- 
sented by the Socialization Commission, the one 
favoring the mine owners was adopted by the 
joint committee of the Economic Council and 
the Coal Council. The measure failed to meet 
the approval of the miners, and nationalization 
of mines was abandoned for the time being. 

Between the Armistice and the end of 1920, 
the internal situation in the Reich had changed 
very materially. The Revolution had for the 
most part spent its force as far as the great 
mass of the German people were concerned. In 
place of the old aristocracy a new ruling class 
had arisen which was amassing vast wealth and 
was gaining complete control over the means 
of production. The workers and the middle 
classes were becoming impoverished as a result 
of the Peace Treaty and the rise of the new 
plutocracy. Thus Germany presented the amaz- 
ing spectacle of a country in which political 
power was directed by democratic and socialis- 
tic principles, but in which the real power was 
wielded by a few all-powerful captains of in- 
dustry. At the same time large sections of the 
people were going over to the extreme Right 
and Left, both of which were hostile to the 
Republic. Due to the Treaty and the Allies’ 
policy, nationalist feeling was gaining day by 
day and communism became more and more a 
factor with which republican statesmen had to 
reckon. Late in 1920 the majority of the In- 
dependent Socialists embraced the doctrine of 
the Third International and in conjunction with 
the Communists formed the United Communist 
party of Germany. At the instigation of this 
party serious revolutionary risings occurred in 
Central Germany in March, 1921, which the 
government was able to quell only after con- 
siderable difficulties. 

Meanwhile the reparations policy of the Al- 
lics took its course with fateful consequences 
for the German political and industrial situa- 
tion. When the German statesmen refused to 
accept the severe demands of the Conferences of 
Paris, Jan. 24-29, 1921, and of London, Feb. 
29, 1921, negotiations were broken off, and the 
Allies imposed their “sanctions.” At a third 
conference, in London, May 1-5, 1921, the Allies 


GERMANY 546 


decided on an ultimatum which forced the 
Fehrenbach government out of office. The new 
government under Dr. Wirth, consisting of Cen- 
trists, Socialists, and Democrats, undertook the 
fulfillment of the Allies’ demands. In this spirit 
Walter Rathenau, the German Minister of Re- 
construction, concluded with Louis Loucheur, 
the French Minister of Reconstruction, the so- 
called Wiesbaden Agreement providing for the 
delivery to France of German materials to be 
credited to the reparations account. The pol- 
icy of fulfillment, and especially the Wiesbaden 
Agreement, met with bitter criticism from the 
nationalists, particularly when the expected re- 
sults were ultimately not forthcoming. The 
government’s efforts to pay were seriously im- 
peded by the cataclysmic fall of the mark, and 
for this reason the subject of reparations came 
up again. The position of the government was 
injured still further through the remonstrances 
of the Allies concerning disarmament, the dis- 
banding of secret military organizations, and 
the inadequacy of the verdicts rendered by Ger- 
man courts against the so-called war criminals. 
The intensity of nationalist feeling at this 
time became clearly apparent through the mur- 
der of Erzberger by a nationalist zealot on Aug. 
26, 1921. The worst blow of the year, however, 
and the factor which more than any other since 
1918 decreased the industrial strength of Ger- 
many and at the same time served to fan na- 
tionalist feeling to white heat, was the parti- 
tion of Upper Silesia. The plebiscite of Mar. 
20, 1921, had resulted in a two-thirds vote for 
Germany, whereupon the Poles, fearing a de- 
cision unfavorable to them, started an insur- 
rection. Allied troops interfered only when the 
German population had been given full oppor- 
tunity to realize that it was at the mercy of 
the victor. The final award of the Supreme 
Council, which was based on the report by a 
commission of the League of Nations, gave the 
greater and most valuable part of the Upper 
Silesian industrial district to Poland. On the 
official publication of the verdict, the Wirth 
government resigned, but it resumed office 
again after a reorganization of the coalition 
cabinet. (For a full discussion of the problem, 
see UPPER SILESIA.) 

The reparations problem, the cause of all un- 
rest and anxiety, was acute once more at the 
end of 1921 and assumed an even graver aspect 
during the following year. The Conference of 
Genoa in April, 1922, lost much of its signif- 
icance because France agreed to participate on- 
ly on the condition that reparations should not 
be officially discussed. On Easter Sunday, Apr. 
16, 1922, the German and Russian delegates 
concluded at Rapallo a treaty whereby peace 
was reéstablished between their countries, and 
both sides waived all claims arising from the 
War. This pact aroused a storm of indigna- 
tion at the conference, which no assurance of 
good faith on the part of the Germans could 
pacify. Both Germans and Russians denied that 
the treaty contained any secret clauses working 
to the prejudice of the Allies. In May a mora- 
torium for the year 1922 was granted to Ger- 
many by the Reparations Commission, in re- 
turn for which the Wirth government promised 
to take measures toward balancing the budget, 
provided that an international loan was ar- 
ranged in due time. Subsequently a loan com- 
mittee, of which the American banker J. P. 
Morgan was a member, was formed to study the 


GERMANY 


German finances. Any constructive work on 
the part of the committee was blocked by the 
refusal of the French government to make a 
loan dependent on the modification of the 
French demands. While the reparations prob- 
lem was thus hanging over Germany like the 
sword of Damocles the country was sinking ever 


deeper into the abyss of political hatred and 


financial and economic disorder. In the sum- 
mer of 1922 nationalist conspirators made at- 
tempts to murder Scheidemann and Harden 
and succeeded in assassinating Walter Rathen- 
au, the Foreign Minister. This crime cre- 
ated a violent outburst of popular indignation 
throughout the Reich, and since it was evident- 
ly intended to be a blow at the Republic— 
Rathenau being the outstanding figure in Ger- 
man political life—a law for the protection of 
the Republic was enacted. The murder showed 
clearly the depths of political dissension in 
Germany. The foes of the Republic made the 
Revolution and republicanism responsible for 
all the misery which had descended on Ger- 
many. Meanwhile the mark had begun its 
spectacular downward movement, and in Octo- 
ber, 1922, the dollar exchange had mounted to 
3000. The depreciation of the currency pro- 
voked confusion in public finances and a com- 
plete revolution in prices with all its disas- 
trous consequences. Wages and salaries could 
not keep pace with prices, and terrible suffer- 
ing befell the population, particularly the mid- 
dle classes. The only people who profited by 
this lamentable situation were the industrial- 
ists, the profiteers, and the farmers. The Wirth 
government tried vainly to stabilize the mark, 
and conditions continued to grow worse as the 
year advanced. At the same time changes had 
occurred in the parliamentary situation which 
brought about a cabinet crisis. The Majority 
and Independent Socialists had re-united at the 
Unity Conference of Nuremberg, and as a result 
the United Socialist party had taken a turn to 
the Left. Chancellor Wirth sought to recon- 
struct the coalition government by the inclusion 
of the German People’s party. To this, the 
United Socialists would not assent, because, not 
without justification, they regarded the latter 
party as officially republican, but unofficially 
and in sentiment as thoroughly monarchist and 
reactionary. The Wirth government fell there- 
upon and was succeeded by a business cabinet 
under Dr. Cuno. This was composed entirely 
of bourgeois politicians; the German People’s 
party was its driving force. 

Although the Cuno government pursued the 
same reparations policy as its predecessor, a 
deadlock soon appeared between the Reparation 
Commission and Germany over a comparatively 
small default in the delivery of coal, and as a 
result, the French and Belgians, in January, 
1923, occupied the Ruhr industrial district. 
This action aroused the most bitter resentment 
and denunciation throughout the Reich. The 
occupation and the passive resistance of the local 
population, which was encouraged and actively 
supported by the German government and peo- 
ple, led to a revival of patriotic ardor and mon- 
archist activity. A still more fateful conse- 
quence was the rapid aggravation of the eco- 
nomic and financial situation. When the Ruhr, 
the chief centre of Germany’s economic life, 
ceased work, production all over the Reich was 
seriously impeded, and there was an_ unprec- 
edented increase in unemployment. Moreover, 


EE 


——— 


GERMANY 547 


inflation continued without interruption, because 
the enormous cost of passive resistance in the 
Ruhr necessitated an ever-increasing output of 
paper money. On May 31, 1923, the mark sank 
below the Austrian crown and collapsed com- 
pletely during the following months, in spite of 
all efforts at stabilization. The rapidity of the 
mark’s decline was equaled only by that of the 
rise of prices, with which wholesale increases 
in salaries and wages could not keep pace With 
the growing depreciation of the mark, the food 
situation became more alarming, since the 
farmers were very reluctant to exchange their 
products for worthless paper money. All faith 
in the mark vanished completely during the 
summer and fall, and business and labor began 
to make loud demands for real money. It 
seemed indeed as if Germany were headed for 
the final breakup. All these internal factors 
brought about the fall of the Cuno cabinet on 
Aug. 12, 1923; the immediate cause was the 
withdrawal of Socialist support in the Reichs- 
tag. Stresemann, the leader of the German 
People’s party, formed a new coalition from 
members of his own party, the Centrists, the 
Socialists, and the Democrats. 

The new government assumed office with the 
promise of taking immediate and drastic. steps 
to untangle the complicated foreign and domestic 
problems, and with this end in view acknowl- 
edged defeat in the Ruhr by abandoning pas- 
sive resistance. Likewise, vigorous action was 
taken in regard to the critical problems of taxa- 
tion and finance, and for a brief period hope 
was revived. But the measures adopted led to 
renewed difficulties with the nationalists, in- 
dustrialists, and communists. By means of a 
modified form of martial law, serious outbreaks 
of the extreme Right and Left were narrowly 
averted, but the steady pressure of the moderate 
Right, which objected primarily to the drastic 
financial reforms of the radical Socialist Min- 
ister of Finance, Hilfferding, forced the resig- 
nation of the Stresemann cabinet on October 3. 
Since no other chancellor was available at this 


particular time, the Stresemann coalition re- 


sumed office after Hilfferding had been replaced 
by a Centrist. In order to render the govern- 
ment more stable in the face of the extraor- 
dinary internal situation, a bill was passed by 
the Reichstag on October 13 suspending certain 
constitutional rights and liberties and vesting 
the government with extraordinary power to is- 
sue such decrees relative to the financial, eco- 
nomic, and social conditions as might be war- 
ranted by the situation. Such drastic meas- 
ures seemed necessary, indeed, for the misfor- 
tunes of the year culminated in November in a 
series of events which came near disrupting the 
fragile structure of the Republic. In October 
the Rhenish separatist movement (see RHINE- 
LAND) had come to a head, and in the closing 
months of the year the separatists in the Rhine- 
land and the Palatinate, who were comparatively 
few in numbers and recruited for the most part 
from the dregs of the population, succeeded, with 
the connivance of the French and Belgian au- 
thorities, in gaining possession of a number of 
towns. The local population, worn out by the 
long period of occupation, was cowed by 
French and Belgian military force. But once 
the armies of occupation, under pressure from 
the English and influenced by international pub- 
lic opinion, withdrew their support, the flimsy 
structure of the “Rhenish Republic” fell to 


GERMANY 


pieces; and the movement petered out in the 
early months of 1924. Another danger lay in 
the rising tide of extreme nationalism, which 
had found a safe haven in reactionary and mon- 
archist Bavaria. On November 8 the extreme 
monarchists in Munich under the leadership of 
Ludendorff and Hitler executed an abortive 
coup, commonly called the Beer Hall Putsch. 
Although the coup was easily frustrated and was 
in itself a rather childish affair, it served to 
show the extent and boldness of the extreme 
nationalist movement. More serious was the 
constant friction between the republican govern- 
ment of the Reich and the reactionary govern- 
ment in Munich. It was only through a policy 
of diplomacy and forbearance that Berlin suc- 
ceeded in preventing an open break between 
the Reich and Bavaria. While proceeding in 
the delicate Bavarian situation with the ut- 
most caution, the government used coercion 
against the recalcitrant Communist and radical 
Socialist governments of Saxony and Thuringia 
which were removed by use of the federal mil- 
itary and replaced by moderate Socialist gov- 
ernments. The summary action against “Red 
Saxony” and the forbearance of the government 
against monarchist Bavaria caused the Social- 
ists to withdraw from the cabinet. These de- 
velopments, together with Stresemann’s an- 
nouncement of the abandonment of all assistance 
to the people in the occupied regions, resulted 
in a vote of no confidence in the Reichstag and 
consequently the resignation of the government 
on Noy. 23, 1923. After a whole week of fruit- 
less endeavor a new coalition government, con- 
sisting of the Centre, the Democrats, the Ger- 
man People’s party, and the Bavarian People’s 
party, was formed with Dr. Wilhelm Marx as 
Chancellor. At the request of the new Chan- 
cellor, the Reichstag, by a vote of 313 to 18, gave 
the government plenary powers without parlia- 
mentary sanction for an indefinite period. The 
chief purpose of this act was to empower the 
government to take drastic action in regard to 
the critical social and economic situation. Late 
in 1923 currency reforms were inaugurated 
whereby a Rentenbank was established which 
issued a new currency token, the Rentenmark, 
to be covered by a hypothecation of the entire 
wealth of Germany. Alongside it, the old 
paper mark and the mark of the gold loan in 
August were temporarily to remain legal tender. 
When the Rentenmark, which was worth some- 
what less than a quarter of a dollar, came into 
circulation it was worth exactly 1,000,000,000 
paper marks, but with its appearance the infla- 
tion of the paper mark came to a halt. As a 
result of the introduction of a fixed-value cur- 
rency, prices early in 1924 were put definitely 
on a gold basis and general confidence in the 
currency began to return. At the same time the 
food situation and the condition of the middle 
and working classes became worse for several 
reasons, chiefly the fall in wages and the length- 
ening of working hours. While the stabiliza- 
tion of the currency had thus been attained 
through the issue of the Rentenmark, the bal- 
ancing of the budget remained an open prob- 
lem. Meanwhile the Dawes Committee of ex- 
perts had begun its investigation of German 
finances, and under its indirect influence an im- 
portant step was taken in the direction of 
budget reform in January, 1924; this was the 
temporary repudiation of the public debt until 
after payment of reparations. Further meas- 


GERMANY 548 


ures aiming at improvement of the financial 
situation were introduced in the spring of 
1924, and as a result there was a continued 
recovery of Germany during the first half of 
the year, not only in regard to finances, but 
also in a general economic sense. While the 
food situation was still grave and there was by 
no means cause for rejoicing, yet it was felt 
that the worst was over. This feeling was 
strengthened by the Dawes Report (see REPARA- 
TIONS) and by the results of the French elec- 
tions in May, 1924. The Dawes Report was re- 
garded by most Germans as acceptable in the 
main, not because of its satisfactory conditions, 
but because it seemed to supply a basis on which 
in due time an ultimate accord on reparations 
might be reached, especially as it was backed 
by the prestige of the United States. Even the 
nationalists were not outspoken in their opposi- 
tion to it. 

The Reichstag, which had been in session for 
four years, was dissolved on Mar. 138, 1924, 
and new elections were held on May 4. The 
results were approximately as follows: Social- 
ists, 100; German National party, 96; Centrists, 
62; Communists, 62; German People’s party, 
44; People’s Freedom party, 32; Democrats, 
25; Bavarian People’s party, 16; minor parties, 
28. The outstanding feature of this election was 
the strengthening of the extreme Right and Left 
at the expense of the middle parties support- 
ing the Republic. It is true that much larger 
inroads on the republican majority had been 
expected; yet the coalition upholding the Re- 
public had been left only a narrow working 
majority. At the same time the German Peo- 
ple’s party, the parliamentary tool of the great 
industrialists, although nominally a member 
of the republican coalition, was in spirit thor- 
oughly monarchist. Thus the Republic rested 
on a more precarious basis than at any other 
time since its creation, if the line-up of the 
political parties may be taken as a criterion. 
As a matter of fact, matters were even worse 
than the parliamentary situation indicated, for 
many Germans who had nationalist and mon- 
archist sympathies voted for republican parties 
chiefly out of consideration for the Dawes Re- 
port. Ever since 1919 there had been an unin- 
terrupted swing to the Right and the Left. 
After the Armistice the republic was looked on 
by the great majority of the German people as 
established, and the monarchy was to all intents 
and purposes dead. But the Peace Treaty and 
all its dismal consequences, reparations, the 
Ruhr occupation, the never-ending national 
humiliation, and the resulting economic misery, 
had destroyed faith in the republic and _ in- 
duced most Germans to seek salvation in mon- 
archism or communism. In view of the large 
Nationalist representation the Marx cabinet re- 
signed after the election, and President Ebert 
turned to the Nationalists for the formation 
of a new coalition government, but the latter, 
who were perhaps not overanxious to assume 
office at this particular time, advanced such ex- 
treme conditions, such as the nomination of 
Admiral Tirpitz as chancellor, that President 
Ebert fell back on ex-Chancellor Marx. The 
latter resumed office for the time being with a 
coalition, consisting of the Centre, the Demo- 
erats, the German People’s party, and the 
Bavarian People’s party. With the support of 
the Socialists, this government had a slight 
majority in the Reichstag. The attitude of the 


GIBBONS 


nationalists was due primarily to their unwill- 
ingness to take a definite stand for or against 
the Dawes Report. Early in June, 1924, the 
Reichstag by a majority of 64 voted in favor 
of acceptance of the Dawes Report, and im- 
mediately steps were taken to draft the laws 
required under the plan. In the latter part of 
June the government of the Reich showed its 
willingness to accept military supervision by 
the Allies. These developments, together with 
the moderate policy announced by the new 
French Radical Socialist government, augured 
well for the gradual solution of Germany’s 
complicated problems. See BADEN, FREE STATE 
OF; BAVARIA; PRUSSIA; SAXONY; SCHLESWIG; 
THURINGIA; WURTTEMBERG; also NAVIES OF THE 
WoRLD. 

GEROULD, Gorpon Harti (1877- yi 
An American philologist, born in Goffstown, 
N. H. He has been a member of the faculty of 
Bryn Mawr and after 1916 was professor of 
English language and literature at Princeton. 
He is the author of The North England Homily 
Collection (1902), Sir Guy of Warwick (1905), 
Selected Essays of Fielding (1905), The Grate- 
ful Dead: The History of a Folk Story (1908), 
Saints’ Legends (1916), Peter Sanders, Retired, 
a novel (1917), Youth in Harley, a novel 
(1920), and other works. In 1918 he was a 
captain in the United States army. 

GEROULD, Joun Hinam (1868— ). An 
American zodlogist, born at Stoddard N. H., and 
educated at Dartmouth College and at Harvard. 
He was instructor in zodlogy at Dartmouth 
(1894-1915), assistant professor (1915-1918) 
and professor (1918- ). Professor Gerould 
published articles in zoédlogical journals on the 
development of sipunculids and _ holothurians, 
and on the genetics of butterflies and moths. 

GEROULD, KATHARINE FULLERTON 
(1879- ). An American writer, born at 
Brockton, Mass., and educated at Radcliffe Col- 
lege. She was a reader in English at Bryn 
Mawr, 1901-10. In addition to many articles 
in magazines she published Vain Obligations 
(1914), The Great Tradition (1915), Hawaii, 
Scenes and Impressions (1916), A Change of 
Air (1917); Mlodes and Morals (1919), a col- 
lection of essavs; Valiant Dust (1923), a collec- 
tion of short stories; and other volumes. Mrs. 
Gerould has been criticized as weighing down a 
distinct literary talent with an unbending con- 
servatism, which though it does not attract the 
masses, has a coterie of faithful admirers. 

GEST, Morris (1881- ). A theatrical 
producer born in Vilna, Russia. He came to 
the United States in 1893 and was educated in 
the public schools of Boston. He began his 
theatrical business in Boston and since 1905 
has been a member of the firm of F. Ray Com- 
stock and Morris Gest in New York. This firm 
has produced more than 50 plays. Among its 
most notable successes are Haperience (1914), 
The Wanderer (1917), Chu Chin Chow (1918), 
Aphrodite (1919), and Mecca (1920). Balieff 
and his Chauve-Souris artists were presented 
to the American public by this management 
(1922) and the Moseow Art Theatre (1923). 
During the 1923-24 season it produced The 
Miracle under Max Reinhardt’s direction and 
plays starring Eleonora Duse, and Sir John 
Harvey. 

“GESTALT” PSYCHOLOGY. See PERcEP- 
TION. 


GIBBONS, FLoyp (PHILLIPS) (1887- ). 


_—— 


GIBBONS 


An American journalist and war correspondent, 
born at Washington, D. C., and educated at 
Gonzala College and Georgetown University. 
In 1907 he entered the newspaper field as a 
staff member of the Minneapolis+ Daily News, 
later joining the staff of the Milwaukee Free 
Press and the Minneapolis Tribune. In 1912 he 
went over to the Chicago Tribune. In 1917 he 
was London correspondent for the Chicago T'rib- 
une and a year later went as war correspondent 
to France, where he was wounded in the Battle 
of Chaiteau-Thierry. He was awarded the 
French and Italian Croix de Guerre. After the 
Armistice he became foreign director of the 
Chicago Tribune and editor of the European 
edition. published in Paris. 

GIBBONS, Herserr ApDAMS_ (1880- 1 
An American author, born at Annapolis, Md., 
and educated at the William Penn Charter 
School in Philadelphia, the University of Penn- 
sylvania, and Princeton Theological Seminary. 
He was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry 
in 1908, and until 1919 was correspondent in 
Turkey and in Europe for various American 
periodicals. From 1910 to 1913 he was profes- 
sor of history and political economy in Robert 
College, Constantinople, and in 1919 was named 
honorary associate professor in the Army War 
College, Washington, D. C. His _ publications 
include The New Map of Europe (1914); The 
Foundation of the Ottoman Empire (1915, 
1921); The New Map of Africa (1916); Recon- 
struction of Poland and the Near East (1917) ; 
The New Map of Asia (1919); Venizelos (1920, 
1923) ; Bases of Anglo-Saxon Solidarity (1921) ; 
Lithuanian Recognition (with W. G. McAdoo; 
1921); An Introduction to World Politics 
(1922); and Europe Since 1918 (1923). 

GIBBS, Str Puiie (1870—- ). An Eng- 
lish newspaper correspondent and writer. He 
was educated privately, and after several years 
of editorial work, he entered journalism in 1902. 
He was literary editor for several papers. He 
served as war correspondent with the Bulgarian 
army in 1912 and with the French and Belgian 
armies in 1914. From 1915 to 1918 he reported 
field operations of the British armies in France. 
His daily articles gave vivid and sustained de- 
scriptions, particularly of the human side of 
-war. He was knighted in 1920. In 1921-22 
he was editor of The Review of Reviews. He 
was the author of many books relating to the 
Great War and of several novels. His works 
include The Soul of War, Battles of the Somme, 
The Way to Victory, The Hopé of Europe, Now 
It Can Be Told, More That Can Be Told, and 
Heirs Apparent, a novel (1924). He lectured 
in the United States in 1921, 1922, and 1923. 

GIBSON, CuHartes DANA (1867- To) JAn 
American illustrator (see Von. IX). During 
the War he did some notable work as cartoonist. 
Later he purchased a controlling interest in 
Life, of which he assumed entire charge in 
April, 1920. 

GIBSON, Hvuen_  (1883- ). American 
diplomat, born at Los Angeles, Cal., and edu- 
eated for the diplomatic service at the Ecole 
Libre des Sciences Politiques at Paris. Between 
1908 and 1919 he held various diplomatic posts 
in Central America, England, Belgium, and 
France, and was a member of special committees 
or missions in Washington, Santo Domingo, and 
the countries of the former Austro-Hungarian 
Empire. In 1918-19, he served with Herbert 
Hoover in European relief work. In the latter 
year, he was named first Envoy Extraordinary 


549 


GILBERT 


and Minister Plenipotentiary to Poland. He 
published A Journal from Oun Legation in Bel- 
gium (1917). 

GIDE, Anpré (1869- ). One of the lead- 
ing French writers of the twentieth century, 
born in Paris and educated in the Parisian ly- 
cées. He began publishing in his twenty-first 
year. When he wrote his Nowrritures Terres- 
tres, a collection of prose poems, he had already 
reached his prime and was seen Vy his genera- 
tion to be an intellectual poet of the first order. 
As a novelist and an intellectual essayist, Gide 
showed himself a master of psychological ob- 
servation. In many ways he resembled Dosto- 
yevsky and revealed, like the Russian, an over- 
anxious soul groping its way. This is perhaps 
accounted for by his Protestant environment, 
which made him stand midway between the re- 
ligious assurance of Catholicism and the anti- 
clerical assurance of French rationalism. Gide, 
in fact, pushed his Protestanism as far as 
Nietzscheanism, without however abandoning 
his moral preoccupations. After the War, Gide 
was among the first to demand the resumption 
of intellectual relations with Germany and en- 
gaged in a polemic against nationalistic writers 
like Barrés and Maurras. His works include: 
Philoctéte (1890); Cahiers d’André Walter 
(1891); Poésies @André Walter (1892); Le 
Voyage @WUrien (1893); Paludes (1895); Pré- 
textes (1895); Les Nourritures Terrestres 
(1897) ; Saul (1898), played at the Théatre du 
Vieux Colombier in Paris (1922); Le Roi Can- 
daule (1898); Le Traité de Narcisse (1899) ; 
Prométhée Mal Enchainé (1899); Lettres a@ An- 
gcle (1900); L’Immoraliste (1903); Amyntas; 
Le Retour de VEnfant Prodigue; La Porte 
Etroite; Les Caves du Vatican; Isabelle (1912); 
DL’Offrande Lyrique, translated from Rabindra- 
nath Tagore; Dostoyevsky; Journal dAlissa; 
Oscar Wilde; La Symphonie Pastorale (1920) ; 
La Tentative Amoureuse (1921); and Morceaux 
Choisis (1922). La Porte Etroite was trans- 
lated into English under the title Straight Is 
the Gate (1924). 

GIDE, CHaArtEs (1847- ). A French 
economist, born at Uzes, and educated in law 
at the University of Paris. He taught at the 
Collége de France. An independent thinker on 
economic questions, Gide stimulated interest in 
economics as an art of social administration 
rather than as a science of the status quo. 
His Histoire des Doctrines Economiques (1909- 
22) contains a penetrating criticism of the 
communist experiment in Russia. He takes the 
social ideal for granted but emphasizes the pain- 
ful slowness with which it must be approached. 
His other works include a treatise, Principes 
d’Economie Politique, which went through 23 
editions in 40 years (1883-1923); lectures on 
the history of the codperatives, La Coopération 
(1900); Les Institutions de Progrés Social, 4th 
ed. (1920); and Premiéres Notions d’Economie 
Politique (1921). 

GIESE, WILHELM OskKAR FRITZ (1890- ye 
A psychologist and author. He studied philos- 
ophy, psychology, and medicine and is connected 
with a sanitarium near Halle. Among his prin- 
cipal recent works are Kulturwende (1916). 
Der Romantische Charakter (1919), Psychol- 
ogisches Worterbuch (1920), Psychologische Nor- 
mung (1920), and Wesen und Ziele der Psycho- 
technik (1920). 

GILBERT, ARTHUR WITTER (1882-— }s 
An American agronomist, born at West Brook- 
field, Mass., and educated at the Massachusetts 


GILBERT AND ELLICE ISLANDS 


Agricultural College and Boston University. 
From 1903 to 1907 he was instructor and assis- 
tant professor of agronomy at the University of 
Maine, and from 1910 to 1911, assistant pro- 
fessor of plant breeding at Cornell, where he 
became a full professor in 1911. From 1917 
to 1919 Professor Gilbert was agricultural sec- 
retary to the Boston Chamber of Commerce, 
and Commissioner of Agriculture of Massachu- 
setts from tHe latter date. He was a member 
of many agricultural societies and the author 
of Plant Breeding, with L. H. Bailey (1914), 
and The Potato (1917). During the War he 
was secretary of the Federal milk commission. 

GILBERT AND ELLICE ISLANDS COL- 
ONY. See Paciric OCEAN ISLANDS. 

GILBRETH, FRANK BUNKER (1868-1924). 
An American consulting engineer (see VOL. 
IX). In July, 1917, he became commanding 
major of engineers, and in December of the 
Same year was on duty at the General Staff 
College in Washington. Among his later writ- 
ings are Applied Motion Study (1917), Motion 
Study for the Handicapped (1919), and papers 
on the reéducation of the crippled soldiers. 

GILDERSLEEVHE, Basin L. See PHILOLoGy, 
CLASSICAL, 

GILES, HERBERT ALLEN (1845- ). An 
English Orientalist (see Vou. IX). Among his 
later works are “China” in History of the Na- 
tions (1913); Adversaria Sinica (1914-15) ; 
Confucianism and Its Rivals (1915); How to 
Begin Chinese: the Hundred Best Characters 
(1919); The Second Hundred Best Characters ; 
and Revision of Bullock’s Progressive Hxercises 
(1922). 

GILLETT, FReDERIC HUNTINGTON 

). An American Congressman, 
Westfield, Mass., and educated at Amherst 
College and the Harvard Law School. He be- 
gan the practice of law in Springfield in 1877. 
He was Assistant Attorney General of Massa- 
chusetts, 1879-82. For two terms he was rep- 
resentative in the Massachusetts House, and in 
1893 became a member of the National Congress, 
where he served continuously from the Fifty- 
third Congress. In 1914 he favored the Panama 
Canal Tolls Repeal Bill and was distinctly op- 
posed to the government’s Mexican policy. In 
May, 1919, he was elected Speaker of the House 
in place of Champ Clark and in 1920 was a 
delegate-at-large to the Republican national 
convention. Speaker Gillett favored the World 
Court and in spite of his 72 years was still a 
representative of remarkable physical and men- 
tal vigor at the Sixty-eighth Congress. 

GILLOUIN, RENE C. G. (1881- IMaiees 
French philosophical writer. He was born at 
Aouste, DrOme, and was educated at the Ecole 
Normale Supérieure. He entered the municipal 
administration of Paris and was attached to the 
cabinet of the president of the city council. As 
a writer his affinities were with the nationalist 
Catholic school and the ideology of Bergson and 
LeRoy. Three of his works received the prizes 
of the French Academy for literature and crit- 
icism. His writings include Ars et Vita, Etudes 
Iittéraires et Philosophiques. La Philosophie de 
M. Henri Bergson, Idées et Figures d@’Aujourd’- 
hui, and Une Nouvelle Philosophie de V Histoire 
Moderne et Francaise. 

GILSON, ETIENNE HENRy (1884— yA 
French professor and philosophical writer, born 
in Paris, and educated at the Sorbonne. He 
taught in the lycées of Bourg, Tours, and An- 
gers, and in the universities of Lisle, Stras- 


(1851- 
born at 


55° 


GIRL SCOUTS 


bourg, and Paris. As a scholar, Gilson was best 
known by his researches in medieval philosophy. 
His writings include a doctoral dissertation on 
La Liberté chez Descartes et la Théologie 
(1912); Etudes de Philosophie médievale 
(1921); La Philosophie au Moyen Age, 2 vols. 
(1922); Le Thomisme (1923); and La Philos- 
ophie de Saint Bonaventure (in preparation, 
1924), 

GINZKEY, Franz Karu (1871- y San 
Austrian author, born at Pola in Istria, and 
educated at the Marine Academy and Cadet 
School. After serving as officer in various Aus- 
trian towns, he was appointed technical director 
of the Military-Geographical Institute in 
Vienna. Later he went to Salzburg and devoted 
himself to writing. His works include Ergeb- 
nisse, poems (1901); Hatschi-Bratschis Luft- 
ball, 4th ed. (1905); Jakobus und die Frau, a 
novel (1908); Geschichte emer Stillen Frau, 
a novel (1909); Balladen und Neue Lieder 
(1910); Der Wiesenzaun, a story (1913); Die 
Front im Tirol (1916); Der Gaukler von Bo- 
logna, a novel (1917); Befreite Stunde (1918) ; 
Der Doppelspiegel, a story (1920); and Die 
Einzige Siinde, a story (1920). In 1906 he was 
awarded the Bauernfeld Prize. He was elected 
president of the Authors’ Union of Austria. 

GIOLITTI, Giovanni (1843- Wolo a 
Italian statesman (see Vout. IX). When the 
War broke out he was in favor of a strict neu- 
trality. When the question of Italian participa- 
tion arose in- 1915, he attempted to overthrow 
the Salandra cabinet, but his effort was swept 
aside by the patriotic zeal of the Italian masses 
for war. Throughout the course of the War 
he was looked on as a “defeatist.”” After the 
Armistice he again returned to the premiership 
(May, 1920), largely because of the unsatisfac- 
tory régime of Premier Nitti. His stay in 
power was comparatively short (April, 1921) 
and was marked by a successful foreign policy 
but an internal programme which was domi- 
nated first by the Socialists and later by the 
Fascists. See ITALy, History. 

GIRAUDOUX, JEAN (1882- Mai 
French man of letters, educated at the Ecole 
Normale. Following his graduation he de- 
voted himself in turn to teaching, journalism, 
and diplomacy. In the meantime he began his 
literary career as a writer of poems in prose. 
His first book, Les Provinciales (1909), won 
immediate recognition. His war book, Lectures 
pour une Ombre, is one of the few war books of 
literary merit. In 1922 his Siegfried et le 
Limousin (1922), a war story of shell shock 
and amnesia, was one of the books awarded 
the Grand Prix Balzac. His works include 
Simon le Pathétique; Amica America; Elpénor; 
Adorable Clio (1920); Suzanne et le Pacifique 
(1921); and Finale de Siegfried et le Limousin 
(1922). 

GIRL SCOUTS. A _ national organization 
founded in 1912, which emphasizes methods of 
training to develop in girls initiative, self-con- 
trol, self-reliance, and service to others. In the 
War, Girl Scouts sold, in the third Liberty Loan 
campaign, 12,742 bonds, amounting to $3,151,- 
000. No records were kept of their activities 
in the first two loan campaigns, but in the 
fourth loan they practically doubled their third 
loan figure, when they sold $6,123,550 worth, 
or 39,987 bonds. The government awarded 
1201 medals to Girl Scouts for selling 10 or 
more bonds to as many different people, simply 


GISH 


in the fourth loan. Many other forms of war 
service were entered into and initiated by them. 
The War over, they readily turned to peace- 
time activities. Home-making, with the idea 
of developing beauty and simplicity as well as 
utility in the home, and teaching Girl Scouts 
to make the best American homes of to-morrow, 
is increasingly emphasized. From the date of 


foundation (1912) to 1924, 497,208 girls had 
the benefits of Scout training. 
GISH, Dorotny (1898— ). An American 


motion picture actress, born in Dayton, Ohio, 
sister of Lilian Gish. She appeared on the 
stage from childhood. Her best known pictures 
are Old Heidelberg, Stage Struck, The Little 
Yankee, Children of the Feud, That Colby Girl, 
Hearts of the World, Battling Jane, The Hope 
Chest, and Orphans of the Storm. In 1920 she 
married James Rennie, an actor. 

GISH, Lizian (1896- ). An American 
motion picture actress, sister of Dorothy Gish. 
She appeared on the legitimate stage at the 
age of five and after 1913 played in motion 
pictures. Her best characterizations were in 
The Birth of a Nation, A House Built on the 
Sand, Souls Triumphant, Hearts of the World, 
The Greatest Thing in Life, Broken Blossoms, 
Way Down East, Orphans of the Storm, and 
The White Sister. 

GLACIAL CONDITIONS. See GroLocy. 

GLACKENS, WituiAm J. (1870- }. ecAn 
American painter and illustrator (see Vor. X). 
At the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, 
1915, he was awarded a bronze medal. In his 
later work, continuing his interest in the more 
colorful aspects of life, he maintained his rep- 
utation as a remarkable colorist. 

GLAND. See SECRETIONS, INTERNAL; ZOOL- 
oGy, Physiology. 

GLASPELL, Susan (Mrs. GEoRGE CRAM! 
Cook) (1882-— ). An American author (see 
VoL. X). She wrote Fidelity (1915); Trifles, 
with George Cram Cook (1917); Suppressed 
Desires (1917); Plays, a collection including 
Bernice (1920); Inheritors (1921); and Verge 
(1922). 

GLASS, Carter (1858- ). An Ameri- 
ican politician and Congressman, born at Lynch- 
burg, Va., and educated at public and. private 
schools there. For eight years he worked in a 
printing office and subsequently became owner 
of the Daily News and the Daily Advance of 
his native town. He served in the Virginia 
Senate from 1899 to 1903, and in the latter 
year, on the death of P. J. Olney, he became a 
member of the United States Congress, to which 
he was continuously reélected until 1918, when 
he resigned to become Secretary of the Treasury 
in President Wilson’s cabinet. Here he was 
active in floating the Victory Loan. He re- 
signed a year later (November, 1919), and was 
appointed and later elected to fill the unexpired 
term of Senator Thomas S. Martin, deceased. 
In 1920 he was chairman of the committee on 
resolutions at the Democratic national conven- 
tion. As chairman of the House banking com- 
mission he sponsored and was largely responsible 
for the Federal Reserve Act. In 1923 he fa- 
vored the recall of the American troops from 
Germany and in March of the same year was 
appointed a member of the debt funding com- 
mission but declined to serve. 

GLASS, Montacue (MARSDEN) (1877- is 
An American author, born at Manchester, Eng- 
land, and educated at the College of the City 


551 


GOBLOT 


of New York and New York University. 
Among other works he is the author of Potash 
and Perlmutter (1913), a suecessful farce, writ- 
ten in collaboration with Charles Klein. With 
Goodman (q.v.) he wrote: Object: Matrimony 
(1916); Business before Pleasure (1917); Why 
Worry? (1918); His Honor Abe Potash (1919). 
GLEAVES, ALBERT (1858- ). An 
American naval officer, born in Nashville, Tenn., 
and educated at the United States Naval Acad- 
emy. He was commissioned ensign in 1881. 
He served on many stations and during the 
Spanish-American War commanded the torpedo 
boat Cushing. From 1901 to 1904 he com- 
manded. the Dolphin and Mayflower in special 
service, and from 1904 to 1908 he was in charge 
of the torpedo station at Newport, R. I. He 
did shore duty and was in command of several 
vessels until 1915, when he was placed in com- 
mand of the destroyer force of the Atlantic 
fleet. In 1917 he had charge of convoy opera- 
tions on the Atlantic and convoyed the first 
force of the American Expeditionary Force to 
France. From 1917 to 1919 he commanded the 
cruiser and transport foree of the Atlantic 
fleet, and from 1919 to 1921 commanded the 
Asiatic station, and in 1922 the First Naval 
District and the Navy Yard in Boston. He was 
retired by operation of law in 1922. He was 
appointed rear-admiral in 1915, vice-admiral in 
1918, and admiral in 1919. He wrote Capt. 
James Lawrence, U. 8S. N. (1904) and History 
of the Cruiser and Transport Force (1921). 


GLENN, Mary WIttcox (Mrs. JonHn M. 
GLENN) (1869- ). An American social 
worker, born in Baltimore, Md. For several 


years she taught in private schools and from 
1897 to 1900 was executive secretary of the Hen- 
ry Watson Children’s Aid Society of Baltimore. 
In 1900 and 1901 she served as general secre- 
tary of the Charity Organizations Society of 
Baltimore and in 1915 was appointed president 
of the National Conference of Charities and Cor- 
rections. She was president and director in 
many other social organizations and was the 
author of Development of Thrift (1899). 

GLENN, OLiveR Epmunps’ (1878- ye 
An American mathematician and educator, born 
in Moorefield, Ind., and educated at Indiana 
and Pennsylvania universities. In 1902-03 he 
served as instructor at the University of In- 
diana and afterward was acting professor of 
mathematics at Drury College. In 1906 he was 
a member of the faculty of the University of 
Pennsylvania as instructor in mathematics, as- 
sistant professor, and after 1914, professor. 
He was a member of several scientific socie- 
ties and the author of A Treatise on the 
Theory of Invariants (1915) and mathematical 
memoirs. 

GLENO DAM FAILURE. See DAMs. 

GLIDERS. See ARONAUTICS. 

GLOVES. See LEATHER. 

GLYCEROL. See CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC, 

GOBLOT, Epmonp (1858-— ). A French 
logician and philosopher of science. In _ his 
Essai sur la Classification des Sciences (1898) 
he sought to continue the tradition of positive 
rationalism inherited from Comte and Cournot. 
This project he carried out more fully in his 
later works, his Traité de Logique (1918) and 
Le Systeme des Sciences: le Vrai, VIntelligi- 
ble, et le Réel (1922). The rationalism ex- 
pounded in these works is in direct contrast to 
the tendency of the school of Bergson toward 


GODDARD 


esthetic mysticism. Goblot is also the author 
of a Vocabulaire Philosophique (1901). 

GODDARD, Henry HERpBertT (1868- ies 
An American psychologist known for his re- 
search in feeblemindedness. He was born in 
Vassalboro, Me., and educated at Haverford Col- 
lege. After a period of school teaching, he was 
appointed professor of psychology at the State 
Normal School of Pennsylvania. In 1906 he re- 
signed to take charge of the bureau of research 
in the Training School for the Feebleminded at 
Vineland, N. J. After 12 years in this capac- 
ity he was made director of the State Bureau 
of Juvenile Research, of Ohio. His major pub- 
lications comprise The Kallikak Family (1912) ; 
Feeblemindedness: Its Causes and  Conse- 
quences (1914); The Criminal Imbecile (1915) ; 
Psychology of the Normal and Subnormal 
(1919); Human Efficiency (1920); and Juven- 
ile Delinquency (1921). 

GODFREY, HOLLIS (1874— jan 
American educator and engineer, born in Lynn, 
Mass., and educated at Tufts College and Har- 
vard University. From 1898 to 1905 he was 
engaged in teaching and from 1906 to 1910 was 
head of the department of science of the School 
of Practical Arts in Boston. He was consult- 
ing engineer for several cities and corporations 
and was research worker for the New York 
State Commission on Hygiene from 1910 to 
1917. He was president of the Drexel Insti- 
tute in Philadelphia from 1913 to 1921, and 
after 1921 was chancellor and senior fellow of 
the Institute of Management. He wrote The 
Man Who Ended War (1908); The Health of 
the City (1910); and Dave Morrell’s Battery 
(1912), as well as contributions to periodicals. 

GOETHALS, GrorceE WASHINGTON (1858- 

). An American civil and military en- 
gineer (see Vor. X). He resigned from the 
post of Governor of the Canal Zone in 1916 and 
was made chairman of the board of inquiry in 
regard to the Adamson eight-hour law. He was 
State engineer of New Jersey in 1917 and in the 
same year was made manager of the Emergency 
Fleet Corporation. Because of his lack of faith 
in the wooden fleet he resigned after three 
months and was appointed acting quartermaster- 
general of the United States Army. In 1918 
he, was made chief of the division of purchase, 
storage, and traffic, and was also a member of 
the War Industries Board. At his own request, 
he was relieved from active service in 1919, and 
later headed an engineering and construction 
company. 

GOITRE. Examination of United States re- 
cruits during the War showed a considerable 
percentage of cases of this affection. In one 
group of 20,000 no less than 6 per cent showed 
simple goitre in a considerable degree. It also 
became evident that this affection was endemic 
in certain areas, such as the belt which runs 
south of the Great Lakes. It is here that most 
of the intensive study and attempts at preven- 
tion have taken place. Thus in the school 
children of Akron, Ohio, goitre is known to de- 
velop in a considerable number, and it was 
learned that addition of a few milligrams of 
iodine to the daily diet was a certain preventive. 
At Rochester, N. Y., the city water supply was 
medicated with iodine with the desired result 
of preventing the development of the disease. 

As far as the United States and Great Britain 
are concerned, simple goitre may be regarded 
as the most readily prevented of all diseases. 


552 


GOLD 


The problem is more complicated in France, 
Switzerland, and India, where the disease has 
been endemic for centuries with a high in- 
eidence. Here other factors may be at work in 
determining the disease, and the mere addition 
of a little iodine to the food or water may be 
insufficient for prevention. The iodine ingested 
by the patient may not be absorbed as a result 
of an abnormal condition of the intestine. 
Similarly there may be some irregularity in re- 
gard to the metabolism of iodine, or it may be 
too rapidly eliminated. The preventive action 
of iodine has, however, been demonstrated in 
school children in Switzerland, and it has been 
shown likewise that regions of high altitudes, 
remote from the ocean, may not contain enough 
iodine in their plant foods and water to prevent 
the development of the disease. Simple goitre 
must not be confused with toxic goitre or 
Graves’s disease. In this form there is not much 
enlargement of the thyroid, but the patient is 
an invalid who suffers much from rapid pulse 
and nervousness. See Foop AND NUTRITION. 
GOLD. The War, with its extension econom- 
ic changes and dislocation of values, produced 
a depression in the gold mining industry from 
which, after 1921, mining interests sought to 
emerge. Naturally, on account of the world ex- 
change situation, certain mines, such as those in 
South Africa and Australia, were able to pro- 
duce gold with considerable advantage, as they 


‘received a virtual premium on their output; 


but with the strengthening of sterling exchange 
they were placed in a worse position. In the 
United States there was no such advantage, and 
with the increased costs of labor and materials 
the mining of gold was not attended by at- 
tractive profits, so that in November, 1922, pay- 
ment of a bounty on gold mining for three years 
was even advocated; another measure proposed 
a bounty to be raised by an excise tax on gold 
used in the arts. In the United States few new 


PRODUCTION OF GOLD IN THE UNITED 
STATES 
CALENDAR YEARS 1910-23 


Calendar 
years Fine-ounces Value 

VOLO Camis fh. SUAS < STS ee they 4,657,017 96,269,100 
LOD Lies ii ee he OER Sete 4,687,053 96,890,000 
OT Oey Meidevs lias’ s) p@s vonsyuehe eae eeteboee 4,520,719 93,451,500 
OS temas is <0 oteher eration § 0) oie E ERE ee tae 4,299,784 88,884,400 
LON Ate PE note Tate Le 4,572,976 94,531,800 
DDL SR crite fis ek Ee ener ve Te 4,887,604 101,035,700 
Oi 6 Mes oe hte. nsdn veeeeeeele wena ta 4,479,057 92,590.300 
BO LT Mats eNesens 2 0.2 Vals oe ale Rel) eae toe 4,051,440 83,750,700 
POMS CaP eS LN re Cae. aie) Ae 3,320,784 68,646,700 
TO VOT test? . % hs KOH aocte s e oe 2,918,628 60,333,400 
TOO OMe ule ov shi ties aie wettomieds steers. ake 2,476,166 51,186,900 
ELD yd cis Beye ov lec cae eeMenisuee, ake 6: cake 2,422,006 50,067,300 
TOZ2ET EH. hee ere ee fae 2,363,075 48,849,100 
VODS BR ded LA eee as eae 2,485,445 51,378,700 


fields were developed between 1914 and 1924, 
but with improved processes older mines had 
been reopened, and with increased production 
of copper, lead, and zinc, the gold. and silver 
obtained as a by-product was more and more 
looked on as a source of profit. In 1915 the 
United States produced gold valued at $101,- 
035,700, or 21.5 per cent of the world’s highest 
production, namely, $468,799,812; but its quota 
had continually decreased until, notwithstanding 
an increase in 1923, it was but 14 per cent ($51,- 
378,700), or but slightly more than half of the 
record production of 1915. This reduced out- 
put also was accompanied by a discouraging 
outlook for the future as the returns from the 
various States showed that there had been a 


GOLD 


considerable decline in production where the 
gold was obtained from siliceous ores and 
gravels, while the increases had come where the 
gold was obtained from refining the base metals, 
copper and lead, where production had greatly 
increased and metallurgical processes were con- 
stantly being improved. Thus while Arizona, 
Utah, Nevada, Idaho, Montana, Washington, 
and New Mexico all showed increased produc- 
tion in 1923, California, Alaska, South Dakota, 
Colorado, and Oregon all had a diminished out- 
put. In the United States the purchasing power 
of the gold dollar was shrinking, and at the 
same time large importations of gold were be- 
ing made. This increased the gold reserves of 
the United States and added to the considera- 
tions which naturally would lead to low interest 
rates, to high prices, and in mining to higher 
costs. The accompanying table shows the pro- 
duction of gold in the United States in 1923 
by States. 


UNITED STATES REFINERY PRODUCTION OF 
GOLD FOR 1923 
FIGURES COMPILED BY THE BUREAU OF THE 
MINT, WITH THE COOPERATION OF THE 
UNITED STATES 


Gold 
State Ounces Value 

PA RSKR Me te otdad Resid sks ale « 309,653 $6,401,190 
AAI Of 800 yy et a ae a hit ae ae eee 5 1090 
EN IZO Ma OU SR ee a 292,654 6,049,700 
California dk.) aa.% tlk: . ae 655,051 13,541,100 
WOLOUT A Oterier a eens teres cic eis 314,495 6,501,200 
GOOT ETA ie ui ee ee 19 400 
Pa ahOuts a4 a eee tae Oo 36,305 750,500 
MEGAMAN, «asa Sy cjee © ic kis « ft ehet 85,121 1,759,600 
INI ea tee cin ates le ae ye) 195,227 4,035,700 
INewW PMeXxICO co eee s ee ees aT OOo 487,100 
Worth (Garoling 2krhoe? fess sy: 1,100 
Orel Oe tedeks <ehe. stereatens is tae - 23,085 477.200 
On SUV cura ae teas lean chek oat ilnigs 2,300 
Out  Oarolinatre nee ke arene 15 300 
SouthiiDakota is% -24.. SOK8e 303,984 6,283,900 
PMaennesSSeGueiey. wes Hin helt 319 6,600 
BPRS AS cere tere dics a) eosin oh tcens 44 900 
ERI Walenta chee ore ciate a. freee 157-567 31957.200 
WashineLOneerAeteh s 2s) oae 2 15,335 317,000 
Rp omin eyes 6) i. 7. Fl. a vey sfeintgty 1 e200 
Philippine Islands. -.......- 72,824 1,505,400 
AOE LOM LCICOMS sors ehdicce es one! fa she 100 

STast cul emnd cs hs dobubat. isis Fhe s< 2,485,445 $51.378.700 


During the latter part of the period 1914 to 
1924, and particularly during 1924, gold min- 
ing in the United States suffered on account 
of the high cost of labor and supplies, which 
were probably about 60 per cent higher than 
in 1913, while the price of gold naturally 
remained fixed at $20.67 an ounce. Further- 
more the mine operators of the United States 
were not able to pay for labor and supplies in a 
depreciated currency as in other countries but 
on a gold basis. In 1922 the United States 
consumed in the industrial arts gold to the 
amount of $59,806,052, of which $36,697,980 
was new material, while $48,849,096 represented 
the total production for the year. Gold was 
similarly used in other countries so that the 
total amount thus consumed was estimated as 
slightly in excess of $100,000,000 When gold 
was used for cheap jewelry, for gilding, and like 
purposes, it obviously could not be recovered, 
so that the world’s supply correspondingly was 
depleted. 

In 1914 the United States exported some 
$222.616,156 of gold and imported $57,387,741, 
a balance of $165,000,000 in excess of exports 
over imports. With the single exception of 1919, 
when the United States exported $368,185,248 


553 


GOLD 


and imported $76,534,046, the imports were in 
excess of the exports, because of the extremely 
heavy excess of merchandise exports over mer- 
chandise imports. In 1919 the United States 
had considerable balances due to neutrals, par- 
ticularly in South America and Asia, and in 
that year there was a net outflow of gold, as 


shown in the table. On Mar. 18, 1922, the 
UNITED STATES GOLD MOVEMENTS 

Imports Exports 
LOLS Sats ba eee Rika dieteee $63,704,832 $91,798,610 
LOLA ars Serketaly 4 sinkder sys 2 57,387,741 222,616.156 
VOW iret dee oes opal stars pee aNas aha dice 451,954,590 31,425,918 
UO Grea © adit ce BP Occ P.O 685,990,234 . 155,792,927 
LOA Te Rue helt Bohs S55 atta 552,454,374 371,883,884 
MOIS iach eee icy cs Sievex spaosenee ee 62,042,748 41 069,818 
LD ROMP S Pes cate <4 te ter sek a at Pi olere 76,534,046 368,185,248 
BOZO: weyetewert.9.4c cp « Shank tees 417,068,273 322,091,208 
Oe eats AS eine b attuaatlare 691,267,448 23,891,377 
NO Dice te PN Ee tay ~' oloey ate Rear xe 275,169,785 36,874.894 
ODS emer: SA's bah has aoe 322,716,812 28,643,417 


Secretary of the Treasury announced that “the 
Treasury had resumed payments of gold service 
in the ordinary course of business without de- 
mand, and that the Federal Reserve Banks 
throughout the country would be guided by a 
similar policy in making current payments for 
gold account.” This action removed the last 
artificial restriction on gold payments. The 
gold imported into the United States up to the 
close of 1921, and possibly for a short while 
afterward, was used to cancel indebtedness 
earlier incurred to Federal Reserve Banks by 
member banks. After that time the net gold 
imports were employed to build up the cash 
reserves of member banks with the reserve banks 
and to enable them approximately to increase 
the deposit liabilities of the member banks 
some tenfold without increasing their reliance 
on advances from the central banks. In Jan- 
uary, 1923, the gold reserve in the United 
States was $3,800,000,000, or nearly three times 
that of the British Empire and more than three 
times that of. France. 


PRODUCTION OF GOLD IN THE WORLD 
CALENDAR YEARS 1910-22 
BUREAU OF THE MINT 


Calendar Fine 
years ounces Value 

LO 1 Omagh tyatas aes EE toe . 22,022,180 $455,289,100 
VOW UE as cit o cstye a, opera a tat 22,348,313 461,980,500 
NOMA PEM, he aie ea she) Pahetel a otsnane 22,549,335 466.136,100 
VOUS sry cep Wiles: Stata hous 6 22,248,33 459,913,820 
pop ee Bev ERAAS ic” CRE MI ORAL MERE. 21,244,880 439,170,642 
UES tere one. ca eeie es: foes 22,678,191 468,799.812 
EGU GRR Diels cee atte siete cree eee 21,974,839 454,260,242 
TOM iy byt fins tad as 20,294,304 419,520,457 
NG Urrccisie Cala eho gete. etek oxe/e 18,563,157 385,734,482 
BS a ho ed see irda Ae) aeoenOne 17,698,184 365,853,933 
LG2ZONEHS Osea Ale Bebe iee cle 16,303;306 337,004;255 
1.9 2.1923 ccpeeetara cca dhe) s cleatensete ded 15,974,962 330,231,792 
LGD 2s aes 3, AAleig fo oekeks eyal< 15,440,243 319,178,164 


The production of gold in Canada varied con- 
siderably. In 1911 it had fallen to $9,781,077 
for the entire Dominion, from which it increased 
to $19,148,920 in 1921, and to $26,116.050 in 
1922. The Klondike’s production, which in 
190@ had been 1,077,553 ounces, by 1913 had 
declined to 282,838 ounces, and in 1922 this had 
further shrunk to 54,456 ounces) While there 
were no prospects of another Klondike in Can- 
ada, yet from time to time new deposits were 
encountered, and it was realized that there were 
substantial possibilities in other regions. For 
example, in 1923 the chief producers at Porcu- 
pine had a good year, and the same was true 
elsewhere in the province, Ontario producing 


GOLD COAST 


about $21,000,000 in 1923. There the shortage 
of power was being met by new hydro-electric 
plants which were put in operation; others were 
in course of construction. 

Mexico in 1910 reached a maximum gold pro- 
duction valued at $25,100,000, from which it 
fell off to $4,960,000 in 1915, increasing to $16,- 
705,000 in 1918, and about $15,000,000 in 1922. 
The high cost of explosives was a serious item 
in view of the increased operating expenses; in 
Mexico, as in Germany, greater use was _ be- 
ing made of liquid-oxygen explosives. 

In South America, Colombia, which averages 
about 240,000 ounces a year, was the best gold 
producer during the decade 1914—24 and was fol- 
lowed by Brazil with an average of 125,000 
ounces. 

Russia and Siberia must. be looked on as im- 
portant future producers of gold, as the deposits 
there certainly warranted exploitation with 
proper government encouragement. Siberia in 
1915 had a production valued at $28,586,000, 
but due to the Revolution and changed condi- 
tions of government this had fallen to approxi- 
mately $1,000,000 in 1921 and to $2,700,000 in 
1922. The Transvaal, which had a maximum 
output in 1916 valued at £39,484,934, had only 
£34,488,250 in 1921. In 1922, due to the 
strike and civil war, the production was but 
£29,835,000. One significant feature of mining 
operations in the Transvaal was the decreasing 
production cost, which it was thought would be 
lowered still more with the consummation of a 
policy of consolidating some of the smaller 
properties. Increased labor efficiency was also 
the rule, and with native colored labor more 
largely employed and made more efficient, it was 
believed that properties once considered of too 
low a grade could be worked at a profit and the 
life of the gold fields extended. 

GOLD COAST. A British colony of West 
Africa which includes within its administrative 
area Ashanti and the protectorate of the 
Northern Territories. Total area, 80,000 square 
miles; population, census of 1911, 1,503,386; 
increased by 1921 to 2,078,043. In 1915 there 
were 2206 Europeans, and in 1921, 2939. Chief 
towns are Accra (38,000), Seccondee (10,000), 
and Cape Coast Castle (15,000). Education, 
encouraged by the government and foreign mis- 
sions, made great strides. There were 20 gov- 
ernment schools and 214 government-aided 
schools with an attendance of 31.089 in 1921. 
The staple products and exports remained 
cocoa, palm oil, kola nuts, palm kernels, india 
rubber, and manganese. Exports in 1913, 1920, 
and 1922 were valued at £5,427,106, £12,352,207, 
and £8,335,400. Imports for the same years 
were £4,952,494, £15,152,145, and £7,900,539. 
That the gains were due to inflated values may 
be seen from the shipping record over the 
period, for the total tonnage entered and cleared 
was 2,986,000 (1913), 2,358,254 (1920), and 
2,509,000 (1921). Chief imports in 1921 were 
cotton goods, machinery, provisions, apparel, 
hardware, and building materials. The grow- 
ing importance of the United States in the 
Gold Coast foreign trade may be gauged from 
the following: imports for 1921 from United 
Kingdom, £5,828,000; from the United States, 
£965,000; exports to the United Kingdom, £3,- 
216,000; to the United States, £1,031,000. Cocoa, 
the chief source of the economic well-being of 
the native population, continued to gain stead- 
ily. Exports in 1913 were 50,554 tons; in 1922, 


554 


GOLDWYN 


159,305 tons. Gold, the leading product of the 
Ashanti, declined. In 1912 the production was 
352,957 ounces; in 1921, only 85,019. The out- 
put of manganese ore in 1922 was valued at 
£106,031. Government ‘accounts for 1913, 1920, 
and 1921-22 showed in revenues and expendi- 
tures £1,301,566 and £1,353,201; £3,721,772 and 
£2,856,347; £3,016,520 and £3,285,290. Railroad 
building continued; a line was completed from 
Accra to Anyinam (85 miles), and an extension 
was under way from this line to Coomassie 
in 1923. During the War the Gold Coast regi- 
ment aided in the reduction of German Togo- 
land, where administration was conducted by 
British Gold Coast officials until the surrender 
of the territory to the French in 1919 under a 
League of Nations mandate. 

GOLDEN, Joun (1874- ). An American 
playwright and producer, born in New York 
City. He played in stock and repertoire and 
was successively comic journalist, student of 
music, and song writer. He has composed more 
than 1000 songs, written many short plays, and 
designed scenery and costumes and composed the 
music for about a dozen musical comedies. His 
best known serious song is Poor Butterfly. The 
best plays with which he has been identified 
include Turn to the Right. Lightnin’, Three Wise 
Fools, Thunder, Dear Me, The First Year, The 
Wheel, Spite Corner, and Thank U. Of a number 
of big shows at the Hippodrome his best were 


Hip-Hip Hooray, Cheer Up, and Everything 
(1918-19). 
GOLDFARB, ABRAHAM J. (1881- )« An 


American zodlogist, born in London, England, 
and educated at the College of the City of New 
York and Columbia University. He was tutor 
in biology (1910-11), instructor in natural his- 
tory (1911-13), and = assistant professor 
(1913- ) at the College of the City of New 
York. He published articles on experimental 
zodlogy and embryology. 

GOLDMAN, EMMA (1869 ). An 
American anarchist (see Vou. X). She was ar- 
rested and deported to Russia in 1919. In 1920 
she was reported to have said that she wanted 
to come back to the United States, but she was 
not allowed to return. On promising to abstain 
from propaganda, she was allowed to live in 
Germany, but in 1924 she held a protest meeting 
in Berlin, in behalf of the non-Communist revo- 
lutionaries in Russia, which was broken up by 
the police. 

GOLDSMITH, Ropserr_ (1882- Veen ADD 
American writer and lecturer, born at Kingston, 
N. Y., and educated at Phillips Academy in 
Andover, Mass. In 1907-08, he engaged in pub- 
lishing, and at intervals from 1909 to 1916 he 
was active in the Congregational ministry. His 
last pastorate was that of the Mapleton Park 
Congregational Church in Brooklyn, N. Y. 
From 1916 on, he held editorial or administra- 
tive positions with the Russell Sage Founda- 
tion, the League to Enforce Peace, the Rocke- 
feller Foundation, the Interchurch World Move- 
ment, the New York World, the Bureau of 
Political Research, and the Democratic aational 
committee. He is the author of A League to 
Enforce Peace (1917). 

GOLDWYN, SAMUEL (1882- ) >, Aa 
American motion picture producer born in War- 
saw, Poland. He organized the Jesse Lasky 
Feature Photoplay Company, the Goldwyn Pic- 
tures Corporation, the Eminent Authors’ Pic- 
tures, Inc., and the Madison Productions, Inc., 


GOLF 


and was a pioneer in inducing American authors 
to work actively for the motion pictures. 
Among the stars he introduced to the screen 
were Mary Garden, Pauline Frederick, and 
Geraldine Farrar. He has published a volume 
of reminiscences. 

GOLF. The galleries at golf matches are 
small compared with the throngs which assemble 
for professional baseball games or college foot- 
ball games in the United States or a soccer cup- 
tie in the United Kingdom. The reason is 
simple. Everybody is intent on his own little 
golf match. In other words, in so far as the 
Anglo-Saxon world is concerned, golf has more 
actual playing disciples than any other sport. 
Both sexes of all classes and all ages have joined 
in the stampede for the links; the biggest rush 
came in the decade ending with 1924. The “‘craze” 
has been more widespread in the United States 
than elsewhere and has led the larger muni- 
cipalities to lay out courses in the public parks. 
The number of club links opened during recent 
years runs into the thousands. International 
competition, particularly between Great Britain 
and the United States, has been keen, In 1920 
Edward Ray of England visited the United 
States and captured the national open champion- 
ship, and in 1921 Jock Hutchison of the United 
States reciprocated by carrying off the British 
open title. In the following year Walter Hagen, 
also of the United States, won the British open 
championship <A. G. Havers succeeded in 1923 
in regaining these laurels for England. In 1924 
Walter Hagen again won the British open title. 
An American team successfully defended the 
Walker Cup, emblematic of the world’s team 
championship, against English players in 1923. 
The winners of the more important United 
States championships during the period 1915— 
23 follow: 

National open: 1915, Jerome D. Travers; 
1916, Chick Evans, Jr.; 1917, Jock Hutchison; 
1918, no match; 1919, Walter C. Hagen; 1920, 
Edward Ray (England); 1921, James Barnes; 
1922, Gene Sarazen; 1923, Robert T Jones, Jr. 

National amateur: 1915, Robert A. Gardner; 
1916, Chick Evans, Jr.; 1917, no match; 1918, 
no match; 1919, S. D. Herron; 1920, Chick 
Evans, Jr.; 1921, Thomas Guilford; 1922, Jesse 
Sweetser; 1923, Max R. Marston. 

National women’s amateur: 1915, Mrs. C. H. 
Vanderbeck; 1916, Alexa Stirling; 1917, no 
match; 1918, no match; 1919, Alexa Stirling; 
1920, Alexa Stirling; 1921, Marion Hollins; 
1922, Glenna Collett; 1923, Edith Cummings. 

The holders of the principal British titles 
have been: 

Open: 1915-19, no matches; 1920, George 
Duncan; 1921, Jock Hutchison (United States) ; 
1922, Walter C. Hagen (United States); 1923, 
A. G. Havers; 1924, Walter C. Hagen. 

Amateur: 1915-19, no matches; 1920, Cy- 
ril Tolley; 1921, W. Hunter; 1922, E. W. 
Holderness; 1923, Roger Wethered. 

Women’s: 1915-19, no matches; 1920, Cecil 
Leitch; 1921, Cécil Leitch; 1922, Joyce Weth- 
ered; 1923, Miss Chambers. 

GOLLANCZ, IsrAeEL (1864— ). An Eng- 
lish scholar (see Vor. X). He became a cor- 
responding member of the Royal Spanish Acad- 
emy (1919) and visited the United States in 
1923. One of his later works was the Book of 
Homage to Shakespeare (1916). 

GOMEZ, JUAN VICENTE (1859- \avenes 
Venezuelan politician (see Vor. X). In 1913 


555 


GOOSSENS 


ex-President Castro attempted to regain his 
power in Venezuela, and on August 3, Presi- 
dent Gomez left the capital to restore public 
order. On Jan. 1, 1914, he returned to Caracas 
with his army and resumed the presidency. His 
term ended on Apr. 19, 1914, and on that day 
the Venezuelan Congress elected him commander- 
in-chief of the national army. On May 3, 1915, 
he was chosen president for the term ending 
Apr. 19, 1922. He did not take office but re- 
mained commander of the army. On May 38, 
1922, he was again elected president for the 
term 1922-29, 

GOMPERS, SAMUEL (1850- ). An 
American labor leader (see Vor. X). On the 
entrance of the United States into the War, he 
was appointed a member of the Advisory Com- 
mission of the Council of National Defense 
(1917-19) ; and in 1918-19, he was a represen- 
tative of the American Federation of Labor at 
the Paris Peace Conference. He was president 
of the international commission on labor legis- 
lation at the peace congress; chairman of the 
delegates from the American Federation of La- 
bor to the convention of the International Fed- 
eration of Trades Unions at Amsterdam (1919) ; 
a member of the President’s first industrial con- 
ference (1919), of the President’s unemployment 
conference (1921), and of the President’s ad- 
visory disarmament commission (1921- )\ 
In addition, he has held the presidency of the 
Pan-American Federation of Labor and was a 
member of the Sulgrave Institute. In 1921 he 
was elected president of the American Federa- 
tion of Labor for the fortieth time. Gompers 
is an antisocialist and for that reason opposed 
the United States’ recognizing Russia. 

GONADS. See SECRETIONS, INTERNAL. 

GONZIA AND GRADISCA. See FIUuME- 
ADRIATIC CONTROVERSY. 

GOODALE, Husert DAna (1879- ). An 
American zodlogist, born at Troy, N. Y., and 
educated at Trinity College, in Connecticut, and 
Columbia University. He was resident investi- 
gator at the Station for Experimental Evolu- 
tion, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. (1911-13) and 
research biologist in poultry husbandry at the 
Massachusetts Experiment Station (1913- yi 
Professor Goodale’s publications have been on 
heredity, mainly in connection with domestic 
fowl. 

GOODMAN, Jutes Eckert (1876- i 
An American dramatist, born in Gervais, Ore., 
and educated at Harvard and Columbia Univer- 
sities. He was prominent in magazine work for 
years as managing editor of Current Literature 
and with the Dramatic Mirror and Outing His 
writings include, in collaboration with Montague 


Glass, The Man Who Came Back (1916); 
Object: Matrimony (1916); Business before 
Pleasure (1917); Why Worry? (1918); His 


Honor Abe Potash (1919). He also wrote The 
Silent Voice (1914) and Pietro (1919), in both 
of which Otis Skinner was starred; The Dreamer 
(1920); The Law Breaker (1921); Charms 
(1923). 

GOODNOW, Frank Jounson (1859- ) 
An American educator and legal scholar (see 
Vor. X) In 1914 he was made president of 
Johns Hopkins University. He published Prin- 
ciples of Constitutional Government in 1916. 

GOOSSENS, Eucene (1893- yA ‘Brize 
tish composer and conductor, born in London. 
He began his musical studies at the Conserv- 
atory in Bruges in 1903 and entered the Liver- 


GORDON 556 


pool College of Music in 1906. In 1907 he 
won a scholarship at the Royal College of 
Music in London, where he spent the next four 
years under Rivarde (violin) and Stanford 
(composition). From 1911 to 1915 he was a 
violinist in the Queen’s Hall Orchestra and ap- 
peared occasionally as conductor of his own 
works. In 1915 Beecham engaged him for his 
opera company, to conduct’ Stanford’s The 
Critic; of this task the young man acquitted 
himself so successfully that he remained as 
regular conductor until the dissolution of the 
enterprise in 1920, when he was engaged by the 
British National Opera Company. In the mean- 
time frequent appearances as guest conductor 
with several orchestras in the provinces and in 
London had established his reputation as one 
of the foremost of British conductors. In 
1923 he appeared in the United States as guest 
conductor of the Rochester Philharmonic Or- 
chestra for the first half of the season. As a 
composer he is very prolific and won recognition 
from the beginning. He is an uncompromising 
exponent of ultramodern tendencies. Among 
his works are two symphonic poems, Perseus 
and The Eternal Rhythm; Symphonic Prelude 
to a poem by Ossian; an orchestral scherzo, 
Tam O’Shanter; Variations on a Chinese Theme 
for orchestra; Poem for violin and orchestra; 
Miniature Fantasy for string orchestra; Fan- 
tasy Sextet for strings, commissioned for the 
Berkshire Festival, 1923; a great deal of cham- 
ber music; piano pieces and songs; and an 
overture and incidental music to Verhaeren’s 
Philip II. 

GORDON, CHARLES WILLIAM (1860- - 
A Canadian author (see Vor. X). In 1915 he 
was chaplain with the Canadian forces at the 
front. He has served on a special commission 
for the imperial government and the Canadian 
government in the United States (1917) and on 
a special commission for the Canadian govern- 
ment to Great Britain (1918) and was appointed 
chairman by the Council of Industry for the 
Province of Manitoba by the provincial govern- 
ment (1920). Among his later publications are 
The Major (1917), The Sky Pilot in No Man’s 
Land (1919), and To Him That Hath (1921). 
He wrote under the name of “Ralph Connor.” 


GORDON, WALTER HENRY (1863- ). An 
American army officer, born in Wilkinson 
county, Miss. He graduated from the United 
States Military Academy in 1886 and was com- 
missioned second lieutenant in .the same year. 
After serving in the Spanish-American War and 
with various regiments, he was appointed colonel 
of the 3lst Infantry in 1916, and _ brigadier- 
general in the National Army in 1917. He 
served as commander of the 154th Dépdt Bri- 
gade at Camp Meade, Md., in 1917, and in the 
same year was transferred to the 10th Infantry 
Brigade, 5th Division, Camp Forrest, Ga. In 
1918 he was appointed major-general command- 
ing the 6th Division. He was honorably dis- 
charged and was appointed brigadier-general 
of the Regular Army in 1921. In 1918-19 he 
was on service in France and was with the 
Army of Occupation in Germany in 1919. In 
1920 he was appointed commandant of the In- 
fantry School at Camp Benning, Ga. 


GORE, CuariLes (1853- ). An English 
theologian and prelate (see Vor. X). In 
1919 he resigned his bishopric, and settling in 
London, identified himself with the Christian 
Socialists. Among his later works were The 


GOUCHER COLLEGE 


Religion of the Church (1916); The Epistle of 
St. John (1920), Christian Moral Principles 
(1921), Belief in God (1921), The Duty of 
Christ (1922), and Belief in Christ (1923). 


GOREMYKIN, Ivan LoaainovitcnH (1839- 
1917). A Russian statesman (see Vor. X). 
After the Revolution he was arrested and con- 
fined for a short time in the Fortress of St. 
Peter and St. Paul. Together with his wife and 
brother-in-law, he was murdered in the Caucasus 
in the latter part of October, 1917. 

GORIZIA. See War in Evropeg, Italian 
Front. 


GORKY, Maxim (ALICKEI 
PESHKOV) (1863- ). A Russian author (see 
Vot. X). His later works include About the 
Devil, The Reader, Three Men, Comrades, My 
Childhood, In the World, Reminiscences of L. N. 
Tolstoy, and My University Days. Throughout 
his works runs the same motive, the story of 
an inarticulate soul striving for expression. 

GORMAN, JAMES Epwarp_ (1863- if. 
An American railway official, born in Chicago. 
He began his railroad career with the Chicago, 
Burlington, and Quincy road, in 1877. He oc- 
cupied important positions in several companies 
and was with the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa 
Fé in various capacities from 1895 to 1917. In 
the latter year he became president of the 
C. R. I. and P. R. R. and was Federal manager 
of this road from 1918 to 1920, when he again 
became its president. 

GOSSE, EDMUND WILLIAM (1849- Ver An 
English poet, critic, and biographer (see VOL. 
X). He was chairman of the board of Scan- 
dinavian studies at University College in Lon- 
don (1917) and president of the English Asso- 
ciation (1921). His later works include Inter 
Arma (1916), The Life of Algernon Charles 
Swinburne (1917), Three French Moralists 
(1918), Diversions of a Man of Letters (1919), 
Malherbe (1920), Books on the Table (1921), 
and Aspects and Impressions (1922). ; 

GOTZINGERF, Gustav (1880- ys AA 
geologist at the Geological Institute, Vienna, 
born in Neu-Serowitz, Moravia, and educated at 
the Gymnasium and the University of Vienna. 
He became editor of the Geographische Jahres- 
bericht aus Osterreich. In 1903-05 and 1907- 
12 he was assistant at the geographical insti- 
tute of the University of Vienna; in 1905, hy- 
drographer and geographer of the biological 
station at Lunz; and in 1906-11 oceanographer 
of the Society for the Investigation of the Adri- 
atic. In 1912 he was appointed section geol- 
ogist of the Geological Institute at Vienna. He 
is the author of numerous works, dealing espe- 
cially with glacial and marine geology. Some 
of these are EHzxotische Blécke Wienerwald 


MAXIMOVITCH 


(1906); Entstehung der  Begriickenformen 
(1907); Lunzer Mittersee (1908); Eis der Lun- 
zer Seen (1909); Oceanographische Beobach- 


tungen Nérdlicher Adria (1910); Geomorphol- 
ogie der Lunzer Seen, Geologie und Morphologie 
Dinara, Morphologie des Ostlichen Kalkhoch- 
plateaus (1912) ;-Gletschervermessung der Al- 
pen (1906); Nordisches Diluvium West-Schles- 
tens (1914, 1915); Erzgebirge, Osterreichische 
Alpenseeforschung (1916); Eis der Lunzer Seen 
Maio)? and Phosphathéhle von Csaklovina 

GOUCHER COLLEGE. A nonsectarian col- 
lege for women at Baltimore, Md., founded in 
1885. Goucher showed a gain of approximately 
165 per cent in the number of students enrolled 


GOULD 


in the decade between 1913-14 and 1923-24, 
with 1024 registered at the end of that time as 
compared with 386 at the beginning. The fac- 
ulty also increased, from 29 to 81, and the li- 
brary from 12,000 to 40,000 volumes. The en- 
dowment fund, begun during this period, 
amounted to $1,500,000 in 1924. A new site 
was bought in 1921 at Towson, Md., and a cam- 
paign inaugurated to collect $6,000,000, of which 
$5,000,000 was to be used to move the college 
from Baltimore to Towson. The remaining 
$1,000,000 was to be added to the permanent 
endowment fund. To this latter fund the Gen- 
eral Education Board in New York pledged 
$400,000 in 1921 and paid an additional $40,000 
in cash. The Board gave $250,000 to the en- 
dowment fund of the college in 1917. President, 
William Westley Guth, Ph.D., LL.D. 

GOULD, Epwin (1866- ). An American 
railway official (see Vor. VIII). In 1917-18 
he served with Squadron A, New York National 
Guard, and in the latter year was major of 
ordnance in the lst Brigade of the New York 
guard. 

GOURAUD, HENRI JOSEPH EUGENE 
(1867-— ). A French general, born at Paris, 
and trained at St. Cyr. He became lieutenant 
of infantry in 1880. He served in the Sudan 
in the 1890’s. In 1904, promoted to the rank 
of lieutenant-colonel, he became commandant 
of the Congo territory. In 1914 he was tem- 
porary general of division and in 1915 com- 
mander of the colonial army corps. In the 
same year he was appointed substantive gen- 
eral of the division. Early in his life General 
Gouraud was made a chevalier of the Legion of 
Honor; in 1904 he became an officer, and in 
1918 he received the Grand Cross of the Legion. 
In 1924 he was elected to the French Academy 
in the section of Archeology and Belles Lettres. 
This was in recognition of his establishment, 
in the Near East, of a special archeological and 
fine arts service, which helped in the excava- 
tions of Byblos, Tyre, and Sidon. 

GOYAU, P. L. T. GEorcEs (1869- Yi se 
French man of letters. He was born at Orléans 
and was educated at the Ecole Normale Su- 
périeure and the Ecole Francaise de Rome. As 
one of the editors of the powerful Revue des 
Deux Mondes and of Figaro he wielded an in- 
fluence in behalf of conservatism and Catholi- 
cism. His published writings reflect the social 
Catholic tradition of Joseph de Maistre. He 
was elected member of the French Academy in 
1923. A partial list of his writings includes 
Le Pape (1893); Le Vatican (1895); Autour 
du Catholicisme Social (3 series: 1897, 1901, 
and 1907); L’Allemagne Réligieuse: Le Prot- 
estantisme (1898); L’Idée de Patrie et VHu- 
manitarisme (1901); Hssai @ Histoire Fran- 
caise (1901); L’Allemagne Religieuse: le 
Catholicisme (2 vols., 1905); Le Cardinal 
Mercier (1917) ; La Pensée Religieuse de Joseph 
de Maistre (1921); Ste. Jeanne d’Arc (1921) ; 
and Histoire Religieuse de la Nation Frangaise 
(1922). 

GRAFF, Kasimir RomuaLp (1878- ia 
A German astronomer, born at Prochnowo, 
Posen, and educated at the Gymnasium and at 
Friedrich-Wilhelm University in Berlin. In 
1897 he was made assistant in astronomy at the 
university and in 1900 became a member of the 
board of directors of the Urania Observatory in 
Berlin. In 1909 he transferred to the Hamburg 
observatory, where he became a professor in 


557 


GRAND RAPIDS 


1917. He is the author of many astronomical 
articles in scientific periodicals and of the 
Grundriss der Geographischen Ortsbestimmung 
(1914); a German adaptation of Fabre, Der 
Sternhimmel (3d ed., 1921); an adaptation of 
Newcomb, Astronomie fiir Jedermann (4th ed., 
1922) ; and Astrophysik, with Scheiner (1922). 
GRAFLY, CHartes (1862- ). An Amer- 
ican sculptor (see Vor. X). In 1915 he served 
on the International Jury of Awards at the 
Panama-Pacifie International Exposition. In 
1917 he became instructor in the Boston Museum 
of Fine Arts. Among his awards during the 
period were the Potter Palmer gold medal, 1921. 
GRAHAM, STEPHEN (1884- ). An Eng- 
lish writer on Russia (see Vou. X). In addi- 
tion to a series of articles contributed to the 
London Times, his later works include Russia 
and the World (1915); The Way of Martha and 
the Way of Mary (1915); Through Russian 
Central Asia (1916); Russia in 1916 (1917); 
Priest of the Ideal (1917); Quest of the Face 
(1918) ;Private in the Guards (1919); Chil- 
dren of the Slaves (1920); The Challenge of the 
Dead (1921) ; Hurope—Whither Bound? (1921) ; 
Tramping with a Poet in the Rockies (1922), 
and Under-London (19238). 
GRAHAME-WHITE, CiAaupDE (1879- ). 
An English aviator and writer (see Vor. X). 
Among his later books are Learning to Fly 
(1914); Arzreraft in the Great War (1915); 
Air Power (1917); Our First Airways, Their 
Organization, Equipment and Finance (1918); 
Books for Boys; Heroes of the Air; With the 
Airmen; The Air King’s Treasure; The In- 
visible War-plane; Heroes of the Flying Corps. 
GRAIN. See AGRICULTURE; WHEAT. 
GRAINGER, PrERcy ALDRIDGE (1882-— ). 
A British composer and pianist, born at Brigh- 
ton, Melbourne, Australia. He received his 
first instruction on the piano from his mother, 
continued with J. Kwast in Frankfort (1894- 
1900), and was for a short time with Busoni. 
After a most successful début in London, in 
1900, he toured Great Britain, New Zealand, 
Australia, and South Africa. Returning to 
Europe in 1906, he made tours of the continent 
until 1915, when he visited the United States 
and settled there permanently. He served in 
the American army during the War and was 
afterward naturalized. As a composer he be- 
came known first in 1912, when he conducted 
his Mock Morris at one of Gardiner’s concerts 
in London. Almost without exception his com- 
positions are based on folk music, of which he 
is not only a profound student but also an ar- 
dent collector; he has taken more than 500 
records of folk melodies of all the countries he 
has visited. His choral works with orchestra 
include Father and Daughter, Sir Eglamore, 
The Bride’s Tragedy. and Marching Song of 
Democracy (for the Worcester Festival, 1916). 
He has also written In a Nutshell, suite for 
piano and orchestra; for orchestra, Molly on the 
Shore, English Dance, Colonial Song, Shepherd’s 
Hey; pieces for piano, and a few songs. Consult 
D. C. Parker’s P. A. Grainger: A Study (New 
York, 1918). 
GRAIN STANDARDS. See WHEAT. 
GRAND RAPIDS. A city of Michigan, at 
the head of navigation on the Grand River. 
The population rose from 112,571 in 1910 to 
137,634 in 1920, and to 145,947 by estimate of 
the Bureau of the Census for 1923. A new 
charter providing that the city be governed by 


GRANER 


a commission of seven members and a city man- 
ager went into effect in 1916. In 1920, active 
city planning work was begun. Building per- 
mits increased from $3,618,119 in 1914 to $10,- 
204,795 in 1923. During the period a munici- 
pal tuberculosis hospital costing $605,000, a 
high school costing $600,000, grade schools, a 
theatre costing $750,000, hotels, churches, a 
Roman Catholic seminary, and an academy were 
built. Bank deposits increased from $34,281,- 
682 to $63,671,929, and clearings from $168,- 
038,735 to $334,335,000. Assessed valuation 
rose from $100,842,216 to $221,426,753. 

GRANER, Pavut (1873- ). A German 
composer, born in Berlin. After a varied career 
as operatic conductor in several German cities 
he went to London in 1896 as conductor at the 
Haymarket Theatre and taught several years 
at the Royal Academy of Music. From 1902 to 
1909 he taught at the Neues Konservatorium in 
Vienna and from 1910 to 1913 was director of 
the Mozarteum at Salzburg. He then lived in 
Munich until 1920 and devoted himself chiefly 
to composition. In 1920 he accepted the pro- 
fessorship of composition at the Leipzig Con- 
servatory, succeeding Reger. He is the origina- 
tor of Kammermusikdichtung, employing the 
usual combinations of instruments heretofore 
used only in pure chamber music for the purpose 
of interpreting a literary programme, as Raabe’s 
Hungerpastor by means of a piano trio, or 
Sehnsucht an das Meer by means of a piano 
quintet. Among his other works are a sym- 
phony in D minor, a Sinfonietta, Musik am 
Abend for orchestra, and the operas Das Nar- 
rengericht (Vienna, 1913), Don Juans Letztes 
Abenteuer (Leipzig, 1914), Theophano (Munich, 
1918), and Schirin und Gertraude (Dresden, 
1920).—Consult G. Griiner’s volume, Paul Grda- 
ner (Leipzig, 1922). 

GRANT, Percy SrickNEyY (1860- iar es 
American clergyman (see VoL. X). He con- 
tinued, until 1924, as rector of the Church of 
the Ascension, New York City. Here he main- 
tained a so-called Forum for free discussion, 
in which advocates of all political and social 
doctrines were permitted to speak freely. This 
was widely criticized and finally, in 1923, fol- 
lowing action taken by Bishop Manning, the 
forum was greatly modified in its character. 
He also came in controversy with Bishop Man- 
ning on the question of divorce. He became en- 
gaged to a lady who had been divorced, and 
Bishop Manning refused to authorize the mar- 
riage, which did not take place. In June, 1924, 
he resigned his rectorship. His later books 
include Fair Play for the Worker (1918); Es- 
says and Poems (1922); and The Religion of 
Main Street (1923). 

GRAPHITE. Graphite is extensively con- 
sumed in the United States for »various indus- 
trial purposes. The natural product, both in 
its erystalline and amorphous forms, entered 
into consumption, together with the manu- 
factured product, which is made in the electric 
furnace. In addition to the native supply, the 
crystalline graphite used in the United States 
is produced in Ceylon, Madagascar, Japan, Aus- 
tria, Bavaria, and Czecho-Slovakia as indicated 
in the accompanying table. It is used mostly 
in making crucibles and as the metallurgical 
activities of the War led to extensive mining, 
there was abnormal production which was 
gradually later being absorbed. 

The crystalline product, in the form of lump, 


558 


GRAVES 
DOMESTIC NATURAL GRAPHITE SOLD 
IN THE 
UNITED STATES, 1914-22 


Amorphous Crystalline 
Year Short tons Value Pounds Value 
1914-98 et 1;725'' -$38)750 5,220,539 $285,368 
19.15 eee tLe 12,358 7,074,370 417,273 
1916 yee. 2,622 20,723 10,931,989 914,748 
LOT eee 8,301 73,481 10,584,080 1,094,398 
L918 Ree 6,560 69,455 12,861,839 1,454,799 
1919 fig ee ore 3,379 47,716 8,086,191 731,141 
1920.) See ,694 49,758 9,632,360 576,444 
VODA ee 1,842 20,860 1,189,523 75,664 
1922'57 eee. 2,200 1,849,766 85,242 


chip, or dust, comes mainly from Ceylon, while 
most of the imported crystalline flake comes 
from Madagascar and Canada. The amorphous 
graphite is used mainly for foundry facings and 
paint, and while some is mined in Rhode Is- 
land, the greater part is imported from Chosen 
(Korea) and Mexico. The sales of crystalline 
graphite in 1922 amounted to 1,849,776 pounds, 
valued at $85,242, the average value per pound 
being $0.046, or $0.018 less than in the preceding 
year. The quantity of amorphous graphite sold 
was 2200 tons. 

The imports into the United States were, in 
1916, 86,033,920 pounds, valued at $7,279,884, 
but they declined to 39,633,575 pounds, valued 
at $480,961, in 1923. In 1900 artificial graph- 
ite was first manufactured on an extensive scale 
in the United States, when 860,750 pounds, val- 
ued at $168,860, were produced. By 1914 this 
amount had been increased to 10,455,139 pounds, 
and to 13,012,000 pounds by 1922. In 1915 the 
manufacture of graphite started on a substan- 
tial scale in Canada with a production of 497,271 
pounds, which by 1918 had increased to 1,808,- 
698 pounds. Naturally such production was 
only possible where cheap water power was 
available. 

GRASTY, CHARLES HENRY (1863-1924). 
An American journalist, born at Fincastle, Va., 
and educated at the University of Missouri and 
Washington and Lee University. He was man- 
aging editor of the Kansas City Times (1884- 
89); editor and proprietor of the Baltimore 
Evening News (1892-08); director of the Asso- 
ciated Press (1900-10); editor and controlling 
owner of the St. Paul Dispatch and the Pioneer 
Press (1908-09), and of the Baltimore Sun 
(1910-14) ; war correspondent for the Associated 
Press, New York Times, and Kansas City Star 
in Europe (1915); and treasurer of the New 
York Times (1916-20). During the War he 
was on the editorial staff of the New York 
Times (1916-21) and was widely recognized as 
an independent writer on war situations abroad. 
He died in London, in January, 1924. 

GRAVES, CuHartrs L. (1856- hare 
Trish author (see Vor. X). Among his later 
works are War’s Surprises (1917), Lands and 
Iibels (1918), Mr. Punch’s History of the 
Great War (1919); Horace’s Odes, Book YV, 
an English version with Rudyard Kipling 


(1920), New Times and Old Rhymes (1921), 
Punch’s History of Modern England (1921), 
ete. 

GRAVES, FRANK PIERREPONT (1869- ys 


An American educator, born in New York City, 
and educated at Columbia University. From 
1891 to 1893, he was assistant professor of 
Greek, and immediately afterward, professor of 
classical philology in Tufts College. In 
1896-98, he was president of the University of 
Wyoming; in 1898-1903, president of the Uni- 
versity of Washington, and in 1904-21, pro- 


GRAVES 


fessor of education or dean in Missouri, Ohio, 
Wisconsin, Chicago, Pennsylvania, and Columbia 
Universities. In 1921 he became president of 
the University of the State of New York and 
Commissioner of Education. His publications 
include Burial Customs of the Ancient Greeks 
(1891); The Philoctetes of Sophocles (1893) ; 
The State University Ideal (1897); A History 
of Education before the Middle Ages (1909); 


A History of Education during the Middle Ages- 


and the Transition to Modern Times (1910) ; 
Great Educators of Three Centuries (1911); 
Peter Ramus and the Educational Reformation 
of the Sixteenth Century (1912); A History of 
Education in Modern Times (1913); and What 
Did Jesus Teach? (1919). 

GRAVES, Henry Soton (1871- ). An 
\American forester, born at Marietta, Ohio, and 
educated at Yale, Harvard, and the University 
of Munich. From 1900 to 1910 he was _ pro- 
fessor of forestry and director of the Forest 
School at Yale, and from the latter date to 
1920, chief of the United States Forest Service. 
He was a member of many American and for- 
eign societies and wrote Forest Mensuration 
(1906), and Principles of Handling Woodlands 
(1911). During the War he was _ lieutenant- 
colonel in the corps of engineers, serving in 
France. In 1920 he became consulting forester. 

GRAVING DOCKS. See Docks. 


GRAVITATION, in LicgHtT oF MopERN 
TueEoRyY. See PHYSICS. 
GRAY, ALEXANDER (1882- ). An Amer- 


ican engineer, born in Edinburgh, Scotland, and 
educated at Edinburgh and McGill Universities. 
Until 1904 he was engaged in engineering work 
in Edinburgh, and from 1910 to 1915 was as- 
sistant professor of electrical engineering at 
McGill University. In the latter year he be- 
came head of the electrical engineering depart- 
ment at Cornell. He was a member of several 
engimeering and other societies and wrote 
Electrical Machine Design (1913) and Prin- 
ciples and Practice of Electrical Engineering 
(1914). He was also the author of a section of 
the Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers. 

GRAY, GrEorGE (1840- ). An American 
jurist and legislator (see Vot. X). He was ap- 
pointed peace commissioner to Great Britain in 
1915, and in the same year he was chairman of 
the United States delegation to the Pan-Ameri- 
ean Scientific Congress. President Wilson ap- 


pointed him a member of the American- 
Mexican Commission in 1916. 
GRAY, Louis H. (1875- ). An Ameri- 


can orientalist, (see Vot. X). He was asso- 
ciate editor of the Hastings Hncyclopedia of 
Religion and Ethics (Edinburgh 1905-15), ed- 
itor of Mythology of all Races (1915-18), and 
after 1921 professor at the University of Ne- 
braska. He was one of the American commis- 
sioners to negotiate peace in Paris (1918) and 
attaché to the American embassy (1920). 
GRAYSON, Cary Travers’ (1878- Pe 
An American physician and rear-admiral, born 
at Culpepper County, Va., and educated at 
William and Mary College and the University of 
the South. In 1904 he graduated from the 
United States Naval Medical School. After 
service as assistant surgeon of the United States 
navy, he was appointed medical director, with 
the rank of rear admiral, in 1916. He was the 
personal physician of Presidents Roosevelt, 
Taft, and Wilson. During the War he was a 
member of many important commissions and was 


ng 


559 


GREAT BRITAIN 


also connected with the staff of several hospitals 
in Washington and elsewhere. 

GRAZIE, Marie EvGENIE DELLE (1864~ i 
An Austrian poet, dramatist, and novelist, who 
was very prolific during the years 1914-24 (see 
Vout. X). She published Das Buch des Lebens 
and Zwei Wittwen (1914); Die Blonde Frau 
Fina, Das Buch der Liebe, O Jugend! and Eines 
Lebens Stern (1916); Homo, Donaukind, Der 
Liebe und des Ruhmes Krinze, and Die Blume 
der Acacia (1921), all fiction. 

GREAT BRITAIN. The United Kingdom 
of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the 
Irish Free State. The former is a constitutional 
monarchy; the Irish Free State, a self-governing 
dominion. The capital of the United Kingdom 
is London, and Dublin is the capital of the 
Irish Free State. The term Great Britain is 
applicable literally to England, Scotland, and 
Wales; the term United Kingdom to Great 
Britain, Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man, and 
the Channel Islands; and the term British Isles 
to the United Kingdom and the Irish Free 
State. The United Kingdom with all of its 
possessions and dependencies, including the self- 
governing dominions, crown colonies, protec- 
torates, mandates, and other territories subject 
to the control of Parliament, constitutes the 
British Empire (q.v.). 

Area and Population. The total area of 
the British Isles is 121,633 square miles, of 
which 88,745 square miles make up Great 
Britain, 27,155 square miles the Irish Free 
State, 5431 square miles Northern Ireland, and 
302 square miles the Isle of Man and the 
Channel Islands. The total population of the 
British Isles in 1921, exclusive of navy, army, 
and merchant seamen abroad, was 47,307,601, 
an increase of 1,937,071 over 1911. No census 
was taken in Ireland in 1921; so the 1911 fig- 
ure was used in both years. The number of 


persons per square mile was, in 1911: England 
and Wales, 618.3; Scotland, 156.6; Northern 
Ireland, 230.3; Irish Free State, 115.6. In 


1921 it was: England and Wales, 649.4; Scot- 
land, 160.6. During 1922 there were 780,187 
births in England and Wales and 115,085 in 
Scotland; there were 486,829 deaths in England 
and Wales and 72,904 in Scotland. In 1921 
there were 90,720 births in Ireland and 63,838 
deaths. The population of Greater London was 
7,476,168 in 1921 and 7,251,358 in 1911. The 
population of the Administrative County of 
London and City of London was 4,483,249 in 


1921, as compared with 4,521,685 in 1911. The 
largest cities in the United Kingdom are: 
Per cent 
Increase 
ENGLAND or 
1911 1921 Decrease 
LOndGHl jae as ae 4,521,685 4,483,249 —0O. 
Birminghanion esa 840,202 919,488 +9.4 
Liverpoolwmncmree sae 753,300 803,118 +6.5 
Manchesterit sit) diate s.- 714°385)) °730,5510 f-2238 
Sheffiel dts sce tescimiets re ic 460,183 490,724 + 6.6 
Leeds amanda sido sols 454,155 458,320 +1.2 
Bristolhoge tamer. ee 357,114 377,061 + 5.6 
West! tiani ei 2, 289,030 300,905 + 4,1 
Kingston-upon-Hull 277,991 287,013 +4+ 3.2 
BEGOLOrOc. sare. a a 88,458 285,979 —0.9 
SCOTLAND 
GIasgoWwummere Pe ol « « 784,496 1,034,069 + 31.8 
Hamburehwee. ea... 320,318 420,281 + 31.2 


The following table shows the population of 
the British Isles in 1911 and 1921 divided ac- 
cording to sex. 


GREAT BRITAIN 560 


GREAT BRITAIN 


AREA 1911 POPULATION 1921 
Square 
Division Miles Males Females Total Males Females Total 
England s3%). soirar een. 50,874 16,421,298 17,623,992 34,045,290 16,984,087 18,694,443 35,678,530 
Walesa ce teh cera ttt 7,466 1,024,310 1,000,892 2,025,202 1,098,133 1,108,579 2,206,712 
Scotland. gs. § spite eee 30,405 2,308,839 2,452,065 4,760,904 2,348,403 2,533,885 4,882,288 
Northern Ireland ...... 5,431 602,539 647,992 1,250,531 * 602,539 * 647,992 * 1,250,531 
Trish Free State ....... 2 LDo 1,589,509 1,550,179 3,139,688 * 1,589,509 * 1,550,179 * 3,139,688 
Isle, of -Manh: Jeno Wass: 227 231937 28:079 52,016 2Toak 32,917 60,238 
Channel Islands ........ {hE 46,229 50,670 96,899 41,264 48,350 89,614 
Total OE ew, eke ak 121,633" 22, 016/661" °23.353,869 > 45/370,530 22,691,256 24,616,345 47/307,601 


* Trish Census of 1911. 


The total movement of travelers from the 
British Isles to non-European countries was 
463,285 in 1923 and 701,691 in 1913, and the 
inward movement was 210,509 in 1923 and 372,- 
618 in 1913. The 1923 figure included British 
subjects: 337,567 outward and 147,184 inward; 
alien subjects: 125,718 outward and 63,325 in- 
ward. In addition to the above, there were 12,- 
653 outward passengers and 5642 inward pas- 
sengers recorded at ports of the Irish Free 
State for the nine months from April to Decem- 
ber, 1923, when that country had separated 
from the United Kingdom. In 1923, about 33 
per cent passed through Liverpool, 32 per cent 
through Southampton, 16 per cent through Lon- 
don, and 12 per cent through Glasgow. Of the 
outward passengers, 182,758 went to the United 
States; 158,359 to British North America; 45,- 
265 to Australia, and 21,160 to British South 
Africa. Of the inward passengers, 80,109 
started from the United States, 47,300 from 
British North America, 20,238 from British 
South Africa, and 14,539 from Australia. The 
number of passengers of all nationalities to and 
from the Continent was 1,038,154 outward and 
1,103,016 inward in 1923, as compared to 1,- 
184,412 outward and 1,309,874 inward in 1913. 
In 1923, 256,284 British nationals left ‘for 
non-European countries as emigrants and 57,606 
returned as immigrants; the figures for 1913 
were 389,394 and 85,709 respectively. Of the 
1923 emigrants, 93,076 left for the United 
States, 88,290 for British North America, and 
39,967 for Australia. The following table 
shows the total emigration of British nationals: 


1913 1922 1923 

Male'ad nits «Penh santas 178,538 TONS cole LO 
Female adults ........ 141,106 70,816 84,178 
Children under 12 69,750 26,207 36,236 
Total teal s feat sors) 389,394 174,096 256,284 


Of those moving in 1923, 140,891 departed 
from England, 4529 from Wales, 88,584 from 
Scotland, and 22,280 from Ireland, as compared 
with 271,756, 5040, 68,202, and 44,396, respec- 
tively, in 1913. 

Education. Elementary education was under 
the control in England and Wales of the Board 
of Education, in Scotland under the Committee 
of Council on Education, and in Ireland under 
the Commissioners for National Education. 
Elementary education was free and compulsory 
from 5 to 14 years. In 1921, there were 21,584 
elementary schools in England and Wales with 
7,150,000 pupils and 170,000 teachers, an increase 
over 1913, when there were only 6,046,500 pupils 
and 164,152 teachers. In addition, in 1921 there 
were 546 schools for the blind and defective with 
an enrollment of 38,326 pupils, as compared 
with 25,704 pupils in 347 such schools in 1913. 


In 1921 there were 1205 secondary schools with 
17,950 teachers and 340,000 pupils, while in 1913 
there were only 1010 such schools with 13,790 
teachers and 174,423 pupils. A similar in- 
crease was recorded in teachers’ training col- 
leges, of which there were 86 in 1913 with 11,- 
876 pupils, and in 1921, 92 with 15,451 pupils. 
In 1920, there were 4831 evening schools with 
751,327 pupils, as compared with 6876 in 1913 
with 798,881 pupils. In Scotland there were 
3426 public schools with 21,986 teachers and 
860,984 pupils in 1913, and in 1921] there were 
3387 schools with 24,484 teachers and 862,220 
pupils. In Ireland in 1913 there were 8229 
primary schools with 682,011 pupils, and in 
1917 (last available total) there were 7947 
schools with 682,561 pupils. The universities 
and colleges were rapidly recovering from the 
ill effects of the War. The 10 leading uni- 
versities in England are Oxford, Cambridge, 
Durham, London, Manchester, Birmingham, 
Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield, and Bristol. In Scot- 
land, St. Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and 
Edinburgh were the four leading Universities, 
and in Ireland, Trinity College (Dublin), Queens 
University (Belfast), University College 
(Cork), University College (Galway), and Uni- 
versity College (Dublin), were the five lead- 
ing institutions of higher education. The en- 
rollment in such schools in the British Isles 
in the years 1913-14 and 1922-23 was as 


follows: 
Professors Students 
1913-14 1922-23 1913-14 1922-23 
Hngelandvaae: 4... 2,533 3,077 24,010 31,030 
IW Beste atsiets one. 156 294 1,140 2,530 
Scotlandas...'2% 4 564 T47 T1550 1 190 
ireland Garey. see 532 289 2,475 4,492 
AMO Ral Das geo 3,785 4,407 35,175 49/242 
Agriculture. In the British Isles, land was 


divided into three classes: rough grazing, arable 
land, and permanent grass. The following table 
shows the distribution of land in 1912 and 


1922; 
1912 1922 
acres acres 
England and Wales: 
Rough. grazing cand eps leks 3,774,655 4,782,000 
Arable’ land ae cscie cere cate Ms eO,2 FOmn Lo LO sis 
Permanent grass ..... 15,839,414 14,715,278 
Scotland: 
Rough Taz ne sous spe. 8,919,629 9,634,000 
Arable land’y Sp vs) see 4 3,320,027 3,338,068 
Permanent) Prass t-is72 . % 1,496,307 1,387,431 
Treland : 
Rough «grazing yee... 2,583,485 2,864,288 
Arable landww . eee we 4,988,551 5,270,615* 
Permanent grass ...... 9,685,227 9,122,360* 


* Area in 1918. 


GREAT BRITAIN 


The British farmer was in a bad economic 
position, as only 20 to 25 per cent of the food 
supply of the country could be produced within 
the country, and he had to meet the keen com- 
petition of products imported from countries 
more favorably situated, especially from the 
Continental countries of depreciated exchange. 
1922 and 1923 were both bad years, the former 


561 GREAT BRITAIN 
Irish Free State 1912 1922 
TGTHAR re eee ere re ee 429,101 
(CELUI Sat ol Ren’ ORE -ae ME My Be a oS 4,326,294 
ok. hf ann RR RR A ehMac ae HRCI 6 ic KE 3,067,473 
a Vereae reeset) 0st Saeed ok RD i 919,449 


To the above statistics on land, produce, and 
animals in the larger divisions of the British 
Isles should be added small amounts for the 


because of a long drought and the latter be- Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. In 1922 
cause of persistent and heavy rains during the they were as follows: 
latter part of the summer and early autumn. 
The heavy burden of post-war rates, tithes, Isle of Chantel 
i Man slands 
ps fear ae little nee the Bpateses of atasi ATADIG EAN: 1, clot totes sc0's acres 65,690 20,655 
or the landowner. ne result was the return Permanent grass .......- . 17,955 9,894 
to permanent pasture of much of the arable Oats ........0.0.....04. ogee ye 1,965 
land which was put under cultivation during Wheat ...............-. iy 229 625 
; Banleg eae kes ee 534 297 
the war period. In 1918, the total arable land = urnips 9 17222/01212020! ‘6 6,526 ANS 
in Great Britain and Ireland was 21,122,750 Potatoes ............... a 2,208 9,753 
acres, approximately 1,500,000 more than before Borie shen ee eels melee ee ane Raleas bey y 
the War. The following table shows the acre- Shep 8 PRA PIO EET Jal wot ngo 179 
age of crops in the British Isles: PHS ie BP TOULG OHS Sieiehel dh 3,709 960 
Northern Irish Free 
Great Britain Ireland Treland State 
Crops 1912 1922 1912 1922 1922 
WHGRE Soo RK YRS Sa) Dike Cis toe ideo G aratekare ote g ON 1,925,737 2,032,168 44,855 34,469 6,305 
OS aeca NCAA aig RON RCP ONC KARE meiner ico ICE Sou arae aida rae 3,029,054 3,152,357 1,046,000 813,970 399,722 
IOTIGES Oooo Cy tate SUCCIG. p Bin ve. Gud Oks B BAG be 2it 1,648,201 1,521,068 165,367 167,747 2,518 
PRCGHS ATIC) NEAR irc bs chess MEL EMS Ge a ee feel ote 488,308 462,691 1,700 447 1,188 
MERC tee rere ite es ia ae 0 bie Soetomh ci sthitahel oelah ae 612,671 718,581 595,184 400,982 168,567 
PORTING, Meiers th RoW nigh a atatiatteals fe tama ety she? ale 1,512,535 1,225,240 Pg hes Gal 199,204 48,677 
DUBROGIS hone eee ire ia. 2c eee bialdn Sat al.'s hats 488,486 424,649 81,700 81,709 1,845 


The following table shows the total produce 
of the principal crops of the British Isles: 


Mineral Production. The principal econo- 
nomic resource of the British Isles was coal, 


Northern Trish Free 

Great Britain Ireland Ireland State 

Crops 1912 1922 1912 1922 1922 

Tons Tons 
Ny RCRE Nate. tae aids Pe. eos) 4 quarters 6,979,795 7,979,000 195,493 5,725 32,232 
OATIOW FW ett ne tok An oe coe ead WE ee ola - 6,404,841 5,804,000 871,059 2,066 151,581 
CLE aed ly Aa, ea dette Bs Diag Buca. ayes tv Bk ia 13,741,883 14,101,000 6,858,196 306,594 573,248 
Beans “and: peas! ! SUP. MOR) Oboe ean . 1,455,165 1,115,000 iS SU OnAEL@ Re Pateiey-| 2 2kty eh ot onan ate 
Hotatoestiaedl. {ATs TA eee ee . tons 8,179,632 5,203,000 2,546,710 1,251,709 2,179,532 
UMTs mathe | YW Rice gede Apter ain Seip PS chy cel aa ate 3 ta 20,278,639 17,788.000 3,783,218 764,005 2,673,770 
MANOS eee re tee Ren oe oe 8,836,718 8,595,000 1,301,048 30,669 1,298,943 


One of the economic resources of the British 
Isles was the pasture land on which were raised 
the large flocks of sheep. These flocks were 
the early foundation of the textile industry, 
which continues one of England’s greatest. 
During the latter part of 1923 a serious epi- 
demic of hoof and mouth disease broke out in 
England and large numbers of cattle and sheep 
had to be killed before it was brought under 
control. The following table shows the number 
of live stock in 1912 and 1922: 


1912 1922 
England and Wales 
OT SOG ae. rics c ales, alee aCe 1,248,003 1,119,545 

Calta vey Ak Oa eee 5,841.720 Re i22.00. 

Sheep BERN. fa Boe UE eee eee 18,053.365 13,438,020 

AG Aiaree ss Jc) A dist sete hoo aes 2,496,670 2,298,936 
Scotland 

LEIA is BR ee ie 193,020 188,851 

OTs eee = RR aa 1,184,376 1,146.807 

SUG 5 oe BLE Ce 7,004,367 6,684,097 

Dea P Ey Uy AAs 79 Rae pn 159,127 150,884 
Treland 

TLOMSCN EES ett ciel ies) ease 544 SSSe Pe thy ..06 

BEA eo ae ER eee 4,848 AO see teers it. 

SNECPeMere ee sense cos es 3,02 9,02 CTemeeeee s, 

Pigs ici hss OS MBean Pete. 1,323,997) geyees ee 8's" 2 
Northern Ireland 

HOrses sat tp eee AO | as 115,363 

Cattlotgs ciel Re teree hise? casita svn « hfathee 830/831 

Shaan. ee ee 499.048 

Tee ON eas ate eae ee. Sh ee 1 ay oa if 


which served as fuel not only for industry, but 
also for the British merchant marine and as a 
return cargo for vessels entering British ports. 
It was one of the principal articles in export 
trade, for production was in excess of home 
consumption. The 10 years 1914-24 were diffi- 
cult because of the war demands and the subse- 
quent period of depression. The record year for 
production of coal was 1913; from then a 
gradual decline was recorded until 1918, which 
was followed by two years of slight increase, 
but in 1921, because of the strike which lasted 
88 days, a very low record of production was 
shown. The years 1922 and 1923 showed de- 
cided improvement; 1923 was the second high- 
est year on record. Employment in the mines 
followed somewhat similar lines, except that the 
lowest number employed was in 1915 and the 
greatest in 1920. The year 1921 was difficult 
for miners; they were out on strike for nearly 
three months because of wage disputes. The 
trouble finally ended in an agreement to base 
wages on the cost of living index and the volume 
of business. In January, 1924, general dissatis- 
faction with this wage agreement resulted in 
ballot vote by the miners to serve the required 
three months’ notice of termination. Negotia- 
tions were, in the summer of 1924, proceeding 
for a new wage agreement. The following table 
shows the number of wage earners, total out- 


GREAT BRITAIN 562 


put, exports, and bunkered coal for the period 
1913 to 1923: 


Year Persons Output Coal and Coke Bunker 
Employed Export 
Tons Tons Tons 
1913 1,127,820 287,411,869 76,688,446 21,023,693 
1914 1,133,746 265,664,393 61,830,485 18,535,616 
1915 953,642 253,206,081 45,770,344 13,630,964 
1916 998,063 256,348,351 41,157,894 12,988,172 
1917 1,021,340 248,473,119 37,800,705 10,227,952 
1918 1,008,867 227,748,654 84,173,915 8,756,476 
1919 1,191,313 229,779,517. 38,466,593 12,004,812 
1920 1,248,224 229,295,000 28,862,895 13,914,903 
1921 1,126,000 164,803,000 26,246,839 11,046,548 
1922 1,129,500 233,899,000 67,939,476 18,292,000 
1923 1,178,500 278,499,600 84,486,728 18,158,188 


One of the outstanding factors in the above 
table was the decline in the exports of coal dur- 
ing the War, when a ‘heavy domestic demand cut 
down the amount available for export by half. 
The years 1922 and 1923 were normal years in 
the export trade; in fact, the exports during 
1923 were the largest on record. The principal 
export areas were the South Wales and north- 


GREAT BRITAIN 


of stimulation by the occupation of the Ruhr, 
but in the long run this brought on adverse re- 
sults in the increased price of fuel and the de- 
layed revival of confidence. The following table 
shows the number of furnaces in blast and the 


output of pig iron, steels ingots, and castings in 
1913, 1920, 1921, 1922, and 1923. 
Output 

Steel Ingots 

Year Furnaces Pig Iron and 
in Blast Tons Castings 

Tons 
LOTS eer s.s Gs 338 10,250,000 7,660,000 
a RS PAO RG ty Be A 285 8,007,900 9,056,800 
LODT eee Aes od 95 2,611,400 3,624,800 
LODZ ee. oki. 132 4,899,500 5,820,500 
BES Pts te 3 Resa on ee 200 7,438,500 8,488,900 


After the War, British manufacturers not 
only were burdened with heavy taxation but 
also had to meet keener competition from for- 
eign producers, especially in countries of de- 
preciated exchange. Total exports in 1913 were 
4,969,224 tons; in 1922, 3,397,185 tons; and in 
1923, 4,319,571 tons. These totals were made 


eastern fields. The largest factor in the in-_ up as follows: 
1913 1922 1923 
Commodity Tons Tons Tons 
Pic dron andyrernop alloys veiece sears sshaieieteue reat suehe eet is eel eae, Papel Petlel seks, ot chyoge ait 1,124,181 793,763 894,298 
tron hbars;” rodseaneles! Cotes sere sacterats hele gor shimone eve cee ebey | Sh open Medecine > (ss ieteno n= 141,452 31,403 43,615 
Steel vy i‘ . FL the Nes otal ete hve cl uabeMecp atic s Meee del eho oie, Reel Melis 6:n0/7elBe ucts nus 251,059 221,109 354,144 
FLOO PSH and Stripstebeie «ss tose be oko eie cic. cee Che weeds Be see EEG as) beak feule ge ot) <1cettaUs tel teres 45,708 48,281 71,619 
Plates and sheets) not under WA sins... ttelseestate ens = cheeks of ouewedeneielsh>u\uemayete le 126,380 95,462 193,789 
Black#plates#and esheets in der) 26 61s eee nentpanenemenees sctelln pew oms,ionm hale neds uate ists ‘ 139,927 224,836 338,978 
Galvanized msheetsiies . pyelis ck a telewiae ete © Ricichne Isiah isis «\sRONol oie Rete sMs) sts sks 762,075 ieee) 602,390 
Tin’ terns, and -ooner, COated “PISbeS 5 oc co.s pe wie ales eileielis ele weer de RUS eee e 497,497 449,273 552,338 
Fa WSO hs, GRR eT EU ere RULE AT OR Sue tale Waite hs vette Ws re Raat eta, tede) rao cele ls! /ane toda moneys tke 506,585 258,987 306,904 
Railway cma ternal iat oe ete ae ae piso) ee haonag inch Wee kaa ened el een can 267,254 218,370 186,537 
Tubes, pipes, and fittings, cast and wrought ..........+--++++sseerees 399,608 162,476 242,200 
IW TTC MPA Shes esa e ee Reve: Cho elkers teas te hapeieueie iri ake conse cokcolebeney She BRDEEMS eas CekeiKe te unio Ls) ste Lonshaie 60,532 54,500 78,596 
DV TPS TI TUT AETT TOR sot nce ousneae conocer ote dete betes pee ete lectern ooo ie bie ete 55,739 34,677 52,572 
Potal,) including ~ other: items) |. 52.6 teh 6. Ss gk eee © Biel eee e's 4,969,224 3,397,185 4,317,571 


creased exports of 1923 was the occupation of 
the Ruhr, which upset a large producing area 
and put a heavier share of the burden of supply- 
ing the European demand on the British mines. 
The greater part of the exports went to Europe, 
chiefly to France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and 
Holland. The War completely upset some of 
the large markets, but most of them were re- 
gained after the Armistice. 

The following table shows the principal coun- 
tries to which Great Britain exported coal dur- 
ingy1913, 1921,, 1922, and 1923 


Country 1913 1921 1922 1923 
Tons Tons Tons Tons 
France 12,775,909 6,395,651 13,579,417 18,826,352 
Italy 9,647,161 3,383,083 § 6,341,743 7,592,735 
Germany 8,952,328 817,877 8,345,606 14,806,232 
Russia 5,998,434 138,878 584,069 476,205 
Sweden 4,560,076, 1,232,904) 2°522°82004 3;168,367 
Argentina 3,693,572 887,344 2,021,092 2,461,074 
Egypt 3,162,477 1,017,748 1,743,643 1,696,054 
Denmark 3,034,240 1,803,561 2,866,233 3,170,269 
Spain 2,584,131 1,021,472 1,711,021 1,145,801 
Norway 2,298,345 694,316 1,566,969 1,609,758 
Belgium 2,031,077 618,066 3,489,419 6,504,592 
Nether- 
lands 2,018,401 1,787,678 6,067,789 6,794,346 


The iron and steel industry was not, by 1924, 
restored to pre-war activity, but in 1923 the 
pig iron output was about 74 per cent of that of 
1913 and nearly three times that of 1921. The 
output of steel ingots and castings substantially 
exceeded the output for 1913 and was two and 
one-third times that of 1921. As in the case of 
coal, the War caused a general disruption of the 
industry and its chief markets, and they had not, 
by 1924, returned to the normal pre-war condi- 
tion. An increase was recorded in 1923 because 


Textile Industry. The cotton and woolen 
industries of Great. Britain were located near 
the coal fields, the linen industry mainly at Bel- 
fast and Dundee, the lace industry at Notting- 
ham, Derby, and Kilmarnock, and hosiery fac- 
tories at Derby, Leicester, and Nottingham. 
The cotton industry depended entirely on im- 
ports of raw materials, while the woolen in- 
dustry had to import two-thirds its wool, and 
the linen industry had to import one-half its 
flax. The cotton industry suffered more se- 
rious disorganization by reason of the War 
than any other industry. A large part of the 
cotton spinning and manufacturing machinery 
of France and Belgium was in the zone of hos- 
tilities, while the cotton factories of Russia 
were ruined in the early months of the Revolu- 
tion, and England suffered a lack of raw ma- 
terial because of the submarine danger. Fol- 
lowing the Armistice, England, with all her ma- 
chinery intact, enjoyed a period of prosperity. 
Toward the close of 1920 the boom ended, and a 
serious depression set in, from which the in- 
dustry had not recovered by 1924. During 1923, 
the short crop in America, plus the increased 
consumption by American mills, helped to cause 
a rapid rise in prices of raw materials. co- 
nomic disturbances in the chief markets of 
British cloth, i.e. China and India, caused them 
to cut down their purchases. The total number 
of cotton spindles in 1923 was 55,583,000, of 
woolen spindles 3,111,085, of worsted spindles 
3,609,545, and of twisted spindles 1,352,196. 
The table on the next page shows the total im- 
ports of raw cotton, wool, and flax. 

The principal sources of raw cotton were the 
United States, with 15,847,695 centals in 1913 


a 


1 


GREAT BRITAIN 563 GREAT BRITAIN 
1913 1922 1923 1913 1922 1923 
Cotton (centals £ £ = 
of 100 Ibs.) 21,742,996 14,319,898 12,925,854 10;570,547 85,550,189 91,243,550 
Wool (centals 
of 100 lbs.) 8,485,764 TIFOD0,22 7,782,196 36,632,255 61,941,142 49,468,885 
Flax (tons) 102,453 39,582 83,685 4,771,219 3,943,711 3,007,669 


and 6,691,028 in 1923; and Egypt, with 4,026,- 
694 centals in 1913 and 3,486,322 in 1923. The 
three leading sources of raw wool were Aus- 
tralia, with 2,650,785 centals in 1913 and 2,- 
764,787 in 1923; New Zealand, with 1,811,814 
centals in 1913 and 1,811,006 in 1923; and 
South Africa, with 1,332,242 centals in 1913 and 
1,124,377 in 1923. 

The following table gives the total exports of 
cotton yarn and cotton piece goods during the 
pre-war year and four post-war years: 


1923, which curtailed launchings. Great Britain 
led the world in size of merchant marine, which 
in 1913 consisted of 8514 steam vessels of 18,- 
273,944 tons and 700 sailing vessels of 422,293 
tons, or a total of 9214 vessels (over 100 tons) of 
18,696,237 tons; and in 1923 it was made up of 
8299 steam vessels of 19,115,178 net tons and 
395 sailing vessels of 166,371 tons, or a total of 
8694 vessels (over 100 tons) of 19,281,549 net 
tons. During the War there were lost through 
enemy attack 2197 vessels of 7,638,020 tons. 


Cotton Yarns 


Cotton Piece Goods 


Year Pounds £ Yards £ 

1913 210,099,000 15,006,291 7,075,252,000 97,775,855 
Square yards. 

1920 147,432,400 47,585,814 4,435,405,000 315,717,631 

1921 145,894,900 23,924,879 2,902,288,900 137,132,298 

1922 201,220,800 26,436,489 4,181,176,300 142,415,686 

1923 145,019,500 21,011,911 4,141,303,700 USS 7354,135 


The three principal markets for cotton yarn 
were Germany, with 51,905,400 pounds in 1913, 
and 25,483,300 in 1923; Netherlands, with 39,- 
255,300 pounds in 1913, and 34,233,400 in 1923; 
and India, with 37,422,400 pounds in 1913, and 
20,862,900 in 1923. The principal destinations 
of cotton piece goods are shown in the follow- 
ing table: 


The number and tonnage of vessels launched 
were as follows: 


1913 1922 1923 
Vessels launched—number 688 235 
Gross tonnage 1,932,153 1,031,081 


Despite the poor year in 1923 for shipbuild- 
ing, Great Britain and Ireland maintained their 


1913 


1922 


Linear yards 


TL Li Gib ais Pelee cas, < SON 3 Skt ag haa. Sore 3,057,350,600 
China (including Hong Kong) 716,532,500 
Turkey (including Syria and 

EL) PANE | atte. Me eee 360,741,700 
Dutch wHasul indies exits ye. aFh tees.6 304,927,700 
DAM Ol Ty Sc eng OS Be Oa ee nine Gee bo 266,623,400 
EARP OTIGIIND A her et anerchaa ws wiuet stacl aces e hatch as 199,118,300 
PISCE ALIAE Pe eS ee cies ts coe cee aes 167,914,600 
Straits. Settlements mak sf: eye. 131,298,100 
GAaNAd dite fikd eo dksad sd fresdeiescienee. ee 110,499,100 
WmItedt States evs cm ci-us ha. oct «so ob euere 44,415,000 


Square yards 
1,401,142,300 


308,992,000 234,710,200 
190,953,200 220,833,300 
137,253,000 136,290,300 
206,995,600 207,292,000 
148,764,800 173,209,100 
227,995,200 171,237,500 
56,707,500 77,625,800 
42,390,700 54,303,100 
95,384,000 174,922,200 


The total exports of other textiles were as 
follows: 


leadership in the world output of vessels. The 
tonnage of vessels entered and cleared at the 


1913 1922 1923 
WioGlenmand se wWOrsteds: Vdikisn (10S) W.ketre nels cee ccs) cc + ohtaebsiatate 80,415,300 62,190,500 56,562,900 
EVV OGLGIMEMCIGS OSE eter. ta iste ae tobe tes etter ol ade dy oat a. 3, «ois ahenet ene 105,883,600 121,590,600 148,641,300 
LWIOTStCO Mm GISSULCOMatm ene ieee erate clic he oiel ones ote sala cvcver cies « afchnksiwane 62,490,100 62,337,700 62,948,400 
TANG DICCe 2 OO Sumi cok, ERY Aatclens Iu rdenuscend ¢uc0 dhe. si ciays ,.8' 6 <li aoa 193,681,300 77,435,600 89,671,700 
MUtGs DIOCO so OOGSE aM i) MMR oc Ore a's arcs ete: spc ecogs 00.0 6 6 svenehenatere 173,484,200 137,784,900 158,057,038 
UtGs Valls gee CLOSs mene: CeeEEeds es rate tetnces ce eer src). as tes.» Aeabnvahehe 41,766,100 36,862,700 35,663,600 


* Linear yards in 1913 and square yards in the other years. 


Shipping and Shipbuilding. The shipping 
and shipbuilding trades were prosperous during 
the War. After the signing of the Armistice 
this abnormal demand ceased, and an excess of 
tonnage was the immediate result. The lack of 
demand for tonnage caused rates to fall, which, 
added to the fluctuating exchanges and un- 
settled economic conditions, caused considerable 
hardship to shipowners. The excess tonnage 
was further augmented by the tendency to con- 
vert many old vessels to the Diesel type, which 
gave more cargo space and less fuel space. In 
the shipbuilding trade a dispute of the boiler- 


makers caused a seven months’ strike during 


ports of the British Isles was about the same 
for 1913 and 1923. The total for 1913 was 
116,883.387 tons: 1920, 73,108.000; 1921, 73.- 
507,000; 1922, 103,006,072; and 1923, 116,854,- 
335. The table on page 564 shows the entrances 
and clearances by nationalities for 1913 and 
1923: 


Railways. The railways of Great Britain 


GREAT BRITAIN 564 GREAT BRITAIN 
Entered with Cargo Cleared with Cargo 

1913 1923 1913 1923 

Tons Tons Tons Tons 
British s «02S REs2 RO: Ge . othe EER; 32,291,262 30,952,475 40,101,944 39,394,023 
Norwegian <<. 6005 H.toe. «2 GE eae. 3,284,789 2,647,701 4,683,138 4,398,783 
GLORIA Dy eh sselaee< jaar Oe ee en 3,166,353 1,734,842 5,729,543 3,265,715 
Swedish’ #..40c:: Sibi Ce eee cee eee 4 oe! 1,891,207 1,710,644 3,015,650 2,336,306 
Ditteh 1) 462. a CORR ORES Es 1,702,192 2,385,322 2,535,552 3,937,526 
Belgian? Rize se ae. bee. see ee Bg: i, 1,369,298 937,014 956,582 1,318,017 
TIADISH Py, Sacks «pe ttiee oh hee pels ae Perce Pcdicle eas 1,160,560 1,328,818 2,613,198 2,564,340 
SDADISH IM stale coe OCR UME 4) Oh. sie 1,059,948 911,070 1,694,089 1,289,695 
Mrevich’'\ S75 <4:8 ee eee wee hes ee tah oe 999,228 1,443,936 1,974,820 4,026,793 
United States te. cise SES ty: Fens 724,473 2,847,070 370,258 1,314,022 
Creek | iiccdehor ARE CAR Boke Sick be OE 220,875 423,207 1,071,583 939,693 
Japaneses eee eet aN a ae. Gre os eee 139,623 448,050 281,705 519,454 
talian te, saee hee eine cee ans ce ere cok nee te 122,228 344,185 954,800 1,442,346 
Other) mationalities ) :..Gh... 8. dese eae - 930,948 819,981 1,837,551 1,173,307 
OLA] | Bal eee aE ee ee ee ee de 49,062,984 48,934,315 67,820,413 67,920,020 


private ownership, but the War disclosed a 
number of important problems for the com- 
panies. Costs of operation had increased tre- 
mendously and rates were advanced to the point 
where industries were suffering. The Railways 
Act of 1921 was passed, involving a reorganiza- 
tion of the roads in order to do away with ex- 
pensive overhead and excessive competition. The 
roads were reorganized into the southern, west- 
ern, northwestern, midland, west Scottish’; 
northeastern, eastern, and East Scottish groups. 
Under this Act a rates tribunal and a wages 
board were also set up to deal with rates and 
wages. The effective date of the consolidation 
was Jan. 1, 1923. Considerable progress in 
new developments and new services were noted 
at the end of the first year. Rates on mer- 
chandise were reduced during 1923, by an aver- 
age of 50 per cent of pre-war figures. The total 
mileage of track open for traffic, reduced to 
single track and including sidings, was 50,604 
miles in 1913, 51,586 in 1922, and 51,782 in 
1923. In 1923 this mileage was made up as 
follows: length of road, 20,233 miles; reduced 
to single track, 36,853 miles; and sidings, re- 
duced to single track, 14,929 miles. On Dec. 
31, 1923, the number of locomotives was 24,180 
steam and 40 electric, as compared with 24,238 
steam and 81 electric in 1922, and 23,581 steam 
and 83 electric in 1913. The number of mer- 
chandise, mineral, and special vehicles was 713,- 
976 in 1923, 722,639 in 1922, and 735,294. in 


1913. The traffic was divided as follows: 
1913 1922 1923 
Tons Tons Tons 
General merchan- 
Gise CMe aa 67,755,470 52,844,446 58,773,000 
Coal, coke and 


patent fuel 


. 225,601,127 200,102,316 222,239,000 
Other minerals 


71,067,357 48,678,846 61,983,000 


Totalse So seer 364,423,954 301,625,608 342,995,000 

The total number of passengers carried in 
1923 was 1,430,715,629, with total passenger 
train receipts of £85,581,142 as compared to 
£54,525,821 in 1913. Total goods train receipts 
were £64,254,895 in 1913, and £106.567,677 in 
1923 The total capital expenditure in 1913 
was £1,141,543,561, and £1,181],200,000 in 1923. 
The total number of originating live stock car- 
ried during 1923 was 16,891,257, of which sheep 
made up 11,000,242 and cattle 3,278,680. No 
statistics were published on the railways of the 
Irish Free State. It was estimated that it had 
2705 route miles of road. 

Economic Conditions. British economic 
conditions continued to suffer from war influ- 


ences, the intense industrial activity and over- 
expansion immediately following the Armistice, 
and the severe depression of 1921. Toward the 
end of 1922 a revival set in, based largely on 
the stability of the national financial position 
and the clearing away of overexpanded credits 
of 1919 and 1920. The revival continued 
through 1923, though not on as great a scale as 
was expected. The occupation of the Ruhr by 
France and Belgium, the capital levy proposal, 
and the general election, caused industrialists 
to hesitate. Perhaps the best evidence of the 
real progress made by Great Britain after the 
War was the steady rise of the pound sterling 
from the low post-war slump. The average an- 
nual rates were as follows: par value, $4.8665 ; 
1914 average, $5.14; 1915, $4.78; 1916, $4.76; 
1919, $4.43; 1920, $3.66; 1921, $3.85; 1922, 
$4.43; 1923, $4.57. 

The most unfavorable aspect of 1924 British 
conditions was the large number of unemployed. 
Unemployment increased tremendously at the 
close of 1920 and early in 1921 during the se- 
vere depression. ‘The highest number on the un- 
employment registers was recorded on June 24, 
1921, when 2,178,000 were out of work. A 
steady decline in this number followed, until 
Mar. 31, 1924, when only 1,038,000 were on the 
registers. The improved condition of trade ma- 
terially aided this decrease, and also the large 
programmes of municipal and private works of 
improvement and repair which gave employment 
to many thousand workers. The passage of 
the Trade Facilities Act in 1921, whereby the 
Treasury could guarantee the payment of loans 
for the purpose of carrying out capital under- 
takings, also helped decrease unemployment. 
The following table shows the percentage of 
trade union members unemployed: 


191375 192055192 1619228 3 1923 
End of (Per cent) 

ATA ae Pe Gest 2.2 2.9 6.9 16.9 13.7 
Mebriarye. G7. eae 2.0 1.6 8.5 16.3 ae 
Marche fess: Mette ice 1.9 ede O.0 16.3 eS 
PADI | ge sede ae ee 1.7 0.950 t7. 6 2 aeO Ligs 
Ma y* *. 9) ere eee 1.9 LEA 2B OLa Ge. 11.3 
wune 74, 6. Ree 1.9 ah sy eestea RU) si sey rbleal 
Jnly ® 9a. tone 1.9 ay be a inare 14.6 ahah 
INTERES PE) 2h ES Ste 20) 1:6 9316.3 14.4 11.4 
September ...... os 2 eed £08 14.6 1153 
October | sais Oe 5t3'4 15.6 14.0 10.9 
November ...... 2.0 ade y Compa eyes 14.2 10.5 
December ...... 2.6 6.0 16.5 14.0 9.7 


@Excluding coal miners. 


There was, during the period surveyed, an in- 
creasing tendency to better the position of the 
laboring class and to legislate for their welfare. 


GREAT BRITAIN 


In 1891 the total expenditure for social services 
was £22,629,379, which increased to £62,994,667 
in 1911, to £306,737,843 in 1921, and to £371,- 
716,891 in 1922. The principal schedules of 
expenditures were as follows, in thousand 
pounds sterling: 


Items 
National insurance (health) 
Unemployment insurance 
Bret aeDslODs (3 23 154 GD. SIGE 
Old age pensions 
Education 
Housing’ .!). .. a 
Relief of the poor 


a ©, @ Oe Bee ee ee, Ole 6p 8. 6 6 


eo (6) SL ate ® fe 


565 


ae And aoe 70 ld at 6 6 « a eg we We 6) 6 
Fg Sehe «0 
ar ee 
me ® © «6 i ub me seks) aie etm ie MS. ew i) 8 6-6 Us € ©) 0h 68 0.8 Gane 6 
ia ERO AB wt fae. et Or ks te, 8) a al, © 


© SB) 6) oP ae Rey Beh cha hw OF ue S15 othe oe Le 6! ore tte © « 


GREAT BRITAIN 


Empire so long as it decreased unemployment 
and the material was purchased within the 
Empire. The Safeguarding of Industries Act 
was passed to prohibit the import of key com- 
modities unless it was impossible to obtain a 


sufficient quantity in Great Britain. In Oc- 

1891 1911 1921 1922 

£ £ £ £ 

ee a Go ROP a itn er 29,875 30,634 
etaiteots ytd | le excite Metamae ditt Sane de 10,768 71,216 
Es OTA e SPARE Re rote my flo’ t LR PAE, Rete 100,949 88 921 
RPM EL icame Th Lao eee 7,360 20,750 21,989 
Be iy ik & 11,488 33,490 88,788 92,375 
Bag A 242 : 888 4,693 5,220 
SANGRE 9,351 16,747 35,626 46,846 


Numerous industrial disputes occurred dur- 
ing 1923; chief of these were the seven months’ 
lockout of the boilermakers and the “outlaw” 
strike of dockmen. In January, 1924, the coal 
miners gave notice of the termination of the 
wage agreement, the railway men went on a 
nine-day strike, and in February the dockmen 
walked out for 10 days. See UNEMPLOYMENT. 

Commerce. The British Board of Trade esti- 
mated the total favorable balance of trade for 
Great Britain in 1923 as being £97,000,000. 
This represented a considerable decline, when 
compared with the balance of £155,000,000 in 
1922, £252,000,000 in 1920, and £181,000,000 in 
1913. The following table shows the compara- 
tive make-up of this estimate, in millions of 
pounds sterling: 


tober, 1923, the Imperial Economic Conference 
met in London and adopted resolutions for the 
further application of preferences to Empire 
goods, but the defeat of the Conservative gov- 
ernment at the general election in December 
and the advent of the Labor government pledged 
to free trade brought that programme to an 
end. 

The total trade of Great Britain in 1913 was 
£1,403,555,065 and in 1923 it was £1,983,916,935, 
an increase of 41 per cent. In considering a 
comparison of pre-war and 1923 figures, two 
things must be borne in mind, first, the great 
increase in prices over pre-war prices, and sec- 
ondly, the fact that after Apr. 1, 1923, the trade 
of the Irish Free State was considered foreign 


Items 
Excess of imports of merchandise and bullion 
Net income from overseas investments 
Net national shipping income 
Commissions 
Other services 


Ore 10. 1@ cow, ORS 
Ge oS lee 6 ec 6 6 6 ie SMe Tats ot shee 0 
Sok che) .@ ig 6 6) 0 & om) ©) Oleg ere te te elie! of « 0 ©. » « ahhe ald @ 6 dj 16 << 


ete, ct 85s « 6 0 © © 6 eich mate M's te el © ee 0 bg qjeels o ete @ © 


Total invisible exports on balance 


Available for investment overseas 


S7eje @ €,6 « 8% 


PAP Cen, Oni ial Oe Fini aD y © oO OD One ig 


Rises) oeybis slke © 0a eve gave © 0 


trade. The increases occurred in all three cat- 

1913 1920 1922 1923 
, RSE PE en Oe 158 343 170 203 
OOS SBE 210 200 175 150 
CAEN gays manera Ge 94 340 110 110 
ee Nie de bas cine kt ee 25 40 30 30 
Ae es te Rte, age ates IM 10 15 101, 2agito 
iat ap eaten niaiea data eae atn 339 595 325 300 
Rede dan torn eed As, 2 181 252 155 97 


British overseas trade was. slowly  re- 
covering from the effects of. the War which 
greatly upset many of the chief markets of the 
world. Previous to 1914 European markets 
were the chief outlet for British manufactures, 
but with the post-war economic uncertainties 
Great Britain sent more and more produce to 


egories, imports, exports, and reéxports, and 
each year showed an adverse visible trade bal- 
ance. The excess of imports was greater during 
the post-war years than in 1913, as shown in 
the following table: 


Excess 
her dominions and colonies. Following the War of Imports 
several plans were tried, to increase the foreign (Millions of £) 

i OD Feet Pe eal, <tkttcnee RA eRbaR tech he aye Seine ee ne es 133.9 
trade The Export Credits scheme was passed RED Ue: US, Se eS UR ae ae ee a ity(3 WAY 6 
Migs; “thiss autnorized the: treasury: to. guar- I9DSUP ME. VERRIER oath. ke 367.9 
antee the payment of 80 per eent of the cost fora Bets iat SERS T OR Oy Gale ES le Ot aie abate’ ao Ge ole fe o eee ans peta: 
value. (0f ;Abipmentainto, ithe; new countries! of gojashii oak. oe) Ee sei. es 89888 
Buropet a Nelo thee Lynde yMaciitiesoActiwas 1919 Gye. 8k is oe ce wbrtinete ee aah 662.8 
passed, authorizing the Treasury to guarantee ith aca stadhsndt Rite th te atte th ta te 
the payment of principal and interest on loans j999 1112222 22 222IIIIIIIEITIEDEIIIDIE! 179.9 
ao OG, Used, for. capitas undentalingswithimithe “Wes! ere. SPL Pees. os ee 212.1 
1913 1922 1923 

Total = © £ 

ATETTYE Cs Wee tc. . on. d oA x ended ee aa ee a LL? besos ok 768,734,739 1,003,098,899 1,098. 015,585 

COLUM altel sors ccs pia sec hen eR REE eat E Sa 6’ ye. 9's) ar * 525,253,595 719,507,410 767,328,656 

EREEKIDOT LS MRT Wet ht EASES stan, eens ctaler meat ere ebcets Cie’ of sis % ela 109,566,731 103,694,670 118,572,694 
Food, drink, and tobacco 

MISEDOV ESN sabae ahi Stila «. yt okt chol TLS OH ateke ah ered te Gh 8 SNE 8 0 gees 295,149,630 471,881,370 510,532,556 

ivS qctel gus ere OE eee orl Ga Ge. SoS A 33,875,845 86,301,190 44,345,276 

EMERGE GH ee Cheers tee, fj ALY BELDE ) ete to assese 0 8 a aes 16,256,082 21,757,953 24,543,604 
Raw materials and articles mainly unmanufactured 

NAG OFSAN BEV a cis clo.» ccakae htelals » ofthe ASS AMET Eek. git) v.06 tgs 269,939.720 298,338,680 324,952,756 

Lip ge(ivaily tye 5 Sis SR ae TORE Ir Gn eign, ae Ce Se ia een 66,173,319 101,965,214 130,808,728 

WUCOX DOT LGMMEMEtatcL oceiete ois cos 0.0 «gag ARAMeCRM DEES! bho: (9's, 220 = 63,699,566 55,063,197 66,773,626 
Articles mainly or wholly manufactured 

Imports aad 30 Sees Soe GAT aed BSS ht) ATRPEME ENE Sieh coe se 201,038,872 229,749, 590 257,109,440 

HX DOL LBs cater e eons lcvirns «45 1 8:9 ile ee oleae Be os nt 413,820,434 568,524,060 580,025,749 

Reéxports eeooe™eseeeeveee7ee78 e020 % & e oe . eevee t eae 29,504,972 26,821,234 27,171,075 


GREAT BRITAIN 566 GREAT BRITAIN 
1913 1922 1923 

Animals not for food 3% £ £ 

Importes ss. >. Soe cent M ehh ete eitete be tlhe eile eM O Betts G's Uo harese erie kel aieh 488,411 362,156 1,543,405 

Exportal bi Joceeed. alte LGR ORe RE. HIE be 2,229,868 1,475,544 1,400,379 

Re@xpoerts,, §.: fs foie Gis es ods les de vole eee RE PEE As ome uels EEE SIOe eae kk 106,111 52,886 84,389 
Parcel Post 

TIMPODLES Whois or oite wie tateke eo toutes elene 6 e RUCTEREMCTCR Ts. sie ic oto a SERIO Re rone 2,118,106 2,767,103 3,877,428 

EIXPOTIS To ote ee me oe er ET re ec one Ee ee 9,154,129 11,241,402 10,748,524 


The increases in trade and its general trend 


Beginning with January, 1924, the Free State 


are shown in the two preceding tables of trade 
by major classifications in 1913, 1922, and 1923. 

The above table shows clearly the type of 
commerce in which Great Britain was engaged; 
i.e. the import of large quantities of foodstuffs 
and raw materials for industries, and the ex- 
port of manufactured products. The following 
table gives the imports and exports of principal 
commodities, by quantities, which for compara- 
tive value eliminates the price factor: 


Government was to publish monthly statistics. 
In 1920 the ascertained direct exports from all 
of Ireland to countries other than Great Britain 
amounted to only £1,846,417 out of a total ex- 
port trade of £204,715,138, or 09 per cent of the 
whole. During 1921 such exports amounted to 
£2,414,678 out of a total export trade of £129,- 
621,000, or 1.86 per cent of the whole. The 
total trade of Ireland for the years 1911 to 
1921 is shown by the table below. 


1913 1920 1922 1923 
(In thousands of £) 
EXPORTS 
OPM GSD Nes tops io eee Soe ok G Oe Gn OL O cos 73,400 24,932 64,198 79,449 
Iron and steel, and manufactures of (tons) ........-. 4,969 3,252 8,401 4,319 
Machineryrei( bons tae cate the ticks, fhe eotnepede Morales tovtoleti ne Pagetraits Xo 689 462 403 432 
Cotton sryAarns si 1DS sles + cae ce poe ese Sane east thei oiel uetebente 210,099 147,432 201,221 145,019 
Cotton \ piece coods's (linear Vy.ds:) fs. aevewie lee io. selestonele t= 7,075,252 4,435,405 4,312,667 4,286,248 
NVinOlOn wiLISSIES AN SQameySa) Wise iaite: cvee dele vete te = wierede steno rete tale te 105,884 187,233 121,489 148,641 
Worsted Ptissues (Sat yas jue. AC cir. wie ope yeh tel otetels tallaile 's 62,490 77,355 62,458 62,948 
Tinen’ piece) LOods | CSG YGS:)) vejsicje stele pele = Gls) -lele te eerie re 193,681 93,045 77,421 89,672 
Boots and’ shoes )(dozen: pairs) > s +s pciecs 40 fn cee es 1,453 819 492 796 
Papers aloe Card Oana er CWLS.)i0 oie cheislsis!>)-lkelelenenoleistens) “ire 3,499 2,350 2,455 4,348 
IMPORTS 
Cottons araw {iCCERtAS) weit se ome shee tolio te (els tole cieRe lo (ela ielel-ue foie = 21,743 19,028 14,341 12,945 
Wheaten CO wts.)) 0 civ sis teteterete ie aie Re tele Gisioye <tr euametenem ar, lelairene 105,878 109,328 96,380 100,930 
Wool, raw (centals)..... itahaits Hive tee Perens eerattentedetem ensieiore iN 8,486 8,934 11,535 Ge fH hes 
Bitter me (Cw tSa) sane. aie ER Vefote te: 5, vicieielie (eveie te tomn ke mnickahtnaiy Sis 4,139 1,702 4,269 sya RSs 
Ssh a CO I) es 4 alas Bi Sh ean pick Gadiawispicléimr.otaiolo 4 39,385 27,427 38,179 31,366 
AICONMACCHVAS 3) em. deiece che te lee vate Nle = fol ths onsite olastoMo cele, listen eten cng lite 4,858 5,612 5,932 7,193 
Tews (CUD St DL Aopepee Mh Weta: ose atts ete wissen Melee ve Lotronedonls fofeo Ne, Macake Pate Pes lcci 365,043 431,196 419,005 457,199 
IWeatmUCivts.) Breuttrok «tcpotees <censte & coleletedorchers (mk sl fete wieasMen ere 23,278 24,550 26,447 31,193 
MD bacco MU DSa) ie dotedeis ce Ue bezel cute eters toretens, ape tenctetistte ete te 165,954 222,615 186,350 175,541 
Tatalerainvand | flour! (cwts;) p..e% ssn . ee pees mee os 220,704 183,788 179,454 186,529 


The changes in the direction of British trade 
may be seen in the following tables: 


ORIGIN OF IMPORTS 
1913 1922 1923 


United States £141,652,072 £221,817,421 £211,227,465 


British India 48,420,490 47,719,039 67,025,023 
Australia 38,065,250 64,793,760 49,067,789 
Argentina 42,485,391 56,620,803 66,084,756 
Canada 30,488,374 54,874,201 53,447,832 
New Zealand 20,338,057 48,510,239 42,969,456 
France 46,352,718 48,537,887 58,473,471 
Denmark 23,830,633 40,309,067 46,275,638 
Netherlands 23,577,841 34,145,582 37,095,883 
Germany 80,411,057 262520; 007 35,000,916 
Egypt 21,394,735 32,252,896 34,671,817 
Irish Free 

State tema. 5.005: 200 eee bee ee D2, to Menus 
Russia 40,270,539 8,102,829 9,308,232 


a From Apr. 1, 1923. 


DESTINATION OF Het CRIS 
191° 


AND REEXPORTS 


1922 1923 
United States ..£59,453,231 £77,263,870 £85,563,421 
SANISLE ALL Ala) ees te 37,829,482 65,529,195 61,891,470 
British India 71,670,231 93,422,012 87,214,331 
ATG wings Aces cts 40,881,707 66,156,503 68,296,245 
Cherian Yam cia seis 60,499,693 49,096,559 60,836,440 
PRAISSI8.1 sob perce eke 27,693,953 4,611,027 4,483,383 
Netherlands . 20,522,031 40,552,469 35,210,289 
Beleiimy .. 2. 20,660,362 385,679,685 35,452,667 
Argentina ..... 23,437,343 23,324,615 28,859,103 
Cli rbaley 9 ge Bays 15,010,418 23,137,949 18,780,055 
RROUTIO TIM sas ee vores 14,827,270 24,457,273 26,579,901 
GaN AOs Wai 6 ole 27,307,193 27,784,517 . 30,834,573 
Trishricres Lotate 22) acheaere Paee eee ohee 317253,5L8 
New Zealand 11,789,863 16,829,575 21,695,130 


&@From Apr. 1, 1923. 


As already mentioned, the Irish Free State 
did not publish trade statistics from Apr. 1, 
1923, when it was formally separated from the 
British Customs Union, up to December, 1923. 


The table on page 567 shows the estimated 
values of the principal items of the import and 
export trade of Ireland during the calendar 
years 1913, 1920, and 1921. 


Imports Exports 

AOILL +) osteo gi geicrenste ee = eb tlt £67,610,000 £65,071,000 
LOD 2 ate be ae Weir ORE ER Oe 73,953,000 67,168,000 
5 Re eek clon 4 hs ae Ss 3A 74,467,000 73,877,000 
LOLA PTV. inlets SUR oe 74,125,000 77,311,000 
AO LD eves. srteee «Lolth oem 87,257,000 84,463,000 
a PR Ls Oper ers Cs ae 5, -) 9 104,517,000 107,171,000 
LOD 7 Berne hae ecaleuen bts ve gate oper s 119,181,000 133,805,000 
O1SiOl SAF aoa ett 126,016,000 152,931,000 
LOLI ACE aie. chi Silas AEE 158,716,000 176,052,000 
LOZ ORME Ge iter. te elon eae ere, bee 203,750,000 204,715,000 
AID 2m) sit vol « coltost =e Ueiey nes Smee 118,971,000 129,621,000 

Finance. One of the most striking achieve- 


ments of the British government after the 
Armistice was the very large reduction in gov- 
ernment expenditures and the balancing of the 
budget. In contrasting the large post-war ex- 
penditure of the British government with the 
pre-war rate, it should be borne in mind that 
the annual debt charge was, by 1924, about 
£307,000,000, as compared to only £19,000,000 in 
1913-14. The budget was balanced at approxi- 
mately £200,000,000 in 1913, but due to heavy 
war charges it was balanced at £1,000,000,000 
in 1921, at £900,000,000 in 1922, at £800,000,000 
in 1923. Actual returns showed a surplus of 
£1,000,000 in 1913, of £230,000,000 in 1920-21, 
of £46,000,000 in 1921-22, of £101,000,000 in 
1922-23, and of £48,000,000 in 1923-24. The 
tremendous surplus in 1920-21 was not the re- 
sult so much of real savings as of large receipts 
from sales of surplus war materials. The stand- 
ard rate of the income tax was reduced from 
six to five shillings on the pound sterling, for 
it was expected that the revival of business due 


GREAT BRITAIN 567 GREAT BRITAIN 
1913 1920 1921 
IMPORTS By 2 & 

APR DEGDY)) 21d eaaee a sls syric,eb Ans eeepc ec} . othatlady... ghee 5,817,118 6,905,042 4,518,390 
PNRERO IE SOO CR mere TDs 6 Fg Cele Lee anand ie 46: dat oranue dic. «) ol aieny 5,168,473 20,556,300 10,519,155 
Re EAE Te aa Pee NT oie nes Re aR Secon cs 4's 2 susttee cla aieene 4,154,054 7,438,580 5,860,387 
“a eis SPREE HO MNENE eo aN oh wld) a Ghd MORUP MICE RP GRGIAIS? of ols: foul w o's! tas, he 0 ol amenie Peaoitaa 9,717,267 5,408,000 

OT ee Beh Scien PER PRE IRE Git 145 (80 8ci0), LAC OREE CRS ERTRAR SED CEOMPMEE i ,269,344 12,283,352 6,233,132 
RS RTO EE ice cw elsl'S 5 eh sec pauas STO e repent if svcpele. dd aiepege, «ce BRRE 2,629,049 9,998,044 T SOOn tao 
RR Sara eats. Vets, Sia of ap he aR CN MIE aECE TL Ciers © oss ues, 9 eRe ale Need 2,300,115 4,212,323 2,100,847 
Ey hope De os BO aS ot ee ee Oe ee Ae re i, ear oe ae 3,883,339 Me 
ICES de Ec ccs Ae eee ORS Glee Paty Cre 16 Ce CREE DARE ee 7 8 Se 1,903,106 5,697,543 3,393,277. 
OCS AT Cie SHOOK Ss fiat Asie ee stalend cob, : ohevess euarenel oa «+ sabe 1,673,990 6,758,743 3,944,361 

EXPORTS 

PETITE Tin POOGS ur crete fae see eeene oe aera tena ei eneter eo sla c,e s elaeis es « cists 14,112,918 40,501,340 22,891,000 
OTe OAttionwe. 135.50 SHEAR eke ete eh ee eth NOLES STE. 2 WG 7 (415 730 12,590,627 8,702,551 
tert CS CLIC 6 5) D:..1.). ba taey aus te: clepenad ite PRAMS coal St ox ee ia shea opeyelttel so euehahe 6,307,811 20,724,142 13,569,470 
EATER TER | ee SRR Be eS ARS 1 Mie Sa cee emer 0.0 3,735,645 8,897,384 6,340,224 
PS SUCOVMGM RT. acter ecco cee) CREME TMT Re hen stata eG 4.6: ge, reo ates ole ve etal eae 3,582,925 8,677,050 7,819,472 
DLCRIMMVGSSGIB! | FL NY . SAM Mes. Sere ceric atthe one eave ele eels oo haiape 3,148,000 12,720,000 10,106,500 
Berd wl tdlasiiee ieee dr dae ccs. Tod eoo.. Doge 3,019,167 14,307,726 9,740,908 
OtLODe £OOGS Ba oe ele cveteta er tee heb dies farsi 6 sé>:'e) oc 6 peoanomer edth~ + eis 2,122,000 12,896,900 Mp SETS 
POO ELOM IG eat: 6 cise. an See ceee ee Sea Wola cy hin aS a. 4 > 8h d's Ye spe eo heme thar’ 06 hae 2,269,340 7,246,187 6,514,22 
PIOMIG- Mad Oe SDILILGmeMn tence set dels + cs aie eee seh el ere cnelene 2,008,500 8,406,871 4,905,179 
WVERICHINGK yi stlsih chert Petseb ela cache el Ste chehelctld «2 teckel swelich al ditiy «0 ee aks 785,978 4,038.225 2,645,465 
to lowered taxation would increase receipts. 
Results justified this bold policy, and in the . Yeah nhak baie eee rulyd bean 
1923-24 budget the standard rate of the income Sinking panier ratte orn ee rie rd eed 
tax was reduced to 4s. Gd. per pound, and the Road improvement fund 1394951  14/090,000 
corporations profit tax was also reduced. Con- Local taxation accounts 9,734,128 13,662,000 
trary to the usual British practice, supplemen- 4224 settlement ......... ......-. 1,209,000 

} : ; Payments for Northern Ire- 
tary credits totaling £13,078,100 for various un- lanidincie ease tinhons Wee ip hs 3,967,000 
expected contingencies had to be voted during Other consolidated funds 1,693,890 2,803,000 
January and February, 1924. The actual re- Fer aa ate ORO air force . tigate ep iain! 
ceipts in 1913-14 were £198,242,897, and 1p) JPost Amcetandeeavencer dene: sow” ane 
1923-24, were £837,169,000, while expenditures partmenta’ CL Qhk Goe es xe. 29,090,000 60,634,000 
7 ( , respectively. a en et eee 

were £197,492,969 and £788,840,000, respectively Totab TE LOA Ghee. &. 197,492,969 788,840,000 


The table below shows the exchequer receipts 
in the fiseal years 1913-14 and 1923-24: 


REVENUE 1913-14 1923-24 
USLOMISWr er, cr ckedal fee ergst oe sei os £35,450,000 £119,958,000 
EX CISQMA Ss CLete Re rch ete stesraters a 39,590,000 147,970,000 
Mot ome duties top aeseat. SOT EYE 2 14,691,000 
Hi Sta ter Auities bslaléed hicnsuekeh ane 27,359,000 57,800,000 
Dall Sie s deco ss: aves § Gers ort 9,966,000 21,570,000 
Land tax, house duty, etc.. 2,700,000 2,760,000 
Land value duties ....... EE OOO Pe MTL IF 
Encome stax. fap aite ss, «hoes 47,249,000 269,331,000 
Si DERE LRT pak cas chs aia he ckal bouche ats ai 60,640,000 
Horporatvion proutismtax e: ee weiss aes 23,340,000 
HOStwT Once WAI Oe 30,800,000 52,800,000 
Crown PLANS cis .< ped « Sherer 530,000 920,000 
IMterest OM 1OAN Sag sites a 3 1,579,972 12,607,000 
IMISCELLANCOMSY ais cetera cue 4 ate 2,303,925 52,782,000 

Total) :t-b-) eal ote aad 198,242,897 837,169,000 


For expenditures during the same years see 
table at top of next column. 

The funded debt on Mar. 31, 1914, was £586,- 
717,872; liability in respect of terminable an- 
nuities, £29,552,219; unfunded debt, £35,000,000, 
making a total “dead weight” debt of £651,270,- 


following table shows the standing of the public 
debt on Dee. 31, 1922, and 1923: 


ITEMS Dec. 31, Dec. 31, 
(In hundred thousands) 1922 1923 
BDundedo~ deb te deg snin meantime w Palate ei oes £314 £314 
Terminablemannwitiosn. asa secace es an. as. 14 
3% per cent conversion loans ..... 690 683 
Otheriwar lOanse ta «cis eee anes Gers eas 2,548 PEASY 
SUA ELTELOL oLeyaretete wt y iS lel Haig UA Re 1,839 1,842 
National savings certificates ........ 350 367 
Others debainih eset Hae fs ee ete. 1,071 1,149 
Others capitan .aebt-c4 i. kvenarcdoye 4 de. a). 6 68 
Floating debt— 
Ways and means advances ......... 222 211 
Treasury OUlst Aue Je WO hel Ye ede eve 719 649 
POUR oer meee pets outcry shal Cea: s: <i cteka ate 7,835 7,868 


On Apr. 29, 1924, Philip Snowden, Chancellor 
of the Exchequer, presented an estimated budget 
for 1924-25, balancing at £794,050,000. The 
chief feature of this budget was the repeal of 
the McKenna duties on motor cars, musical in- 
struments, clocks, and films, effective Aug. l, 
1924. The corporation tax was to be repealed, 
entertainment tax reduced, and the “breakfast 
table” duties reduced by half: 


091. Additional capital liabilities of £56,384,- 
010 brought the gross debt to £707,654,110. The 

REVENUE 000’s 

omitted 
GUSLOMS Ue ore nts cpa ee tent ea oe tee cid aren chee £101,800 
IDE. KR MAL REAR R Bb eS eke SE ee ime BPE ee 135,900 
INT GGOTOY CUDbLCS Wi. 2, Sie Labi Sees se) eee, 15,600 
Stet cA ILG1GS 9 73} ch« .<p siebe Seem eh la MO, <i food vane 56,000 
BSL ATIT DG a eeE Lc: cies cue: 16. cise. sunc  EORR ee no ene ho 21,000 
ERITON: OLCE foe occ sc cea Male ene Semecteane terme chore 1,250 
Linea. Lr AA. SRPNADIS see eae 265,000 
Biper, t8% se fepi. « Halah » fafsighaiau yh. tebe 61,000 
PPCOBES COL OUUSE res hous; ch bhevenocedhingeke’ Baan Ael c hosel 8,000 
MSE IOEBUIOUG CEs 5 <> ocx age 2s are 08 pha wipro mteia aes 20,000 
PONG OTL GG Urns c elses, 5b ete 0 'O ssh oho he Auten ettatar ah atte 53,500 
Grown . landstes ant sb) Sp. fo eee a Sk Cae Sa. 900 
MITE TORL A Oliee LOTS <a db «. oft oy 0y a bj npaho.akedn aes 12,250 

Miscellaneous: 

OTA Er yy waa a tel chs se sss) e ala chereteneiane 11,850 
Specials awe 120.) 25... EAP rahi hr ae 30,000 
794,050 


EXPENDITURE 000’s 

omitted 
Nationale d@ btn services. mci sss, ssc Se © ¢sra sis £350,000 
Northern SEreland'twe rs. fl eo eR 3,500 
Road) improventent fundinoss.n. feos se! 15,000 
Local taxationesdaecoutsin sy! cag « sheers oe 13,150 
WandseseCutlenloitn memes ucts che) <c'sue o.4 a hie alates 750 
Othermrconsolidateds funds 1c a. sf ee eenede 2,440 
Army Geer etatere eee OSB ATER 45,000 
IN ONY isp eee eh aay wi ha bes er teeees espe ia olle 55,800 
A132 SOL ViG Gai wee cis. oo c,s a», alels apse -h9 ic oh eudibeaere 14°51 4 
Civil? Servicesmerrt toe oe te tak a gara aieeene 227,573 
Customs department! s/s 2205). aes aaa n hy fp 
Post office department ....... 2 Give eta 51,081 

790,026 
Surplisy Hevea steve en. o's tol oh dd betas syheale ee r 4,024 

794,050 


GREAT BRITAIN 568 


Although the Irish Free State was to be 
given full fiscal autonomy by the Irish Free 
State Act of 1922, taxation in force at the 
time of establishment of the Free State con- 
tinued unaltered until Mar. 31, 1923, and Brit- 
ish and Free State finances were intertwined 
to a considerable extent during the 1922-23 
fiscal year. For that year total expenditures 
amounted to £29,600,000 and total revenue to 
£27,900,000. After adjustments in the accounts 
of the two governments, the total deficit was ap- 
proximately £4,000,000. The following table 
shows the result of the 1923-24 budget and the 
estimates for 1924-25 as presented to the Dail 
on Apr. 25, 1924: 


ITEMS 1923-24 1924-25 

Revenue: 
GURLGMIS! ota's scend eA ee Be aes £8,220,000 £7,789,000 
UXGINC th enters sc cetrit t,o cae 9,337,000 17,744,000 
Mista terduties ic-z.cccsumucter eck 1,000,000 925,000 


SIRT nO Utes saan, <ieac tenets 
Income and super tax ...... 5,175,000 5,000,000 
EXCISE PEGUESH Gy Ee Gedehelss eeouras re 0 


eeoe rt eee 


Corporation Gax AG Was oc jotcteasse 360,000 250,000 
MOtOr AUTICSIK Le Hee ete © keene che 400,000 350,000 
Postal, telegraph and tele- - 
NONE MSCLVICESe a fascuc) sherescaehe 1,970,000 1,792,300 
Miscellaneous foccce<.+j0's"etets ole 4,403,600 3,352,000 
To Gal Eee: ss chcccuces ts, ete 31,455,600 27,687,300 
Expenditure : 
Central fund services ....... 3,226,199 4,472,482 
Supply services 
Armyn to ee Cie Obs Re ae 10,581,214 38,927,145 
Property losses compensation 4,106,308 7,333,000 
Pu blicy education as. tp ae 3,832,763 3,650,679 
Old age pensions ........ 3,144,138 2,919,200 
Post iofice, eect e 2,604,001 2,666,960 
Other services os. eee TAA Sor TESTO 
ROCA Yn a false Nee 38,639,355 36,346,243 
HISTORY 


On the Eve of the War. So numerous and 
so vitally important were the events crowded 
into the decade 1914-24 that the historian may 
well regard these momentous years as one of 
the most significant periods in British history. 
Under the shock of worldwide war, the balanced 
poise of the two-party system and the compla- 
cent political moderation inherited from the 
Victorians were suddenly destroyed; and epoch- 
al changes, to consummate which in calmer times 
would have required generations, were accom- 
plished with startling rapidity. By a Reform 
Bill (1918) more sweeping than those of 1832, 
1867, and 1884, were enfranchised 8,000,000 
citizens; the Labor party, stimulated by world 
unrest, grew from infancy to maturity almost 
over night, and a socialistic Labor government, 
hitherto considered a subject only for imagina- 
tive novelists and fanatical revolutionists, be- 
came a reality in 1924; the Gordian knot of 
Irish home rule, at which successive generations 
of cautious British statesmen had vainly fum- 
bled, was cut with one brusque stroke in 1921; 
the self-governing dominions, suddenly coming 
of age, required a swift transformation from 
empire into commonwealth, while Indian and 
Egyptian nationalism, taking a sudden spurt, 
made what before 1914 would have been con- 
sidered incredibly rapid progress toward auton- 
omy. 

Before dealing with these and other events in 
detail, it may be helpful to summarize the sit- 
uation in Great Britain on the eve of the War. 
Since 1905 the Liberals had been in power, un- 
der the leadership, first, of Sir Henry Campbell- 


GREAT BRITAIN 

Bannerman and then of Herbert H. Asquith. 
The latter, keen of intellect, coldly brilliant in 
debate, temporizing and conciliatory but always 
dignified in action, had skillfully presided over 
a Liberal cabinet comprising both aggressive 
chauvinists like Winston Churchill and. reputed 
pacifists like Sir Edward Grey, Lord Morley, 
and John Burns; radical reformers like David 
Lloyd George and men of. more conservative 
liberalism, such as Reginald McKenna; and he 
had held together a parliamentary majority 
precariously combining about 270 Liberals, 84 
Irish Nationalists, and about 42 Laborites 
(figures for elections of December, 1910). Such 
a coalition, inherently weak, was necessary to 
confront the 274 Unionists who solidly filled the 
Opposition benches. To reward its loyal Irish 
Nationalist supporters, the Liberal cabinet had 
persistently, though perhaps without personal 
enthusiasm, endeavored to pass an Irish Home 
Rule Bill (introduced in 1912, passed by the 
Commons and rejected by the Lords twice in 
1913, passed by the Commons a third time in 
the spring of 1914). To conciliate the Labor 
party, and also defer to the sincere convictions 
of the more radical Liberals, salaries had been 
given to Members of Parliament, trade unions 
had been protected in their industrial and po- 
litical action by favorable laws, and a remark- 
able series of social reforms had been enacted, 
such, for example, as the extension of work- 
men’s compensation (1906), regulation of 
sweated industries (1909), the minimum wage 
law for miners (1912), old age pensions (1908), 
and national sickness insurance for workers 
(1911), government labor exchanges (1909), 
and free meals for poor school-children (1906). 
In pursuance of traditional Liberal policies, the 
‘House of Lords had been curbed (1911); a 
measure against plural voting and another 
against the privileges of the Established Church 
in Wales had been brought forward, though not 
yet finally carried over the Lords’ stubborn ob- 
struction; a “land reform” campaign against 
the landed aristocracy had been rather luridly 
launched by the valiant and vitriolic Chancellor 
of the Exchequer, Lloyd George, in 1913-14; 
and, above all, the sacred principle of free trade 
had been faithfully preserved against imperialist 
and protectionist assaults. 

In July, 1914, just before the war clouds 
broke, the political atmosphere in Britain was 
unusually electric. Suffragettes were attempt- 
ing to win the franchise by violent demonstra- 
tions; London was in the throes of a building 
trades strike; titled landlords were nervously 
awaiting the impending conflict over land re- 
form; the stalwarts of the House of Lords were 
predicting dire civic convulsions if the cabinet 
should carry out its announced intention of 
promulgating the Irish Home Rule and Welsh 
Church Disestablishment bills, which, having 
been passed by the Commons a third time in the 
spring of 1914, could now, under the Parliament 
Act, be presented for royal signature regardless 
of the Lords’ opposition; high army officers had 
virtually mutinied rather than accept responsi- 
bility for maintaining order in Ulster; and in 
Ireland unlawfully organized volunteer armies, 
representing respectively the Ulster Unionists 
and the Irish Nationalists, were arming them- 
selves with smuggled rifles for an apparently in- 
evitable civil war. Indeed, blood had already 
been spilled at Dublin in a clash between sol- 
diers and National Volunteers. Like leaves be- 


ee 


GREAT BRITAIN 


fore the hurricane these issues were swept into 
the background by the tempest which arose in 
the Balkan storm centre in midsummer, 1914. 

Entry into the War. That the British 
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Sir Ed- 
ward Grey, sincerely desired if possible to avert 
the catastrophe of August, 1914, post-bellum 
historical research seems to have proved almost 
beyond question; that by secret understandings 
with France (1904, 1906, 1912) and Russia 
(1907, 1908) he had so tied his hands as to 
make British intervention in any general war 
virtually inevitable, seems also to be the ver- 
dict of scholars; but whether he could have 
preserved peace by taking a position more open- 
ly and unreservedly either for or against France 
and Russia, is debatable. Though he had been 
warned by the German ambassador as early as 
July 6 that the Serajevo incident might pro- 
duce an Austro-Russian crisis, Grey waited, 
inertly hopeful, until July 23, when he asked 
the Austrian Ambassador what action Vienna 
intended to take against Serbia. Although dis- 
interested in the merits of the Austro-Serbian 
dispute, Grey feared Austro-Russian complica- 
tions, and on July 24 proposed mediation by 
the four other Great Powers. While the British 
fleet, which had assembled on July 16 for prac- 
tice manceuvres, was ordered by the ever-watch- 
ful Churchill on July 26 to remain mobilized, 
Grey continued during the next nerve-racking 
week to urge mediation, while he urged the cabi- 
net to decide for intervention or neutrality in the 
coming struggle; if neutrality, he added, some 
other man must be given his portfolio. But the 
eabinet, almost equally divided, could make no 
decision, and therefore Grey of necessity had to 
use many “ifs” and “buts” in his communica- 
tions to European capitals; he was able neither 
to offer unqualified pledges to France nor to 
make unreserved threats to Germany. In fact, 
as late as July 29 he told the French Ambas- 
sador, Cambon, that Britain’s course was still 
undecided; to the German Lichnowsky he issued 
the famous warning that “if the issue did be- 
come such that we thought British interests re- 
quired us to intervene, we must intervene at 
once.” When the German government, taking 
alarm, offered a pledge not to annex French ter- 
ritory (not including French colonies), Grey 
heatedly refused to “bargain away” his loyalty 
to France or his interest in the neutrality of 
Belgium. If Germany made any “reasonable” 
pacific proposal, and France and Russia rejected 
it, Britain would stand aloof, he later informed 
Germany; otherwise “we should be drawn in.” 
Even on July 31, while Russia and Austria were 
mobilizing, while Unionist journals in England 
were urging intervention and the Liberal press 
was advocating neutrality, while Poincaré and 
Cambon were pleading for a definite promise of 
aid, Grey was still endeavoring to keep a “free 
_ hand.” To a German offer to respect Belgian 
neutrality and the French colonies, Grey still 
reiterated, “We must keep our hands free.” On 
August 2, however, Unionist leaders, Lord 
Landsdowne and Bonar Law, sent a letter to 
the Premier stating their opinion that to hes- 
itate in supporting France and Russia “would 
be fatal to the honor and security of the United 
Kingdom.” With this letter before them, the 
cabinet ministers authorized a promise to de- 
fend France against hostile action of the Ger- 
man fleet. Four ministers, strongly opposed to 
intervention, offered their resignations, but only 


569 


GREAT BRITAIN 


two, Burns and Lord Morley, insisted on with- 
drawing from a government which they felt was 
now committed to war. Meanwhile, the Ger- 
man ultimatum had been presented to Belgium, 
August 2, and Belgium appealed to England for 
“diplomatic intervention,” August 3. Such was 
the situation on the day when Grey made his 
celebrated speech before Parliament in revela- 
tion of the secret Grey-Cambon correspondence 
of 1912 and his promise of August 2 to defend 
the French coast; he discussed the menace to 
Belgium and lightly declared, “If we are en- 
gaged in war, we shall suffer but little more 
than if we stand aside.” Bonar Law pledged 
support; John Redmond, the Irish Nationalist 
leader, offered Ireland’s loyalty; only the La- 
bor leader, Ramsay Macdonald, seemed uncon- 
vinced. Assured of Parliamentary backing, the 
government on August 4 instructed Sir Edward 
Goschen, British ambassador in Berlin, to de- 
mand from Germany before midnight a pledge 
to respect Belgian neutrality. As _ expected, 
Germany refused, and on August 5 Premier As- 
quith informed the Commons that Great Brit- 
ain was at war with Germany, “to fulfill a 
solemn international obligation” (to Belgium) 
and ‘‘to vindicate the principle that small na- 
tionalities are not to be crushed, in defiance of 
international good faith, by the arbitrary will 
of a strong and overmastering Power.” Such 
undoubtedly was the-feeling of many English- 
men, but it is certainly not less true that Eng- 
land’s entanglement in the Triple Entente 
through imperialist bargains with France 
(1904) and Russia (1907) was also so strong a 
reason for intervening that Grey had favored 
intervention even before he knew that Belgium’s 
neutrality would be violated. 

Immediate Effects of War. Navy and army 
alike were prepared for the crisis, and efficiently 
prepared in so far as pre-war statesmen consid- 
ered necessary. The navy, already mobilized, 
steamed forthwith to its war stations in the 
North Sea, with Admiral Sir John Jellicoe in 
command, under the enthusiastic though perhaps 
too imaginative supervision of Winston Church- 
ill, First Lord of the Admiralty. The army 
had been organized by Lord Haldane (War 
Minister) to provide a Home Defence Force and 
a small Expeditionary Force of four infantry 
divisions and one cavalry division. Everything 
was ready “down to the last gaiter button,” 
when the Expeditionary Force was ordered to 
France under Sir John French in August. Lord 
Kitchener, famous for his military exploits in 
South Africa and the Sudan, took charge of 
the War Office and began to organize by vol- 
untary enlistment a new army, “Kitchener’s 
Army,” to reinforce the troops in France; for 
the war, he predicted, would last three years. 
Parliament, in patriotic loyalty, dropped its 
pre-war partisan quarrels and consented to act 
as a rubber-stamp for the government’s war 
measures, obediently voting a war credit of 
£100,000,000; an army increase of 100,000 men; 
a navy increase of 67,000 men; governmental 
control of railways and war insurance of trade; 
a Defence of the Realm Act providing court- 
martial for spies; restriction of the liquor traf- 
fic; a moratorium; and other emergency meas- 
ures. Even when the ministry decided to pro- 
mulgate as laws the controversial Welsh Church 
and Irish Home Rule bills, in September, 1914, 
together with a Suspensory Act, postponing 
their operation, the Unionists acquiesced, albeit 


GREAT BRITAIN 570 


Bonar Law and Sir Edward Carson, while de- 
claring their loyalty, accused the Asquith Cab- 
inet of violating the “party truce” which had 
been tacitly adopted in the presence of external 
peril. Despite the Suspensory Act, Mr. Red- 
mond, as Nationalist leader, was willing to ery 
“God save England,” when Parliament closed 
its session on September 19, and in a manifesto 
he exhorted Ireland to contribute its share of 
recruits for Kitchener’s army. As for the La- 
bor party, the pacifist Macdonald was replaced 
by the patriot Arthur Henderson as chairman, 
and only a minority continued to condemn the 
War. When Parliament reassembled in Novem- 
ber, to grant an additional war credit of £225,- 
000,000, a 100 per cent increase of the income 
tax as well as increased taxes on tea and beer, 
and an addition of 1,000,000 men to the army, 
the country began to realize the shortsighted 
levity of Sir Edward Grey’s prediction that 
England would suffer “but little more’ as a 
belligerent than as a neutral. Nevertheless 
loyalty and the party truce were still observed, 
and the government was permitted to conduct 
the war in secret, without political opposition 
or interference. So overwhelming was the pres- 
sure of multifarious unfamiliar problems on the 
cabinet that for greater efficiency, or rather for 
less inefficiency, the management of military 
and naval affairs was transferred in November, 
1914, from the full cabinet. to a War Council in 
which Asquith, Lord Kitchener, and Churchill, 
with the assistance of technical experts, decided 
major questions of war policy. Even so, there 
was much blundering and more negligence by 
well-intentioned but overburdened ministers. 
Lord Kitchener, particularly, insisted on bear- 
ing a load of War Office routine which bowed 
even his broad shoulders. Such mistakes nat- 
urally invited criticism; nor were the Unionists 
sufficiently bound by the party “truce” to re- 
frain from pointing out the ministry’s short- 
comings. See NAVIES OF THE WORLD. 

Fall of the Liberal Government. When 
Bonar Law said in December, 1914, that per- 
haps the Opposition had not criticized the gov- 
ernment enough, he was in effect heralding the 
advent of renewed though more or less covert 
partisan controversy, which ultimately com- 
pelled Premier Asquith to silence his critics by 
granting them portfolios in his cabinet. What 
the Opposition particularly censured was the 
government’s failure to provide adequate mu- 
nitions, but there were other grievances as well. 
Inflamed by German submarine outrages in the 
spring of 1915 and by the Bryce Committee’s 
report on German atrocities in Belgium, the 
war spirit now burned so fiercely that it de- 
manded more severe measures against enemy 
aliens and a more drastic blockade of Germany. 
England, it should be explained, had not yet 
east off the restrictions of the Declaration of 
London on her right to interfere with neutral 
shipping. Consumers, moreover, were  begin- 
ning to cry out against food profiteers and to 
demand rigorous price-control. The press was 
restive under the irksome restrictions on war 
news imposed by Sir Stanley Buckmaster’s 
Press Bureau. 
patriots were beginning to complain that vol- 
untary enlistment for Kitchener’s army not 
only failed to produce an adequate number of 
recruits but also operated very unfairly and 
drew workers and experts from industries in 
which they were indispensable, while shirkers 


Furthermore, the most ardent: 


GREAT BRITAIN 


stayed at home. Above all, two military fias- 
coes brought the cabinet under fire. One was 
the Dardanelles campaign, originally wunder- 
taken with Lord Kitchener’s approval as a 
means of relieving the Turkish pressure on the 
Russians, who had appealed for aid. This at- 
tack on the Straits in the spring of 1915 was 
eagerly sponsored by the civilian First Lord of 
the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, who in his 
autobiographical World Crisis tells how, in his 
opinion, the plan offered a possibility of decisive 
strategic gains but was stultified by Kitchener’s 
vacillation and preoccupation with the western 
front and by the opposition of Lord Fisher 
(First Sea Lord), the commanding admiral, 
and other naval officials. The failure, so 
tragically short of success, at Gallipoli, not only 
evoked bitter criticism from the public, but 
caused a serious rift in the War Council itself. 
This crisis coincided with a stormy public dis- 
cussion of the shortage of munitions, provoked 
by the disastrous battle of Neuve Chapelle 
(March, 1915), in which the General Staff’s 
hope of blasting a breach through the enemy 
lines was frustrated by a shortage of high ex- 
plosive shells. At any rate, so Colonel Rep- 
ington reported to the Times in May, and so the 
public believed, despite Asquith’s denials. The 
popular charge that munitions production had 
been inefficient and shortsighted could hardly be 
refuted. Until March, 1915, Lord Kitchener had 
permitted skilled munitions workers to enlist 
in the army for service in France and had 
failed to evolve any policy which would avert 
strikes and permit “dilution” with unskilled la- 
bor in munitions works. Nor had he adequately 
curbed munitions profiteers, or effectively or- 
ganized the industry. Until March, 1915, he 
chad insisted on placing contracts only with the 
big armament firms, ignoring small independ- 
ent contractors, and eschewing governmental 
control. A Defence of the Realm Act passed 
in the spring of 1915 and authorizing the gov- 
ernment to take over munitions plants was 
allowed to remain virtually a dead _ letter. 
Spurred by criticism, the War Minister, how- 
ever, did permit the formation in April of a 
committee headed by Lloyd George to control 
munitions contracts; it was the same Lloyd 
George who took the initiative in persuading 
the trade unions to put national security above 
labor interests, and who urged the Premier to 
reorganize the cabinet, including a department 
of munitions. 

The Coalition, 1915-16. Pressure from the 
energetic Welshman, the Opposition’s demand 
for a coalition, and the Churchill crisis com- 
bined to overcome Asquith’s predilection for 
party government. The Opposition, Bonar Law 
later said, could have turned the Liberal gov- 
ernment out at this time but instead consented 
to Asquith’s plan for a coalition cabinet. In 
the coalition formed in May, 1915, eight Union- 
ists were given ministerial posts, their leader, 
Bonar Law, taking the Colonial Office, Balfour 
the Admiralty (in place of Churchill, who re- 
ceived the Chancellorship of the Duchy of Lan- 
caster), Austen Chamberlain the India Office. 
Arthur Henderson, Labor leader, accepted the 
portfolio of Education; the truculent spokesmen 
of Ulster, Sir Edward Carson, became Attorney 
General; but Redmond, the Irish Nationalist, 
declined to join the cabinet. Perhaps most sig- 
nificant of all was the creation of a new Minis- 
try of Munitions (authorized by law, June 9, 


— 4 


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en inl ee 


.* 
a 


a 


— 


GREAT BRITAIN 


1915) with Lloyd George in charge. With char- 
acteristic vehemence, this rising minister threw 
his whole dynamic personality into the task of 
persuading, cajoling, and coercing if need be, 
employers, workers, and officials to collaborate 
in the supreme task of preparing the means of 
victory. By a Munitions of War Act (July 2) 
he forbade strikes and lockouts, obtained author- 
ity to regulate wages and profits in “controlled” 
munitions plants, provided for the recall of 
skilled workers from the army, and suspended 
restrictive trade union rules When the Welsh 
coal miners went on strike, he hurried in per- 
son to win them back to work. In person he 
begged the Trade Union Congress not to dis- 
grace labor by shirking patriotic duty. In 
person he solicited the aid of experts and or- 
ganizers. By July 28 he could report the en- 
rolment of nearly 100,000 munitions volunteers 
and the establishment of 20 national factories. 
On his own responsibility, in August, he order- 
ed preparation of munitions for an army of 100 
divisions, though critics thought so huge a force 
inconceivable. His audacity in expanding the 
output of heavy guns and other supplies was 
soon vindicated, for in the later months of 
1916 British artillery in France was firing as 
many tons of munitions in an hour as it had 
fired in a day during the first year. 

It was Lloyd George, again, to whom the 
Cabinet had to turn in 1916 to deal with the 
Trish question, after the Easter Rebellion in 
Ireland (q.v.). Asquith had visited Dublin, 
and, having received the impression that the 
existing government had broken down, author- 
ized the successful munitions minister to negoti- 
ate a compromise by which the Home Rule Act 
of 1914, hitherto a dead letter, might immedi- 
ately be put into force. Lloyd George proposed 
to apply the act but to exclude six Ulster 
counties during the War and to preserve Irish 
representation at Westminster only through 
the war period. This was too much. for the 
Unionists in the Cabinet to swallow, however, 
and Asquith, by weakly permitting them to 
qualify and denature the proposal, cut the 
ground from under the negotiations. The re- 
sulting failure merely antagonized the National- 
ists, and thereafter the Cabinet allowed the 
Unionists to dictate repressive Irish measures, 
while the Sinn Fein movement in ensuing years 
gradually won the masses away from the more 
moderate Nationalist tactics. 

In dealing with the man power question the 
Asquith Coalition was hardly less inept. Vain- 
ly attempting the impossible task of pleasing 
both the conscriptionist Northcliffe press and 
the anticonscriptionist trade unions, Asquith 
compromised at first on a National Registra- 
tion Bill; then induced Lord Derby in October, 
1915, to conduct a spirited voluntary recruiting 
campaign, reinforced with a threat to apply 
compulsion if this failed; then, early in 1916, 
put through a Compulsory Service Act, apply- 
ing merely to bachelors and childless widowers 
between 18 and 40, excluding Ireland, and ex- 
empting clergymen, necessary war workers, sole 
supporters of families, conscientious objectors, 
and the physically unfit. Both the jingo press 
and the trade unions were displeased, for op- 
posite reasons. Assailed by prominent critics 
in both houses of Parliament, the Premier had 
to plead for the life of the Cabinet, and _ pre- 
pare a new compromise in April, going a step 
further toward universal conscription, but still 


571 


GREAT BRITAIN 


with many reservations. This was so coldly re- 
ceived that at length, on May 3, 1916, the gov- 
ernment produced a Universal Military Service 
Bill applying to all men between 18 and 41; 
Ireland was still excluded, and exemptions were 
so numerous that the Asquith government re- 
ceived little applause for its tardy and hesitant 
conversion to universal service. 

During its term of office, from May, 1915, to 
December, 1916, the Asquith Coalition dealt with 
numerous other matters. Parliament should 
have terminated in December, 1915, under the 
Parliament Act, but it prolonged itself by stat- 
ute, without elections. The blockade of Germany 
was tightened by increasing the list of contra- 
band commodities and finally by abandoning the 
Declaration of London, in June, 1916. A Joint 
Air Board, representing army and navy in- 
terests, was set up in May, 1916, to stimulate 
production of airplanes. Huge votes of credit 
were granted; the cost of the war increased 
from £2,700,000 to £3,500,000 a day in the half 
year from’ March to September, 1915, and to 
£5,000,000 a day in November. By March, 1916, 
the votes of credit for the War reached a total 
of £1,782,000,000. Most of this expenditure 
was covered by war loans, but the income-tax, 
doubled by Lloyd George, was raised 40 per cent 
more by his successor, McKenna, in September, 
1915; an excess profits tax of 50 per cent was 
applied to war profiteers; duties on sugar, tea, 
tobacco, ete., were increased, and heavy taxes 
levied on imported motor cars, films, and other 
luxuries. In April, 1916, McKenna again raised 
the income tax, to a maximum of 5 shillings 
on the pound, the excess profits tax to 60 per 
eent, and other taxes proportionately. In 
courageous self-taxation during the War, Great 
Britain was unique and financially prudent. 

The Coalition Cabinet suffered more than one 
defection before it finally collapsed. Sir John 
Simon, Home Secretary, resigned as a protest 
against conscription; Sir Edward Carson, in 
November, 1915, because of the government’s 
bungling Balkan policy; Winston Churchill, be- 
cause he was excluded from the War Committee 
of the Cabinet which was formed on Nov. ll, 
1915. Lord Kitchener, en route to Russia, was 
lost when his ship struck a mine, in June, 1916, 
and was replaced as War Minister by the in- 
defatigable Lloyd George. Sir Edward Grey, 
incidentally, accepted the title of Viscount Grey 
of Falloden and entered the House of Lords, re- 
taining the portfolio of Foreign Affairs, but 
leaving defense of the Coalition’s conduct, in 
the Commons, to his able under-secretary, Lord 
Robert Cecil. 

The Lloyd George Government, 1916-18. 
The fall of the Asquith Cabinet was caused 
by the long accumulation of ineptitudes, com- 
promises, hesitations, vacillations, some of which 
have been chronicled above. It was precipitated 
by demands for a small war cabinet. Even in 
the autumn of 1915, Lord Cromer and Sir Ed- 
ward Carson had exposed the unwieldiness of 
the cabinet. To meet their criticism, Asquith 
had formed a war committee (himself, Bal- 
four, Lloyd George, Bonar Law, McKenna), but 
this was merely a committee of the cabinet. 
In December, 1916, Lloyd George, backed by the 
Times, demanded that supreme responsibility 
for war affairs be given to a committee, con- 
sisting of himself, Sir Edward Carson, Bonar 
Law, and a representative of Labor. This 
would have meant transferring war policy to 


GREAT BRITAIN 572 


an inner cabinet headed by Lloyd George, with 
Asquith remaining the puppet premier of the 
ministry as a whole. Naturally Asquith re- 
fused; thereon Lloyd George resigned, and a 
cabinet crisis ensued. Bonar Law, on being in- 
vited by the King, confessed his inability to 
govern without Asquith’s support and recom- 
mended the War Minister. Accordingly David 
Lloyd George headed the new Coalition Cabinet 
which was formed in December, 1916. To se- 
cure efficiency he instituted a striking constitu- 
tional innovation by creating a small war cab- 
inet of five members, to sit daily, and to have 
absolute control of Britain’s war effort. The 
Premier himself, Lord Milner of South African 
fame, and the Labor leader, Henderson, consti- 
tuted the controlling triumvirate, but Lord 
Curzon, leader of the House of Lords, and 
Bonar Law, leader of the Lower House and 
Chancellor of the Exchequer, were also mem- 
bers, though more or less preoccupied with 
other duties. While the War Cabinet was nar- 
rowed down to five persons, the number of other 
ministers was increased. Five new ministries 
were created: Shipping Control (Sir Joseph 
Maclay, a shipping magnate), Food Control 
(Lord Devonport, a grocery magnate), Air 
(Lord Cowdray, a contractor and oil magnate), 
Labor (Hodge, a lLaborite), and Pensions 
(George Barnes, another Laborite). Lord Grey, 
who refused to desert Asquith, was replaced at 
the Foreign Office by the aged veteran, Balfour; 
Sir Albert Stanley, previously director of om- 
nibus and underground systems, headed the 
Board of Trade; Lord Rhondda, a coal baron, 
took charge of Local Government; Prothero, for- 
mer manager of the Duke of Bedford’s estates, 
was appropriately selected for Agriculture; 
H. A. L. Fisher, a famous historian, was well 
chosen for Education; Sir Edward Carson took 
the Admiralty; Lord Derby, the War Office; 
Walter Long, Colonies; Dr. Addison, Munitions; 
Sir Frederick Cawley, the sinecure Duchy of 
Lancaster; Sir George Cave, the Home Office; 
Sir Robert Finlay became Lord Chancellor, and 
Sir Gordon Hewart, Solicitor General. It will 
be observed that Premier Lloyd George, boldly 
departing from tradition, had preferred experts, 
especially business experts, to politicians as 
heads of administrative departments, and that 
the Unionists, hitherto a minority in the Coali- 
tion, now predominated in the War Cabinet 
and in the strategic ministerial posts. 

Of the Lloyd George government great things 
were expected, for the name of its premier had 
become a synonym for patriotic energy. As 
budget-maker, then as Munitions Minister, then 
as War Minister, he had exhibited unsurpassed 
vigor and enthusiasm; ho had stirred the Allied 
world by his ringing, if inelegant, declaration 
that the fight with Germany “must be to a 
finish,” to ‘fa knockout.” To him Englishmen 
now looked for miracles. Of these, there was 
none, but of vigor there was much. The Ger- 
man peace offer made in December, 1916, was 
rejected. During the remainder of the War, 
new conscription laws were passed, raising the 
age limit, combing over the supposedly exempt 
and unfit, and culminating in the 1918 law 
which drafted men up to 55 years of age and 
which for the first time included Ireland. To 
defeat the aim of the German submarine cam- 
paign of 1917, the government assumed control 
of British shipping and built new tonnage with 
desperate haste. For zeal in this matter there 


take any decided stand on the issue. 


/ 


GREAT BRITAIN 


was indeed necessity, for in 1917 some 4,009,537 
tons of British shipping, out of a total of 20,- 
000,000, were sunk, as compared with only 
1,163,474 built; and in the first nine months of 
1918 the Germans succeeded in sinking only 
1,925,512, as compared with 1,310,741 con- 
structed. The submarine campaign, by lessen- 
ing the cargo space available for food imports, 
threatened England with slow starvation; to 
avert this peril the government not only estab- 
lished food-rationing and price-regulation, but 
also offered bounties for domestic grain produc- 
tion and fixed a minimum wage of 25 shillings 
for agricultural labor. When reproached for 
not doing more, Bonar Law declared that in 
1917, while putting 820,600 additional men into 
the army, the government had brought 1,000,000 
more acres under the plow, producing 850,000 
tons of grain and 3,000,000 tons of potatoes, and 
had built over 1,000,000 tons of shipping, as 
compared with about 500,000 the previous year. 
Furthermore, mines, textiles, railways, and the 
liquor traffic were brought under governmental 
control, for reasons dictated by war necessity. 
Votes of credit, of course, became larger and 
more frequent as the cost of the War rose to 
almost £7,000,000 sterling per diem in 1917-18. 
The total credits granted for the War were 
brought by appropriations in 1918 to the stupen- 
dous total of £8,742,000,000, of which about 
£1,465,000,000 was lent to other Allies. As be- 
fore, the bulk of the burden was passed on in 
the form of debt to future generations, but 
Great Britain in the years 1917-18 taxed her- 
self unflinchingly. The normal income tax was 
raised to 6 shillings in the pound, with super- 
taxes running up to 4s. 6d.; increases were put 
on liquor, tea, sugar, tobacco, luxuries, postal 
rates, etc. Of the many measures adopted to 
preserve the morale of labor and industry un- 
der the stress of war, perhaps the most sig- 
nificant was the Whitley Reconstruction Com- 
mittee’s Report, June, 1917, proposing the es- 
tablishment. of Joint Industrial Councils repre- 
senting capital and labor in each industry, to 
settle disputes amicably, and, more important, 
to nip misunderstandings and controversies in 
the bud. The proposal was only a recommenda- 
tion, not a compulsory law, but it was volun- 
tarily adopted in some trades, and it bore wit- 
ness to the government’s desire to build for a 
future beyond the anticipated military victory. 
Another of the Lloyd George Cabinet’s war 
measures, of far less importance in the long run, 
was the wholesale Anglicization of the royal 
family, by substituting good English names for 
hereditary surnames of too Teutonic a flavor; 
in July, 1918, the reigning dynasty, the house of 
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, became the house of 
Windsor; a month earlier, the Prince of Teck 
had been ordered to change his family name to 


Cambridge, and the Battenbergs translated 
themselves into Mountbattens. 
Important Reforms. Constitutional and 


political reforms of far-reaching significance 
were adopted in the midst of frenzied efforts to 
win the War, during the years 1917-18. Prob- 
ably the most remarkable of these was the 
Representation of the People Act of January, 
1918. The desire for reform of the franchise 
had been bruited before Asquith’s fall, particu- 
larly by the suffragettes, but the Asquith Cab- 
inet, divided against itself, had been unable to 
The Lloyd 
George government took action on the basis of 


I eS ae 


ln 


0 eee ee, eee eee ee 


| 


GREAT BRITAIN 


a report from a Speaker’s committee represent- 
ing all parties, and in May, 1917, presented 
a bill embodying the committee’s proposals and 
allowing the Commons to do as they pleased 
regarding the controversial questions of woman 
suffrage and proportional representation. By 
214 to 17, the house incorporated woman suf- 
frage; but proportional representation it reject- 
ed, excepting for university elections. The vote 
was given not to all women (that would have 
been too radical a step for British politicians), 
but to women over 30 years of age, who were 
qualified as local government electors by oc- 
cupying land or premises of the yearly value of 
not less than £5, or of a dwelling house, or 
whose husbands occupied guch property; more- 
over, women over 30, graduates of universities, 
were entitled to votes for their university repre- 
sentatives in Parliament. It may be remarked, 
by the way, that later in the same year a bill 
was passed enabling women to sit in Parliament, 
and that in 1922 three women were elected; in 
1923, eight. The complicated existing fran- 
chises for men were swept away and replaced 
by a simple six months’ residence requirement 
for all males over 21 (except conscientious ob- 
jectors) and sailors and soldiers (who were in- 
cluded at the age of 19). Plural voting was 
restricted; a citizen could vote for his place of 
business or for his university as well as his 
residence, but not in more than two constitu- 
encies as of old. The registration period was 
reduced from 12 months to six. Also all polls 
were to be held on the same day, in a general 
election. Finally, the membership of the House 
of Commons was increased from 670 to 707, the 
seats being distributed one for each 70,000 in- 
habitants in Great Britain, and one for each 43,- 
000 in Ireland. It is hardly an exaggeration to 
describe this as the greatest of England’s historic 
Reform Bills, for it enfranchised about 2,000,000 
men and 6,000,000 women; and since only about 
8,350,000 had been previously qualified to vote, 
the Act of 1918 almost exactly doubled the 
electorate. 

A second reform of some importance was 
wrought by the Fisher Education Bills of 
1917 and 1918, requiring compulsory school- 
attendance of children up to 14 years of age 
and either 280 hours of continuation schooling 
in the next four years or full-time education 
up to 16. Half-time employment in Lancashire 
cotton mills was prevented by a provision that 
children under 12 could not be employed at all 
and children over 12 only after school-hours 
to 8 P.M. Public elementary and continuation 
schools were to be free; the pay of teachers 
was increased; and a new system of grants or 
subsidies for secondary schools was established. 
These reforms added almost £15,000,000 sterling 
to the budget, but they corrected educational 
deficiencies which had long been deplored. 

Lloyd George also endeavored to solve the 
Irish problem in this same busy period. In 
May, 1917, he addressed letters to Redmond 
and Carson, offering immediate Home Rule 
for southern Ireland, a five-year exclusion for 
the Ulster counties, and a joint council of “dele- 
gations” for all Ireland; as an alternative, he 
suggested that an Irish convention be asked to 
submit a better plan. The latter course was 
chosen, and on July 25 the Convention met at 
Dublin. Representative leaders of various par- 
ties and interests were nominated to participate. 
The Sinn Fein party, however, scornfully ab- 


573 


GREAT BRITAIN 


sented itself from a body which it regarded as 
misrepresentative and undemocratic. Without 
Sinn Fein, the Convention could hardly claim 
to speak for Ireland; nevertheless it drew up a 
report which was issued in April, 1918, and 
ignored by the British government as well as 
by Irish parties. See IRELAND. 

The broader aspects of imperial statesman- 
ship likewise challenged attention. Soon after 
the Lloyd George Cabinet was formed, the 
Colonial Secretary (Long) cabled to the 
premiers of the self-governing dominions an in- 
vitation to attend an imperial war conference. 
In March, 1917, the so-called Imperial War 
Cabinet began a series of sessions; it comprised 
the premiers of Canada, South Africa, New 
Zealand, Newfoundland, and Australia (Hughes 
of Australia arriving late), and the Secretary 
of State for India, together with the British 
War Cabinet. At the conclusion of the sittings, 
in May, Lloyd George said the experiment had 
been so successful that he proposed to make it 
a regular annual affair. True to his word, he 
convened the Imperial War Cabinet for a 
second session in the summer of 1918. In this 
way he hoped to solve the much-discussed prob- 
lem of giving the dominions some voice in shap- 
ing imperial policy, without plunging into the 
difficulties inherent in any federal parliament. 
Side by side with the Imperial War Cabinet, in 
each of the years 1917 and 1918, there met in 
London an Imperial Conference, embracing a 
wider colonial representation, under the presi- 
dency of the Colonial Secretary. The effect of 
these conferences was not only to knit more 
closely the bonds of imperial political loyalty, 
but also to reinforce the tendency toward im- 
perial economic solidarity, involving, for the 
mother country, abandonment of the traditional 
free trade dogmas. Even before the conference 
of 1917, a committee on commercial policy head- 
ed by Lord Balfour of Burleigh had recommend- 
ed, in February, 1917, the establishment of ad- 
ditional customs duties, with colonial preference 
and artificial stimulation of colonial production. 
The Conference of 1918 recommended measures 
to control raw materials, especially minerals, 
and to safeguard essential industries. At its 
conclusion, Bonar Law, Unionist leader, boasted 
that the principle of imperial preference was 
at last established. Even without this boast, it 
was clear enough that in forming a cabinet in 
which Unionists predominated, a cabinet de- 
pendent chiefly on Unionist votes in the Com- 
mons, Lloyd George had made defense of the 
Liberal free trade principle against Unionist 
protectionism difficult if not impossible. (See 
BritisH Empire.) It may be added in this 
connection that the Lloyd George government, 
desirous of conciliating India, permitted India 
nominally to participate in the Imperial War 
Cabinet and Imperial Conference, allowed India 
also to establish a protective customs duty on 
cotton, and permitted the Secretary of State for 
India, Mr. Montagu, in collaboration with the 
viceroy, Lord Chelmsford, to draft a scheme of 
Indian self-government which, inadequate as it 
might appear to Indian Nationalists, was scarce- 
ly less than revolutionary from the Downing 
Street viewpoint. See INDIA, 

Several important ministerial changes in the 
period 1917-18 should be noted in passing. An 
investigating committee’s report on General 
Townshend’s_ ill-starred Mesopotamian cam- 
paign revealed such serious mismanagement on 


GREAT BRITAIN 


the part of the Indian government that in 
July, 1917, Chamberlain resigned the Secretary- 
ship for India, was replaced by Montagu, but 
reéntered the cabinet in 1918 without portfolio, 
later to become Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
Lord Rhondda, replacing Lord Devonport as 
food controller in midsummer, 1917, instituted 
more drastic regulation of prices, and ration 
cards; at his death in July, 1918, the office was 
passed on to a Laborite, Clynes. Churchill, who 
had been serving in the field as a major in the 
Grenadier Guards since resignation from the 
Asquith Cabinet, was recalled to become Min- 
ister of Munitions in July, 1917. General 
Smuts of South Africa, a statesman of recog- 
nized imperial calibre, became a member of the 
War Cabinet about the same time. Sir ‘Auck- 
land Geddes, as Director of National Service, 
George Barnes, as Labor’s representative in the 
War Cabinet, Sir Eric Geddes as First Lord 
of the Admiralty, Dr. Addison as Minister of 
Reconstruction, Hayes Fisher as President of 
the Local Government Board, John Hodge for 
Pensions, and George Roberts for Labor, were 
also appointed in the summer of 1917. In 
April, 1918, when the Germans were making 
their supreme effort in France, the able Lord 
Milner assumed the portfolio of War, leaving 
his seat in the War Cabinet to Mr. Austen 
Chamberlain; and Sir* William Weir became 
Air Minister. 

Victory and Diplomacy. Meanwhile the ex- 
hausting conflict which had convulsed the world 
since 1914 was being pushed to a _ successful 
conclusion, thanks in no small part to the en- 
ergy of the British people. Although at the 
outset Great Britain had sent only five divi- 
sions to France, during the entire War the 
United Kingdom enlisted 6,211,427 men, of whom 
743,702 were killed and 1,693,262 wounded; the 
other parts of the Empire had supplied 3,284,943 
men, of whom 202,321 were killed and 428,644 
wounded. For the United Kingdom alone, the 
proportion of men mobilized to total ‘popula- 
tion was 13.6 as compared with 17.9 for France, 
11.3 for Italy, and 5.2 for the United States. 
British expenditures during the War amounted 
to about £9,000,000,000 sterling, of which £2,- 
730,000,000 were obtained by heroic self-taxa- 
tion, about £1,360,000,000 by foreign borrowing, 
mainly from the United States, and the re- 
mainder, more than half, by floating war loans 
at home. Some £453,000,000 had been loaned 
to France, £382,000,000 to Italy, £659,000,000 
to other Allies, and £150,000,000 to British 
dominions. The British national debt was over 
£7,000,000,000 sterling at the close of the War, 
10 times its amount in 1914. Furthermore, 
while British armies fought in Picardy and 
Flanders, in Gallipoli and Macedonia, in Pales- 
tine and Mesopotamia, and in Africa, the 
British navy had policed the high seas, safe- 
guarding supplies of troops and matériel, and 
slowly starving the enemy. British propaganda 
and diplomacy had been influential in bringing 
the United States and other neutrals into the 
War and in preserving Allied solidarity. No 
statesman of the Entente was more determined 
than Lloyd George to fight “to the finish,’ and 
to cobrdinate the military efforts of the Allies. 
At the Rapallo Conference in 1917 he succeeded 
in having a Supreme War Council of the Al- 
lies established, but even this was insufficient, 
as he said in his sensational luncheon speech 
at Paris in November. After Clemenceau, a 


574 


GREAT BRITAIN 


kindred spirit, became French premier, he and 
Lloyd George were able to strengthen the Coun- 
cil, including staff officers in its membership, 
despite the opposition of Sir William Robert- 
son, British chief of staff, who resigned in pro- 
test. The credit of achieving a united com- 
mand and making Marshal Foch generalissimo 
has been claimed for Clemenceau, Painlevé, Mil- 
ner, Haig, and others, but to the English 
Premier certainly a large share must be as- 
signed when all the evidence has been taken. 

Hardly had the booming of the great guns 
ceased when the opening salvos of an electoral 
campaign were fired in England. The War 
Parliament, elected in December, 1910, should 
normally have expiyed in December, 1915, but 
it had been kept alive by successive prolonga- 
tions during the emergency, until a general 
election could be held in peace; it dissolved a 
fortnight after the Armistice. At last on Dec. 
14, 1918, the long-postponed election was held; 
a “khaki election” it has been called, because, 
occurring a month after the Armistice, while. 
millions were still in uniform, it was essentially 
a war election in spirit. The Prime Minister, 
hoping to obtain an overwhelming nonpartisan 
backing on the issue of patriotism before he 
entered the Peace Conference, joined with the 
Unionist leader, Bonar Law, in an appeal for 
electoral support of the Coalition and preserva- 
tion of national unity in the peace negotiations. 
Their electoral promises, official and quasi- 
official, were lavish: to hang the Kaiser, obtain 
a bounteous indemnity (a figure exceeding 
$100,000,000,000 was popularly mentioned), 
create a League of Nations, reduce armaments, 
foster agriculture, care for veterans, give tariff 
preference to colonies, protect ‘‘key industries,” 
solve the Irish question without coercing Ulster, 
grant partial self-government to India, and re- 
form the House of Lords. On this platform the 
Coalition won a sweeping victory; 478 loyal 
supporters were elected to sit on the government 
side of the House, against a heterogeneous Op- 
position of 229 members. The Labor party, 
having seceded from the Coalition and increased 
its strength from 42 (in December, 1910) to 
63, became the official Opposition. Asquith’s 
forlorn contingent of 28 “Independent Liberals” 
also opposed the government and hoped for 
better times. From Ireland came 25 Unionists 
and only seven Nationalists, since 73 seats, 
almost three-quarters of the Irish quota, had 
been captured by Sinn Fein irreconcilables, who 
refused to sit in the Westminster Parliament 
(see IRELAND). On the morrow of the elections, 
the premier reorganized his ministry by trans- 
ferring the Exchequer from Bonar Law to 
Austen Chamberlain, the Colonial Office to the 
indispensable Lord Milner, the Admiralty to 
Walter Long, War and Air to Churchill, who 
was still criticized for the Dardanelles disaster, 
Labor to Sir Robert Horne, Supply (previously 
Munitions) to Lord Inverforth (formerly An- 
drew Weir), Ways and Communications to Sir 
Eric Geddes, and the post of Attorney General 
to Lord Birkenhead (Sir Frederick Smith). 
The normal practice of full cabinet sittings was 
not resumed until October, 1919, after the Peace 
Treaty was signed. 

Strong in the knowledge of his secure major- 
ity—nay, spurred on by his ultrapatriotic par- 
liamentary supporters—Premier Lloyd George 
entered the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 pre- 
pared to obtain Britain’s full share of the 


GREAT BRITAIN 


fruits of victory. Forgotten now was his cele- 
brated war-aims declaration of Jan. 5, 1918, in 
which, largely to conciliate Labor, he had prom- 
ised that self-determination would be applied to 
the German colonies, and “their exploitation for 
the benefit of European capitalists or govern- 
ments” prevented; that “reparation” should not 
cover an attempt to recover war costs; that the 
European settlement should be based on con- 
sent of the governed; that an international 
organization should be established to limit arma- 
ments and prevent wars. At Paris in 1919 his 
primary concern was to gratify the demand of 
British imperalists for a major share of Ger- 


man colonies, the demand of British tax- 
payers for a generous indemnity, and the 
demand of the British Admiralty for un- 
restricted sea power. After these interests 


were secured, he could afford to play the 
role of disinterested mediator between the 
French policy of ve victis and the Wilsonian 
“Fourteen Points” (so strikingly similar to his 
own war aims of Jan. 5, 1918). With him he 
took to Paris some 200 “experts” and assistants, 
with as many typists and clerks, a staff suffi- 
cient to fill five hotels. His own will dominat- 
ing the British delegation, strictly subordinate 
roles were assigned to the other British pleni- 
potentiaries: Bonar Law, Viscount Milner, 
Balfour, and Barnes. (The dominions and In- 
dia were separately represented. See BriTIsH 
Empire.) As the history of the Peace Confer- 
ence is told elsewhere (see PEACE CONFERENCE 
AND TREATIES), suffice it here to summarize the 
successes and failures of the British delegation. 
The British Premier’s warning that any peace 
ignoring Russia must be inadequate, his desire 
to effect an immediate limitation of arma- 
ments, his insistence on Germany’s immediate 
or at least early entry into the League, his de- 
mand for punishment of the Kaiser and German 
war criminals, his proposal for an Anglo- 
American guarantee of French security, his be- 
lief that Germany should have “full access to 
raw materials and markets of the world” (in- 
consistent with his own earlier pronouncements ) 
and be “put upon her legs once more’’—all 
were either disregarded or balked. On the other 
hand, the British representatives did succeed in 
somewhat restricting French designs on the 
left bank of the Rhine; Lloyd George himself 
was responsible for the plebiscite on Upper 
Silesia; the mandate system, along with sev- 
eral other features of the League, were of Brit- 
ish origin; the British dominions and India ob- 
tained separate votes in the Assembly, and an 
Englishman was appointed first Secretary Gen- 
eral of the League. As regards special British 
interests, Wilson was persuaded to drop the 
freedom of the seas from his “‘Fourteen Points”; 
reinforced by a strong telegram in April from 
370 Members of Parliament, demanding repara- 
tion for Britain, the British delegation inserted 
marine losses and pensions into the reparation 
account; by dramatic appeals from the Dominion 
delegates, Mr. Lloyd George frustrated President 
Wilson’s aim of entrusting the German colonies 
to small powers, and obtained for South Africa 
a mandate over German Southwest Africa; for 
Australia, German Papua; for New Zealand, 
German Samoa; for the Empire, the phosphate 
island of Nauru; and for the mother country, 
Mesopotamia; Palestine, full ownership of 
Egypt and Cyprus, most of German Kast Africa, 
and parts of Togoland and Cameroon. Persia 


575 


GREAT BRITAIN 


(q.v.), moreover, and the Hedjaz (q.v.), by ar- 
rangements independent of the Peace Treaty, 
had become practically British protectorates. 
If Disraeli could boast in 1878 that he brought 
home peace with honor, the fiery Welshman 
might well have vaunted a greater victory and 
richer spoils in 1919. 

Signature of the peace treaties brought no 
surcease of international problems, but the con- 
trary. After Premier Lloyd George had re- 
turned to London in 1919 there began a series of 
frequent meetings of the Supreme Council and 
conferences with French premiers, conferences 
which enabled the versatile Welshman to dis- 
play his statesmanship, and incidentally his 
golf, at many a European spa—San Remo, 
Boulogne-sur-Mer, Cannes, Spa, Lucerne, besides 
London, Paris, Genoa, Brussels. Only the bar- 
est sketch of British policy in these negotia- 
tions is here appropriate. Toward Germany, 
Lloyd George took a more lenient attitude than 
pleased French chauvinists; his desire to fix the 
reparation total at a moderate figure and his 
willingness to accept diminution or postpone- 
ment of scheduled payments brougl-t him into 
continual conflict with France; likewise in re- 
opening trade relations with Russia and en- 
deavoring to restrain the eastward course of 
Polish territorial greed, he collided with the pro- 
Polish and anti-Bolshevik Quai d’Orsai; the 
same Anglo-French divergence was seen in the 
difficult negotiations over Upper Silesia, the ces- 
sion of which to Poland was urged by Paris and 
opposed by London; and again in the Near East 
the two western Powers were at odds, Britain 
backing the Greek adventure in Anatolia (see 
GREECE and TURKEY), while France covertly en- 
couraged the Turkish Nationalists against ex- 
asperated remonstrances from London. When 
Premier Lloyd George in September, 1922, in- 
discreetly allowed publication of a manifesto 
not approved by his Foreign Minister (Lord 
Curzon), proclaiming his intention of resisting 
by force any attempt of Kemal’s Nationalist 
army to occupy the Straits zone or invade 
Europe, the rift in the Entente was painfully 
clear, for France ordered her troops to offer no 
resistance. Great Britain seemed about to face 
the Turks alone, and although an armistice was 
soon arranged, the British premier’s precipitate 
and perhaps high-handed action was resented not 
only across the Channel, but still more keenly 
in England, where it was seized on by his critics 
as a major reason for a change of ministry. 
There were other discouragements. Persia 
(q.v.) refused to ratify the Anglo-Persian 
treaty and turned to America for advice and 
capital. Mespotamia (q.v.) proved rebellious 
and so surprisingly expensive that it became a 
byword in Parliament. Afghanistan (q.v.) 
shook off British control, negotiated with Soviet 
Russia, and terrified British imperialism by 
spreading anti-British propaganda in Asia. 
India (q.v.), led by Gandhi, met the Montagu- 
Chelmsford “reform” with “passive resistance,” 
while actual rebellion in Egypt (q.v.) necessi- 
tated a promise of independence. Opposition 
by the dominions to a renewal of the Anglo- 
Japanese Alliance (q.v.), and by British tax- 
payers to the cost of naval competition with the 
United ‘States, was dexterously dodged by en- 
couraging the latter nation to take the initia- 
tive, at the Disarmament Conference in Wash- 
ington in 1921-22, in proposing naval ratios 
and a broader Pacific pact, but a satisfactory 


GREAT BRITAIN 


arrangement was achieved only at the cost of 
abandoning Japan, accepting, nominally at 
least, a naval ratio on a par with the United 
States, promising to restore Wei-hai-wei to 
China, and admitting failure to curb military, 
air, and submarine armaments, of France par- 
ticularly. Even so, the success of this confer- 
ence tempted Lloyd George to sponsor a more 
ambitious assembly, the Genoa Conference, in 
the spring of 1922, whose declared aim was the 
economic reconstruction of Europe. But, as the 
uncompromising Poincaré had just become 
French premier, superseding the more pliable 
Briand and repudiating the Anglo-French alli- 
ance project which the latter had drafted with 
Lloyd George, French policy at Genoa was so 
resolutely guided in anti-British, anti-German, 
and anti-Bolshevik channels that the Welshman’s 
grandiose plans of international reconciliation 
and reconstruction went on the rocks, and no 
one except Lloyd George himself could regard 
the conference as more than a disheartening 
fiasco. The breach in the Entente Cordiale 
seemed irreparable at the time, and one of the 
arguments which ultimately overthrew the 
Lloyd George government was that by ill-con- 
sidered opposition and by undue charity toward 
an undeserving Germany, the Premier had trans- 
formed a cordial understanding into irritable 
antagonism. 

Reconstruction Problems. The four years 
following the Armistice presented domestic 
problems hardly less grave than the internation- 
al questions which have been described. The 
cost of living soared in the first post-Armistice 
year to 225 per cent of its pre-war level; reach- 
ing its peak, 276 per cent, in October, 1920, it 
subsided only gradually to 195 per cent in No- 
vember, 1921, and 181 per cent in April, 1922. 
The percentage of trade union members unem- 
ployed was 2.4 at the beginning of 1919, but 
instead of decreasing, it rose to 6 before the 
end of 1920, attained the alarming level of 23.1 
in June, 1921, and was still over 16 at the be- 
ginning of 1922. The actual number unem- 
ployed in January, 1921, was 1,060,000; in July, 
1921, it was 2,170,000, plus 988,000 on short 
time; in March, 1923, it was 1,300,000. If 
figures can ever be eloquent, these must tell a 
tragic story of privation and hunger, of silent 
factories and bankrupt industrialists, of idle 
workmen and pauperized families losing their 
morale with their hope. A palliative, not a 
remedy, was provided by the Unemployment 
Insurance Bill which the Lloyd George govern- 
ment introduced in December, 1919, and pro- 
mulgated the following August, extending pre- 
vious laws, and granting benefits of 15 shillings 
a week for involuntarily unemployed men, 12 
shillings for women, for a maximum of 15 weeks 
a year. The very genuine hardships of unem- 
ployment and high prices made industrial un- 
rest inevitable; and the stimulus which the 
Russian Revolution and Socialist parliamentary 
victories on the Continent gave to all labor 
movements was not without effect in England. 
In vain the government conceded an eight-hour 
day to railwaymen; in vain it enacted a law 
restoring trade practices; in vain it convened 
an Industrial Conference (February, 1919) of 
employers and workers, and set the- Sankey 
Commission to investigating coal miners’ griev- 
ances. In Parliament, the Labor Opposition 
was implacable; outside Parliament, strikes 
multiplied. A railway strike in the fall of 


576 


GREAT BRITAIN 


1919, ominous though it appeared, was settled 
in 10 days. Of longer duration and graver im- 
port were the coal strikes. After the Armistice 
the miners demanded a six-hour day, a 30 per 
cent wage. increase, and nationalization of the 
mines. Though the Sankey Commission effected 
a truce, wage increases being granted and a De- 
partment of Mines established, the miners by 
a fortnight’s strike in October, 1920, gained a 
further increase, and again went on strike for 
three months in the spring of 1921. The gov- 
ernment survived these and similar disturb- 
ances, but more than once there seemed a like- 
lihood that by direct action the so-called “Triple 
Alliance” of miners’, railwaymen’s, and trans- 
port workers’ unions would use their control of 
vital industries as a weapon with which to 
coerce the government and enforce the demand 
of radicals for nationalization of mines and 
communications. 

The increased wages of government employees, 
the staggering burden of unemployment insur- 
ance, the costly endeavors of the administration 
to relieve the grave housing shortage, the mis- 
cellaneous measures of social legislation de- 
signed to ease the pains of reconstruction, and 
the continuance of huge military and naval ex- 
penditures made it necessary to increase rather 
than diminish the weight of war taxation in 
1919 and 1920, and though some reductions 
were made in 1921-22, taxpayers yearned for 
relief, and many hoped that a less ambitious 
premier might also be less extravagant. 

While the stormclouds of political opposition 
were gathering on Lloyd George’s horizon, he 
accomplished one more of the feats of political 
dexterity which had earned him the not alto- 
gether complimentary soubriquet of ‘Welsh 
wizard.” His earlier attempts to solve the 
Irish question during the War had simply made 
matters worse in that distracted island. Sinn 
Fein, having won the 1918 elections, had pro- 
claimed an independent republic and inaugurated 
a guerrilla war against the British army of oc- 
cupation. As repressive decrees and reprisals 
seemed but to add fuel to the conflagration, the 
Lloyd George government in February, 1920, 
introduced, and in December carried, a Home 
Rule Bill to create two parliaments, one at 
Dublin and the other at Belfast, and a joint 
council for Ireland, with decidedly limited 
powers of self-government. Regardless of Sinn 
Fein indignation, Lloyd George endeavored in 
1921 to put this law into effect, and succeeded 
easily in establishing the Belfast Parliament, 
but utterly failed in southern Ireland. Undis- 
mayed by this check, he now suddenly altered 
his tactics, invited the Sinn Fein leaders and 
the Ulster premier to a three-cornered peace 
conference in London, and on Dec. 6, 1921, 
signed an epoch-making treaty with them, for 
the creation of an Irish Free State with do- 
minion status. (See IRELAND.) This political 
coup de main will probably go down in history 
as one of the outstanding achievements of the 
long Lloyd George administration; certainly it 
put a new complexion on the Irish problem and 
left critics breathless with surprise, if not ad- 
miration. But it did not long save the cabinet. 

The Unionists in Power. As wartime pas- 
sions cooled and the lustre of Premier Lloyd 
George’s war services was dimmed with passing 
years, the Coalition Cabinet, resting on the 
“khaki elections” of 1918, began to totter. In 
by-elections up to the end of 1921 the Coalition 


GREAT BRITAIN 


suffered a net loss of 13 seats. The Labor Op- 
position grew bolder, and Asquith began to tax 
the government with reckless extravagance. 
The Near Eastern crisis and the rift in the En- 
tente Cordiale were set down to the Premier’s 
imprudence. But the coup de grdce was ad- 
ministered by the Unionist party leaders who 
voted, in a caucus at the Carlton Club on Oct. 
19, 1922, to withdraw from the Coalition. 
Lloyd George immediately, and somewhat in- 
dignantly, resigned his office in favor of Andrew 
Bonar Law, who proceeded to form a Unionist 
eabinet on party lines, including the Marquis 
of Salisbury, Viscount Cave, Stanley Baldwin 
(Chancellor of the Exchequer), Marquis Curzon 
(Foreign Affairs), the Duke of Devonshire 
(Colonies), Viscount Peel (India), the Earl of 
Derby (War), and other less known Unionists. 
Parliament was of course dissolved, October 26, 
as the Unionists had only a plurality in the 
Commons, and new elections were held on No- 
vember 15. With their campaign slogans of 
“tranquillity and stability” (an English version 
of Harding’s “normaley”), economy, concilia- 
tion of France, and abhorrence of one-man gov- 
ernment, the Unionists polled 5,300,000 votes 
and returned 344 members to Parliament, a safe 
majority. Lloyd George, heading his own fac- 
tion of “National Liberals” with a few Union- 
ists who were personally loyal to him, pointed 
with pride to his war record, scoffed at the de- 
sire for less vigorous statesmanship, promised 
economy and peace, and delivered philippics 
against the menace of socialism, but returned to 
Parliament with only 56 supporters. The As- 
quith Liberals, adhering to traditional policies 
and emphasizing free trade and economy, won 
60 seats. Labor, enfant terrible of British 
politics, had scandalized and terrorized the 
older parties by advocating a socialistic capital 
levy, taxation of land values, nationalization of 
mines and railways, increased old age pensions 
and unemployment doles, and a radical foreign 
policy; to the confusion of overly sanguine 
prophets, Labor failed to win a majority, al- 
though it did increase its delegation to 138 and 
polled 4,102,000 votes (as many as the two 
Liberal factions combined). It will be noted 
that, with the addition of minor groups, the to- 
tal is only 615; to this figure the Commons was 
reduced in 1922, by excluding representatives 
from southern Ireland, but retaining 15 from 
northern Ireland. 

With a safe majority of more than 100 votes 
(including some National Liberals), the Union- 
ist government proceeded first to fulfill a cam- 
paign pledge, the enactment of a Constituent 
Act and a Consequent Provision Act, giving ef- 
fect to Lloyd George’s Irish treaty (see IRE- 
LAND) ; their promulgation on Dec. 5, 1922, ac- 
complished England’s part of the bargain. 
When, after the holiday recess, Parliament re- 
assembled in February, 1923, Liberal and Labor 
opposition relative to the Ruhr and to Mesopo- 
tamia was crushed by the ministerial steam- 
roller, and Parliament was plunged into budg- 
etary calculations, made more acceptable by a 
reduction of sixpence in the pound on the in- 
come tax and by other tax cuts all along the 
line. Business was interrupted in May by 
Premier Bonar Law’s resignation, occasioned by 
sickness which soon afterward caused his death 
(Oct. 30, 1923). His successor, Stanley Bald- 
win, a former business man, had earned golden 
opinions by his tactful negotiations in Washing- 


577 GREAT BRITAIN 


ton for deferred payment of the British debt to 
the United States at reduced interest, and by 
his conduct of the exchequer in the preceding 
cabinet. Moreover, he was known to hold opin- 
ions unfavorable to French policy in the Ruhr. 
Retaining most of the old cabinet, Baldwin en- 
trusted the Privy Seal to Lord Robert Cecil, 
who had attracted favorable attention by his 
statesmanlike activity in the League of Nations; 
Sir Samuel Hoare became Air Minister; Sir 
William Joynson-Hicks, financial secretary to 
the Treasury; and Sir Laming Worthington- 
Evans, Postmaster General. Subsequently the 
Exchequer was offered to Reginald McKenna, 
refused by him, and given to Neville Chamber- 
lain, in August. Baldwin as premier found 
himself face to face with three major problems, 
all closely related. The “unemployment crisis,” 
with 1,250,000 persons out of work five years 
after the Armistice, was no longer a crisis, but 
a chronic malady demanding remedy. The Ruhr 
crisis, if it could be so solved as to permit re- 
covery of the German market, might help solve 
the unemployment problem, but Poincaré was 
adamant to Baldwin’s arguments. The third 
problem, preferential tariff protection, was pro- 
posed by the Imperial Conference of October, 
1923 (see BriTisH EMPIRE), as a remedy for in- 
dustrial depression, but it proved Premier Bald- 
win’s undoing. As Law had pledged his cabinet 
not to tamper with the tariff before the next 
election, Baldwin honorably but imprudently 
dissolved Parliament, Nov. 16, 1923, and or- 
dered general elections, December 6. His party, 
fighting for tariff reform, polled as many votes 
as in 1922 but elected only 259 members. The 
reunited Liberals, defending Free Trade, polled 
4,217,000 votes and increased their representa- 
tion from 117 to 155. Labor, opposing protec- 
tionism and proposing a modified capital levy, 
along with other moderately socialist measures, 
increased its poll to 4,338,000 votes and its par- 
liamentary representation to 191. Thus no 
party commanded a majority. Instead of re- 
signing at once, in response to the adverse 
referendum, Premier Baldwin waited for the 
new Parliament, which assembled in January, 
1924, to oust him. His fate was decided by 
Asquith, who as leader of the reunited Liberals 
held the balance of power, and who concluded 
that the uncertainties of a Labor government 
were preferable to the “confusion, vacillation, 
and impotence” of the Unionists. Joining forces 
with Labor, then, he helped vote Baldwin out, 
the vote being 328 to 256. 

Labor in Power. James Ramsay Macdonald, 
veteran Labor leader, ostracized as a pacifist in 
the War but welcomed back to the fold in less 
patriotic post-bellum days, now formed a Labor 
cabinet, in which he took the difficult portfolio 
of foreign affairs, and in which were included 
J. R. Clynes, former textile worker, as Lord 
Privy Seal and leader of the Commons; Philip 
Snowden, former clerk, ardent pacifist and mod- 
erate socialist, as Chancellor of the Exchequer ; 
Arthur Henderson, former iron worker, as Home 
Secretary; J. H. Thomas, a Welsh trade union- 
ist, as Colonial Secretary; William Adamson, 
a miner, as Secretary for Scotland; Stephen 
Walsh, coal miner, as War Secretary; Noel 
Buxton, an ex-Liberal, of private fortune, as 
Minister of Agriculture; Sir Sidney Oliver, 
former colonial official and Fabian socialist, 
as Secretary for India, with a_ peerage; 
Brig.-Gen. C. B. Thomson, one of the ablest and 


GREAT BRITAIN 578 


youngest generals, a recent convert to Labor, 
as Secretary for Air, with a peerage; Sidney 
Webb, eminent historian of trade unionism, as 
President of the Board of Trade; Lord Parmoor 
as President of the Council; Viscount Chelms- 
ford, Conservative, for the Admiralty; John 
Wheatley, Health; C. P. Trevelyan, ex-Liberal, 
pacifist, recent convert to Labor, son of the dis- 
tinguished historian, as President of the Board 
of Education; Thomas Shaw, prominent social- 
ist, as Minister of Labor; Col. Josiah Wedg- 
wood, for the duchy; and F. W. Jowett, for 
Works. Though a few opponents, notably 
Winston Churchill, vainly endeavored to arouse 
the country to the peril of a Socialist ministry, 
Premier Macdonald showed no inclination to- 
ward revolutionary fanaticism, but, rather, ac- 
cepting the traditions of office, amiably visited 
the King, respected venerable ceremonials, and 
conducted his policy with irreproachable so- 
briety. His plans for more generous unemploy- 
ment relief (which had cost the exchequer 
£170,000,000 since the Armistice) and for con- 
struction of 200,000 houses a year, to rent at 
9 shillings a week each, were but extensions of 
established policies. The capital levy, Labor’s 
most radical campaign proposal, was practically 
dropped; indeed, Premier Macdonald calmly 
permitted the bourgeois parties on April 1 to 
pass, by 325 to 160 votes, a resolution con- 
demning the principle. In the budget presented 
by the Socialist Chancellor of the Exchequer, 
April 29, there was provision for a reduction of 
£40,000,000, lowered duties on tea, sugar, and 
coffee, discontinuance of duties on imported 
automobiles and films, repeal of the corporation 
tax, and inhabited house taxes; but not even 
Churchill could make social revolution out of 
these items. In foreign affairs Premier Mac- 
donald displayed a refreshing candor, coupled 
with frank pacifism and confessed regard for 
British interests. With Poincaré he exchanged 
letters which on his side uttered bluntly Eng- 
land’s objections to French armament and Ruhr 
policies, but also expressed a transparently sin- 
cere desire for reconciliation and codperation. 
He abruptly granted recognition to Soviet Rus- 
sia, February 2, for commercial reasons, as he 
said, though Bolshevism was repugnant to him. 
He announced on March 18 that he would stop 
fortification of the Singapore naval base, as a 
pacific gesture; but he insisted on customary 
naval appropriations. All treaties, his govern- 
ment promised, were henceforth to be submitted 
publicly to Parliament. In short, his was a 
moderately radical, conservatively pacifist, 
course of action, dictated by evolutionary so- 
cialism rather than revolutionary communism, 
and scarcely more perturbing to “tranquillity 
and stability” than the pre-war social reforms 
of an Asquith cabinet, for all its tremulous dig- 
nity, or the dazzling political legerdemain of a 
Welsh wizard, or the quietist fainéance of a 
Bonar Law, or the disconcerting protectionism 
of a Baldwin “business” government, all of 
which had been tried and found wanting in 10 
memorable years. 

GREAT BRITAIN, ComMMUNIstT PArty oF. 
See COMMUNISM. 


GREAT LAKES, CoMMERCE oF. See SAULT 
SAINTE MARIE. 
GREBLE, Epwin St. Joun (1859- Oe 


An American soldier, born at West Point, N. Y., 
and educated at the United States Military 
Academy. He was appointed second lieutenant. 


GREECE 


During the Spanish-American War he served as 
captain and as assistant adjutant-general of vol- 
unteers and in 1899 was promoted to be major 
of volunteers. In the same year he was ap- 
pointed captain of the Regular Army and was 
successively promoted to be major, lieutenant- 
colonel, colonel, and in 1916 brigadier-general. 
In the following year he became major-general. 
During the American administration of Cuba, he 
served as assistant to General Ludlow and to 
General Wood. From 1910 to 1914 he was a 
member of the General Staff in charge of field 
artillery and commanded the 6th Field Artillery 
on the Mexican border, from 1914 to 1916. 
In 1918 he was retired on account of disability 
incurred in active service. 

GREECE. A_ republic in _ southeastern 
Europe. The Gliicksburg dynasty was deposed 
on Apr. 13, 1924. The area is about 49,000 
square miles, according to the boundaries fixed 
by the treaty signed at Lausanne, July 24, 1923. 
This area includes Old Greece, Thrace (west of 
the Maritza River), and the islands, with the 
exception of the Dodecanese, which belong to 
Italy, and Imbros and Tenedos, which now be- 
long to Turkey. The population in 1924 was 
about 6,500,000, including 1,500,000 refugees 
from Turkey in Asia and Eastern Thrace. The 
area in 1914 was 41,933 square miles; the pop- 
ulation, 4,363,000. Most of the population be- 
belonged to the Greek race. There were some 
Albanians, Jews, Vlacks, Slavs, and Armenians. 
The great majority of the inhabitants were ad- 
herents of the Greek Orthodox church, which, 
by the terms of the constitution of 1864, was 
declared the religion of the state. Complete 
toleration and liberty of worship were guaran- 
teed to all other sects, the greater part of whom 
were Roman Catholics and Jews. Emigration, 
especially to the United States, was 38,644 dur- 
ing 1912-13. It decreased considerably during 
1922 and 1923, partly because of the restrictions 
on immigration by the United States govern- 
ment. The principal cities of Greece are 
Athens, with 211,000 inhabitants; Saloniki, 154,- 
000; Pirzeus, 97,000; Patras, 31,000; Corfu, 29,- 
000; Hermoupolis, 28,000; Heraclium, 25,000; 
Volos, 24,000; Canea, 24,000; Kalamata, 20,000; 
Cavalla, 19,000. 

Agriculture. Greece is mainly an agricul- 
tural country, with four classes of land propri- 
etors: large land owners; peasant proprietors; 
monastic institutions; and the government. 
The large land owners were proprietors of one 
or more villages, with the adjoining land. 
Their estates varied in size from 2000 to 15,- 
000 acres. There were very few of these 
large estates left, however, by 1924. Peasant 
proprietors owned from 25 to 150 acres each. 
The land belonging to monasteries was farmed 
chiefly by the monks. Government lands 
were mostly uncultivated and consisted chiefly 
of forests, marshes, and mountain pastures. 
During 1923-24 many refugees were given 
government lands and government loans large 
enough for them to build their houses and 
buy implements and seeds for their crops. 
The principal crops, in addition to cereals, 
were currants, tobacco, olives, and figs. The 
principal cereals grown were wheat, barley, 
oats, rye, and corn. ‘The area planted to wheat 
in 1923 was 1,071,000 acres, with a production 
of 13, 359,000 bushels; oats, area, 180,000 acres, 
production, 5,994,000 bushels; rye, area, 217,- 
000 acres, production, 2,679,000 bushels; corn, 


a 


_ 


GREECE 579 


in 1921 (the last year for which figures were 
available), area, 494,000 acres, production, 7,880,- 
000 bushels. Greece did not raise enough cereals 
for local requirements and had to import large 
quantities. A large amount of wheat, prin- 
cipally from Canada, the United States, and 
Bulgaria, was imported in 1922; barley, prin- 
cipally from Rumania and Egypt; corn, from 
Rumania and Bulgaria; flour, from Egypt and 
the United States (the flour from Egypt was 
probably reéxported); rice, from the United 
States, Italy, and Egypt. The principal crops 
for export were currants, tobacco, olives, and 
figs. During 1923, there were 186,000 acres 
planted to currants, with an approximate pro- 
duction of 104,000 short tons. Currants exported 
during 1922 amounted to 80,000 short tons, 
principally to the United Kingdom, the United 
States, and the Netherlands. During 1920 (the 
latest figures available) 105,000 acres were 
planted to tobacco, with a production of 37,000 
short tons. The tobacco crop for 1923 amounted 
to 71,000 short tons. Exports of tobacco during 
1922 amounted to 106,000 short tons, chiefly to 
Germany and Egypt. The production of olive 
oil in Greece for 1923 amounted to 17,000,000 
gallons. Exports of olive oil during 1922 
amounted to 18,000 short tons; mostly to Italy, 
France, Turkey, and the United States. The 
fig crop for 1923 was 94,000 short tons. Fig 
exports during 1922 amounted to 12,000 short 
tons, chiefly to the United States, Italy, and 
the United Kingdom. Over 400 tons of cheese 
were exported during 1922. Besides currants 
and figs, Greece produced, in 1922, 152,000,000 
oranges, 63,000,000 mandarins, and 49,000,000 
lemons. The estimated numbers of live stock in 
Greece at the end of 1923 were 250,000 horses; 
140,000 mules; 310,000 asses; 1,000,000 cattle; 
7,500,000 sheep; 5,500,000 goats; and 460,000 
swine. The forested area was nearly 4,000,000 
acres. The principal trees were oak, beech, 
Aleppo pine, and silver fir. 

Mining. Greece possessed a great variety 
of mineral deposits, the most important of 
which were salt, lignite, iron, magnesite, iron 
pyrites, and santorin earth. The production of 
these metals during 1922 (the last figures avail- 
able) was as follows: emery, 13,000 metric 
tons; salt, 68,000; lignite, 132,000; iron, 49.- 
000; magnesite, 57,000; iron pyrites, 55,000; 
and santorin earth, 28,000. 

Manufacturing. Industry, after the War, 
was making considerable progress in Greece, es- 
pecially in the manufacture of foodstuffs, 
leather, textiles, and soap. A number of émi- 
erés from Turkey, who were skilled in the car- 
pet and rug industry, practically denuded that 
field in Turkey and added this industry to those 
already practiced in Greece. Industrial con- 
cerns at the close of 1923 numbered 3512 and 
were distributed as follows: foodstuffs, 2000; 
leather, 450; chemical, 200; wood, 200; paper 
and printing, 150; mechanical, 150; housing, 
150; textile, 125; tobacco (privately owned), 
60; electrical, 25; and metallurgical, 2. The 
relations existing between employers and em- 
ployees were amicable and it was only during 
recent years that trade unionism made any 
headway. To these. unions women were ad- 
mitted. Until recently strikes were practically 
unknown. Several occurred during 1923, espe- 
cially on the electric railways. Legislation was 
passed during 1919-24 dealing with workmen’s 
compensation, inspection of mines and factories, 


GREECE 


hours of labor, employment of women and chil- 
dren, ete. 

Cost of Living. The cost of living in Greece, 
as was the case in the majority of other coun- 
tries of eastern Europe, increased rapidly after 
1914. The index of the cost of living (1914 as 
100) rose as follows: 1915, 121; 1916, 167; 
1917, 289; 1918, 382; 1919, 341; 1920, 359; 
1921, 421; 1922, 778; 1923, 1213; January, 
1924, 1325. 

Commerce. The total value in dollars of 
imports into Greece and exports from Greece 
during 1912-13 (average), 1921, and 1922, was 
as follows: 


1912-1913 Imports Exports Total 

(average) . $32,385,000 $25,589,000 $57,974,000 
TZ Bree tN. as 00,792,000 55,357,000 156,149,000 
1922 Veena ds 101,636,000 81,859,000 183,495,000 


Conversions for the above table were made in 
drachmas at par for 1912-13 ($0.193); for 
1921, 1 drachma = $0.0592; 1922, 1 drachma = 
$0.033. The trade balance of Greece was gen- 
erally adverse. The main sources of revenue to 
offset the excess of imports over exports during 
the period were the expenditures of the Allies’ 
armies during the War, foreign investments in 
public utilities, mining, and agricultural en- 
terprises, tourists’ expenditures, emigrants’ 
remittances, and government borrowings. The 
principal imports into Greece were agricul- 
tural products, textiles, and minerals and 
metals, including machinery and agricultural 


implements. The principal exports were agri- 
cultural products, mainly tobacco, currants, 
olives, raisins, and citrus fruit; minerals 


and metals, raw; alcoholic drinks, and olive oil. 
The principal countries selling to Greece during 
1922 were the United States, the United King- 
dom, Italy, France, Germany, and Egypt. The 
principal countries receiving exports from 
Greece were the United States, Germany, the 
United Kingdom, Italy, the Netherlands, France, 
and Egypt. 

Communications. The length of railways in 
1923 was about 1700 miles; 75 per cent of this 
was standard gauge. Most of the railroads were 
state-owned. The number of locomotives during 
1922 was 262; passenger cars, 677; and freight, 
4913. There were 10,600 miles of telegraph line 
in 1923; 22,325 miles of wire; 550 offices; 3973 
miles of cable in 1920; total telegrams (1922), 
4,294,662; miles of telephone line. (1920), 4914. 
The Greek Merchant Marine in 1923 consisted 
of 1522 vessels, with a gross tonnage of 914,136. 
Shipping entering Greek ports in 1921 totaled 
3963 vessels of 4,274,915 tons; cleared, 3898 
vessels of 3,805,112 tons. 

Finance. Gold and silver stock on hand in 
November, 1923, was 37,330,000 franes, which 
did not include 25,000,000 franes in the Bank 
of England. The banknote circulation at the 
end of 1913 was 245,893,000 drachmas. This 
increased to 1,909,638,000 drachmas in 1920; 
2,507,638,000 in 1921; 3,099,141,000 in 1922; 
and stood at 5,406,036,000 at the end of Decem- 
ber, 1923. The total external debt of Greece, 
according to official government statistics on Dee. 
31, 1923, was 1,644,270,000 gold drachmas 
($317,334,110 converted at par): The _ total 
internal debt on the same date was 7,761,000,- 
000 drachmas ($131,937,000 converted at the 
average exchange value of the drachma for 
1923, $0.017). <A little over half of this in- 


GREECE 580 


ternal debt bore interest. The total budgeted 
revenues, ordinary and extraordinary, during 
1922-23, other than paper money issues, was 
$141,881,000; expenditures, $160,467,000. The 
total anticipated revenues for 1923-24 were $67,- 
000,000, and the total expenditures, $112,608,000. 
Education. According to the latest census, 
1917-18, there were 6799 primary schools, with 
8641 teachers and 476,695 pupils; 76 high 
schools; and 425 middle schools, having 55,408 
pupils. In 1921, there were 10,131 teachers in 
elementary schools and 2,018 in secondary 
schools, and two agricultural schools with 150 
students. There were two _ universities in 
Athens, the National University and the Capo- 
distria University, as well as the Polytechnic 
with 22 professors and 170 students, and 17 
commercial schools with 2800 students. There 
was an American School of Archeology at 
Athens and a British School of Archeology. 
History. At the outbreak of the War the 
Greek ruling class vacillated between two opin- 
ions. King Constantine (q.v.) favored union 
with the German cause or at least a policy of 
neutrality; Venizelos, who had been premier 
since 1910, saw in an espousal of the Allies’ 
purposes the realization of the long desired ex- 
pansion in Northern Epirus (q.v.), as well as 
the possible acquisition of territories in Asia 
Minor at the expense of Turkey. But the fear 
of Bulgarian participation stayed Venizelos’s 
hand, while the known sympathies of the King 
and the well timed German propaganda, which 
kept the population eager for peace, contributed 
toward the maintenance of Greek neutrality. 
To Venizelos, the attack on the Dardanelles in 
February, 1915, seemed an auspicious occasion 
for the Greeks to throw their support definitely 
on the side of the Allies; but the King persisted 
in his opposition, with the result that Venizelos 
was forced out of office and the Chamber dis- 
solved. A new ministry, under Gounaris, was 
constituted frankly on a neutral basis, and 
though the Venizelists won a clear majority in 
the elections of June, 1915, on the issue of inter- 
vention, it remained in power to the complete 
disregard of the principle of ministerial respon- 
sibility. Only on August 23 was Venizelos sum- 
moned to the palace. His foreign policy centred 
in the maintenance of the Greco-Serbian accord, 
and he continually proclaimed to the Allies 
and Germany that a Bulgarian attack on Serbia 
would be followed by hostilities. With Bul- 
garian mobilization in September, Greece, so 
far as Venizelos was concerned, was ready for 
war. The Allies were requested to supply the 
150,000 men necessary for the protection of the 
Greco-Serbian frontier, and Greece stood pre- 
pared to meet her obligations. But the King 
stubbornly refused to countenance a war declara- 
tion, and aided by the general staff, which owed 
its German sympathies to its German military 
training, he frustrated any attempts to succor 
Serbia. The French troops were refused a land- 
ing at Saloniki; in October, Venizelos was once 
more dismissed in spite of the fact that he com- 
manded a majority. The succeeding events 
seemed to indicate that the King and _ not 
Venizelos was to triumph. Under the Zaimis 
and Skouloudis ministries the Grzco-Serbian 
treaty was repudiated and aid to the Allies 
refused in spite of the tempting offer of 
the cession of Cyprus. The King was deter- 
mined to break the Venizelist opposition 
and once more called for a general election. In 


GREECE 


the balloting of December 19, as a result of 
the abstention of Venizelos and his followers 
from the polls, the government was accorded 
the confidence of the electorate and persisted, 
therefore, in its policy of neutrality. 

Whether it willed or no, Greece was to serve 
the Allies’ purposes. In December, 1915, an Al- 
lied force under General Sarrail took possession 
of Saloniki, and that city served throughout the 
War as the seat of the Allies’ operations in 
southeastern Europe. On June 3, 1916, martial 
law was proclaimed in the city; from June 21 on, 
when the Allies demanded of Constantine the 
demobilization of the army and the calling of 
a general election, the French and English 
played an increasingly important réle in Greek 
affairs. Greek protests to the United States 
were unavailing. A blockade was enforced, the 
right of search exercised, and the import of 
food seriously curtailed. The Skouloudis min- 
istry fell, and on June 27, the King was forced 
to yield to all the Allied demands. Cabinet 
crises followed in rapid succession amid the un- 
certainties of a Bulgarian invasion of Macedonia, 
the entry of Rumania into the War, and a grow- 
ing turbulence on the part of the Venizelists, 
who formed revolutionary committees for the 
purpose of forcing intervention. In fact, promp- 
ted by this motive, Venizelos repaired to Crete in 
an attempt to stir up the national ardor for a 
common move on Bulgaria; and the agitation 
had all the marks of a revolutionary movement, 
even to the forming of a provisional government, 
though Venizelos continued to protest his loy- 
alty to the dynasty. On November 24, aroused 
by the operations of irregular Greek bands and 
fearing a more general movement, Admiral du 
Fournet, in command of the Allies’ fleet, de- 
manded the surrender of a large portion of the 
Greek artillery. Greek refusal led to the oc- 
cupation of the Pireus and a march on Athens. 
Street fighting at once became general; the 
Venizelists in particular were singled out for 
outrages. The tone of the Allies now assumed 
a marked severity. In the demand for repara- 
tions the following points were stressed: with- 
drawal of Greek troops to the Peloponnesus, 
where, of course, they could be watched; the 
dispersal of armed bands of reservists; the re- 
lease of political prisoners; the reéstablishment 
ot Allied control over means of communication. 
A rigorous blockade was set up and the Veni- 
zelist provisional government at Saloniki was 
recognized. On Jan. 16, 1917, the Greek gov- 
ernment accepted the terms; on January 13 it 
complied with the terms of another ultimatum, 
though the blockade continued in force. The 
nonappearance of a German army in Macedo- 
nia, the entry of the United States into the 
War, and the displacement of Briand by the 
more truculent Ribot as the head of the French 
government, all contributed toward the crea- 
tion of a more docile royal policy. But with 
or without official knowledge, the reservists con- 
tinued to operate and by uniting with German 
agents in Thessaly succeeded in seriously em- 
barrassing the Allies’ purposes. Once more the 
Allies coerced Greece, this time at the instance 
of powerful French opinion. On June 6, Jon- 
nart made his appearance at Saloniki as com- 
missioner for Great Britain, France, and Italy, 
and at once despatched a note to Constantine 
demanding his abdication as well as that of his 
oldest son. On June 12 the King gave in and 
designated his second son, Alexander, as ruler 


. 


—— 


GREECE 


of the country. Known German sympathizers 
were banished; the ministry in power resigned; 
and on June 27 Venizelos was called to head a 
new government. Thus a revolution was ef- 
fected by Allied intervention, though it is pos- 
sible that Venizelos, had he gained the consent 
of the Entente, would have brought about the 
same end, for his adherents at this time num- 
bered some 50,000. 

On June 30, Greece broke off diplomatic re- 
lations with the Central Powers and formally 
entered the War on the side of the Allies. The 
Chamber of June, 1915, was summoned, and after 
a vote of confidence had been given the govern- 
ments, steps were taken to put the country on 
a military footing. As a result of mobiliza- 
tion, some 250,000 men were called to the colors 
and under the direction of the French General 
Braquet were whipped into fighting shape so 
rapidly that by 1918 they were able to give the 
Allies a great advantage on the southeastern 
front. By Greece’s entry the domestic situa- 
tion was relieved through heavy importations 
of grain, the restoration of a considerable num- 
ber of merchant ships, and French aid in the 
reconstruction of the national finances. 

Before the Peace Conference, Venizelos was 
undoubtedly the most important single eastern 
European figure. He pressed with vigor the 
Greek claims to Northern Epirus, Thrace, 
Smyrna, and the Dodecanese (qq.v.), and met at 
once with an initial success in the treaty of 
Neuilly. By this document western (Bulgarian) 
Thrace was ceded to the Allies (in trust for 
Greece), and Bulgaria was thus deprived of ac- 
cess to the ANgean. Another hope seemed well 
on the way to realization when Venizelos re- 
ceived the Allies’ sanction for the despatch of 
a Greek force to Smyrna, nominally for the 
protection of the Christians (May 15, 1919). 
The Peace Conference looked favorably on the 
Greek claims to the Awgean islands and seemed 
disposed to grant the Greek requests for the 
Epirus in view of the cession of Valona to 
Italy by the Treaty of London of 1915. The 
turn in Greek fortunes came, however, late in 
1920. In spite of Turkish protests, so impressed 
was the Supreme Council with Venizelos and his 
apparent hold on the Greek people that by the 
Treaty of Sevres, later discredited, Greek sov- 
ereignty was extended over eastern Thrace up 
to 20 miles of Constantinople; Smyrna was 
provisionally assigned to Greece; and the islands 
of Tenedos and Imbros, as well as those in the 
Afgean Sea already occupied by Greece, were 
ceded. At the same time the Dodecanese, by 
agreement with Italy, were promised to Greece. 
Never did a statesman see his efforts crowned 
with greater success than did Venizelos when 
he quit the Supreme Council in the summer of 
1920. Yet his long absence from home, and the 
high-handed character of the administration, 
the continuance of martial law, a drastic cen- 
sorship, mobilization practically continuous 
since 1912, the effective pro-Constantine prop- 
aganda, and the general war weariness, con- 
tributed to his fall. The sudden death of King 
Alexander on October 25 at once made the re- 
turn of Constantine the leading issue for the 
forthcoming election. In the light of the re- 
turns, the repudiation of Venizelos was complete. 
Of the Opposition, 246 were elected against 120 
Liberals (Venizelists). Venizelos immediately 
retired from the country; a new ministry was 
formed under Rhallis; and King Constantine 


581 


GREECE 


returned in triumph on December 19, after re- 
ceiving an almost unanimous vote in a plebis- 
cite. It was inevitable that the Allies’ atti- 
tude toward Greece, hitherto so favorable, should 
mow be completely reversed. On December 3 
the Supreme Council announced the withdrawal 
of all financial support to Greece. In the spring 
of 1921, largely at the instigation of the French, 
who feared for their own interests in Asia 
Minor as the Turkish Nationalist movement 
under Mustafa Kemal took on strength, the 
Supreme Council turned its attention toward 
a revision of the Treaty of Sévres as far as 
Greece was affected. By March it was evident 
that the Supreme Council meant to repudiate 
the cession of Smyrna to Greece. Under these 
circumstances the Greeks began a war on the 
Nationalists on March 24 by marching on 
Afiun-Karahissar and Eskishehr, on the line to 
Angora. Both cities soon fell; Eskishehr, how- 
ever, was retaken on April 2 by the Turks; the 
first offensive thus closed without spectacular 
results. The war spirit in Greece reached fever 
pitch. Encouraged in a belief that Great Brit- 
ain was actively championine their interests 
and that surcease from the pressing domestic 
problems would be found in great victories 
abroad, the Greeks renewed their demands for 
a continuance of the war. The second offensive 
began on June 10. A bloody battle was fought 
before Kutahia, July 16-17, and the Greeks oc- 
cupied the town. On July 21, Eskishehr was 
once more entered, and the army pushed east 
on the road to Angora. Not until after the 
Greeks crossed the Sakharia in September did 
they receive their first check. In a 10 days’ 
battle early in September the Greeks were dis- 
astrously defeated and were compelled to fall 
back with heavy losses on the earlier Brusa- 
Afiun Karahissar line. Thus the year closed 
with practically no results. Meanwhile at 
home the newly elected Chamber had constitut- 
ed itself a Constituent Assembly and was con- 
fronted by an advanced programme of political 
and economic reform prepared by Gounaris. It 
was idle to hope for any real reconstruction in 
view of the depletion of the treasury and the 
Chamber’s preoccupation with the idea of in- 
demnifying the victims of the Venizelist régime 
during the War. How precarious the situation 
was immediately became evident. With the 
beginning of 1922 the serious nature of affairs, 
little known at home and abroad because of a 
continuous official mendacity, began to appear. 
Turkish attacks on Greeks throughout western 
Asia Minor became frequent, and imprison- 
ments and deaths were numerous. These atroc- 
ities were merely forerunners of the larger 
movements of the summer. In the last week of 
August the Greek army, inadequately com- 
manded, was suddenly beset in the Afiun-Kara- 
hissar and Eskishehr districts by an immeasur- 
ably superior Turkish force and struck a stag- 
gering blow. Panic at once ensued. Flight to- 
ward Smyrna was general, while thousands of 
soldiers took to their ships and made for 
Greece. The city of Smyrna, filled with refu- 
gees, was turned over to the Allies on Septem- 
ber 8 and was entered by the Turks three days 
later. On September 14 a fire broke out in the 
foreign quarter and destroyed the whole section 
on the water front; some 100,000 were left 
homeless. Thus, in 15 days, the Turks had 
swept Anatolia free of the invaders and re- 
stored a balance that for more than a year had 


GREECE 


seemed all but lost. The Greeks were com- 
pelled to evacuate eastern Thrace as a condi- 
tion for an armistice. The reaction on home 
affairs was instantaneous. Beginning in the 
islands of Mytilene and Chios and spreading to 
the fleet and the soldiers in Thrace and Mace- 
donia, the demand for Constantine’s abdication 
gained such headway that on September 27 the 
King once more relinquished his throne, this 
time in favor of his oldest son, George. Con- 
stantine died suddenly at Palermo on Jan. 11, 
1923. Until the meeting of the new National 
Assembly affairs were in the hands of a revolu- 
tionary committee which, in order to gain popu- 
lar approval, proceeded to an investigation of 
the late disaster. A report published on No- 
vember 8 condemned all the anti-Venizelist gov- 
ernments from 1915 to 1922 and demanded the 
indictment of the ex-ministers, Gounaris, Stra- 
tos, Protopapadakis, Theotokis, Baltazzis, Gou- 
das, and Stratigos, on a charge of treason. A 
speedy trial took place, and the following, to 
the horror of Europe, were sentenced to death 
and duly executed: Gounaris, Stratos, Proto- 
papadakis, Theotokis, Baltazzis, and General 
Hadjianastis, commander of the forces in Asia 
Minor. Such an act only strengthened the hand 
of the French diplomats who sought to pacify 
Turkey at the expense of Greece. The Treaty 
of Lausanne, as finally signed on July 24, 1923, 
(see TURKEY) meant the complete humiliation 
of Greece and the dissipation of those hopes of 
a greater Greece dominating the Southeast 
which had been the dream of politicians since 
the outbreak of the War. Eastern Thrace, 
Smyrna, the Dodecanese, were lost; those Greek 
nationals, some 600,000 living in Turkish ter- 
ritory, notably in Asia Minor, whose commer- 
cial activities added much to the wealth of the 
fatherland, were to be torn from their homes 
and settled lives and deported to Greece, in ex- 
change for Turkish nationals. A further blow 
was struck at Greek prestige when on. August 
29 as a result of the murder, at Janina, two 
days earlier, of the Italian commissioners who 
had been at work on the delimitation of the 
Greco-Albanian boundary, Mussolini, presum- 
ing Greek responsibility, delivered an ultima- 
tum to Greece which demanded official apolo- 
gies, execution of the unknown murderers, and 
the immediate payment of 50,000,000 lire. The 
refusal of Greece to pay so large a sum at once 
led to the Italian bombardment and occupation 
of the island of Corfu, August 31. Greece 
thereon appealed to the League Council, under 
Articles XII and XV of the Covenant. Expres- 
sions of disapprobation in the Assembly and 
Council of the League, and, above all, English 
intercession for Greece, induced Mussolini to 
abandon his truculent attitude, accept terms of 
settlement proposed by the Council of Ambas- 
sadors, and withdraw from Corfu. Greece ac- 
cepted the terms on September 9 and shortly 
thereafter made the required ceremonial apolo- 
gies, besides depositing 50,000,000 lire as a for- 
feit, which was turned over to Italy after an 
impartial commission had reported that al- 
though not responsible for the murders, the 
Greek government had been negligent in pro- 
ceeding against the assassins. (See ALBANIA 
and Iraty.) International bankruptcy was 
merely one face of the shield; domestic affairs 
revealed the same deplorable breakdown. The 
revolutionary government, headed by Gonatas, 
though Colonel Plastiras was the virtual dicta- 


582 


GREECE 


tor, continued in control throughout 1923, 
maintaining its uneasy position only by the 
suppression of the constitutional liberties. The 
Venizelists, the party at the head of affairs, 
were hopelessly disunited; and with a lack of 
leadership, for both Venizelos and Zaimis were 
in political retirement, the country drifted 
helplessly. A half-hearted gesture at recon- 
struction was made on August 1 when the first 
army contingents were demobilized. In Octo- 
ber a revolt led by General Metaxis broke out 
and soon spread over the Peloponnesus, and on- 
ly with difficulty was the government able to 
cope with it. Again popular opinion seemed to 
consider a republican constitution a universal 
palliative. The weeks preceding the general 
election of December 16 witnessed a revival of 
republican sentiment; attacks on the dynasty 
even appeared in the army and navy, hitherto 
generally loyal. The elections proved favora- 
ble to the Venizelists and the republicans; two 
days later George and his wife Elizabeth were 
invited to leave the country, and a regent, Ad- 
miral Koundouriotis, was installed in the pal- 
ace. The year 1924 thus saw Greece again 
about to commence a new and perilous journey. 
The Gliicksburg dynasty was deposed, only tem- 
porarily, it was claimed, but quite definitely 
so far as public opinion was concerned; a Na- 
tional Assembly convened on January 2; and on 
January 4, Venizelos, the man to whom all 
Greece looked, appeared in Athens after an ex- 
ile of three years and consented first to head 
the National Assembly and then, on the resig- 
nation of the Gonatas cabinet, the government 
itself, on January 11. To Great Britain and 
the United States the new régime appeared to 
possess all the elements of stability, and recog- 
nition was formally accorded during the course 
of the month. But it seemed that Greece’s 
well-wishers were to be doomed to eternal dis- 
appointment and that despair was to be the 
lot of those Greeks who were laboring to save 
their country from chaos. Venizelos was forced 
to relinquish his post because of illness, and al- 
though a cabinet completely made up of Veni- 
zelists succeeded him on February 6, it refused 
to permit the National Assembly to abolish the 
dynasty forthwith but insisted on a popular 
plebiscite. Venizelos himself had been won 
over with difficulty to the need for prompt ac- 
tion, and the plan of his followers to employ 
dilatory tactics so dispirited him that on March 
4 he announced his intention to quit the coun- 
try. The republicans and the military. party 
now joined forces with the result that the gov- 
ernment fell, on March 8, and Papanastassian, 
the republican leader, was summoned by the 
regent to form a new cabinet. The republican 
ministry, having obtained a vote of confidence 
in the National Assembly, lost no time in 
changing the name of the “Kingdom of Hellas” 
to the “Hellenic State,” interdicting prayers for 
the royal family, and preparing in various oth- 
er ways for the transition from monarchy to 
republic. The goal soon was attained. On 
March 25, while guns boomed and Athens re- 
joiced, the Assembly unanimously voted a reso- 
lution proclaiming Greece a republic, confirm- 
ing Admiral Koundouriotis provisionally in his 
powers as regent, and permanently exiling the 
members of the Gliicksburg dynasty. King 
George was permitted, however, to retain his 
title and four-fifths of his income for life. The 
Assembly’s resolution was overwhelmingly rati- 


GREELEY 


fied in a plebiscite on April 13, by 758,742 re- 
publican against 325,322 monarchist votes, and 
accordingly Premier Papanastassian notified for- 
eign powers that Greece had become a republic, 
and that Koundouriotis was henceforth to be 
styled Provisional President. On May 18 the 
draft of the new Greek constitution was made 
public. The most vexing problem confronting 
the new government was the repatriation of 
1,000,000 or more Greek refugees from Asia 
Minor and eastern Thrace, and this might well 
have proved insuperable but for the yeoman 
work done by the League of Nations’ Commis- 
sion headed by Henry Morgenthau of New York. 
To aid in the settlement of these unfortunates 
on the land and in industry, the Bank of Eng- 
land floated two loans of £1,000,000 each; but 
according to Mr. Morgenthau at least £6,000,- 
000 more was needed. See SMyRNA; also NAy- 
IES OF THE WORLD. 


GREELEY, WILLIAM BuckHouT (1879- +). 
An American forester, born at Oswego, N. Y., 
and educated at the University of California 
and Yale Forest School. From 1904 he served 
with the United States Forest Service and was 
at various times inspector of forest reserves 
in California, supervisor in charge of the Se- 
quoia Natural Forest, and government forester 
in Washington. In 1920 he was chief forester 
of the United States. During the War he 
served with the American army in France as 
lieutenant-colonel of the 20th Engineers and 
Chief of the Forestry Section. He wrote many 
bulletins and circulars relating to forestry. 

GREEN, Tuomas Epwarp (1857- ease 
American lecturer and author, born at Harris- 
ville, Pa., and educated at McKendree College, 
Princeton University, and Princeton Theologi- 
cal Seminary. From 1880 until 1903 he was 
active in the ministry of the Presbyterian and 
Protestant Episcopal churches at Mt. Carmel, 
Sparta, and Chicago, Il., and at Cedar Rapids, 
Iowa. He was elected Bishop of Iowa in 1898 
but did not accept the office. After 1903 he 
was lecturer and chaplain in various nation- 
al organizations, foundations, and universities. 
During and after the War he was identified 
with several movements for peace or war relief. 
Among his publications are The Mantraps of 
the City (1884); The Hill Called Calvary 
(1898); In Prase of Valor (1899-1900); The 
War Trust (1914); The Truth About Japan 
(1915); Hugenic Democracy (1917); and The 
Dream of the Ages (1921). 

GREENE, ArtHurR MAURICE, JR. (1872—-__——). 
An American mechanical engineer, born in Phil- 
adelphia, and educated at the University of 
Pennsylvania and in Germany. After serving 
as instructor at the Drexel Institute, he was 
appointed professor of mechanical engineering 
at the University of Missouri in 1902 and 
served there until 1907, when he became profes- 
sor of mechanical engineering at the Rensselaer 
Polytechnic Institute. He remained there un- 
til 1922, when he was appointed dean of the 
School of Engineering and professor of mechan- 
ical engineering at Princeton. During the War 
he was a member of the National Research 
Council and several other important organiza- 
tions. He was a member of many scientific and 
other societies and wrote Pumping Machinery 
(1911); Hlements of Heating and Ventilation 
(1912); Heat Engineering (1914); and Ele- 
ments of Refrigeration (1916). 

GREENE, JERoME Davis (1874— Via anh 


583 


GREENLAND 


American banker, born at Yokohama, Japan, 
and educated at Harvard and the University of 
Geneva. He was a member of the faculty of 
arts and sciences at Harvard (1905-11), gener- 
al manager of the Rockefeller Institute for 
Medical Research in New York City (1910-12), 
trustee and secretary of the Rockefeller Foun- 
dation (1913-17), a member of the firm of 
Lee, Higginson, and Company, bankers of New 
York (1918), the same of the London branch 
(1919- ), director of the Manhattan Rail- 
way Company (1914— ), executive secretary 
of the Reparation Commission at the Paris 
Peace Conference (1919), and a trustee and 
member of several prominent institutions and 
societies. 

GREENLAND. With Australia classed as 
a continent, Greenland is the largest island of 
the world. It has an estimated area of 840,- 
000 square miles, of which about 5 per cent is 
habitable along the ice-free coasts; the remain- 
der is covered by an unbroken ice-cap, exceeded 
in extent and thickness only by that of 
the continent of Antarctica. In 1921 the popu- 
lation numbered 14,355, practically all Eskimo. 
This was a gain of 896 over 1911. The births 
and deaths of the later years showed a steady 
gain of natives, probably the only instance in 
which a primitive people has thus thriven under 
a civilized and alien government. Fortunately 
the detached natives have come under Danish 
control. These form communities living in the 
Smith Sound region, between Cape York and 
Etah, and in the smaller settlement in the dis- 
trict of Angmagsalik on the east coast. Almost 
the entire population of what is commonly 
known as Danish Greenland is concentrated on 
the southwest ice-free region, facing Baffin Bay, 
extending northward along the coast for 1200 
miles from Cape Farewell to Tasiusak. The 
two districts, northern and southern, are each 
governed by a royal inspector who has magis- 
terial powers and is aided by assistants at the 
more important places. The largest settlement 
in 1921 was Syd Proven (901 inhabitants) and 
the smallest Skansen (49). These officials act 
under control of the Royal Greenland Board 
of Trade (Copenhagen) who most efficiently 
guard the interests and welfare of the natives. 
Schools, churches, and hospitals are maintained, 
and the Danish Eskimos are a literate, Chris- 
tian people. Trade is confined to the summer 
months, owing to the obstructing ice. Imports 
and exports, each about $1,000,000 annually, 
usually balanced; the exports were mostly fox 
skins and the products of the seal fishery. 
Danish energy and daring had explored the 
fauna, flora, geology, ethnology, etc., of this 
vast region with a thoroughness unequaled in 
any other Arctic land. The 63 volumes of 
Meddelelser (Communications) om Gronland 
are invaluable contributions to Arctic science. 
A notable event was the visit of the Danish 
royal family to Greenland in 1922, to celebrate 
the bicentenary celebration of the introduction 
of Christianity into Greenland. Latterly, the 
exploration of extreme northern Greenland, the 
northernmost known land of the world, was 
made by expeditions under. Rasmussen and 
Koch. The former discovered the journals of 
Mylius-Erichsen who perished in the expedi- 
tion which completed the coast line of Green- 
land and who found that Peary Channel is non- 
existent. The latter found an interior lake 
which he suggests contributed to Peary’s error. 
MacMillan’s voyage of 1923-24 was expected 


GREENOUGH 584 


to contribute data regarding the ice age of 
western Greenland. 

History. In 1919, Sweden, England, and the 
United States, realizing the hitherto benevolent 
nature of Danish policy, formally recognized 
Denmark’s sovereignty over the whole of Green- 
land. But in 1921 a sharp controversy was 
precipitated when Norway questioned Den- 
mark’s exclusive jurisdiction. The whaling in- 
dustry was gradually assuming importance; the 
catch in 1920 was valued at 300,000 kroner, and 
Norway in the interests of her fishermen con- 
troverted Denmark’s claim to the economic mo- 
nopoly which her sovereignty entailed. In short, 
it was not so much a question of mere political 
control as it was the right to develop Green- 
land’s industries unchecked by Danish interfer- 
ence. The Danish mercantilist attitude was 
put on moral grounds; the native Lapps had 
to be defended from ruthless exploitation at the 
hands of foreigners. No understanding could 
be reached, and there was talk of appealing to 
the League of Nations. 

GREENOUGH, Cuester Noyes (1874- UP 
An American university professor and dean, 
born at Wakefield, Mass., and educated at 
Harvard University where he was instructor in 
English (1899-1907). In 1907-10 he was _ pro- 
fessor of English at the University of Illinois 
and in the latter year returned to Harvard, 


where he has since remained, as_ assistant 
professor of English (1910-15), professor 
(1915- ), dean of the college (1919-20), 
and dean (1921- ). He is the author of A 


History of Literature in America, with Barrett 


Wendell (1904), and Hnglish Composition 
(1917). 

GREGORY, Avausta, LApy ( ?- )) An 
Irish playwright (see VoL. X). Her recent 
plays include The Golden Apple (1916), The 
Dragon, and Aristotle’s Bellows. Lady Greg- 


ory is a director of the Abbey Theatre in 
Dublin. 

GREGORY, Cuartes Nosire (1851- yz 
An American jurist, born in Otsego County, 
N. Y., and educated at the University of Wis- 
consin. In 1872-94 he practiced law at Madi- 
son, Wis. In 1894-1914, he was dean of the 
law schools of the universities of Wisconsin 
and Iowa and George Washington University 
and became one of the editors of the American 
Journal of International Law. He was made 
a member of numerous law associations and 
contributed many articles to professional and 
literary periodicals. His works include The 
Life of Justice Miller of the Supreme Court of 
the United States (1907) and Abstracts of 
Cases in Lloyd’s Reports of Prize Cases (1919). 

GREGORY, Joun (1879- ). An Ameri- 
can sculptor. Born in London, England, May 
17, 1879, he came to the United States in 1893. 
After studying at the Art Students’ League of 
New York, 1900-03, and at the Ecole des Beaux 
Arts, Paris, 1904-06, he won a fellowship in 
the American Academy in Rome, 1912-15. He 
was a pupil of George Grey Barnard and Anton 
Mercié. During the War he was with the cam- 
ouflage section of the navy department, design- 
ing dazzle camouflage. In 1924 he became direc- 
tor of the sculpture department, Beaux Arts 
Institute of Design, New York. His art was 
strongly influenced by the archaic Greek style, 
but not to the detriment of his own individual- 
ity. Most of his works are garden figures of 
originality and charm, such as “Bacchante,” 


GREY 


“Wood Nymph,” “Orpheus and Dancing Leop- 
ard,” a powerful group; and most exquisite of 
all, “Philomela,” in the possession of Payne 
Whitney, Long Island (replica in Metropolitan 
Museum, New York City). 

GRENADE. See ‘TRENCH 
STRATEGY AND TACTICS. 

GRETCHANINOV, ALexANDER TICHONO- 
VITCH (1864— ). A Russian composer, born 
at Moscow. He studied at the Moscow Con- 
servatory with Safonov (1881-91) and at the 
Petrograd Conservatory with Rimsky-Korsakov 
(1891-93). He never occupied any official po- 
sition but devoted his entire time to composi- 
tion and appeared occasionally as conductor of 
his own works. His instrumental works show 
the influence of the German romanticists, but 
his sacred compositions rank among the finest 
in all Russian music. Besides two complete 
liturgies, a Laudate Dewm for chorus and or- 
chestra, and many sacred choruses 4 cappella, 
the list. of his works includes two operas, 
both produced at Moscow, Dobrinya Nikititch 
(1903) and Seur Béatrice (1912); two sym- 
phonies, chamber music, and incidental music to 
Ostrovsky’s Snow Maiden and A. Tolstoy’s Czar 
Feodor and Ivan the Terrible. In 1917 he 
wrote Gimn Svobodni Rossi (Hymn of Free Rus- 
sia), which was adopted as the national hymn, 
replacing the well-known anthem of Imperial 
Russia. 

GREW, JOSEPH CLARK (1880— ew Am 
American diplomat, born at Boston, and edu- 
cated at the Groton School and Harvard Uni- 
versity. In 1904-16, he was successively clerk 
and deputy consul-general at Cairo (Egypt), 
third secretary of legation at Mexico City and 
St. Petersburg, Russia, and secretary or coun- 
selor at Berlin and Vienna. In 1917, when the 
United States broke off diplomatic relations 
with Austria-Hungary, he was counselor of em- 
bassy and chargé d’affaires at Vienna. He was 
then attached to the Department of State in 
Washington and served on various commissions 
there and in Europe at the time of the treaty 
of peace. In 1918 he was named secretary- 
general of the American commission to negoti- 
ate peace, with the rank of envoy extraordinary 
and minister plenipotentiary in Paris, and in 
1919 was American secretary of the Interna- 
tional Secretariat of the Peace Conference. In 
1920 he became envoy extraordinary and minis- 
ter plenipotentiary to Denmark; in the year 
following he went to Switzerland in the same 
capacity. He published Sport and Travel in 
the Far East (1910). 

GREY, Epwarp, Viscount (1862- pea 
British statesman (see VoL. X), who was again 
appointed Foreign Secretary in 1915 in As- 
quith’s coalition government. In 1916 trouble 
with his eyes and the succession of Lloyd 
George as premier caused his resignation from 
office. He was created Viscount Grey of Fallo- 
den. Viscount Grey had been in office 10 years, 
during which he steered his ship of state not 
with remarkable manceuvres but with an even 
balance of foresight and conservative patriot- 
ism. After a two-year rest he was well enough 
to represent England on a mission to Washing- 
ton regarding the peace settlement. In 1920 he 
took keen interest and a prominent part in the 
founding of a British Institute of International 
Affairs. See War IN Europr, Outbreak of the 


War. 
GREY, Zane (1875- " 


WARFARE, and 


An American 


GRIERSON 


author, born at Zanesville, Ohio. He studied 
dentistry at the University of Pennsylvania and 
practiced in New York until 1904, when he 
turned to writing. His stories, laid in the 
West, include: Riders of the Purple Sage 
(1912); Desert Gold (1913); The Lone Star 
Ranger (1915); Desert of Wheat (1919); The 
Mysterious Rider (1921); To the Last Man 
(1922); and many others, all based on themes 
of heroic incident and thrilling adventure. 

GRIERSON, Sir Georce (1851- ). An 
English Sanskritist (see Vor. X). His recent 
works have been editions of W. M. Waterfield’s 
translation of Alh Khand, the Lay of Aka, a 
Saga of Rayput (1923), Sir Aurel Stein’s col- 
lection of Hatim Tilawona, Kashmiri Stories 
and Songs (1923), and in collaboration with 
Lionel Barnett Lalla Yogiswari: the Wise Say- 
ings of Lal Deda, a Poet of Anctent Kasmir 
(1923). 

GRIFFES, CHarLes TOMLINSON (1884-1920). 
An American composer, born at Elmira, N. Y. 
He received his entire musical education in 
Berlin, studying with Jedliczka and Galston 
(piano), Klatte and Loewengard (theory), and 
Riifer and Humperdinck (composition). From 
1907 till his death, which occurred in New York, 
Apr. 8, 1920, he taught at the Hackley School 
in Tarrytown. As a composer he belongs to the 
extreme futurists. His most ambitious work is 
a symphonic poem, The Pleasure-Dome of Kubla 
Khan. His other works are a dance-drama, 
The Kairn of Koridwen; a Japanese pantomime- 
play, Shojo; two pieces for string quartet; 
songs, and piano pieces. Two of the last, The 
White Peacock and Clouds, were also orches- 
trated. 

GRIFFIN, Frank Loxtey (1881- es “An 
American educator, born in Topeka, Kan., and 
educated at the University of Chicago. After 
serving on the staff of the Yerkes Observatory, 
he was appointed instructor of mathematies at 
Williams College in 1906 and was assistant 
professor in 1909. From 1911 he was professor 
of mathematics at Reed College in Portland, 
Ore. He wrote Introduction to Mathematical 
Analysis (1921), and Periodic Orbits, with F. 
R. Moulton (1920). He also contributed many 
articles on mathematics and astronomy to sci- 
entific papers. 

GRIFFIS, WitiiAm ELuior (1843— h- 
An American clergyman, educator, and author 
(see Vor. X). Among his later works are: 
The House We Live In—Archtect and Tenant 
(1914); The Mikado—Institution and Person 
(1915); Millard Fillmore—Constructwwe States- 
man (1915); Bonnie Scotland and What We 
Owe Her (1916); Dutch Fairy Tales (1918) ; 
Belgian Fairy Tales (1919); Young People’s 
History of the Pilgrims (1920); Swiss Fairy 
Tales (1920); Was Brant at Wyoming? (1921) ; 
and Welsh Fairy Tales (1921). 

GRIFFITH, ARTHUR (1872-1922). An 
Trish public official, born in Dublin. He was 
the son of a compositor and for several years 
was engaged in typesetting and proof reading. 
While at this work he acquired an acquaintance. 
with foreign languages, metaphysics, mathemat- 
ics, science, and history. He studied for a 
time at a university on the continent of Europe, 
and afterwards traveled widely. About 1890 
he returned to Ireland, where he established 
The United Irishman. In 1905 he founded the 
Sinn Fein organization, which in 1916 brought 
about the Easter rebellion. He was elected a 


585 


GROSSMITH 


member of Parliament in 1918, and was an out- 
standing figure in negotiations with the Brit- 
ish government for securing Irish independence. 
With the establishment of an Irish Parliament 
he was elected president of the Dail Eireann in 
January, 1922. He died in August, 1922. 

GRIFFITH, Davin (LEWELYN) WARK 
(1880- ). An American motion picture di- 
rector, born at La Grange, Ky. He was for- 
merly an actor and for a time was a member of 
James K. Hackett’s company. He became con- 
nected with motion pictures first as an actor 
and then as director for the Biograph Film 
Company. His best productions include The 
Birth of a Nation; Hearts of the World; Brok- 
en Blossoms; Intolerance; Way Down East; 
Orphans of the Storm; America. 

GRINNELL, Josepu (1877— yA 
American zoélogist, born at Wichita, Okla., and 
educated at Stanford University. At 20 years 
of age he became instructor at Troop Polytech- 
nic Institute, Pasadena, Cal. He taught orni- 
thology, biology, zodlogy, ete., for 22 years in 
various California institutions and in 1920 be- 
came professor of zodlogy in the University of 
California. He was editor of The Condor and 
published numerous articles on the birds and 
mammals of California and Alaska. 

GRINNELL COLLEGE. A_ coéducational, 
nonsectarian institution at Grinnell, Iowa, 
founded in 1847. The student enrollment in- 
creased from 512 in the College and 192 in 
the School of Music in 1914 to nearly 900 
in 1924, and the number of teachers in the 
faculty from 50 to 89. An extensive build- 
ing campaign was inaugurated in 1914; in 
the decade following, a large modern building 
known as Alumni Recitation Hall, six resi- 
dence halls for men, and five cottages and a 
central hall forming a women’s quadrangle were 
erected. The elective system was greatly ex- 
tended during the period and many new courses 
were added to the curriculum, especially in the 
departments of political science, history, eco- 
nomics, and business administration. The li- 
brary increased from 50,000 to 73,000 volumes, 
and the endowment from about $1,500,000 to 
nearly $3,000,000. President, J. H. T. Main, 
Ph.D.) DL.D. 

GRIPPE. See INFLUENZA. 

GRISCOM, Lioyp CARPENTER (1872 ie 
An American diplomat (see Vor. X). In 1917 
he was appointed a major in the department of 
the Adjutant-General of the United States army 
and afterwards became Assistant Adjutant- 
General. 

GRISWOLD, SHELDON Munson (1861- ie 
An American bishop, born at Delhi, N. Y., and 
educated at Union College and the General 
Theological Seminary. From 1885 to 1902 he held 
pastorates at Ilion, Little Falls, and Hudson, 
N. Y. In 1902 he was elected and in the fol- 
lowing year consecrated missionary Bishop of 
Salina. In 1917 he was made suffragan Bishop 
of Chicago. 

GRODNO. See LITHUANIA, 

GROLL, ALsert Lorey (1866— yes 
American painter (see VoL. X). His preoccu- 
pation with desert scenes with conspicuous 
cloud effects continued until 1921, when he re- 
verted to his earlier interest in foregrounds. 
In some later pictures, among them “A Breezy 
Day—California,’ and “Wind Storm in Ne- 
vada,” his clouds no longer dominate. 

GROSSMITH, GerorGE (1874- ee) an 


GROSSMITH 586 


English comedian, son of George Grossmith and 
brother of Weedon Grossmith. , He first ap- 
peared in an operetta by his father at the 
Shaftesbury Theatre and became a popular fig- 
ure in musical comedy in London. He was the 
author or joint author of many musical plays, 
songs, and revues. He became lessee and man- 
ager of several playhouses in London in asso- 
ciation with Edward Laurillard. 

GROSSMITH, WEEDON (1853-1919). An 
English comedian, born in London. He was 
educated to be a painter but in 1885 he turned 
to the theatre and joined Rosina Voke’s com- 
pany, touring in the provinces and the United 
States. His first appearance in London was as 
Woodeock in Woodcock’s Little Game (1887), 
and he gained his first notable success in A 
Pantomime Rehearsal. In 1894 he successfully 
produced his own play, The Night of the Party. 
Among his best parts are the rdles of Archibald 
Bennick in The New Boy, Jimmy Jinks in Baby 
Mine, the Earl of Tweenwaye in The Ama- 
zons, and the Judge in Stopping the Breach 
(1917), and the last role in which he played. 
He wrote an autobiography, From Studio to 
Stage (1913). 

GROSVENOR, Gitsert Hovey (1875— i 
An American geographer (see VoL. X). In 
1920 he was president of the National Geo- 
graphic Society. In 1919 he discovered a lake 
in Alaska 28 miles long, which was named 
Grosvenor Lake in his honor. 

GROTHE, Huco A. L. (1869- ). A pop- 
ular and prolific German writer on travel and 
on political and economic problems. He was 
born in Magdeburg and studied at the universi- 
ties of Leipzig, Vienna, Munich, Wiirzburg, Ro- 
stock, and’ Berlin. He traveled in southern Eu- 
rope, the Caucasus, Asia Minor and other coun- 
tries. A volume of verse and of light fiction 
excepted, he has written only books of economic, 
political and even international import, as 
Tripolitamen und der Karawanenhandel nach 
dem Sudan (1898); Tripolitanische Land- 
schaftsbilder und Vélkertypen (1899); Die Bag- 
dadbahn und das Schwdbische Bauernelement 
in Transkaukasien und Palistina (1902) ; 
Auf Tiirkischer Erde, Reisebilder und Studien 
(1903); Landeskunde von Rumédnien (1906) ; 
Wanderungen in Persien (1910); Das Albanien 
und Montenegro (1913); Das Albanische Prob- 
lem (1914); Deutschland, die Tiirken, und der 
Islam (1914); Die Tiurken und Ihre Gegner 
(1915); Das Auswanderungsproblem und die 
Deutsche Volkswolfahrt (1920); and Bulgari- 
en, Natur, Staat und Volk (1920). 

GROUP MIND. See Socrat PsycHoLoey. 

GROVER, FREDERICK WARREN (1876— ): 
An American educator, born in Lynn, Mass., 
and educated at the Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology, Wesleyan University, and George 
Washington University, and in Germany. He 
served on the faculties of Harvard and Wes- 
leyan Universities and Lafayette College, and 
from 1902 to 1907 was laboratory assistant and 
associate physicist for the National Bureau of 
Standards. From 1911 to 1920 he was profes- 
sor of physics at Colby College, and from the 
latter date, assistant professor of electrical en- 
gineering at Union College. From 1918 he was 
consulting physicist at the Bureau of Stand- 
ards. During the War he performed valuable 
service at the Bureau of Standards, in Wash- 
ington. He was the author of various scientific 
articles and bulletins and was the joint author 


GUAM 


of Principles Underlying Radio Communication 
(1918). 

GRUBER, L. FRANKLIN ( ?- bse 
American clergyman, educator, and _ author, 
born near Reading, Pa., and educated at the 
Keystone State Normal School, Muhlenberg 
College, the Neff College of Elocution and Ora- 
tory, and the Mt. Airy Lutheran Theological 
Seminary. In 1901-02 he was professor of 
mathematics and English at Wagner College, 
Rochester, N. Y. On being ordained to the 
Lutheran ministry in 1901, he became a pastor 
at Utica (1902) and later at Minneapolis, 
Minn. In 1914 he was made pastor of the 
Church of the Reformation at St. Paul. His 
works include: The Version of 1611 (1903); 
The Truth About Tyndale’s New Testament 
(1917); Documentary Sketch of the Reforma- 
tion (1917); The Wittenberg Originals of the 
Luther Bible (1918); Creation ex Nihilo 
(1918; republished in 1921 under the title 
Whence Came the Universe?) ; The Theory of a 
Finite and Developing Deity Examined (1918) ; 
and Is the Doctrine of an Infinite and Un- 
changeable Deity Tenable? (1921). 

GUADELOUPE. A colony of France, com- 
prising two islands and five island dependen- 
cies, in the Lesser Antilles in the West Indies. 
Area, 688 square miles; population (1922), 
229,839, of whom 90 per cent were Creoles. 
The largest towns were Pointe-a-Pitre, 22,664 
inhabitants; -Basse-Terre, 8184; Le Moule, 10,- 
000. Leading products, as reflected in the ex- 
ports for 1921, were sugar (25,024 tons), rum 
(9,054,063 litres), and coffee (657 tons). Ex- 
ports for 1913, 1920, and 1921, were 18,- 
287,489 frances, 146,389,180 franes, and 74,601,- 
693 francs. Imports for the same years were 
20,174,930 franes, 117,858,064 frances, and 78,- 
989,677 francs. The increased prosperity of 
the islands was occasioned by the heavy de- 
mands made on them for sugar and rum by 
France. The budget for 1922 had increased to 
27,278,611 francs, from the 1911 budget of 4,- 
560,000 francs. 

GUAM. An island of the Marianas or 
Ladrone group, in the Pacific, belonging to the 
United States; area, approximately 226 square 
miles. The population of Guam increased from 
12,652 in 1913 to 13,275 in 1920. Since the 
American occupation in 1901, the population 
increased about 3600. Between 1918 and 1919 
population decreased because of a disastrous 
typhoon on July 6, 1918, and an epidemic of 
influenza which swept over the island in Octo- 
ber and November of that year. From Nov. 1 
to Dec. 31, 1918, there were 858 deaths. Of the 
population, 92 per cent are called Chamorros, 
a hybrid race with a Malayan strain predom- 
inating. The remainder of the. population in- 
cludes Filipinos, Japanese, Chinese, blacks, and 
whites. 

Agriculture. Corn is by far the most im- 
portant agricultural product, representing 60.3 
per cent of the total. While there was an in- 
crease in ,agricultural production during the 
decade 1914-24, the island did not become sgelf- 
supporting. There is more arable land than 
the present population can cultivate with the 
means at hand. Other agricultural products 
are sweet potatoes, yams, tobacco, cassava, rice, 
arrowroot, and sugar. The live stock includes 
carabao, horses, goats, hogs, and cattle. The 
carabao in 1916 numbered 6149 and the horses 
4367. The carabao is the chief burden-bearing 


— 


~— 


GUATEMALA 587 


animal and is used both for drawing carts and 
for plowing. 

Commerce. The chief commercial product of 
Guam is copra, obtained from coconuts. The 
exports of copra to the United States increased 
from 259,360 pounds in 1915 to 1,140,924 in 
1919. Considerable quantities were also sent to 
Japan. In 1915, 731,180 pounds were sent to 
that country and in 1919, 851,680. 

Education. Under the early Spanish gover- 
nors public education was discouraged; the rul- 
ers believed that the natives would be more 
tractable if they remained illiterate. In later 
years free schools were established, and by the 
time the United States resumed control of the 
island, a majority of the natives could read 
and write in Spanish. The efforts of the Amer- 
icans to teach the Chamorro children to use 
the English language did not prove very suc- 
cessful. The percentage of illiteracy in 1920 
was 21.8 and was especially large among the 
adults. The total number of persons able to 
speak English in 1920 numbered 4384. During 
the decade 1914-24 considerable progress was 
made in the development of an educational sys- 
tem. By the end of that period in 1923, 14 
primary schools, one intermediate school, and 
one high school were operated by the Depart- 
ment of Education. There were also several 
private schools. The total expenditure for edu- 
cation amounts to about $40,000 annually. 
The registration in the schools in 1923 was 
3509 and the average daily attendance 2265. <A 
compulsory education law compelled the attend- 
ance of all children between the ages of 7 and 
12. . 
Finance. The receipts amount to about 
$100,000. In 1916 they were $91,816; in 1923, 
$106,719. Expenditures in 1916 were $87,058; 
in 1923, $106,719. 

GUATEMALA. The largest of the five Cen- 
tral American republics, with an _ estimated 
area of 48,290 square miles, and a population, 
according to the 1920 census, of 2,004,900. The 
population in 1912 was 2,119,000. Guatemala, 
the capital, had 91,330 inhabitants in 1921. 
Earthquakes from Dec. 25, 1917, to Jan. 24, 
1918, completely destroyed the city; but by 
1922 much of the work of restoration had been 
completed. Other towns are Quezaltenango 
(35,000), Coban (30,770), and Totonicapan 
(28,310). Education was on the increase in 
1922-23, with 2766 elementary schools as com- 
pared with 1837 schools in 1912. The total 
number of pupils was 82,997, of whom 4715 
were taking secondary courses. In 1918 the 
University of Guatemala was opened, and by 
1923, 482 students were enrolled. Expenditure 
for education in 1922-23 was 50,806,700 pesos. 

Industry. Coffee planting continued the 
most important single activity, and coffee ex- 
ports included more than three-fourths of the 
exports. In 1922 there were 1500 plantations 
covering 242,062 acres, and 95,918,000 pounds 
were exported in 1923 as compared with 76,- 
219,800 in 1912. Bananas and sugar came next 
in importance as export crops. Food crops 
were being cultivated more extensively in 
1922; 526,322 acres were under corn, 9226 un- 
der rice, and 31,940 under wheat. Forest prod- 
ucts were beginning to play larger roles in the 
country’s trade, for by 1922 chicle to the value 
of $306,038 was exported ($142,108 in 1913), 
and timber to the value of $526,442 ($247,757 
in 1913). Mineral production was still back- 


GUATEMALA 


ward because of lack of transportation and cap- 
ital. Chrome was discovered in 1916, and oil 
seepages were reported in 1922. Total mineral 
exports in 1920, to the United States chiefly, 
were valued at $226,645. (In 1912, the figure 
was only $2737.) In December, 1915, the state 
took over all the ore lands in the country, to be 
exploited under leasehold only. Imports and 
exports for selected years follow: 


Imports Exports 
LOMA aia telatenateyeretets: Sonthcde: «tc $9,331,115 $12,754,027 
LO DORs crate aferere sh oretsts so oha< ebeie ¢ 18,344,463 18,102,906 
LODSEP PSS cist artie is cicl.tete akpard « 13,763,499 14,725,531 


Proportions by countries of origin of im- 
ports were, for 1922, the United States, 63 per 
cent (50 in 1913); United Kingdom, 15 per 
cent (16 in 1913); Germany, 11 per cent (20 
in 1913). Leading articles of importation were 
cotton goods, wheat flour, iron and steel manu- 
factures, machinery, foodstuffs, drugs, and med- 
icines. Proportions by countries of destination 
of exports were the United States, 68 per cent 
(27 in 1913); Germany, 16 per cent (53 in 
1913); Netherlands, 8 per cent; the United 
Kingdom, 2 per cent (11 in 1913). Coffee went 
principally to the United States and Germany 
in the proportion of 4 to 1. The impor- 
tance of the United States in the carrying trade 
increased enormously. In 1913, 803 ships en- 
tered Guatemalan ports, 23 per cent of which 
were American; in 1920, 758 entered, 61 per 
cent being American. 

Communications. In 1914 the International 
Railways of Central America, purchased by 
American capitalists in May, 1924, acquired a 
60-mile railroad from Santa Maria to Las 
Cruces and built an extension of 45 miles from 
Las Cruces to Ayutla on the Mexican border. 
This was part of a larger scheme to build a 
through route between Vera Cruz and Panama, 
extending along the entire western length of 
Central America. In 1916 a concession was 
granted for the construction of an intracostal 
canal. skirting the Pacific coast for 80 miles 
from San José to the Esclaves River. The total 
railway mileage was 495. In 1920, there were 
4512 miles of telegraph line and 416 miles of 
telephone. 

Finance. For 1922-23, national revenues 
totaled 306,810,078 paper pesos and the budget 
for 1923-24 called for 351,705,125 paper pesos. 
Expenditures for 1922-23 were 41,679,823 pesos 
more because of payments made to the Inter- 
national Railways of Central America. On 
Dee. 31, 1922, the external debt, held in Eng- 
land, was £1,308,563. Amortization was going 
on rapidly, in 1921 a total of £323,340 being 
paid, and in 1922, £32,080. The internal debt 
on Dec. 31, 1921, amounted to 157,700,000 pa- 
per pesos and 1,381,570 gold pesos. In 1918 a 
National Bank was established, one of its chief 
purposes being the making of agricultural 
loans. On June 30, 1922, there were in circu- 
lation 367,435,298 paper pesos. Comparative 
figures are invalidated by the continuous de- 
preciation of the paper peso, the currency in 
use. In 1912 the peso was worth 18 to the 
dollar; in 1922, 55.84 to the dollar. On May 
31, 1923, it closed at 60.5. 

History. At the expiration of his term in 
1916, Estrada Cabrera was once more reélected 
president. His virtual dictatorship since 1898 
was successfully broken in 1920, when the more 


progressive elements of the country organized 


GUCHKOV 588 


to effect a liberal administration. Cabrera was 
the first to resort to force, but his army de- 
serted him, and he was compelled to resign. 
Dr. Carlos Herrera was appointed provisional 
president and on Sept. 15, 1920, took the oath 
for the unexpired term, 1916-23. He was im- 
mediately recognized by the United States. He 
applied himself to repairing the damages of the 
earthquake and was also instrumental in hav- 
ing Guatemala form the Central American Un- 
ion (q.v.) together with Honduras and Salva- 
dor in 1921. On Dee. 6, 1921, however, he too 
was overthrown by a military clique incensed 
at the country’s participation in the Union, and 
a provisional government was formed by Gen- 
eral Orellana, chief of staff. Orellana was 
eleeted president in March, 1922; by July he 
was confronted by a rebellion which proved un- 
successful. The leaders were put to death, and 
two Catholic priests were expelled. It ap- 
peared for a time that the new government had 
no desire to aid in the formation of a federal 
Central American state, and in October, 1922, 
Orellana repudiated the pact signed on the 
U.S.S. Tacoma on Aug. 20, 1922, by Nicaragua, 
Honduras, and Salvador, though his govern- 
ment participated in the Central American Con- 
ference of 1923 at Washington and signed the 
conventions concluded. In June, 1924, how- 
ever, Guatemala once again took a forward step 
in the furthering of amicable Central American 
relations when her Assembly was the first to 
ratify the important General Treaty of Peace 
and Amity and the Convention for the Estab- 
lishment of International Commissions of In- 
quiry, both adopted by the Central American 
Conference in Washington in 1922. On Apr. 27, 
1917, Guatemala broke off diplomatic relations 
with Germany and offered her transportation 
facilities to the United States in the prosecu- 
tion of the War. On Oct. 3, 1919, peace was 
made with Germany. 

GUCHKOV, ALEXANDER’ (1862- Soe 
Russian politician, born at Moscow, and edu- 
cated at the University of Moscow and under 
Professor Schmoller of Berlin. He led an ad- 
venturous youth as a volunteer in the Boer War 
(1899-1902) and with the Red Cross in the 
Russo-Japanese War. In the third Duma, aft- 
er Khomiakov’s resignation in 1901, he was 
elected speaker and as such attacked the Court 
and the Ministry of War for inadequate mili- 
tary preparations against Germany. During 
the War he came into prominence by his ener- 
getic attempt to concentrate the army forces. 
On the outbreak of the March Revolution in 
1917 he was made Minister of War but resigned 
in the face of desertions and demoralization in 
the army. He eventually took refuge in Paris 
and was active there in collecting forces against 
the Red element in Russia. 

_ GUEDALLA, PHILIP (1889- ). An Eng- 
lish author, educated at Rugby and Oxford. 
He read for the bar and practiced law for a 
time but soon turned to journalism and became 
a frequent contributor to the London Times, 
New Statesman, Daily News and the American 
Vanity Fair. His first work was published in 
1911, but it was not until the publication of 
The Second Empire (1922) that he was ac- 
corded general recognition. In this work, with 
great skill and not a little malice, he succeeded 
to large extent in dissipating the Napoleonic 
myth and in scaling down the heroic propor- 
tions of Napoleon the Little. 


The same qual- 


GUIANA 
ities were to be found in his essays Supers and 
Supermen (1920) and Masters and Men (1923). 

GUERARD, Abert Leon (1880- eA 
French philologist, born in Paris, and educated 
in Paris and London. After an interval of 
travel he became professor of literature and 
examiner in history at the Ecole Normale. In 
1906 he became instructor in French at Wil- 
liams College, and from 1907-13 was assistant 
professor of French at Stanford University. 
Since 1913 he has been professor at the Rice 
Institute in Houston, Tex. During the War he 
was in liaison service. His principal works 
are: Prophets of Yesterday (1913); French 
Civilization in the Nineteenth Century (1914) ; 
I'ive Masters of French Romance (1916); L’Ave- 
mir de Paris (1919); French Civilization from 
Its Origin to the Close of the Middle Ages 
(1920), and International Languages (1921). 

GUERIN, JutLes (1866- ). An Ameri- 
can painter and illustrator (see Von. X). He 
was director of color and decoration at the 
Panama-Pacifie International Exposition, 1915. 
Noteworthy among his works during the period 
were the decorations of the Pennsylvania Sta- 
tion, New York City, and those of the Lincoln 
Memorial Building, Washington. 

GUEST, EpcAr ALBERT (1881— ). An 
American press humorist, born at Birmingham, 
England, and educated in the public schools of 
Detroit. In 1895 he became connected with the 
Detroit Free Press and has since established a 
reputation as a writer of humorous verse and 
sketches. He is author of A Heap o’ Livin’ 
(1916), Just Folks (1917), Over Here (1918), 
Path to Home (1919), When Day is Done 
(1921), Poems of Daily Life (1922), and All 
That Matters (1923). 

GUIANA, Britisu. A British colony on the 
northeastern coast of South America, form- 
ing the western part of Guiana. Area, 89,480 
square miles; population in 1911, 296,000; in 
1922, 298,188. Georgetown, the capital, had 
53,422 inhabitants in 1921. On Dec. 31, 1922, 
there were 124,338 East Indians-in the colony, 
of whom 56,781 were residents on estates, and 
67,557 resided elsewhere. The leading products 
were sugar cane, diamonds, balata, bauxite, 
rice, cocoanuts, coffee, cacao, wood, and timber. 
The steady decline of gold continued; the 1923 
output was 5621 ounces as compared with 79,- 
194 ounces in 1913. The diamond output 
showed increases with the discovery of new 
fields in 1922. Imports for 1913, 1922, and 
1923, were $7,734,862, $11,004,414, and $12,811,- 
011. Exports for the same years, including 
transit trade, were $10,526,976, $14,042,322, 
and $18,036,707. The eight principal imports 
in 1923 were flour, textiles, manure, pickled 
pork and beef, boots and shoes, butter, cement, 
and tobacco. These came largely from Great 
Britain, the United States, and Canada. Ex- 
ports to the United States, which reached $4,- 
223,110 in 1920, chiefly in sugar shipments, 
dropped to $309,477 in 1922, and recovered to 
$762,066 in 1923. The general fall in prices 
after 1920 accounted for the depression. Total 
tonnage entered and cleared in 1911-12, 1920, 
and 1921, was 988,663; 899,748, and 876,709. 
Total tonnage entered in 1923 was 537,396. 
Revenues for 1913 and 1922 were $2,786,140 
and $4,345,218; expenditures for the same years 
were $2,764,121 and $5,269,364. The public 
debt on Jan. 1, 1922, was £1,170,238. 

Dutch Guiana or Surinam. Located be- 


a ae oe 


GUILD SOCIALISM 


tween British Guiana on the west and French 
Guiana on the east. Area, 46,060 square miles; 
population in 1910, 86,233; in 1921, 113,181, 
exclusive of the Indians and Negroes living in 
the forests. Nationalities represented in 1919 
were 1109 Europeans, 11,480 Javanese, 940 Chi- 
nese, and 26,096 British Indians. Paramaribo, 
the capital, had 35,346 inhabitants in 1910 and 
50,560 inhabitants in 1920. The leading prod- 
ucts were sugar cane (26,430,000 pounds in 
1910; 24,433.000 in 1921), rice (4,386,000 
pounds in 1910; 25,954,000 in 1921), caeao (3,- 
702,600 pounds in 1910; 3,475,800 in 1921), 
coffee (445,000 pounds in 1910; 3,987,260 in 
1921), and bananas (462,200 bunches in 1910; 
297,605 in 1921). Gold production in 1910 was 
1,081,476 grains, and only 291,347 grains in 
1921; balata, 1,495,300 pounds in 1910 and 1,- 
021,700 in 1921; and rum, 210,780 gallons in 
1910 and 182,370 in 1921. Exports for 1912 
and 1922 were $3,391,050 and $2,092,094. Im- 
ports for 1912 and 1922 were $3,014,604 and 
$3,894,402. In 1922 the United States fur- 
nished $843,761 of the imports of Dutch Gui- 
ana, and in 1923, $810,475. The United States 
took $695,859 of her exports in 1922 and $820,- 
931 in 1923. Leading imports were provisions, 
hardware, clothing, and manufactured articles. 
Tonnage entered in 1910 was 210,998; in 1921, 
372,431. Revenues, expenditures, and subven- 
tion for 1914 were 7,051,800 guilder, 6,260,530, 
and 790,260. For 1922 they were 8,300,000 
guilder, 6,678,000, and 1,682,000 (nominal val- 
ue of the guilder, $0.402). 

French Guiana. Forming the eastern part 
of Guiana. Area, 34,069 square miles; popula- 
tion in 1911, 49,009; in 1921, 44,202. Creoles 
made up four-fifths of the inhabitants. In 
1922 the penal population totaled 6075 indi- 
viduals. Cayenne, the leading town, had 13,527 
inhabitants in 1911, and only 8500 in 1921. 
The industrial and agricultural development of 
the colony made little progress in the decade 
1912-22, gold continuing to be the product 
of greatest economic importance. However, a 
marked decline was visible over the period. In 
1910, 123,170 ounces were produced; in 1918, 
80,477; in 1921, only 38,667. Of the total ex- 
ports of 12,117,000 francs in 1912, gold ac- 
counted for 10,457,000 francs. Of the total ex- 
ports of 23,144,060 frances in 1921, gold ac- 
counted for only 10,617,542. Next in impor- 
tance in the latter year was balata, with 10,- 
296,766 francs in exports. Other exports were 
rosewood essence, hides, and cacao. Rice, man- 
joc, cacao, coffee, bananas, and _ vegetables 
were cultivated in small quantities for local 
consumption. Imports for 1912 and 1921 were 
10,905,000 and 48,150,967. About 90 per cent 
of the exports were taken by France and her 
colonies in 1920, and 50 per cent of the im- 
ports came from France. The United States 
trade with French Guiana in 1923 was: im- 
ports, $178,963; exports, $350,169; as com- 
pared with $334,988 and $398,249, respectively, 
in 1922. The local budget for 1912 balanced 
at 3,592,000 francs; for 1922, at 7,102,587. 
Subventions from the French government were 
still necessary. The rivers remained the only 
decent means of transportation. 

GUILD SOCIALISM. Guild socialism, an 
English social development, aims at “the aboli- 
tion of the wage system and the establishment 
by the workers of self-government in industry,” 
and ultimately, a new social order. Stress is 


589 


GUILD SOCIALISM 


laid on a gradual rather than on a revolution- 
ary change, although industrial action is pre- 
ferred to political action. The movement is 
chiefly intellectual. The present industrial so- 
ciety is attacked on the ground that private 
profit and employers’ autocracy kill the work- 
ers’ incentive and interest in their work and 
thereby Beet their becoming healthy social 
beings. It is asserted that by giving the work- 
er a definite function and a voice in the man- 
agement of industry, the wrongs of capitalism 
will be eradicated, production increased, and 
productive incentive revived. Thus a new so- 
ciety with a definite function for everybody will 
be created. This emphasis on function and 
functional control is the basis and the distine- 
tive quality of the guild philosophy. It is to 
be realized through the guilds. A guild is de- 
fined as “a self-governing association of mu- 
tually dependent people organized for the re- 
sponsible discharge of a particular function of 
society.’ Organized therein should be “all the 
workers, by hand and by brain.” All of society 
should be divided into guilds. The adherents 
of the movement, or National Guildsmen, as 
they term themselves, agree on two types: in- 
dustrial and civic guilds. Some add a third, 
the distributive guild. The industrial guilds 
would engage in “the various branches of trans- 
port and manufacture,” while the civie guilds 
would embrace the professions. Concerning the 
structure and government there is still much 
disagreement among guildsmen, but the theory 
of industrial democracy seems to prevail. De- 
centralization is also emphasized. The func- 
tions of the modern state would be carried on 
by certain definite guilds. Relations between 
the guilds would be provided for by “liaison” 
(akin to the present-day interlocking director- 
ates) and guild councils. The latter would be 
local, regional, and national, and would take 
over many legislative and administrative func- 
tions of the state and the Trade Union Con- 
gress. As for the relations between the guilds 
and the community there were many conflicting 
theories. While guild socialism was accused of 
not providing any definite authority, its adher- 
ents claimed that by dividing society into func- 
tional organizations, sovereignty would also be 
adequately divided. It was generally conceded 
that the scheme’s chief difficulty lay here. 
The movement arose in the first decade of 
this century, through antagonism to the ruling 
collectivism in English radical thought, and 
was definitely formulated in 1906. Its first 
fermal appearance, however, was in 1912. On 
Christmas, 1914, the Stonington Document, con- 
taining a statement of principles, was drawn 
up. On Easter, 1915, the present organization 
was completed, and the name of National 
Guilds’ League was adopted. In the early 
years of the War, guild socialism grew slowly; 
its growth was more rapid during the last 
years of the War and after the Armistice. Al- 
though British trade unionists were rather un’ 
responsive to guild ideas, the movement had 
nevertheless a considerable indirect influence on 
English labor, especially in the restive years 
after the War, when there was widespread un- 
employment, discontent, and strikes throughout 
the country. Guild socialism spread in one 
form or another, and with its increasing hold 
on the more revolutionary elements, it became 
itself more radical. The British Miners’ Feder- 
ation was always somewhat in sympathy with 


GUILLAUME 590 


guild ideas, and its proposal for the national- 
ization of the mines embodied a concept of 
guild socialism. The Union of Post Office 
Workers and the National Union of Teachers 
adopted resolutions to organize on the guild 
plan. Finally the guild idea found practical 
application in the Builders’ Guilds, organized 
in conformity with guild principles. These 
guilds proved rather successful for a _ time. 
The guild plan spread subsequently to house 
furnishings, tailoring, engineering, and other 
trades. Partly on account of severe compe- 
tition and partly on account of poor man- 
agement, the Building Guild became involved 
in financial difficulties, and in November, 1922, 
it went into a _ receiver’s hands and was 
later dissolved. In May, 1923, the Nation- 
al Guilds’ League merged with the National 
Guilds’ Council, and The Guild Socialist, the 
official monthly, ceased publication. After the 
year 1922, the Guild movement declined per- 
ceptibly. See SocriALIsM, Great Britain. 

Outside of England the guild idea exerted 
more or less influence in the United States, 
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, 
Japan, Russia, France, Germany, Hungary, and 
Italy. The National Guilds’ League, the chief 
organization for the spread of guild principles, 
never had a large membership. In January, 
1921, it had “something over 500.” Its literary 
activity has been marked. From March, 1919, 
to May, 1923, it published The Guild Socialist. 
The New Age has steadily advocated guild so- 
cialism since 1912, The chief missionary work 
was done, however, though the books of impor- 
tant guildsmen such as Penty, Orage, Cole, 
Hobson, Douglass, Reckitt, Bechhofer, de Maez- 
tu, Taylor, and others. 

GUILLAUME, Cuar_rs Epovuarp (1860-__—+)~. 
A Swiss scientist, born in Fleurier. He studied 
at several European universities and in 1883 
was appointed assistant of the Bureau of In- 
ternational Poids and Measures. In 1902 he 
was associate director of the bureau, and from 
1915, director. He was awarded the Nobel 
Prize in 1920 and was a member of many sci- 
entific societies. He wrote Nickel and Its Alloys 
(1898); Application of Nickel Steels (1904) 
and many other works on scientific subjects. 

GUISEZ, JEAN ( 7?- ). A French sur- 
geon, authority on the ear, nose, and larynx 
and on the use of the bronchoscope, his status 
in his country corresponding to that of Cheva- 
lier Jackson in the United States. He has pro- 
duced a number of authoritative works compris- 
ing Du Traitement Chirurgicale de UEthmoi- 
dite Purulente (1902); Tracheobronchoscopie et 
(sophagoscopie (1905); La Pratique Oto- 
rhino-laryngoscopique (3 vols., 1908); Msoph- 
agoscopie Clinique et Thérapeutique (1911); 
Diagnose, Traitement, et Eapertise des WNSé- 
quelles Oto-rhino-laryngologiques (1921); and 
Diagnose et Traitement des Rétrécissements de 
U@sophage et de la Trachea (1923). 

GUITERMAN, Artruur (1871- ). An 
American author and poet, born in Vienna, and 
educated at the College of the City of New 
York. He did editorial work on the Woman’s 
Home Companion, Literary Digest, and other 
magazines. In 1912-15 he lecturefl at the New 
York University School of Journalism. Among 
his works are: Betel Nuts (1907); The Laugh- 
ing Muse (1915); The Mirthful Lyre (1918); 
Ballads of Old New York (1920); Chips of 
Jade (1920); A Ballad Maker’s Pack (1921) ; 


GUNNERY 


and The Light Guitar (1923). These were 
mostly light verse. Mr. Guiterman has con- 
tributed to Life and other periodicals. 

GUITRY, Sacua (1885- ). A French 
actor and writer, son of Lucien Guitry (see 
VoL. X). He has written many comedies for 
the stage. Among the best known are Les 
Nuées dAristophane; La Clef; Le Crin; Pe- 
tite Hollande; Le Muffe; Un Sujet de Roman 
(1923). As a playwright he works on the as- 
sumption that audiences do not want “too much 
realism” but recreation and amusement. His 
Deburau and The Grand Duke were successful 
in New York with Lionel Atwill in the leading 
arts. 

GULICK, Sipney Lewis (1860— ergAn 
American missionary, born at Ebon, Marshall 
Islands, and educated at Dartmouth College 
and Union Theological Seminary. He was or- 
dained to the Congregational ministry in 1886 
and in the next year went to Japan, where he 
remained for 27 years doing missionary work. 
At the same time he held the chair of theology 
at Dolshisha, Kyoto (1906-13) and lectured at 
the Imperial University at Kyoto (1907-13). 
He was secretary of the National Commission 
on American-Japanese Relations (1921- ). 
Among his works are: LHvolution (1910); The 
American-Japanese Problem (1914); The Fight 
for Peace (1915); America and the Orient 
(1916); American Democracy and Asiatic Citt- 
zenship (1918); and The Korean Situation 
(1919, 1920). 

GUNNERY, Navat.. The development of 
naval gunnery during the War was along lines 
laid down several years previous. The sole in- 
novation was “spotting” the fall of projectiles 
by means of aircraft. This was used only on 
a few occasions and in comparatively minor op- 
erations against works on shore. No vessels 
were fitted to carry, send out, and receive air- 
planes early enough to take part in purely na- 
val warfare. The German airships did much 
scouting but little spotting, and airships were 
not yet, in 1924, to be depended on for “spot- 
ting” except in the vicinity of their bases; 
while observation or kite balloons towed by 
ships had proved unsatisfactory except under 
favorable conditions. It is to be expected that 
when fleets and squadrons are accompanied by 
aircraft carriers, when all large vessels carry 
one or more airplanes or seaplanes, and when 
even destroyers and submarines may carry fold- 


ing seaplanes, i.e. airplanes fitted to take off 


from and alight on the water, the conditions 
will be different; and aircraft may be as use- 
ful for “spotting” at sea as they are on shore. 

“Director” firing, in which guns are laid in 
accordance with directions electrically trans- 
mitted from a central director station, received 
ample verification of its importance by the ex- 
periences of the War. It was yet susceptible 
of great improvement by the better training of 
the men at the guns and in the director station 
and by greater accuracy and efficiency of ob- 
serving instruments and of the means and meth- 
ods of combining their readings. These instru- 
ments consist of telescope sights on the guns 


and in the director tower or station, range 
finders, range clocks or keepers, change-of- 
range indicators, deflection indicators, course 


indicators, and mapping or combining appara- 
tus. The range finder most in use during and 
after the War is the Barr and Stroud. (See 
NEw INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPADIA, VoL. XIX, 


GUNS 


p. 542). The range keeper is a dial or other 
form of register in the central station by which 
the range indicators at the guns are controlled. 
Change-of-range indicators are automatic calcu- 
lating machines which, given the observed range 
at two moments, continue to apply the rate of 
change and indicate the probable range after 
each small interval of time. When new ranges 
are supplied to it, the ranges are corrected in 
accordance with the new rate. The ranges 
shown on the range keeper and range indicators 
at the guns are derived from the change-of- 
range instrument, and it may be directly con- 
nected to both; in this case the corrections to 
the range due to observed fall of the shot are ap- 
plied to the ranges as supplied to the change-of- 
range instrument instead of to the range keeper. 
Deflection indicators keep track of the observed 
fall of the projectiles to the right or left of the 
target and transmit it to suitable dials at the 
guns, where the gun-sights are set in a new 
angle with the axis of the bore in order to cor- 
rect the ascertained error due to various causes 
such as speeds of ship and target, changes of 
course, air currents, etc. Course indicators are 
used in connection with the plotting or combin- 
ing apparatus or diagram or for solving the 
enemy’s course and speed. The director tower 
or station is directly connected with the central 
station or plotting room and with the guns. 
The observer at the director sight fires the bat- 
tery in whole or half salvos or singly in accord- 
ance with instructions. The fall of the projec- 
tiles is noted, and if necessary, corrections are 
made in range or deflection. The foregoing 
gives only a general idea of modern methods of 
the control of gun fire such as were used in the 
War and afterward. The details and the in- 
struments used are closely guarded secrets, but 
the work performed is roughly as described. 
See ARTILLERY and ORDNANCE. 

GUNS. See ARTILLERY. 

GUNS, Nava. The calibre and power of the 
heavy guns of battleships increased steadily 
from 1910. By the terms of the Limitation of 
Armaments Treaty the maximum calibre was 
fixed at 16 inches, and guns of this calibre will 
probably be carried by all first class battleships 
and battle cruisers built in future. The length 
of the guns will be 45 or 50 calibres and the 
service muzzle velocity about 2800 feet per sec- 
ond. Higher velocities could readily be ob- 
tained, but they would greatly shorten the ef- 
fective life of the gun; at 2800 feet the life is 
short enough. As “spotting” (of the fall of 
projectiles) from kite balloons or other aircraft 
will be possible in future naval battles, high- 
angle and long-range firing is being sought, and 
the gun mounts of recent battleships are ar- 
ranged for an elevation of 30° or more. The 
largest calibre of gun that can be carried by 
cruisers under the treaty is 8 inches, and 
all 10,000-ton cruisers of modern design will 
carry six or eight 8-inch guns on high angle 
mountings. 

The increased size of destroyers and flotilla 
leaders has caused some increase in the calibre 
of the guns in the auxiliary battery of battle- 
ships. The 43,200-ton battleships for the Unit- 
ed States Navy, which were under construction 
but were scrapped by the treaty, were to have 
carried 6-inch guns in their auxiliary battery, 
and the new 35,000-ton battleships building in 
England are so fitted; but the Japanese, in 
their new battleships which were scrapped, con- 

20 


591 GUTHRIE 


tented themselves with a very numerous battery 
(20 guns) of 5.5-inch calibre. The naval gun 
which was receiving widest attention in 1924 
was the anti-aircraft weapon. The new British 
battleships were to carry 12 of these of 4-inch 
calibre. Much larger guns, using an improved 
shrapnel-shell, have been considered, but their 
general adoption awaits some convenient form 
of semi-automatic loading while held in the fir- 
ing position. The new 10,000-ton Japanese 
light cruisers were reported to be fitted with 
4.7-inch guns for use against either horizontal 
or aircraft targets. The details of the design 
were unknown in 1924, Automatic guns of un- 
usual length and high velocity, firing projectiles 
of extra length and of calibres from 0.5-inch to 
1.5-inch, were advocated by many naval officers. 
Such guns would have nearly as great range 
and sustained velocity as the present 4-inch 
guns, combined with a vastly increased number 
of projectiles and much greater ease of opera- 
tion. See ARTILLERY; ORDNANCE; VESSEL, NaA- 
VAL; PROJECTILE; NAVIES OF THE WORLD. 

GUNTHER, Siramunp (1848-1923). A Ger- 
man geologist (see VoL. X). He became editor 
of the Miinchener Geographische Studien in 
1896 and published, in the period 1914-24, Das 
Zeitalter der Entdeckungen (1919), Geschichte 
der Naturwissenschaften (1919), and Lehren 
der Revolution (1920). 

GURLITT, Cornetius (1850— ). A Ger- 
man architect, art critic and historian, born in 
Nischwitz. After some years of activity as an 
architect in Cassel and Dresden, he was com- 
missioned to write a work on the art monu- 
ments of Saxony. This publication, sumptuous- 
ly illustrated, appeared in installments from 
1894 to 1919. Gurlitt is the author of many 
works on art, of which the following are of 
general interest: Kunst und _ Kiinstler am 
Vorabend der Reformation (1890); Beitrage 
zur Geschichte der Gothik (1892); Sir Edward 
Burne-Jones (1894); Die Kunst des Neunzehn- 
ten Jahrhunderts (1900); Geschichte der Kunst 
(1902); numerous monographs on cities, in- 
cluding Berne, Zurich, Lyons, Liége, and Cam- 
bridge (1903-08); Constantinopel (1907); Das 
Franzosische Sittenbild im Achtzehnten Jahr- 
hundert (1912); Schutz der Kunstdenkmiler 
im Kriege (1915); Die Klosterbauten in Bel- 
gien, with Professor Clemen (1916); Handbuch 
des Stddtebaus (1920); and Pflege der Kirch- 
lichen Kunstdenkmidler (1921). 

GUSEV-ORENBURGSKY, S. I. (1867- ): 
A Russian novelist. His novels are realistic 
studies of the life of the Russian clergy in the 
rural districts and are filled with revolutionary 
feeling. He is the author of Short Stories 
(1899-1916), The Land of the Fathers over the 
Madow (1909), and Darkness (1915). 

GUTHRIE, Witt1AM NorMan (1868— 3 
An American clergyman, born at Dundee, Scot- 
land, educated at the University of the South, 
and from 1889 to 1910 lecturer and professor 
of literature at several universities, including 
the University of Chicago. In 1910 he became 
rector of the Church of St. Mark’s-in-the-Bouw- 
erie, New York City. He attracted attention, 
in the latter part of 1922, by stating that dane- 
ers would be trained to interpret religion, and 
in March, 1923, he held an Egyptian sun-god 
dance at his church, and from time to time it 
was announced that certain pagan rites were 
celebrated there. Bishop Manning asked for an 
explanation, but was not satisfied of the pro- 


GUYER 


priety of the dances and vetoed them in Janu- 
ary, 1924. The rector continued the services, 
however, and in March, 1924, St. Mark’s was 
deprived of episcopal ministrations pending the 
time when the Bishop’s counsel should be heed- 
ed. His publications include: Beyond Disil- 
lusion, a Dramatic Study of Modern Marriage 
(1915); Uncle Sam and Old World Conquerors 
(1915); The Gospel of Osiris (1916); Leaves 
of the Greater Bible (1917); and The Religion 
of Old Glory (1919). 

GUYER, MicuArL FRepERIcK (1874— jis4 
An American zoélogist, born at Plattsburg, Mo., 
and educated at the University of Missouri, the 
University of Chicago, and the University of 
Nebraska. He was assistant in zodlogy at the 
University of Nebraska (1894-97), professor of 
zodlogy at the University of Cincinnati (1900- 
1911), and professor of zodlogy at the Univer- 
sity of Wisconsin (1911- ). Professor Guy- 
er published articles on cytology, genetics, and 
the transmission of acquired defects through 
the influence of antibodies, as well as Animal 
Micrology (1906; rev. ed., 1917), and Being 
Well Born (1916). 

GYMNASTICS. See SPorrTs. 

GYPSUM. The production of gypsum and 
gypsum products remained an industry of ever 
growing importance in 1914-24. During this 
time the production of crude gypsum in the 
United States never fell below 2,000,000 tons, 
and in 1922 it amounted to 3,779,949 short 
tons, with a value for the crude and calcined 
products sold of $29,361,151. In addition to 
the gypsum produced in the United States, 
crude, ground, or calcined gypsum to the 
amount of 410,937 tons, valued at $552,516, was 
imported into the United States, of which 405,- 
912 short tons, valued at $539,996, came from 
Canada. The Canadian gypsum was _ largely 
sold in the vicinity of New York City. New 
York State is the largest producer, with Mich- 
igan, Ohio, Iowa, Texas, Nevada, and Oklahoma 
following in the order named and together ac- 
counting for over 80 per cent of the United 
States output. The accompanying table indi- 
cates the uses of the 1922 production of gypsum. 

According to the United States Geological 
Survey, the 3,779,949 short tons of crude gyp- 


592 


GYRO PILOT 


el 
GYPSUM PRODUCED AND SOLD IN THE 
aii ease) STATES IN 1922, BY USES 
alcine 


Short tons Value 
SEMEL Bits avi co ott hk okbeo ee 396,990 $2,813,561 
Nesterpiaster ) 2c siwds an Peo oo coe. 12,126,811 
Sanded plaster ........ 80,455 Wel 6007 TA 
Mixed plaster .\) 0.) e0}.. 2 4 218,650 @1,914,572 

Plaster of Paris, molding, 

casting plaster, etc... b126,288 b 1,198,819 
Keenes cement ....... 21,991 324,316 
Plasterboard otetoew nt 42,088 945,171 
NV SIL BER GATS, oy oooh ca are tas 120,591 4,500,725 
Pariitioneetile.s . ..c amen 68,338 915,449 

ROOTING. kt... ae kee e 
Special tile or blocks . 44,834 368,068 
Other purposes ....... 437,779 644,542 
2,491,265 26,917,805 
Crude wees. eich folie 770,725 2,443,346 
Sle ahireesidoe PASE SH oy bea Waa b 


8 Includes small quantity of wood fiber plaster. 

>Includes dental plaster and plaster sold to plate-glass 
works. 

¢ Included under “Other purposes.” 

@Includes roof tile and material used for pointing up 
wall boards. 


sum produced in the United States in 1922 were 
an increase over 1914, when the production was 
2,476,465 tons. The sales of agricultural gyp- 
sum amounted to 101,904 tons, valued at $387,- 
203, in 1922, as compared with the 1921 sales 
of 104,966 tons, valued at $490,902. Gypsum 
was used not only for fertilizer but in connec- 
tion with insecticides and as carriers for dust 
sprays used in combating the boll weevil. The 
sales of gypsum for use in Portland cement, 
paint, and other compounds, however, showed 
an increase in quantity and in value during the 
period from 1914 which amounted, in 1922, to 
668,821 tons, valued at $2,056,143. 

Important applications of this material were 
gypsum blocks or tiles for nonbearing parti- 
tions in fireproof buildings and employment in 
roofs and floors. Gypsum wall boards by 1924 
had become an important industry. In_ the 
manufacture of gypsum, leading developments 
were the use of rotary calciners and ball mill 
grinding, as well as mechanical packers. 

GYPSY MOTH. See ENTOMOLOGY, 
NOMIC. ' 

GYRO PILOT. See NAVIGATION. 


Eco- 


H 


AAN, WILLIAM GEORGE 
(1863- ). An American army 
officer, born at Crown Point, 
Ind. He graduated from the 


United States Military Academy 

in 1889, and began his military 
career as lieutenant in the Ist Artillery. He 
was promoted through the grades, and when 
the War broke out in 1914 he was a member 
of the General Staff. In 1917, he commanded 
the 57th Field Artillery Brigade at Camp Mac- 
Arthur, Texas, and in 1918 the 32d Division 
at the Marne, Oise-Aisne, and the Meuse-Ar- 
gonne offensives. He commanded the 7th Army 
Corps in the Army of Occupation in Germany 
from November, 1918, to April, 1919. On his 
return to the United States in 1919 he was ap- 
pointed assistant chief of staff and director of 
war plans division of the General Staff and was 
made a major-general in the regular army on 
Mar. 8, 1921. 

HAAS, ArtTuur E. (1884— ). Professor 
of physics at the University of Vienna, born at 
Brunn and educated at the Gymnasium and the 
universities of Vienna and Gdéttingen. He 
taught at the University of Vienna in 1912, and 
in 1913 was appointed professor in the Univer- 
sity of Leipzig. He returned to Vienna in 1921. 
He published many scientific articles, and also 
the following works: Lntwicklungsgeschichte 
des Satzes von der Erhaltung der Kraft (1909) ; 
Geist des Hellentums in der Modernen Physik 
(1914); Grundgleichheit der  Mechanik, dar- 
gestellt auf Grund ihrer Geschichtlichen Ent- 
wicklung (1914); Einftihrung in die Theoret- 
ische Physik (1919); Naturbilder der Neuen 
Physik (1920). 

HAASE, Hvco (1863-1919). A German 
politician, born at Allenstein, East Prussia, and 
educated at the public school, the Gymnasium, 
and the University of Kénigsberg. He began 
practicing law in 1889, and was a member of 
the Reichstag from 1897 to 1907, being elected 
again in 1912. In 1914 he was the leader of 
the Social Democratic party in the Reichstag, 
but in 1916 he became the leader of the Inde- 
pendent Socialists. After the revolution of 
1918, he was chosen to be one of the six com- 
missaries who conducted the first provisional 
government of the new republic. His socialistic 
Views were rather moderate than extreme. He 
was fired on by an assassin on Nov. 7, 1919, 
and died from the wounds received. 

HABER, Fritz (1868- ). A German 
chemist (see Vor. X). He directed the Kaiser 
Wilhelm Institut for physical chemistry and 
electrochemistry in Berlin. He specialized on 
electrochemical investigations and received the 
Nobel prize for chemistry in 1919. 

HACKETT, Francis (1883- ). A liter- 
ary critic, born in Kilkenny, Ireland. He was 
educated in Ireland and came to America in 
1900. He was with a law firm in New York in 
1902 and did editorial work for the Chicago 
Evening Post, 1906-11. He has been associate 


593 


editor of the New Republic since 1914. Besides 
his numerous articles in magazines he wrote 
Ireland, A Study in Nationalism (1918); Hori- 
zons (1918); The Invisible Choir (1920). He 
has been one of the exponents of the modern 
school of literary criticism and has devoted 
much attention to modern political movements. 
In 1924, he contributed a series of articles to 
the Survey, on the League of Nations, following 
his visit to the League buildings in Geneva. 

HACKETT, JAMES KETELTAS (1869- }f 
An American actor (see VoL. X), best known 
for Shakespearean characterizations. He played 
Macbeth (1916); Out There (1918); The Bet- 
ter: Ole; The. Rise of Silas. Lapham. (1919); 
Macbeth (in London and Paris, 1920); Othello 
(Paris and London, 1922). When he returned 
to the United States in 1924, he was given a 
public reception at the New York City Hall 
(the first one ever accorded to an actor). Dur- 
ing the spring of that year, he played Macbeth 
in New York, with Clare Eames as Lady Mac- 
beth. 

HADLEY, ArtTHUR TWINING (1856- \s 
An American educator (see Vout. X). Included 


‘among his recent works are Undercurrents in 


American Politics (1915), The Moral Basis of 
Democracy (1919), and Economic Problems of 
Democracy (1923). He resigned from the pres- 
idency of Yale .University in 1920, and later 


became a director of the Atchison, Topeka 
and Santa Fé Railway. 

HADLEY, HENRY KIMBALL (1871- Me 
An American composer (see Vou. X). He re- 


signed as conductor of the San Francisco Sym- 
phony Orchestra in 1915 and returned to New 
York, to devote his entire time to composition. 
In 1920, he was appointed associate conductor 
of the Philharmonic Society, and in 1924 also 
regular conductor of the Worcester Festival. 
In 1921 and 1922 he conducted the first half of 
the Philharmonic Society’s series of summer 
concerts at the Stadium, and during the winter 
of 1921-22 appeared as guest conductor of the 
San Carlo Opera Company. He wrote four 
operas, which were all produced soon after their 
completion: Azora, Daughter of Montezuma 
(Chicago Op. Co., 1917); Bianca (won the 
Hinshaw prize, New York, 1918); The Garden 
of Allah (New York, 1918); Cleopatra’s Night 
(Met. Op. House, 1920). The more important 
of his recent works include two _ overtures, 
Othello and The Spirit of the Elements; a tone- 
poem, The Ocean; a cantata, Prophecy and Ful- 
fillment ; Ode to Music for chorus and orchestra 
(Worcester Festival, 1917); and an oratorio, 
Resurgam (Cincinnati Festival, 1923). 

HAFNIUM. See Puysics. 

HAGEDORN, HeErMAann_ (1882- ). An 
American author, born in New York City, and 
eduated at Harvard University, University of 
Berlin and Columbia University. From 1909 
to 1911, he was instructor in English at Har- 
vard. He published, among other works: The 
Silver Blade (1907); The Woman of Corinth 


, HAGEMANN 504 


(1908); A Troop of the Guard, and Other Poems 
(1909); Poems and Ballads (1912); Faces m 
the Dawn (1914); You Are the Hope of the 
World (1917, 1920); Theodore Roosevelt (1919, 
1921); That Human Being, Leonard Wood 
(1920); Roosevelt in the Badlands (1921). 

HAGEMANN, C. A. Cari (1871- ied 
German stage manager and author. He studied 
at Rostock, Berlin and Heidelberg, has managed 
theatres at Mannheim and Hamburg, and after 
1921 was director of the principal theatre in 
Wiesbaden. He has written (Geschichte des 
Theaterzettels (1900), Regie, die Kunst der 
scenischen Darstellung (1921), Die Kunst der 
Biihne (1923), a life of Oscar Wilde, and other 
works. 

HAGEN, JoHANNES G. (1847- ). An 
Austrian Jesuit and astronomer (see VoL. X). 
He was professor of mathematics and physics 
at American colleges, among them Georgetown 
University, and directed the observatory at the 


Vatican. He published Die  verdnderlichen 
Sterne (1920). 
HAGEN, WALTER C. (1892- yereeAn. 


American professional golfer, born at Roches- 
ter, N. Y. He rounded out a record that never 
has been equaled for tournament play by win- 
ning the British open championship at Hoylake, 
England, in 1924, after having been the first 
United States player to bring this coveted 
trophy across the seas in 1922. He also has 
been the American open title holder twice, 
North and South open champion twice, Western 
open champion twice, metropolitan open cham- 
pion twice, French open champion once and 
Professional Golf Association champion once. 

HAGGARD, Str Henry RIDER (1856- is 
An English novelist (see Vor. X). During the 
War he served with the Royal Colonial Insti- 
tute of which he was elected vice-president in 
1917. He was also a member of the Empire 
Settlement Committee (1917). Among his lat- 
er works are: The Holy Flower (1915); The 
Ivory Child (1916); Love Eternal (1915); The 
Ancient Allan (1920); The Virgin of the Sun 
(1922). 

HAGGERTY, MELWIN EVERETT (1875- ), 
An American psychologist. He was born at 
Bunker Hill, Ind., and was educated at Chicago 
and Harvard universities. After teaching at 
Indiana University, he became, in 1915, profes- 
sor of educational psychology at the University 
of Minnesota. He was director of the psycho- 
educational clinics at that institution, and in 
1920 he was made dean of the College of Educa- 
tion. After the Armistice he was attached to 
the Surgeon-General’s office, in charge of the 
reéducation of disabled soldiers. He served on 
the Virginia Education Commission and on the 
school surveys of North Carolina (1920) and 
New York State (1921). 

HAGOOD, JOHNSON (1873- ). An 
American army officer, born at Orangeburg, N. C. 
He graduated from the United States Military 
Academy in 1896, and began his military career 
as second lieutenant of the 2d _ Artillery. 
He was promoted through the grades, served in 
the Philippines (1913-15), and commanded the 
First Expeditionary Brigade, Coast Artillery 
Corps, arriving in France on Sept. 11, 1917. 
He headed the board that created the service of 
supply and was its chief of staff until the 
Armistice. He took part in the Meuse-Argonne 
offensive, and on Noy. 31, 1918, established head- 
quarters at Hohr, Germany. He returned to the 


HAITI 


United States in 1919, commanded the South 
Atlantic Coast Artillery District during 1920- 
21, and was sent again to the Philippines, in 
November, 1921. 

HAHN, HERMANN  (1868- ). "A Ger- 
man sculptor, born in Bavaria. At first, he was 
apprenticed to a woodcarver, then studied in- 
dustrial art and finally entered the Academy at 
Munich. He traveled- in the Orient and in 
America. His principal works are a “Goethe” 
monument in Chicago (1914), “Emil Rathenau” 
in Berlin (1916), “Goethe” in Wiesbaden (1919), 
“Bliicher” in Kiel (1920), and an equestrian 
bronze in Hamburg (1919). His most recent 
works are a Bavarian monument for Munich, a 
war monument for Ludwigshof and a monumen- 
tal fountain for Cassel. 

HAIG, Doveras, first EArt (1861- )s 
An English general, born in Fifeshire and edu- 
cated at Brasenose College, Oxford. After serv- 
ing in the Sudan and in South Africa he held 
important posts in India, being chief of staff 
from 1909 to 1912. In 1912-14, he was general 
officer in command at Aldershot, and commanded 
the first army of the British Expeditionary 
Force in France, distinguishing himself in the 
retreat from Mons, at the Aisne, at Ypres and 
Neuve Chapelle. In 1915, he succeeded Sir 
John French as commander-in-chief of the Ex- 
peditionary Forces in France and Flanders, hold- 
ing that post until 1919. During 1919-20, he 
held the office of field-marshal commander-in- 
chief of the forces in Great Britain. He wrote 
Cavalry Studies (1907). See War In EuROPE, 
Western Front. 

HAINES, THomas Harvey (1871- 1b 
An American “psychologist. He was born at 
Moorestown, N. J., and was educated at Haver- 
ford College and Harvard University. He 
studied neurology and psychiatry at Munich, 
Zurich and London, and received a medical 
degree from Ohio State University. He was 
first assisting physician at the Boston Psycho- 
pathic Hospital (1913-14) and clinical director 
of the Ohio Bureau of Juvenile Research (1914— 
17). From 1915 to 1920, he was professor of 
nervous and mental diseases at Ohio State Uni- 
versity. Author of the mental deficiency bills 
of Tennessee and Mississippi, he took an active 
part in social work. His published writings in- 
clude a monograph on Mental Measurement of 


the Blind (1915). 
HAINISCH, MICHAEL (1856- Ny,  E 
president of the Austrian republic. He was a 


lawyer by profession and had been an official of 
the treasury department. For many years he 
took no active part in politics but devoted his 
time to reading and study. He was chosen Fed- 
eral president in 1921, largely because of his 
friendliness with all political parties. He wrote 
many books on sociological subjects. 

HAITI. An independent republic occupying 
the western four-elevenths of Haiti Island. 
Santo Domingo (q.v.) is the name of the re- 
maining portion. Area of the republic esti- 
mated at from 10,204 to 11,072 square miles. 
Population in 1912. (estimate), 2,500,000; in 
1923 (estimate), 2,045,000. Negroes made up 
90 per cent of the population. Port-au-Princé, 
the capital, had 125,000 inhabitants in 1923. 

Industry, Trade, Government. Agriculture 
continued to engage the majority of the popu- 
lation. Coffee culture occupied the place of 
leading importance, its export quantity in 1923 
constituting 65 per cent of the total trade. 


HAITI 


Other important crops were cotton, sugar, tobac- 
co. Logwood and other valuable woods entered 
into the foreign trade. In 1923, exports totaled 
$14,591,012, as against $10,712,210 in 1922, and 
$17,285,485 in 1913. ‘For the same years, im- 
ports were $14,157,963, $12,350,271, $9,876,555. 
As before, imports came largely from the United 
States, while the exports went to France. 
American intervention in 1915 led to the ap- 
pointment, in the following year, of a group of 
American officials to the posts of financial- 
adviser, receiver-general of customs, chief en- 
gineer, sanitary engineer, and chief of gen- 
darmerie. The result was an increased stability 
in fiscal affairs. Expenditures for 1913-14 had 
been $8,127,000: revenues, $6,282,000. In 1922— 
23, revenues were $6,496,889 and expenditures 
$5,818,746. In 1912, the public debt amounted 
to $12,763,000 and 119,286,000 francs, besides 
an unfunded debt of $7,077,000. In July, 1923, 
the total public debt was $19,329,808. In Oc- 
tober, 1922, great interest was aroused in 
Haitian affairs by the action of the New York 
National City Bank which floated for Haiti a 
bond issue of $16,000,000 to be secured by a 
second charge on customs and a first on in- 
ternal revenues. The Haitian government re- 
ceived 92 per cent of the nominal value. The 
loan was used for the conversion of outstand- 
ing loans, particularly the French loan. As a 
result of American activity, Haiti was provided 
with a well-trained constabulary, officered by 
American marines. The constabulary consisted 
of 2688 men. 

History. The internal disorders and up- 
heavals which Haiti had experienced during the 
preceding years continued throughout 1914. 
President Davilmar Theodore was overthrown on 
Feb. 8, 1914, by Oreste Zamor, but regained con- 
trol in October, to be ousted again by Vilbrun 
Guillaume Sam early in March, 1915. Presi- 
dent Guillaume succeeded at first in firmly es- 
tablishing his authority, but owing to his dic- 
tatorial methods and the brutal acts committed 
by his followers, notably the massacre of some 
200 political prisoners, he was overthrown and 
killed in the course of a violent uprising at Port- 
au-Prince at the end of July, 1915. Immediate- 
ly thereupon American troops were landed and 
took possession of the country. Haiti had pre- 
viously become involved in serious difficulties 
with English, French, and German creditors, 
and on several occasions American troops had 
been landed. In the spring of 1915 President 
Guillaume had been informed that he must turn 
over to United States officials the administra- 
tion of Haitian customs, in order to assure 
payment of foreign obligations. This he had 
refused to accept. Following the murder of 
Guillaume, United States marines occupied the 
country. Martial law was declared without the 
consent of Haiti, and American officials took 
charge of the greater part of the administration, 
although the Haitian civil government remained 
nominally in power. On Aug. 10, 1915, Sudre 
Dartiguenave was elected president by the Hai- 
tian Assembly, and on Sept. 16, 1915, a con- 
vention was signed between the United States 
and the Haitian government. After the Ameri- 
ean forces of occupation had _— successfully 
stamped out all armed opposition in the interior, 
this convention was ratified by the Haitian 
Chamber on Oct. 6, 1915, and by the Senate on 
November 3. In ratifying the treaty the Hai- 
tian Assembly had been effectively coerced by 


595 


HALDANE 


the United States withholding all funds. Pend- 
ing ratification by the United States Senate, 
which took place in May, 1916, a modus vi- 
vendi was reached for the immediate applica- 
tion of the treaty. The provisions were as fol- 
lows: establishment of a Haitian receivership of 
customs under American control; establishment 
of a native constabulary foree under the com- 
mand of American officers; establishment of 
American control over Haitian finances to an 
extent necessary to safeguard the interests of 
the Haitian people and their American creditors; 
a term of 10 years during which the treaty was 
to remain in force, with the possibility of ex- 
tending it at the expiration of that period if 
either of the signatories should so desire. Hai- 
ti thus became an American political and fiscal 
protectorate for at least 10 years, during which 
the United States agreed to intervene for the 
maintenance of Haitian independence and an or- 
derly :government if that should become neces- 
sary. 

On July 20, 1918, Haiti entered the War on 
the Allies’ side, ostensibly because of the sink- 
ing by German submarines of a French vessel 
which had Haitian citizens aboard. During the 
same year a new constitution was drafted, and 
on submission to a plebiscite on June 19, ap- 
proved by a large majority. The chief novelty 
of this constitution was a clause providing that 
foreigners residing in the country and societies 
formed by them should have the right to own 
real property. Although constitutional govern- 
ment was formally in existence, the actual ad- 
ministration was in the hands of American of- 
ficials. The American occupation resulted in a 
marked improvement of the economic and social 
conditions of the country. Particularly, town 
sanitation and the construction of modern roads 
progressed rapidly. Public order was guaran- 
teed by the establishment of an efficient gen- 
darmerie. These benefits, obvious results of the 
American occupation, nevertheless failed to rec- 
oncile a large part of the Haitian people with 
the existing status. Charges were advanced in 
Haitian and American quarters that the Ameri- 
can force of occupation, composed exclusively of 
whites, was guilty of revolting acts of brutality 
against the Negro population of Haiti. The 
charges resulted during 1921 in an _ investiga- 
tion by a committee of the United States Sen- 
ate, the report of which on the whole exonerated 
the American troops. On Oct. 9, 1922, the Na- 
tional City Bank of New York offered a Haitian 
loan of $16,000,000 in 30-year bonds, at 6 per 
cent. This aroused protests from the Haitians 
and criticism in the United States. By the 
unanimous vote of the Legislature, Luis Borno 
was elected president on Apr. 11, 1922, to re- 
place President Dartiguenave, whose term had 
expired. In the spring of 1924 the American 
government withdrew its forces from. the in- 
terior, leaving only skeleton forces in certain 
seaports. At the same time it was declared that 
because of the inability of the Haitians to guar- 
antee the continuance of orderly government, 
complete evacuation was not yet in sight. 

HALBE, Max _ (1865-— ). A German 


dramatist and novelist (see Vou. X). His re- 
cent works are Jo, a novel (1918), Schloss 


Zeitvorbei, a drama (1918), Hortense Ruland, 


a tragedy (1920), and Kikekiki, a comedy 
(1927). 
HALDANE, Joun Scott (1860~— ). (See 


Vout. X.) This British physiologist resigned 


HALDANE 596 


his professorship to become director of the 
Mining Research Laboratory at Birmingham. 
After 1914, he wrote the following books: Or- 
ganization and Environment (1917); The New 
Physiology (1919); Mechanism, Life and Per- 
sonality (1921); and Respiration (1922). 

HALDANE, Rr. Hon. Ricnarp Burpon, first 
ViIscoUNT OF CLOoAN (1856-— ). A British 
philosopher and statesman (see Vor. X). He 
was the host of Einstein during the visit of the 
famous scientist to England. In his work on 
The Reign of Relativity (1921) he sought to 
link the physical theory with the general phi- 
losophy of idealistic relativism. The Philosophy 
of Humanism (1922) was published as the 
ethical counterpart to the idealistic criticism 
of science. Viscount Haldane was Lord Chan- 
cellor in the Labor party government which 
came into office in England in 1924. 

HALE, Georce E. (1868— ). An Ameri- 
can astronomer (see Vout. X). He received the 
Bruce medal of the Astronomical Society of 
the Pacific in 1916, the Janssen medal of the 
Astronomical Society of France in 1917, the 
Galileo medal, Florence, in 1920, and the Acton- 
ian prize given by the Royal Institution in 
1021. 

HALEVY, Dantet (1872- ). A French 
man of letters. He was educated at the Sor- 
bonne, and devoted himself to history and criti- 
cism. By family tradition he inherited a cul- 
tural liberalism which was to find expression 
in the ideology of Dreyfusism. Before the War, 
he was affiliated with the group of Charles Péguy 
and the Cahiers de la Quinzaine, a fortnightly 
series of pamphlets, novels, and books of criti- 
eism and philosophy. After the Armistice, 
Halévy tried to revive Péguy’s tradition on a 
more modest scale by editing the collection of 
the Cahiers Verts. His works include: Essai 
sur le Mouvement Ouvrier en France; La Vie 
de Frederic Nietzsche; Luttes et Problemes; 
La Jeunesse de Proudhon; Charles Péguy et 
les Cahiers; Le Courrier de M. Thiers; Vaubain; 
Une Visite auw Paysans du Centre. 

HALEVY, kite (1870- ). A French 
philosophical writer. He was born at Etretat, 
and was educated at the Ecole Normale Supéri- 
eure. He was professor at the Ecole Libre des 
Sciences Politiques. His works include an 
analysis of Plato’s philosophy of science, La 
Théorie Platonicienne des Sciences (1896) ; 
three volumes on the English utilitarians and 
radicals, La Formation du Radicalisme Pha- 
losophique (1901-04): and Histoire du Peuple 
Anglais au XIXme Siécle (2 vols., 1913, 1923). 

HALL, FrRAnNcIS Josepn (1857— ies ih 
American Protestant Episcopal theologian (see 
Vou. X). He became professor of dogmatic the- 
ology in the General Theological Seminary in 


1913. Among his later works are: The Incar- 
nation (1915); The Bible and Modern Criti- 
cism (1915); The Passion and Exaltation of 


Christ (1918); The Church and the Sacramental 
System (1920); The Sacraments (1921). 
HALL, GRANVILLE STANLEY (1846-1924). 
An American educator (see Vou. X). He be- 
came editor of the Journal of Applied Psychol- 
ogy in 1917 and has published Jesus the Christ 
in the Light of Psychology (1917), Morale: The 
Supreme Standard of Life and Conduct (1920), 
Recreations of a Psychologist (1920), and Sen- 
escence (1922). He retired from the presi- 
dency of Clark University in 1920. 
HALOGEN GROUP. See CHEMISTRY. 


HAMILTON COLLEGE 


HALSTEAD, ALEXANDER SEAMAN (1861-__), 
An American naval officer, born at Philadelphia, 
Pa. He graduated from the United States 
Naval Academy in 1883 and was _ promoted 


. through the grades, becoming captain in 1911. 


He served in the Spanish-American War and 
took part in the battle of Manila Bay. After 
commanding several battleships, he became su- 
pervisor of New York Harbor in 1915. He at- 
tended the Naval War College at Newport, R. I. 
during 1916-17; was commander of the district 
of Brest, France, during 1918-19, and com- 
manded the naval forces in France in 1919 In 
October, 1919, he became commandant of the 
Navy Yard at Portsmouth, N. H., and remained 
there until 1920, when he was appointed com- 
mandant of the 12th Naval District at San 
Francisco, He was raised to the rank of rear- 
admiral on July 1, 1919. 

HAMBIDGE, Jay (1867-1924). An Ameri- 
ean artist, born in Canada. He was a pupil 
at the Art Students’ League in New York and 
of William Chase, and a thorough student of 
classical art. He conceived the idea that the 
study of arithmetic with the aid of geometrical 
designs was the foundation of the proportion 
and symmetry in Greek architecture, sculpture 
and ceramics. Careful examination and meas- 
urements of classical buildings in Greece, among 
them the Parthenon, the Temple of Apollo at 
Basse, of Zeus at Olympia and Athene at 
Aigina made him formulate the theory of 
dynamic symmetry, as demonstrated in his 
work, Dynamic Symmetry: the Greek Vases 
(1920). It created a great deal of discussion, 
an English critie saying that Hambidge did not 
try to formulate a new theory, but to recover 
a lost technique. He found a disciple in Dr. 
Lacey D. Caskey, the author of Geometry of 
Greek Vases (1922). 

HAMILTON, Joun McLure (1853- ye 
An American portrait painter and illustrator 
(see Vor. X). He served on the jury of awards 
at the Panama-Pacifie International Exposition, 
1915. In 1918 he was awarded a gold medal, 
Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. A book 
by him, Men I Have Painted, appeared in 1921. 

HAMILTON, Sir IAn_ (1853- a: 
British general (see Vor. X). At the outbreak 
of the War, he was given command of the 4th 
Army, which he organized in Egypt. In 1915 
he was given charge of the land forces operat- 
ing at Gallipoli but was relieved of this com- 
mand in October of the same year. The fail- 
ure of the Gallipoli enterprise resulted in severe 
criticism of his plan of campaign. He published 
an elaborate defense in the form of his Gallipoli 
Diary, in 1920. He was promoted to the rank 
of general in 1914. 

HAMILTON COLLEGE. A _ nonsectarian 
college of liberal arts at Clinton, N. Y., founded 
in 1812. The enrollment increased steadily 
from 200 in 1914 to 350 in 1923-24. In 1922, 
the Board of Trustees unanimously voted to 
limit the number of students to 400, thereby 
definitely establishing Hamilton as a small col- 
lege. During the decade the number of mem- 
bers of the faculty was increased from 20 to 31, 
the library from 62,000 volumes to 100,000 vol- 
umes and 25,000 pamphlets and the productive 
funds from $1,100,000 to $3,370,000. The cov- 
ered playing field, called the Sage Building was 
completed in 1922, and in 1923-24 plans were 
in progress to provide a new laboratory to house 
the departments of biology and geology, and the 


et aie eel ee 


————— ee Oe 


———— 


HAMLIN 


museum of natural history. Frederick C. Ferry, 
LL.D., succeeded Melancthon W. Stryker as 
president in 1917. 

HAMLIN, Cuartes Sumner (1861- 1g 
An American lawyer and public official (see 
Vou. X). From 1914 until 1916, he was gov- 
ernor of the Federal Reserve Board, and was 
reappointed a member of the board for the term 
1916-26. He published the Jndex Digest of the 
Federal Reserve Bulletin (1921). 

HAMLINE UNIVERSITY. A coeducation- 
al college under the Methodist Episcopal Church 
at St. Paul, Minn., founded in 1854. The stu- 
dent enrollment increased from 251 in 1914 to 
530 in 1923-24, the teaching staff from 15 to 
38, and the annual income from $52,000 to $185,- 
565. The endowment rose from $750,000 to 
$1,187,000, and a campaign for $1,500,000 for 
further buildings and increased endowment was 
planned for the fall of 1924. A new dormi- 
tory for women was completed in 1922 at a 
cost of $201,851, and a new athletic field and 


grandstand at a cost of $43,000. President, 
Samuel F. Kerfoot, D.D. 
HAMMANN, Otto (1852- ). A German 


journalist and politician, born at Blankenhain. 
He followed a journalistic career from 1877 to 
1893. From 1894 until 1916, he was director of 
the press section of the German Foreign Office, 
in this capacity acting as adviser to Prince von 
Biilow, and, in the nineties, taking the part of 
Count Caprivi, the Imperial Chancellor, and 
Baron Marshall von Bieberstein, the Foreign 
Secretary, against Bismarck’s followers. After 
the formation of the German Republic, he pub- 
lished three volumes of reminiscences, in which 
he brought to light much of what he knew about 
the German secret policy: Der neve Kurs, 
Erinnerungen (1918); Zur Vorgeschichte des 
Weltkrieges (1919); Um den Kaiser, Erin- 
merungen aus den Jahren 1906-09 (1919). 

HAMMERSTEIN, Oscar (1847-1919). An 
American theatre manager (see Vor. X). For 
the last 15 years of his life he worked to 
conquer operatic inertia in New York City, 
and with his keen understanding of the Amer- 
ican public, he succeeded in stimulating pub- 
lic interest in the opera. He built the Man- 
hattan Opera House and did much to enliven 
the Metropolitan Opera House, by securing 
many artists of note, among them Mary Gar- 
den and Tetrazzini. 

HAMMOND, Joun Hays, Jr. (1888- i. 
An American inventor, born at San Francisco 
and educated at the Sheffield Scientific School 
of Yale University. He invented a_wireless- 
controlled torpedo for coast defense and a 
system for firing torpedoes from battleships; 
also incendiary projectiles which were employed 
in the War, a radio system for the control 
of ships, and a system of aéroplane coastal 
patrol. He also took out a great number of 
patents for inventions in radiotelegraphy and 
telephony, among them being one that gives 
complete isolation of the sender and receiver of 
radio messages, so that there is no “listening in” 
possible. He was vice-president of the Radio 
Corporation of America and a member of many 
American and foreign organizations. 

HAMOR, WiitiAM ALLEN ( ?- Pee An 
American chemist, born at Du Bois, Pa., and 
educated at the University of Pittsburgh. He 
was research chemist at the College of the 
City of New York, 1907-14, and assistant to 
the director of the Mellon Institute of Industri- 


597 


HAMPTON NORMAL INSTITUTE 


al Research at Pittsburgh, 19.4-16. He was 
major in command of the Chemical Warfare 
Service of the United States Army in 1917 and 
served in France for 10 months as assistant chief 
of the Technical Division of the Chemical War- 
fare Service. He wrote: History of Chemistry 
(1909); The American Petroleum Industry 
(1916) ; The Examination of Petroleum (1920) ; 
American Fuels (1921). 

HAMP, PIERRE (pseudonym of BouRILLON) 
(1876— ). A French novelist. He was edu- 
cated in the French technical schools and_ be- 
came a functionary in the railroad administra- 
tion. It was there that he collected his 
observations for his series of impressionistic 
novels on La Peine des Hommes (Men in Labor). 
These novels combine, at times very success- 
fully, a sociological documentation and artistic 
presentation of human experience. His works 
include Marée fraiche (1908); Vin de Cham- 
pagne (1909); Le Rail; Vieille Histoire (1912) ; 


L’Enquéte (1914); Gens (1917); Le Travail 
Invincible (1918); Les Wétiers. Blessés (1919) ; 
La Victoire Mécanicienne; Les Ohercheurs 


@W@Or (1920); La Dérive du 4542; Compound 
300 H.P. No. 2438; Le Cantique des Cantiques 
(1922): 

HAMPDEN, WALTER’ (1879- ). An 
American actor born in Brooklyn, N. Y. He 
studied at Harvard, 1896-97, and took his 
bachelor’s degree from the Polytechnic Insti- 
tute, Brooklyn, in 1900. He first appeared on 
the stage in England, with F. R. Benson’s com- 
pany in classical repertoire, in 1901, and then 
for three seasons was leading man at the 
Adelphi Theatre in London. In 1905, he ap- 
peared in Hamlet, succeeding the younger 
Irving. He came to the United States in 1907, 
supporting Mme. Nazimova, and then appeared 
in The Servant in the House (1908), The Master 
Builder, The Yellow Jacket, Salome, and other 
plays. He toured the country widely with his 
Shakespearian repertoire, his Hamlet in par- 
ticular being a vigorous, fresh, and princely 
interpretation. His greatest single triumph has 
been Cyrano de Bergerac, which was judged 
to be the outstanding play in New York City 
during 1923-24. With his remarkable histrionic 
ability and insight into character, he gives a 
masterly presentation of MRostand’s heroic 
comedy. 

HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICUL- 
TURAL INSTITUTE. This institution, situ- 
ated at Hampton, Va., two miles from Old 
Point Comfort, was founded by Gen. Samuel 
Chapman Armstrong in 1868 for the practical 
education of Negro and Indian youth. 

The school opened in 1868 with two teachers 
and 15 students in a plantation house, grist- 
mill, and army barracks. By 1924, it had 
developed into an industrial village, with about 
2200 students (900 boarders, 400 in the Whit- 
tier Training School, and 900 in the summer 
school and extension classes), over 300 teach- 
ers and other workers, 149 buildings, and 1000 
acres of land. There was a well-equipped trade 
school where 14 trades were taught, with a 
graduate course in the building trades. The 
normal, agricultural, domestic science, and busi- 
ness schools offered courses of collegiate grade. 
The Institute was controlled by a board of 17 
trustees, Chief Justice Taft having been presi- 
dent of the board since 1914. The endowment 
fund, which amounted to about $4,688,000, pro- 
vided inadequate support, the budget for 1923-24 


HAMSUN 


amounting to $480,000, and the Institute was 
therefore partly dependent on public philan- 
thropy. Hampton Institute was probably the 
first school in the country to combine sucess- 
fully the training of the hand with that of 
the mind and character. Rev. James E. Gregg, 
D.D., succeeded the late Hollis Burke Frissell 
as principal in 1918. 

HAMSUN, Knut. (1859- yi. «AN siNor- 
wegian author, born in Lom, Gudbrandsdal. 
Son of a tailor, he became a cobbler’s appren- 
tice. At 18 he had printed a poem and a novel. 
Hoping to become a Unitarian minister he 
went to America and tried various employ- 
ments, which included lecturing on French 
literature. He went back to Christiania and 
attempted authorship without success, but after 
three years on a Newfoundland fishing boat 
his writing of Sult at once gave him prominence 
among the young authors of the North. Among 
his best known volumes are Shallow Soil (1914) 
and Growth of the Soil (1920). Pan (1894), 
his first love story, was republished in 1920. 
Hunger is another of his famous books. See 
SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE, Norwegian. 

HANEY, Lewis Henry (1882- he SAn 
American economist, born at Eureka, [Il., and 
educated at Wesleyan University, Bloomington, 
Ill. He was a lecturer at New York University 
in 1908, afterwards teaching in the universi- 
ties of Iowa and Michigan, and from 1912 to 
1916 he was professor of economics at the 
University of Texas. In 1916, he was in 
charge of the Federal Trade Commission’s gaso- 
line investigation, and in 1920-21, he was in 
charge of the cost of marketing division of the 
United States Bureau of Markets. In 1920, 
he became director. of the New York University 
Bureau of Business Research and professor of 
economics. He wrote: A Congressional His- 
tory of Railways (vol. i, 1908; vol. ii, 1910) ; 
History of Economic Thought (1911; rev. ed., 
1919); Business Organization and Combination 
(1913); and various articles on economic sub- 
jects for periodicals. 

HANIHARA, Masanao_ (1876- ) tk 
Japanese diplomat, who came to the United 
States in 1902 as a member of the Japanese 
Embassy at Washington, was consul general at 
San Francisco in 1916-17, then returned to 
Japan as director of the Bureau of Commerce 
of the Japanese Foreign Office. He was a mem- 
ber of the Ishii Mission from which came the 
Ishii-Lansing agreement. He was also an in- 
fluential member of the Washington Disarma- 
ment Conference. In December, 1922, he was 
appointed ambassador to the United States, and 
arrived in Washington in February, 1923. His 
protest, in April, 1924, on the passage of the im- 
migration law by the.United States government 
because it would bar the admission of Japanese 
to the country, was interpreted as “a veiled 
threat” by the Senate, and had quite an op- 
posite effect from that intended. After the pas- 
sage of the bill, it was rumored that Hanihara 
was to be recalled by the Japanese government. 
Although this was denied, it was soon an- 
nounced that he would visit Tokyo on leave of 
absence. 

HANNAY, JAMES OWEN (“‘GEorGE A. BIR- 


MINGHAM’’) (1865- ). An Trish novelist 
(see VoL. X). He published Minnie’s Bishop 
and Other Stories (1915); Gossamer (1915); 


The Island of Mystery (1918); Up the Rebels 
(1919) ; Good Conduct (1920); Lady Bounti- 


598 


HANSON 


ful (1921); A Public Scandal 


(1923), 
others. 

HANOTAUX, GABRIEL (1853- ). A 
French historian and diplomat (see Von. X). 
He wrote: Histoire de la Guerre de 1914; L’His- 
toire et les Historiens; Le Traité de Versailles ; 
Histoire de la Nation Francaise. 

HANSEN, NIELS EsBESEN  (1866- A 
An American horticulturist, born in Denmark. 
In 1873, he came to the United States and grad- 
uated from the Iowa Agricultural College in 
1887. From 1891 to 1895, he was assistant pro- 
fessor of horticulture at the Iowa Agricultural 
College and from the latter date, professor of 
horticulture at the South Dakota Agricultural 
College and = Experiment Station. Professor 
Hansen made explorations in Europe, Asia and 
Africa, collecting new economic seeds and plants, 
and originating new fruits, especially the Han- 
sen hybrid plum He also introduced, from 
Turkestan and Siberia, new varieties of alfalfa, 
and imported the Siberian fat-rumped sheep. 
He wrote numerous horticultural bulletins and 
papers and was also author of a Handbook of 
Fruit Culture and Tree Planting (1890), and 
Systematic Pomology (with J. L. Budd, 1903). 
Professor Hansen was awarded the George 
Robert White medal for eminent service in 
horticulture by the Massachusetts Horticultural 
Society in 1917. 

HANSON, Howarp (1896- ). An Amer- 
ican composer, born at Wahoo, Neb. Having 
received his first training at the Luther Col- 
lege Conservatory (Neb.), he continued his 
studies at the School of Music of the University 
of Nebraska, at the Institute of Musical Art in 
New York, under P. Goetschius, and at the 
Northwestern University, Evanston, under P. 
Lutkin and A. Oldberg. In 1916-19, he taught 
theory and composition at the College of the 
Pacific, San José, Cal., and 1919-21 was dean 
of the School of Fine Arts. In 1921, he was 
the first recipient of a newly endowed fellow- 
ship in composition, awarded by the American 
Academy in Rome. The fellowship, determined 
by a composition in a prescribed form and sub- 
mitted in open competition, provides for a 
three years’ residence in Rome, with privilege 
of travel, and an annual allowance of $2000. 
In 1924, after his return to the United States, 
he was appointed director of the Eastman 
School of Music of the University of Rochester. 
He appeared as conductor of his own works 
with several of the leading American symphony 
orchestras. In 1923, he conducted a programme 
of American music with the Augusteo orchestra 
in Rome. His works include: a Nordic Sym- 
phony; the symphonic poems, North and West, 
Lux Aterna, Exaltation, and Before the Daun; 
a Symphonic Rhapsody; a piano concerto; 
two piano quintets; and The Soul of Sequoia, 
a festival play for the California Redwood 
Park Festival (1920). He was commissioned 
to write a string quartet for the Berkshire 
Festival of 1925 and a choral work for the 
Leeds Triennial Festival of 1925. 

HANSON, OLE, (1874- ). An American 
public official, born in Racine County, Wis. He 
was educated privately and after studying law 
was admitted to the bar. For many years he 
was engaged in real estate business in Seattle. 
He was a member of the House of Representa- 
tives, where he advocated measures favorable 
to labor. He was elected mayor of Seattle in 
1918 and gained national prominence by prompt 


and 


HAPGOOD 


and decisive measures in meeting and overcom- 
ing a general strike in February, 1919. He 
wrote Americanism versus Bolshevism (1920). 

HAPGOOD, NORMAN (1868— ). An 
American editor and critic (see Vout. X). He 
was editor of Harper's Weekly (1913-16), and 
American Ambassador from the United States 
to Denmark from February to December, 1919. 
Beginning in 1923, he was editor of Hearst’s 
International Magazine. 

HARA, Takasu (1854-1921). A Japanese 
prime minister. He served as an Official in the 
Foreign Office at home and abroad, attaining 
the rank of vice-minister in 1895. In 1900, he 
was one of the organizers, together with the 
late Prince Ito, of the Seiyu-kai party and soon 
afterwards was made Minister of Communica- 
tions. He held that portfolio again in the 
Seiyu-kai ministry of 1906-08. He was again 
a cabinet minister in 1915, holding the port- 
folio of Home Affairs and in 1918 became 
premier. He was strongly self-assertive as 
prime minister and practically dominated the 
government. In general, he was opposed to the 
too rapid absorption of European ideas. Other 
features of his policy were the more complete 
coéperation between the military and other 
branches of government service and a spirit of 
conciliation in foreign affairs. Many attempts 
were made to overthrow his cabinet, the op- 
position attacking it for its policy toward 
China in the matter of the 21 demands and for 
its Siberian policy, and demanding that the 
Japanese troops be withdrawn. Latterly nego- 
tiations with China over Shantung and the 
policy of the conference at Darien, in which 
Japan had hoped to come to an agreement with 
the Far Eastern republic of China, tended to 
sharpen the hostility between the _ political 
parties. His assassination, which occurred at 
Tokyo, Nov. 4, 1921, was just at the time when 
the Japanese delegation was gathering for the 
Washington Conference. See JAPAN, History. 

HARAHAN, WILLIAM JOHNSON (1867— y. 
An American railway official born in Nashville, 
Tenn., and educated at St. John’s College, New 
Orleans. After holding several important posi- 
tions, he was appointed chief engineer of the 
Illinois Central Railroad in 1902. He became 
general manager in 1904 and in 1907 was ap- 
pointed assistant to the president of the Erie 
Railroad. He was vice-president of that road 
in 1911-12 and 1912-18 was president of the 
Seaboard Air Line, of which he was also Fed- 
eral manager. He was a member of the United 
States Railway Board of Adjustment and be- 
came president of the Cincinnati and Ohio Rail- 
way and the Hocking Railway in 1920. 

HARBEN, WILL(IAM) N(ATHANIEL) (1858- 
1919). An American story-writer (see VOL. 
X). His last three publications were The In- 
mer Law (1915), Second Choice (1916), and 
The Triumph (1917). 

HARBORD, JAMES GUTHRIE (1866- yi. 
An American army officer, born at Bloomington, 
Ill., and graduated from the Kansas State Ag- 
ricultural College at Manhattan, Kan., in 1886 
and from the Infantry and Calvary School in 
1895. He joined the 4th Infantry as a private 
in 1889, and reached the rank of colonel in 
1903, in which year he went to the Philippines 
where he remained till 1914. He was chief of 
staff in the American Army in France during 
1917-18, and commanded the Marine Brigade 
near Chiteau-Thierry during June and July, 


599 


HARDING 


1918. He also served at Soissons, and com- 
manded the Service of Supply during 1918-19. 
He was chief of the American Military Commis- 
sion to Armenia in 1919. 

HARDEN, MAximinian (IsmporE WITTKov- 
SKY) (1861- ). A German journalist and 
author (see Vor. X). It is said that during 
the War Harden was the most famous, feared, 
admired, and hated journalist in Europe. Ex- 
Ambassador Gerard declared that Harden voiced 
the only protest in Germany against the sink- 
ing of the Lusitania. He praised China for her 
anti-German attitude, admired President Wil- 
son whenever he did anything especially ob- 
noxious to Prussian pride, scoffed at the idea 
of a victorious German peace, and, in fact, 
made each copy of his newspaper Die Zukunft 
(which he had founded in 1892) of especial in- 
terest to German statesmen. The intrepid edi- 
tor was put in jail at various times, but no 
physical harm came to him till 1922, when an 
attempt was made to assassinate him. He was 
twice suggested for the post of ambassador to 
the United States, once in 1919, and again in 
L921; 

HARDING, WarREN GAMALIEL  (1865- 
1923). The 29th President of the United States, 
elected in November, 1920. He was born at 
Corsica, Morrow Co., Ohio, Nov. 2, 1865, and 
studied at the Ohio Central University. En- 
tering the newspaper business, he became edi- 
tor and publisher of the Marion (Ohio) Star. 
He ran for the office of governor of Ohio in 
1910, but was defeated. In 1914, he was elected 
a Republican member of the United States 
Senate for the term of 1915-21. He nominated 
Mr. Taft in 1912 and was chairman of the 
Republican Convention in 1916, making the key- 
note speech. In politics he belonged to the 
“stand-pat” element which was bitterly opposed 
to the “insurgents” led by Roosevelt. He was 
a strong supporter of President Wilson’s war 
policies during the conflict, but in the treaty 
fight he stood with Senator Lodge and signed 
the famous “round-robin” disapproving the link- 
ing of the League of Nations with the Peace 
Treaty. He voted for the submission of the 
Prohibition and Woman Suffrage Amendments, 
and in general supported the policies of the 
majority of his party. In 1920, through the 
efforts of his friend, Harry M. Daugherty, after- 
wards Attorney General, he was put forward 
prominently as a candidate for the Presidency. 
At the convention he was nominated on the 10th 
ballot, receiving 6921/4 votes. His selection was 
somewhat of a surprise to the people at large. 
The most difficult question before the Republican 
candidate was that of the League of Nations. 
A strong element in the Republican party was 
bitter against any form of participation, where- 
as a smaller but more influential body, rep- 
resented by such men as Mr. Hughes, Mr. 
Hoover, and Mr. Root, favored some sort of co- 
operation. Mr. Harding put forward the idea 
of an association of nations to which the United 
States would belong but reserving the right of 
independent action, and he also favored an in- 
ternational court of justice. During the two 
years before his death, signs of revolt against 
the Republican organization were evident, and 
in 1922 the Republican majority in the House 
was greatly reduced in the Congressional elec- 
tions. An agricultural bloc was forming in 
Congress as a result of the dissatisfaction of 
the farmers, especially those in the West. 


HARDING 


Shortly before President Harding’s death, Ship- 
stead and Magnus Johnson were elected to the 
Senate and a new third party movement was 
threatened. The most conspicuous feature of 
the latter days of his administration was his 
advocacy of the Permanent Court of Interna- 
tional Justice, which was sharply attacked by 
Senators Johnson, Borah, and other irrecon- 
cilables. President Harding died at San Fran- 
cisco, Cal., on Aug. 2, 1923, on his return trip 
from Alaska. 

HARDING, WILLIAM P.G(ouLD) (1864- yi 
An American banker born in Greene County, 
Ala. After graduating from the University of 
Alabama he entered the bank of J. H. Fitts and 
Company at Tuscaloosa, from there went to the 
Berney National Bank at Birmingham, Ala., 
and from 1902 to 1914 was president of the 
First National Bank of Birmingham. He be- 
came a member in 1914, and governor in 1916, 
of the Federal Reserve Board at Washington, 
and has been closely associated with financial 
transactions of the United States Government. 
He was managing director of the War Finance 
Corporation in 1918-19. 

HARDY, Tuomas (1840- ). An. Eng- 
lish novelist (see VoL. X). His already long 
list of works was lengthened by Selected Poems 
(1916), Moments of Vision (1917), and Late 
Lyrics (1922). The Dynasts was produced at 
the Kingsway Theatre, London, early in the 
War, and again in London in 1920. 

HARKINS, WIiLtiAmM DRAPER (1873- hs 
American university professor and eminent 
chemist, born at Titusville, Pa. He was grad- 
uated from Stanford University in 1900, after 
which he studied at the University of Chicago, 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and at 
Karlsruhe, Germany. He began his teaching 
career as instructor of chemistry at Stanford 
University in 1898, and in 1900 was made head 
of the department of chemistry in the Uni- 
versity of Montana. He was chemist in charge 
of the Anaconda Farmers’ Association’s in- 
vestigation of smelter smoke from 1902 to 1910, 
and did research work for the Carnegie Institu- 
tion at Washington in 1911. He was professor 
of physical chemistry at the University of Chi- 
cago in 1917. He gave many lectures on in- 
dustrial research, was editor ‘of the section on 
general and physical chemistry of Chemical Ab- 
stracts, and wrote many technical papers giving 
the results of original researches. 

HARRIES, GerorceE HERBERT (1860— Ne 
An American general, born at Haverfordwest, 
in Wales. In 1895-96, he was president of the 
Metropolitan Railroad Company of Washington, 
and from 1897 to 1915 commanded the military 
and naval militia of the District of Columbia. 
During the Spanish-American War he was 
colonel of the 1st District of Columbia Infantry, 
United States Volunteers. In the recent War 
he served as a brigadier-general of the United 
States Army in 1917. He acted as chief of the 
United States Military Mission at Berlin, Ger- 
many, in 1918-19, and was appointed brigadier- 
general of the Officers’ Reserve Corps in 1920. 
He was national commander-in-chief of the Mil- 
itary Order of the World War, 1920-22, and 
held office in many important organizations. 

HARRIS, Corra May (1869- Pore Am 
American author (see Vout. X). Her later 
books include: The Co-Citizens (1915); A Cir- 
cuit Rider's Widow (1916); Making Her His 
Wife (1918); From Sunup to Sundown (1919) ; 


600 


HART 


Happily Married (1920); My Son (1921); The 
Eyes of Love (1922); A Daughter of Adam 
(1923); My Book and Heart (1924). 
HARRIS, WitiiAm Lavuret_ 1870- ye 
An American mural painter (see Vou. X). He 
completed during this period his mural painting 
and decoration in the Paulist Church, New 
York, and fulfilled a similar commission for 
the Corpus Christi Chapel in that city. 
HARRIS, FRANK (1856- ). An English 
author (see Vor. X). Among his later works 
were The Life and Confessions of Oscar Wilde 


(1916), and Contemporary Portraits (1919, 
1921). 

HARRIS, Harorp R. ( ?- ). An Amer- 
ican airman who made a world’s record for 


speed for 1000, 1500 and 2000 kilometers at 
Dayton, Ohio, in 1923. He also made a record 
for duration, with a useful load of 551 pounds, 
on Mar. 27, 1924. Previously he held the rec- 
ords for duration and altitude with useful loads 
of 4408 and 6612 pounds respectively. 


HARRIS, JAmMes ArTHUR (1880-— jy An 
American botanist and statistician, born at 
Plantsville, Ohio He wag educated at the 


University of Kansas and at Washington Uni- 


versity (Ph.D., 1903). He was assistant in 
botany (1901-03) at the Missouri Botanical 
Garden, instructor (1903-07) at Washington 


University, and botanical investigator at the 
Station for Experimental Evolution at Cold 
Spring Harbor, L. I. (1907- ). His published 
work was mainly in biometry. 

HARRISON, FrAncis BurRTON. 
PINES. 

HARRISON,  FREDERIC (1831-1923). A 
leader of the English Positivists, and philosoph- 
ical writer (see Von. X). During the War he 
was active in the anti-German propaganda, hav- 
ing been a constant critic of British indifference 
to the German peril, and having written for 
many years on the subject of the dangers of 
German imperialism. In 1917, in an open letter 
he urged the Allies to bind themselves to make 
no terms of any kind with the Hohenzollern or 
any other ruling house in Germany, all of whom 
he declared to be “treacherous, bloodthirsty, 
satanic.” One of his sons lost his life in the 
war. Among his later works may be mentioned: 
The German Peril (1915); On Society (1918) ; 
Jurisprudence and Conflict of Nations (1919); 
Obiter Scripta (1919); Novissima Verba (1920). 

HARRISON, HENRy SypDNor (1880—- de 
An American novelist (see VoL. X). His later 
works include Angela’s Business (1915), When 
I Come Back (1919), Saint Cecilia (1922), and 
Marriage (1923), a volume of short stories. 

HARSHBERGER, JOHN WILLIAM 
(1869- ). An American botanist (see Vou. 
X). From 1911, he was professor of botany at 
the University of Pennsylvania, and from 1913 
to 1921 he was in charge of ecology at the Ma- 
rine Biological Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, 
L. I. He was a president of the Philadelphia 
Natural History Society, and a vice-president of 
the Ecological Society of America. Ineluded 
among his later books are: Vegetation of South 


See PHILIP- 


Florida (1914); The Vegetation of the New 
Jersey Pine Barrens (1916); Pastoral Agri- 
cultural Botany (1920). 

HART, ALBERT BUSHNELL (1854— i) 


An American historian (see Vor. X). Among 
his later works are: Monroe Doctrine (1915) ; 
New American History (1917); School History 
of the United States (1917); America at War 


HART 


(1917); Causes of the War (1920). In addi- 
tion, he edited American Patriots and States- 
men (1916). <A discussion arose in 1923 ag to 
the “Americanism” of his history textbook, The 
Epoch of American History and National Ideals 
of History Traced. The removal of his School 
History of the United States from New York 
City schools was recommended by an investigat- 
ing committee. 

HART, HASTINGS HORNELL (1851- BK 
An American social worker, born at Brookfield, 


Ohio, and educated at Oberlin College and 
Andover Theological Seminary. He was _ or- 


dained to the Congregational ministry in 1880. 
From 1883, when he became secretary of the 
Minnesota State Board of Corrections and 
Charities, he was identified with social work in 
the Illinois Children’s Home and Aid Society, 
the Russell Sage Foundation, and other organ- 
izations. Among his numerous works are: 
Preventive Treatment of Neglected - Children 
(1910); A Social Welfare Programme for the 
State of Florida (1918); How to Give Wisely 
$25,000 to $1,000,000 (1921); The Third Degree: 
Methods of Obtaining Confessions and Informa- 
tion from Persons Accused of Crime (1921); 
Employment for Jail Prisoners in Wisconsin 
(1922). 

HART, WILLIAM S, (1870- ). An Amer- 
ican motion picture actor born in Newburgh, 
N. Y. He began his work in motion pictures 
in 1914 after having acted on the legitimate 
stage for many years. He has appeared chiefly 
in Western pictures, among his best being: 
O’Malley of the Mounted and Travelin’ On. His 
most recent pictures are Wild Bill Hickok; 
Singer Jim McKee; A Lighter of Flames. 

HARTFORD. The capital of Connecticut. 
The population increased approximately 40 per 
eent from 98,915 in 1910 to 138,036 in 1920. 
The number of persons engaged in manufactur- 
ing increased from 14,627 to aL, 137 in 1917 and 
26, ,264 in 1919; between 1909 and 1919, the value 
of the industrial products rose froin $40,500,- 
000 to $118,000,000. Bank elearings rose from 
$261,494,106 in 1914 to $567,980,369 in 1923, 
and deposits in discount banks from about $46,- 
000,000 to $86,201,484; savings deposits increased 
from $419.66 per capita in 1915 to $612.85 per 
capita in 1924. The assets of the Hartford in- 
surance companies increased from $462,160,129 
to $1,084.057,101; $1,088,071,199 was paid to 
policyholders and beneficiaries during the pe- 
riod. Several large office and commercial build- 
ings were constructed. 

HARTS, WiitiAm Wriaut  (1868— et 
An American army officer, horn at Springfield, 
Ill., and graduated at the United States Military 
Academy. He had a long and varied career 
in the Engineers Corps of the United States 
Army, assisting or being in charge of construc- 
tion work in nearly every part of the United 
States. President Wilson appointed him mil- 
itary aide in charge of public buildings and 
grounds, with rank of colonel, from 1913 to 
1917. He built the Lincoln Memorial, the Ar- 
lington Memorial and the Red Cross Building. 
In “1917, he went to France with his regiment. 
He was chief of the American Mission at the 
British headquarters in 1918, and chief of staff, 
Army of Occupation in Germany, during 1919- 
20. 

HARVARD UNIVERSITY. A _ nonsec- 
tarian, endowed, educational institution at Cam- 
bridge, Mass., founded in 1636. Many changes 


601 


. alumni by postal ballots for overseers, 


HARVARD UNIVERSITY 


were made in the methods of teaching and re- 
quirements for admission and graduation in 
the various departments at Harvard during the 
decade 1914-24. Important additions were made 
to the library and the several museums, and 
various schools were established or reorganized. 
A number of new buildings were completed and 
several private dormitories were purchased by 
the university. Partly through independent 
gifts and partly through the endowment fund 
campaign, begun in 1917 but postponed because 
of the War until 1919, the productive funds of 
the university were increased during the 10- 
year period, until the endowment in 1924 was 
in the neighborhood of $55,000,000. The num- 
ber of members of the teaching staff was in- 
creased during the period from about 800 in 
1914 to 1057 in the year 1923-24, and the stu- 
dents in the university in the same period in- 
creased from about 4266 to 6733. Voting by 
who 
form one of the two governing boards of the 
university, was inaugurated in 1922. 

Among the important changes in Harvard 
College was the additional method of admis- 
sion, instituted as an experiment in 1923, where- 
by pupils having satisfactorily completed an 
approved school course, and ranking scholas- 
tically among the highest seventh of their grad- 
uating class, may, on the recommendation of 
their school, be admitted without examination. 
All seniors in the college, except those special- 
izing in mathematics or the natural sciences, 
Were required to pass general examinations in 
the field of their concentration, not only cover- 
ing the courses taken by the individual, but 
requiring outside reading as well. This was an 
extension of the policy successfully practiced 
for a number of years in other divisions; it was 
first instituted in the division of history, gov- 
ernment and economics in 1916, and gradually 
extended. The plan included the increasing use 
of the tutorial system, which was developed 
over a period of years, and in 1924 was to be 
extended to the division of modern languages, 

The Engineering School as such, awarding 
the degree of S.B. after four years of under- 
graduate study, as well as higher degrees, was 
reorganized at Harvard in 1918, although the 
teaching of engineering at. the university went 
back to 1847 and the founding of the Lawrence . 
Scientific School. In 1920, it adopted new 
methods of instruction, training the students 
partly in the classrooms and partly in the 
neighboring industrial and engineering concerns, 
thus combining theoretical and practical expe- 
rience. In the same year, it joined with the 
Graduate School of Business Administration in 
laying out a five-year programme of study in 
“business engineering.” 

Three other schools in the university were es- 
tablished during the decade. The Graduate 
School of Education for both men and women 
was founded in 1920, partly through the as- 
sistance of the General Education Board, and 
largely through money obtained by the endow- 
ment fund campaign. It was a school for the 
professional training of teachers, principals, and 
school superintendents, and for research in edu- 
cational problems. In 1922, pursuant to an 
agreement between the Harvard Divinity School 
and the Andover Theological Seminary, the 
Harvard Theological School, nondenominational 
in policy, was organized, with Rev. Willard L. 
Sperry as dean. “The School of Public Health, 


HARVEY 


closely allied with the Medical School, was also 
established in 1922 with the gift of $2,000,000 
from the Rockefeller Foundation, its dean be- 
ing Dr. David L. Edsall, dean also of the 
Medical School The Dental School raised its 
standard of admission in 1921 by establishing 
as a prerequisite of enrollment at least one year 
of college work. In 1914, the faculty of archi- 
tecture, in charge of the School of Architecture 
and the School of Landscape Architecture, was 
instituted as a separate faculty. In the Grad- 
uate School of Business Administration, instruc- 
tion by the case system, such as was used in 
the Law School, was extended greatly during the 
decade. 

The exchange of professors with France and 
with western colleges was continued; and in 
1923, the exchange of tutors with English uni- 
versities, a new departure along the lines of 
the established practice of exchanging profes- 
sors, was inaugurated as an experiment. 

During the War, and for some months before 
the entrance into it of the United States, Har- 
vard maintained a Reserve Officers’ Training 
Corps unit trained by six disabled French army 
officers. In 1919, this was changed to an artil- 
lery unit with courses counting toward the col- 
lege degree. The college also offered a course 
in 1917-18 preparing undergraduates for ad- 
mission to the Naval Reserve as ensigns, and 
courses in military and naval science and tac- 
tics. 

A number of physical changes were made in 
and about the university. The Harry Elkins 
Widener Memorial Library was dedicated in 
1915, as was the Cruft Memorial Laboratory for 
high frequency electrical work. In 1915, the 
rebuilding of the Gray Herbarium was com- 
pleted, and the Dudley Memorial Gate and 
Clock Tower was built. The three freshman 
halls, Standish, Gore, and Smith, were occupied 
in 1914 for the first time. Other buildings 
completed between the years 1914 and 1924 in- 
cluded the Germanic Museum, the music build- 
ing, containing the John Knowles Paine Concert 
Hall, the Dunbar Laboratory for research in 
cryogenic engineering, the Crimson building, 
which housed the undergraduate daily paper 
and the alumni weekly, and two war buildings 
still in use, that on the Delta used as the bur- 
sar’s office, and the McKay Engineering Labo- 
ratory. 

The commencement exercises, formerly held in 
Sanders Theatre, were transferred to the Har- 
vard Stadium in 1916 for one year, and to 
Sever Quadrangle in the Harvard Yard in 1923. 
President, A. Lawrence Lowell, LL.D. 

HARVEY, GeEorRGE (BRINTON MCCLELLAN) 
(1864-— ). An American editor and diplo- 
mat (see Vou. X). While at the Court of St. 
James (1921-23), he was very much criticized 
in the United States for his obvious pro-British 
sentiments. He strongly opposed the League of 
Nations on the basis that it would jeopardize 
national sovereignty. In 1918, he established a 
War Weekly Supplement to The North Amer- 
ican Review, and later called it Harvey’s Weekly. 
The latter was used as a means of denouncing 
President Wilson’s administration. Though 
not a delegate at the Republican National Con- 
vention of 1920, he was present and contributed 
largely to Warren Harding’s nomination for the 
Presidency. The latter appointed him ambas- 
sador to England in 1921. 

HASKELL, Witr1Am Narew (1878- is 


602 


HASTINGS 


An American army officer, born at Albany, N. Y. 
He graduated from the United States Mili- 
tary Academy in 1901; from the Infantry and 
Cavalry School in 1904; and from the Army 
Staff College in 1905. He was made captain in 
1916 and in 1917 was appointed major of field 
artillery in the National Army. He served 
throughout the War, becoming lieutenant-colonel 
in the regular army in 1920. In France, he 
served as assistant chief of staff with the 77th 
Division and participated in several important 
campaigns. Foliowing the close of the war, he 
acted as head of the American Relief Commis- 
sion to Rumania and was later director-general 
of all relief in the Caucausus. In 1921-22 he 
served as chief of the American Relief Commis- 
sion to Russia. 

HASKINS, CyHarites Homer (1870- )§ 
An American educator, born at Meadville, Pa. 
He graduated from Johns Hopkins University 
in 1887 and was instructor from 1889 to 1890. 
He served as instructor, professor of history 
and professor of European history at the Uni- 
versity of Wisconsin from 1892 to 1902. In 
that year he joined the faculty of Harvard Uni- 
versity as lecturer on history, becoming suc- 
cessively professor of history and Gurney pro- 
fessor of history and political science (1912). 
From 1918, he served as dean of the Graduate 
School of Arts and Sciences. In 1918-19, he 
was a member of the American Commission to 
Negotiate Peace and was also on several other 
commissions in Europe. From 1920, he was 
chairman of the American Council of Learned 
Societies and was a member of many foreign 
and American learned societies. He was the 
author of The Normans in European History 
(1915), Norman Institutions (1918), and Some 
Problems of the Peace Conference (with R. H. 
Lord, 1920). He was also editor of the Ameri- 
can Historical Series. 


HASSALL, ArTHuR (1853- ). English 
historian (see Vout. X). In 1918, he wrote 
France, Medieval and Modern; in 1919, 
A Handbook of British History. 

HASSAM, CHILDE (1859- ). An Ameri- 


can painter and etcher (see Vou. X). . Espe- 
cially interesting among his works during the 
decade were his flag pictures of Fifth Avenue, 
in which, with vitality and great effectiveness 
he caught the exultant spirit of flowing ban- 
ners, as in “Allies Day.” Within the decade 
he turned also to etching, his work in which was 
notable for its reticence and subtlety. Several 
important exhibitions of his drawings, etchings 
and water colors were held in New York. 
Among his awards during the period were the 
Altman prize, National Academy of Design, 
1918; and the gold medal of honor, Pennsyl- 
vania Academy of Fine Arts, 1920. In 1919 he 
was made a member of the American Academy 
of Arts and Letters. 

HASTINGS, James (1860- ). Scottish 
editor and Biblical scholar (see Von. X). Be- 
sides continuing the series of dictionaries and 
encyclopedias begun some years ago, he started 
a series on Great Christian Doctrines, of which 
have appeared: VoL. I, Prayer (1915); Vor. II, 
Faith (1919); Vou. III, Peace (1921). 

HASTINGS, THOMAS (1860— ). An 
American architect (see VoL. X), member of 
the firm of Carrére and Hastings. He was a 
member of the National Academy and the Amer- 
ican Academy of Arts and Letters, and was 
president of the Society of Beaux Arts Archi- 


‘ 


HATCH 


tects. In 1924, a design made by him for the 
war memorial for New York City was accepted. 

HATCH, WILLIAM HENRY PAINE (1875-__+)~- 
An American theologian, born in Camden, N. J. 
He was graduated at Harvard in 1898, and re- 
ceived there his Ph.D. in 1904, after which he 
was graduated at the Episcopal Theological 
Seminary in Cambridge, Mass., and from the 
General Theological Seminary in New York 
City. After ordination to the Protestant Epis- 
copal ministry in 1902, he held charges in Cam- 
bridge, Mass. (1902-03), Lake George, N. Y. 
(1904-05), and Lexington, Mass. (1905-08). 
In 1909, he went to the General Theological 
Seminary, becoming in 1913 professor of the 
language and literature of the New Testament. 
In 1917, he relinquished that place to accept a 
eall to a similar chair in the Episcopal. The- 
ological Seminary in Cambridge. Dr. Hatch 
has published many articles and reviews and is 
the author of The Pauline Idea of Faith (1917), 
and with C. C. Edmunds, The Gospel Manu- 
scripts of the General Theological Seminary 
(1918). 

HAUK, MINNIE (1852— ). An American 
soprano (see Vou. X). In the fall of 1912, a 
false report of her death was circulated in all 
the musical journals of the English-speaking 
world. The fact that this report was unfounded 
did not become known until in December, 1919, 
some friends issued a general appeal for as- 
sistance, as the artist had become destitute 
through the War and was almost totally blind. 
The appeal met with a generous response. In 
1923, it was reported that a successful opera- 
tion had brought about an improvement in her 
sight. 

"HAUPTMANN, GERHART (1862— ie 
A German poet, dramatist, and novelist (see 
Vout. X). At the outbreak of the War he had 
a controversy with Romain Rolland, who had 
challenged him to protest against the crime of 
Louvain, which Hauptmann failed to do. Later 
he engaged in welfare work and was particularly 
active in caring for the wounded during the 
revolution in Berlin in 1919. His later writ- 
ings comprise: Der Bogen des Odysseus (1914) ; 
Parsival (1915); Der Ketzer von Soana (1918) ; 
Indipohdi (1920); Der weisse Heiland, a dra- 
matic phantasy (1920); Anna, a rural epic 
(1921); Peter Brauer (1921); Phantom, mem- 
oirs of a convict (1922); and Kaiser Mazens 
Brautfahrt (1924). Many of the addresses and 
lectures delivered by him during the last years 
have also been published. English translations 
of his works appeared in London and New York. 

HAUSER, Henri (1866- ). A French 
historian and economist. He was educated at 
the Ecole Normale Supérieure, and _ passed 
through the academic hierarchy until he became 
professor at the faculty of letters in the Sor- 
bonne. For the year 1922-23, he was the French 
visiting professor at Harvard University, lectur- 
ing on the history of capitalism. 

An authority on the economic history of the 
latter Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Pro- 
fessor Hauser wrote illuminatingly on social 
conditions both of the past and present. Dur- 
ing the War he published a number of tracts 
exposing Germany’s plans for economic domina- 
tion of the world’s markets. 

His works include: Francois de la Noue 
(1893); Owvriers du Temps Passé; XV°-XVI° 
Siécles (1899); L’Or (1901); L’Impérialisme 
Américain (1905); Les Sources de VHistoire 


603 


HAVERFORD COLLEGE 


de France au XVI° Siécle (4 vols., 1906-15) ; 
Etudes sur la Réforme Francaise (1909); La 
France et ses Colonies (1912); Le Traité de 
Madrid et la Cession de la Bourgogne (1912) ; 
La Guerre Européenne et le Probleme Colonial 
(1915) ; Heonomice Germany (Eng. trans. 1915) ; 
Germany’s Commercial Grip Upon the World 
(Eng. trans., 1917); Les Routes Fluviales de 
VEurope Nouvelle (1918); Propos dun Igno- 
rant sur Vv Economie Nationale (1923); La Nou- 
welle Orientation Economique (1924). 

HAUSER, OrTto (1876- ). An Austrian 
writer. He was born at Dianesch, Croatia, and 
studied at the University of Vienna. He is the 
author of Weltgeschichte der Literatur (1910), 
Rassebiicher, Rasse und Rassefragen (1913) ; 
Geschichte des Judentums (1921), and other 
works of a critical and historical character. He 
translated Verlaine, Rossetti, Swinburne, Wilde, © 
Van Eeden and others, prefacing the transla- 
tions by illuminating essays, and compiled an- 
thologies of Chinese, Japanese and Scandinavian 
poetry with appropriate appreciations. He has 
published his own works of fiction which in- 
clude: Lehrer Johannes Johansen (1902); Hin 
abgesetzter Pfarrer (1904); Lucidor der Un- 
gliickliche (1905); Angelika und Malvine 
(1906); Spinoza (1908); Die Familie Gessner 
(1909); Alt Wien (1910); Fauwstulus (1911); 
Der liebe Augustin (1913); Das Deutsche Herz 
(1921); Atlantis (1921). 

HAUSMANN, Ericu (1886-— ): AS Ger- 
man physicist, born in Solinger, Germany. He 
was graduated at the Brooklyn Polytechnic In- 
stitute in 1908, then studied at New York Uni- 
versity. Returning to the Polytechnic Institute 
he taught physics and electrical engineering, 
becoming professor of physics in 1918. In ad- 
dition, he was a member of the graduate faculty 
at New York University during 1911-16 and 
was in charge of the department of physics dur- 
ing the summer of 1912. He specialized on 
methods of electrical communication, transmis- 
sion and traction, and on wave propagation 
along conductors. Dr. Hausmann has been very 
active in the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and 
Sciences, serving as vice president of its de- 
partment of electricity (1909-21), and later as 
president. He is the author of Electric Wave 
Propagation and Distribution along Conductors 
(1911), Telegraph Engineering (1915), Dynamo 
Electric Machinery (1922), and, with others, of 
Alternating Current Machines (1908), Direct 
Current Machines (1909), Electric Traction and 
Transmission Engineering (1912), and Physics 
Laboratory Experiments (1917). 

HAVERFORD COLLEGE. An institution 
under the control of the Society of Friends at 
Haverford, Pa., founded in 1833. Haverford 
grew steadily during the decade 1914-24 with 
the exception of the war years. At the begin- 
ning of that period, the enrollment was 176, the 
faculty numbered 22, the library contained 62,- 
000 volumes and the productive funds amounted 
to $1,100,000; and in the year 1923-24, the en- 
rollment was 224, the faculty numbered 25, the 
library contained 93,000 volumes and the pro- 
ductive funds had trebled, totaling $3,648,952. 
The Isaac Sharpless Science Hall for physics 
and biology was built in 1919, and the children 
of Gideon Scull gave $146,000 in 1916 to estab- 
lish a chair in English Constitutional History. 
William Wistar Comfort, Ph.D., LL.D., sue- 
ceeded Isaac Sharpless, Se., LL.D., as president 
in 1917. 


HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 604 


HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, or Hawa. A 
territory of the United States, consisting of a 
group of islands in the north central Pacific 
Ocean. Total area, 6449 square miles. The 
population of Hawaii increased from 191,909 in 
1910 to 265,912 in 1920. The population on 
June 30, 1923, was estimated at 298,500. There 
is a great diversification of races among its 
population, and with the exception of the native 
Hawaiians, all are increasing. The Japanese 
form the largest proportion; they numbered 
79,675; in; /1910, and 709,274 (\in)|.1920.4:The 
Portuguese are second, with 22,301 in 1910 and 
27,002 in 1920. The native Hawaiians decreased 
from 26,041 in 1910 to 23,723 in 1920. The 
other races forming the population, with their 
numbers, in 1910 and 1920, are as follows: 
Asiatic Hawaiian, 3734, 6955; Caucasian Hawai- 
ian, 8722, 11,072; Porto Rican, 4890, 5602; 
Spanish, 1190, 2430; other Caucasian, 14,867, 
19,708; Chinese, 21,674, 23,507; Filipino, 2361, 
21,031; Korean, 4533, 4950; negro, 695, 348; all 
other, 310, 376. 

Agriculture. The agriculture development 
of the Territory is under the Bureau of Agri- 
culture and Forestry and the College of Hawaii. 
In addition to these, there are the Federal Ex- 
periment Station which is assisted financially 
by the Territory and the Hawaiian Sugar Plant- 
ers’ Association’s Experiment Station, which 
meets the needs of the sugar industry. Up to 
July 1, 1915, the work of the Bureau was sup- 
ported by a special income tax. Following that 
year, specific appropriations were made out of 
the general revenues. The United States census 
of 1910 showed a total area of 305,053 acres of 
cultivated agricultural lands in the Territory. 
The maximum of the possible cultivable land is 
about 400,000 acres. The number of farms in 
the Territory increased in the decade 1910-20 
from 4320 to 5284. The land in farms. in- 
ereased from 2,590,600 acres in 1910 to 2,702,- 
245 in 1920, while the improved land in farms 
increased from 305,053 acres in 1910 to 435,- 
242. acres in 1920. The percentage of the total 
area in farms increased from 62.8 per cent in 
1910 to 65.5 per cent in 1920. The value of 
farm property increased from $96,363,229 in 
1910 to $151,129,085 in 1920, and the average 
value per farm increased from $22,306 in 1910 
to $28,601 in 1920. The chief agricultural in- 
dustry in the islands was the growing of sugar 
cane. The acreage under cultivation in 1909 
was 186,230, and the sugar cane was harvested 
in 1919 from 123,165 acres. The production of 
sugar cane increased from 4,240,238 tons in 
1909 to 4,862,707 tons in 1919, while the value 
increased from $26,305,747 in 1909 to $37,558,- 
265 in 1919. The rice production was second 
in importance. Rice is the most important 
cereal grown. The acreage, however, decreased 
from 9425 in 1909 to 5801 in 1919. The pro- 
duction decreased from 41,827,900 pounds in 
1909 to 29,571,845 pounds in 1919, while the 
value decreased from $1,068,293 in 1909 to $1.,- 
577,421 in 1919. The production of coffee 
showed remarkable development during the dec- 
ade. The acreage increased from 3727 in 1909 
to 5687 in 1919, while the production increased 
from 9,834,026 pounds in 1909 to 19,883,650 
pounds in 1919. The value increased from 
$213,085 in 1909 to $741,315 in 1919. The pro- 
duction of fruits of all kinds was one of the 
chief industries of the island. The growing and 
canning of pineapples assumed great, impor- 


> 1919. 


HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 


tance. 
in 1909 to 299,981,433 pounds in 1919, while 
the value increased from $331,162 in 1909 to 
$3,545,385 in 1919. Other fruits produced were 
avocados, bananas, figs, oranges and papayas. 
The number of farm owners increased from 963 
in 1910 to 1419 in 1920. The managers de- 
ereased from 249 in 1910 to 126 in 1920, and 
the tenants increased from 3108 in 1910 to 3739 
in 1920. The white farmers increased from 753 
in 1910 to 892 in 1920; the colored farmers 
from 3567 in 1910 to 4392 in 1920. The De- 
partment of Agriculture and Forestry and the 
Agricultural Experiment Station did work with 
excellent results, especially in the decade 1914- 
24. Largely through the efforts of the Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station, agriculture be- 
came more diversified. Twenty years ago sugar 
was the only large agricultural industry. 
Through the experiments carried on, it was dis- 
covered that pineapples could be grown with 
great success, and the rapid growth of this in- 
dustry is shown by the fact that the canned 
pineapples produced in 1903 were valued at 
$7500, whereas the value in 1921 was $29,841,- 
000. The Experiment Station was particularly 
successful in discovering and destroying plant 
pests which were destroying sugar cane and 
fruits. An Extension Division was established 
in 1914 and during the decade developed numer- 
ous helpful points of contact with the various 
agricultural interests throughout the country. 

Manufactures. The chief industries of 
Hawaii were based largely on the production 
of sugar. The number of establishments de- 
creased from 500 in 1909 to 496 in 1919. The 
wage earners, however, increased during the 
same period from 5904 to 9969. The capital 
invested was $23,875,000 in’ 1909 and $48,851,- 
000 in 1919. The value of products increased 
from $47,404,000 in 1909 to $133,096,000 in 
1919. There were 43 establishments in 1919 
connected with the manufacture of sugar, com- 
pared with 46 in 1909. The value of the prod- 
ucts of these increased from $35,959,822 in 
1909 to $80,236,244 in 1919. In 1909, there 
were 74 establishments engaged in the cleaning 
and polishing of rice, as compared with 69 in 
The value of the product increased from 
$2,238,667 in 1909 to $5,436,455 in 1919. Ten 


establishments in 1909 were engaged in canning 


and preserving, as compared with nine in 1919. 
The value of the product increased from $1,591,- 
073 in 1909 to $18,997,975 in 1919. These in- 
dustries practically comprised the most impor- 
tant part of the manufacturing done in the 
Territory. Printing and publishing, cleaning 
and polishing of coffee, the production of lum- 
ber, the making of confectionery and ice-cream 
were other manufacturing industries. Honolulu 
and Hilo are the chief manufacturing cities. 
In Honolulu, in 1909, there were 236 establish- 
ments and 241 in 1919. Hilo had no manu- 
factures in 1909, but had 57 establish- 
ments in 1919. The value of the manufactures 
of Honolulu increased from $10,704,744 in 
1909 to $43,611,175 in 1919. The industries 
of Hilo had a product valued at $5,612,196 in 
110. 

Education. The educational problems of 
Hawaii were unusually difficult from the mix- 
ture of populations, and the Territory’s com- 
paratively rapid increase. There were 161 
schools in 1913, and 25,631 pupils. The cost 
of maintenance was $677,799. In 1923, there 


This increased from 12,361,695 pounds - 


| 
; 
j 
{ 
| 
1 


HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 


were 175 public and 60 private schools. In the 
public schools were 48,730 pupils and in the 
private schools 8470, or a total of 57,200. In 
1914, there were, in the public schools, 10,329 
Japanese. This number had increased in 1923 
to 23,947. The Chinese increased from 2638 in 
1914 to 4616 in 1923 The Hawaiians increased 
from 3288 in 1914 to 3565 in 1923. The Anglo- 
Saxons increased from 737 in 1914 to 1448 in 
1923. During the decade 1913-23, great atten- 
tion was given to the proper development of the 
educational system, especially with regard to 
agriculture and manual education. In the lat- 
ter part of the period, widespread interest was 
manifest in a reorganization and re-direction 
of the public school curriculum for the pur- 
pose of giving adequate recognition to agricul- 
tural and manual training. One of the most 
significant educational developments over the 
period was the rapid rise of professional inter- 
est and self-improvement: on the part of the 
teaching staff. The Hawaiian Educational As- 
sociation, which embraces the whole Territory, 
held annual conventions. The junior high 
schools were established during the decade and 
these became very popular among the people 
and greatly increased the interest in educa- 
tional work wherever established. In 1923, 
there were five of these schools. The University 
of Hawaii, established in 1907, formerly the 
College of Hawaii, afforded opportunity for 
higher education. The enrollment increased 
from 144 in 1914 to 701 in 1923. The rela- 
tions of the university and the community at 
large became much closer through the work of 
the extension department. Two industrial 
schools, one for boys and one for girls, were 
also maintained. 

Trade and Commerce. The development of 
trade and commerce in the decade 1913-23 is 
indicated by a comparison of several years dur- 
ing that period. In 1914, the total of imports 
and exports amounted to $77,144,329, of which 
$41,594,072 were exports and $35,550,257 im- 
ports. In 1918, the total trade was $132,347,- 
810, of which $80,546,606 were exports and $51,- 
801,204 imports. In 1920, the total trade 
amounted to $168,063,451, of which $104,779,- 
804 were exports and $63,283,647 imports. In 
1923, the total trade amounted to $147,645,131, 


of which $72,768,317 were exports and $64,- 
- 876,814 imports. 


The exports to the United 
States in 1914 amounted to $40,678,827 and the 
imports from the United States to $29,267,699. 
In 1923, the exports to the United States 
amounted to $81,495,984 and the imports from 
the United States to $56,837,991. The total 
amount of raw sugar exported increased from 
1,089,389,928 pounds, valued at $32,108,518 in 
1914, to 1,193,351,278 pounds valued at $54,- 
232,769 in 1923. Fruits and nuts exported in 
1914 were valued at $5,061,525 and in 1923 at 
$24,122,234, constituting the two largest groups 
of export. Other important exports were cof- 
fee, rice, and hides. By far the largest trade 
was carried on with the United States, but there 
were important trade relations with Australia, 
British India, Canada, Japan and the United 
Kingdom. 

Transportation. The mileage of steam rail- 
roads in Hawaii increased from 307.43 in 1914 
to 335.72 in 1923. There were steam railroads 
on all the islands operating on regular schedules, 
most of them carrying passengers. In addition, 
plantations possessed their private railway 


605 


HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 


equipment for transporting cane and laborers. 
Passengers carried on all the railroads in- 
creased from 1,345,055 in 1914 to 1,958,548 in 
1923. The only street railway existing in the 
Territory was in Honolulu, where an electric 
line was being operated. Traffic with the main- 
land was maintained by a number of steamship 
lines from New York and the west coast of the 
United States. In 1922, direct passenger and 
freight service was established between Los 
Angeles and Honolulu. Inter-island service was 
maintained by large and well-equipped steam- 
boats. 

Finance. The bonded debt of Hawaii at the 
beginning of the fiscal year 1914-15 was $6,- 
844,000. This was increased, until on June 30, 
1920, it amounted to $10,894,000. Further in- 
creases brought the bonded outstanding debt, 
on July 30, 1923, to $14,649,000. A large part 
of this debt was incurred for public improve- 
ment and authorized by the Legislature during 
the decade 1913-23. The increase in receipts 
and disbursements during the decade will be 
noted by a comparison of the figures for several 
years of the period. In the fiscal year 1914—- 
15, the total receipts amounted to $4,905,149 
and the disbursements to $4,446,415. For the 
fiscal year 1920, the receipts amounted to $10,- 
925,406 and the disbursements to $10,949,897. 
In 1923, the total receipts amounted to $12,- 
996,542 and the disbursements to $11,533,819. 
The gross assessed value of real and personal 
property increased from $161,187,226 in 1914 
to $293,104,297 in 1923. The taxes collected 
on real property increased from $1,068,297 in 
1914 to $4,726.256 in 1923. On personal prop- 
erty the taxes increased from $868,613 in 1914 
to $3,508,124 in 1923. 

Banking. The number of banks in the Ter- 
ritory increased from 19 in 1914 to 29 in 1923, 
while the commercial deposits increased from 
$10,371,874 in 1914 to $31,616,007 in 1923. De- 
posits in the savings banks increased from $6,- 
275,790 in 1914 to $21,755,731 in 1923.” There 
were, in 1923, two national banks, a decrease 
from the five of 1914. One of these was at 
Honolulu and the other at Scofield. 

Health and Sanitation. Nearly all the 
public health work in the Territory was done 
by the Territorial Department of Public Health, 
and during the decade 1913-23 much satisfac- 
tory work was accomplished. The death rate 
per thousand in population decreased from 15.03 
in 1914 to 12.54 in 1923. Campaigns for the 
eradication of rats and mosquitoes were carried 
on during this period. For many years plague 
had been endemic in the Hamaqua district and 
the island of Hawaii, and the object of these 
campaigns was the destruction of rats which 
acted as carriers of the germs of the plague. 
In 1923, nearly 200,000 rats were destroyed. 
Several cases of plague occurred each year. 
Material progress was made in the decade in 
the campaign against tuberculosis. Education 
and publicity work was carried on in the public 
press and lectures and sanitaria were main- 
tained for persons suffering from this disease. 
The Hawaiian race is especially susceptible to 
tuberculosis. Nearly one out of every 100 per- 
sons of this race have the disease or traces of 
it. Institutions were maintained on the island 
of Molakai and other localities in the islands 
for the treatment of leprosy. The number of 
persons suffering from this disease decreased 
from 638 in 1914 to 323 in 1923. The installa- 


HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 


tion of sewage systems in Hawaii and other 
localities resulted in a great improvement in 
the sanitary conditions. The United States 
Public Health Service performed valuable sery- 
ices in the decade, having general charge of 
the examination of vessels entering the ports. 
It also aided the Territorial Board of Health 
in its rat campaigns and other functions of that 
department. 

History. There was little of political in- 
terest of importance in the history of Hawaii 
in the decade 1914-24. During the entire pe- 
riod there was steady development in economic 
and other directions. A direct primary law, 
somewhat similar to the Berkeley system of 
double elections, was adopted by the Legisla- 
ture of 1913 and elections were held under this 
law in 1915 and in the odd years thereafter. 
Sessions of the Legislature are also held bien- 
nially. The Legislature of 1915 passed much 
legislation of an advanced character. The laws 
relating to taxation were amended and ample 
provision was made for the encouragement of 
immigration in the Territory. In 1916, the gov- 
ernment created the Hawaii National Park, 
which was the first national park lying outside 
the continent of the United States. In this 
park were included the three _ volcanoes, 
Kilauea, Mauna Loa, and Haleakala. With the 
entrance of the United States into the War, 
Hawaii took on added importance as a naval 
station, and it became the largest military out- 
post of the United States. The National Guard 
was brought in numbers and plan of organiza- 
tion to the maximum that could be obtained 
under voluntary service. Four regiments and 
other units were organized. This organization 
policed the islands, thus relieving the regular 
army of this duty. At the outbreak of the War, 
there were eight German merchant vessels and 
gunboats interned in the port of Honolulu and 
several merchantmen in the port of Hilo. These 
were seized by the United States government 
and placed at once in commission. The Legis- 
lature in 1917 created a commission to conserve 
and regulate the food supply, revised banking 
laws, and made provision for the citizens ab- 
sent in the army and navy. On July 1, 1918, 
the first and second regiments of Hawaiian in- 
fantry were drafted into the national service. 
Owing to the greatest storm in the history of 
the Territory, a special session of the Legis- 
lature was held in this year and appropriations 
made to rebuild bridges and other public works 
destroyed by the storm. On Aug. 21, 1919, the 
Secretary of the Navy opened the new concrete 
drydock at Pearl Harbor on the island of Oahu. 
There was a serious strike on the sugar planta- 
tions in February, 1920, which lasted until 
June, when the laborers decided to return to 
work on the conditions that prevailed before 
the strike. At the legislative session of 1921 
an act was passed raising the limit of out- 
standing bonded indebtedness to $16,500,000. 
A court of domestic relations was created and 
hours of child labor were regulated. A meas- 
ure was passed also creating an emergency 
labor commission. The Legislature of 1923 
authorized the preparation of a statement de- 
fining and emphasizing the statiis of the Ter- 
ritory, which was entitled “Hawaii’s Bill of 
Rights.” This statement was di'signed to em- 
phasize the unique position held by Hawaii 
among the Territorial possessious, in that it 
had always been a source of Kederal revenue 


606 


+] 
HAWLEY 


while it had been uniformly deprived of the 
benefits of the Federal appropriations. The 
Legislature of 1923 amended the election laws, 
revised the Territorial tax law, increased the 
bonded indebtedness, amended the workmen’s 
compensation act, and passed a uniform law on 
aéronautics. Conferences of Pacific leaders or- 
ganized by the Pan-Pacific Union and held at 
Honolulu met in various years during the dec- 
ade. A conference of scientists was held in 
1920, a conference of educators in 1921, a con- 
ference of journalists in the same year, and a 
conference of commerce and finance in Novem- 
ber, 1922. In addition, a conference on educa- 
tion was held in connection with the World 
Conference on Education which met in San 
Francisco in July, 1923. 

HAWK, Puitie Bovier (1874— ) > An 
American physiological chemist, born at East 
Branch, N. Y. He was graduated in 1898 at 
Wesleyan and studied at Yale and Columbia 
Universities, taking his Ph.D. at the latter in 
1903. During 1901-03 he was assistant in 
physiological chemistry at Columbia and then 
went as demonstrator of that subject to the 
University of Pennsylvania. He held a similar 
professorship at Illinois in 1907-12 and later 
accepted the chair of physiological chemistry 
and toxicology at Jefferson Medical College in 
Philadelphia. Dr. Hawk made a specialty of 
such subjects as metabolism, animal acids, food 
and nutrition, and the drinking of water, on all 
of which he has published papers. He was a 
member of the International Congress of Ali- 
mentary Hygiene held in Brussels in 1910 and 
of the Ninth Congress of Applied Chemistry 
held in New York in 1912. During the war 
with Spain he served on coast defenses with 
the Connecticut volunteers. Besides editing the 
Journal of Metabolic Research, he was an as- 
sociate editor of Chemical Abstracts. He is the 
author of a series of articles on food in The 
Ladies Home Journal; of Practical Physiolog- 
ical Chemistry (1907), and of What We Eat 
and What Happens to It (1919). 

HAWKES, HeERBerT Epwin_ (1872- es 
An American educator, born at Templeton, 
Mass. He graduated from Yale University in 
1896 and was instructor of mathematics in that 
university in 1898. After postgraduate studies 
in Germany, he was appointed assistant pro- 
fessor of mathematics at Yale in 1903, serving 
until 1910, when he became professor of math- 
ematics in Columbia University. In 1917-18, 
he was acting dean of Columbia College and 
from 1918, dean. He is the author of Advanced 
Algebra (1905), and Higher Algebra (1913), 
and the coauthor of several other books on 
mathematics. He has conducted important re- 
searches in hyper-complex numbers. 

HAWKINS, AntrHuony Hope (1863- ). 
An English novelist known as “Anthony Hope” 
(see Vor. XI). He published: A Young Man’s 
Year (1915); Captain Dieppe (1918); Beau- 
maroy Home from the Wars (1919); Lucinda 
(1920). 

HAWLEY, RAtpH CHIPMAN (1880- }s 
An American forester, born at Atlanta, Ga. 
He graduated from Amherst College in 1901 and 
from the Yale School of Forestry in 1904. 
After serving with the United States Forest 
Service, he was assistant State forester of 
Massachusetts in 1906-07. From the latter 
date, he was professor of forestry at the Yale 
School of Forestry. Professor Hawley is the 


HAWORTH 


author of Forestry in New England (1912), A 
Manual of Forestry (1918), and The Practice 
of Silviculture (1921). 

HAWORTH, Paut LELAND (1876- ya 
An American author, born at West Newton, Ind. 
He graduated from Indiana University in 1899 
and took postgraduate courses in history at 
Columbia University. He was a member of the 
faculty of several schools and colleges, includ- 
ing the Michigan Northern State Normal School, 
Columbia University and Bryn Mawr College, 
from 1906 to 1911. In 1916, he made explora- 
tions in the Canadian Rockies and revisited the 
same region in 1919, discovering new lakes and 
mountains. In 1918-19, he was acting profes- 
sor of history at Indiana University and was 
a member of the Indiana House of Represen- 
tatives in 1920-21. He was the author of: The 
Path of Glory (1911); America in Ferment 
(1915); George Washington, Farmer (1915) ; 
The United States in Our Own Times, 1865- 
1920; (revised, 1924); Trail Makers in the 
Northwest (1921). 

HAWTHORNE, CHARLES WEBSTER 
(1872- ). An American painter (see VOL. 
XI). Among his awards during the period 
were the Altman prize, National Academy of 
Design, 1915; the Temple medal, 1915, and the 
Lippincott prize, 1923, Pennsylvania Academy 
of Fine Arts. Jn his later paintings, among 
them, “Fisherman and Daughter,” and “Adora- 
tion,’ there was still a spirit reminiscent of 
the Italian primitives. 

HAY, WiIttiAmM Henry (1860- ). 4 An 
American army officer, born in Jefferson County, 
Fla. He was graduated from the United States 
Military Academy in 1886, entered the United 
States Army as second lieutenant of the Third 
Cavalry, and continued in the service until his 
retirement in 1923, in which year he was also 
made a major-general. As colonel, he com- 
manded the 15th Cavalry in the Philippines in 
1917 and in the recent War he had the 28th 
Division, participating in the campaigns of the 
St. Die sector, the Vosges, the Pont 4 Mousson 
sector, the Thiancourt sector, the Meuse-Ar- 
gonne offensive, and the offensive of the 2d 
Army Corps. Later he served in the Inspector- 
General’s office (1920) and then with the Gen- 
eral Staff (1921). For his services he received 
the United States Distinguished Service Medal, 
the Croix de Guerre with two palms, and the 
French decorations of the Legion of Honor and 
the Black Star. 

HAYAKAWA, SESSUE KINTARO (1889- __). 
A Japanese actor and playwright, born in Tokyo. 
He studied at the University of Chicago and 
starred in moving-pictures with various com- 
panies, including his own. Among his produc- 
tions, of which he is also author, are His Birth- 
right; Hearts in Pawn, and Even unto Eternity. 

HAYES, CARLTON JOSEPII HUNTLEY 
(1882- ). An American educator and _ his- 
torian, born at Afton, N. Y. He graduated 
from Columbia University in 1904, and after 
postgraduate courses at that university became 
lecturer in history in 1907, assistant professor 
in 1910, associate professor in 1915, and full 
professor in 1919. In the War he served as 
captain of the United States Military Intel- 
ligence Division of the General Staff in 1918- 
19. He is a member of many historical and 
other learned societies and is the author of 
Sources Relating to Germanic Invasions (1909) ; 
British Social Politics (1913); Political and 


607 


HAY FEVER 


Social History of Modern Europe (1916); Brief 
History of the Great War (1920). He is also 
coauthor of The League of Nations, Principle 
and Practice (1919). 

HAYES, DoreEmus AtmMy (1863- ). An 
American theologian (see Vor. XI). He pub- 
lished Paul and His Epistles (1915); John and 
His Writings (1917); The Synoptic Gospels 
and the Book of Acts (1919); Great Characters 
of the New Testament (1920); New Testament 
Epistles (1921). 

HAYES, Patrick JosEPH (1867— ). An 
American Cardinal, born in New York, and edu- 
eated at Manhattan College, New York City, 
and the Catholic University of America. He 
was ordained priest in 1892, was president of 
Cathedral College from 1903 to 1914, and be- 
came rector of St. Stephen’s Church in 1915. 
He was made Archbishop of New York in 1919. 
During the War he was appointed Catholic 
chaplain bishop for the United States Army 
and Navy. In 1924, he was nominated as 
Cardinal, and went to Rome to be formally in- 
ducted into the office. 

HAYES, SAMUEL PERKINS (1874- Me 
An American psychologist, born at Baldwins- 
ville, N. Y. Educated at Amherst College, Union 
Theological Seminary, Columbia and Cornell 
Universities, he became professor of psychology 
at Mount Holyoke in 1906. He was also di- 
rector of psychological research of the Penn- 
sylvania Institution for the Blind, the Perkins 
Institution and the Massachusetts School for 
the Blind. He specialized in the psychology of 
the blind and published an important mono- 
graph on the Mental Measurement of the Blind 
(1915). 

HAY FEVER. This affection tends to 
merge itself in the larger group of foreign pro- 
tein sensitizations, and to range itself more 
and more with the asthmas and food intoxica- 
tions. The former plan of inoculation in the 
spring with mixed pollens seems to be giving 
way more and more to a policy of identifying 
the specific exciter of the disease and: immuniz- 
ing against it. Within the decade 1914-24 
Dr. Schleppegrell of New Orleans did much 
service in describing all plants that can set up 
hay fever and in giving them something of a 
rating as to their individual importance. In 
1922, Dr. Vaughan of Richmond published the 
result of his experiments in isolating the of- 
fending plant in the individual case. Only 
when immunization with mixed pollens has 
failed will it become necessary to take these 
pains. In intractable cases, this author found 
that the patients were especially sensitive to 
the short. ragweed pollen, although this does 
not mean that the individual is insensitive to 
all others. However, the patients in question 
recovered under injections of the pollen of this 
plant although, instead of the usual weekly in- 
jection, he employed daily injection, and it 
therefore is suggested that the latter plan be 
adopted in the obstinate case. In regard to 
the possibility that the patient in such cases 
has benefited by previous treatment, the author 
states that untreated subjects furnished the 
same result. In order to determine sensitive- 
ness to individual pollens, the skin reaction is 
employed. The author usually preferred to 
make successive routine tests with short rag- 
weed, giant ragweed, timothy, daisy, sunflower, 
corn, orchard grass, goldenrod, ete., although 
with most of these plants reaction will be neg- 


HAYS 
ative. This is evidently preferable to attempts 
at selection. 
HAYS, WILLIAM CHARLES (1883-— ). » An 


American architect, born in Philadelphia, Pa. 
He graduated from the University of Pennsyl- 
vania and studied in Paris, beginning the prac- 
tice of his profession in 1895. In 1904, he re- 
moved to California. He became assistant pro- 
fessor of architecture at the University of Cali- 
fornia in 1906 and in 1917 was made acting di- 
rector. He was consulting architect of that uni- 
versity and designed many of its buildings. 
HAYS, Witi(1AM) Harrison (1879- i 
An American lawyer, born at Sullivan, Ind. 
He was graduated at Wabash College in 1900, 
later studying law. In 1904, he was chosen a 
member of the Republican State Advisory Com- 
mittee of Indiana and in 1910 he was elected city 
attorney of Sullivan, Ind. He became chair- 
man of the Republican Central Committee of 
Indiana in 1910 and in 1918 was chosen chair- 
man of the Republican National Committee, con- 
tinuing in that office until 1921, when Presi- 
dent Harding appointed him to his cabinet, as 
postmaster-general. This place he held for one 
year and then resigned to become president of 
the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors 
of America. During the War he was chairman 
of the Indiana State Council of Defense. He is 
a member of the Indiana State Bar Association 
and of the honor legal fraternity Phi Delta 
Theta, of which he was State president for In- 
diana and in 1920 was elected national president. 
HAYWARD, Wiu.11AmM_ (1877- ee An: 
American lawyer, born at Nebraska City, Neb. 
He was educated in Munich, Germany, and 
studied law at the University of Nebraska, be- 
ginning practice in Nebraska City in 1897. Dur- 
ing the Spanish-American War he served as 
colonel of the 2d Infantry of Nebraska. He re- 
moved to New York in 1911 and became a mem- 
ber of the law firm of Wing and Russell. He 
was assistant district attorney for 1913-14, 
and was appointed member of the Public Service 
Commission in 1915. He resigned to improve 
and organize the 15th Infantry (colored) which 
later became the 369th United States Infantry. 
He commanded.this organization in France and 
with it participated in many battles. He was 
awarded the Croix de Guerre, also decorations 
from the United States and foreign governments. 
In 1921, he was appointed United States At- 
torney for the Southern District of New York. 
HAYWOOD, WititiAm D. (?- ). An 
American labor agitator (see Von. XI). He be- 
came conspicuous early in 1917, when, as secre- 
tary of the Industrial Workers of the World 
(q.v.) with headquarters in Chicago, he was ar- 
rested on a charge of seditious conspiracy. He 
was sentenced to 20 years’ imprisonment and to 
pay a fine of $10,000, but was released on bail, 
and, in April, 1921, fled to Russia. In March, 
1922, he headed a group of American members 
of his organization who were granted a conces- 
sion to operate the Nadejdinsky Iron Works in 
Russia, and in August of the same year it 
was reported that some of these American 
I. W. W.’s had mutinied and were without 
sufficient food and shelter. Some went to de- 
serted coal mines in the Kuznetzk Basin, Siberia, 
while others started for the iron mines in the 
Urals. 
HAZARD, CAROLINE (1856— ): 4n 
American educator (see Vor. XI). During the 
War she was prominent in the work of the 


608 


HEART DISEASE 


Woman’s Council of National Defense (1916), 
the first Liberty Loan (1916), the War Savings 
Campaign (1917), and the United War Work 
Campaign (1918). 

HAZEN, CuHaRLES DOWNER (1868— yA 
An Ameyiean historian (see Vout. XI). He was 
professor of history at Columbia University 
after 1916. His later works include: Modern 
European History (1917); The French. Revolu- 
tion and Napoleon (1917); Alsace-Lorraine Un- 
der German Rule (1917); The Government of 
Germany (1917); Fifty Years of Europe 
(1919) ; Modern Europe (1920). He also edited 
Historical Essays by Lord Macaulay (1921), and 
The Kaiser vs. Bismarck (1921). 

HAZEN, Sir Joun Dovertas (1860- re 
A Canadian lawyer and statesman (see VOL. 
XI). He represented Canada at the Imperial 
War Cabinet in 1917, and in 1917-19 was chair- 
man of the Canadian Section of the Internation- 
al Fisheries Commission. He also became Chief 
Justice of New Brunswick in 1917, and in the 
following year was knighted. 

HEADIAM, ARTHUR CAYLEY (1862- y% 
An English theologian (see Vou. XI). His 
later works include: The Miracles of the New 
Testament (1914); The Revenues of the Church 
of England (1917); The Study of Theology (in- 
augural lecture, 1918); The Doctrine of the 
Church and Christian Reunion (Bampton Lec- 
tures, 1920). 


HEALY, Timotuyy (1855- ). Irish Na- 
tionalist leader (see Von. XI). In 1917, he pub- 
lished The Great Fraud of Ulster. On Dec. 4, 


1922, he accepted from the British government 
the post of Governor-General of the Irish Free 
State, and two days later the new Irish orange, 
white and green flag took the place of the 
Union Jack over the public buildings in Dublin. 
He refused all the unnecessary honors to which 
his office of governor-general entitled him. 

HEARING. See PsycHotocy, EXPERIMEN- 
TAL; AUDITION. 

HEARST, WILLIAM RANDOLPH (1863- \r 
An American newspaper publisher (see VOL. 
XI). Although he took no active part as a can- 
didate in politics in the decade 1914-24, he con- 
tinued to ‘exercise influence through his ever- 
increasing list of newspapers. After the pur- 
chase of the San Antonio Light in May, 1924, 
he had 24 papers in all parts of the country. 
He also was the owner of many magazines of 
wide circulation, including Good Housekeeping, 
Cosmopolitan, and Hearst’s International Maga- 
zine. 

HEART DISEASE. The enormous death 
rate and the increasing incidence of chronic heart 
disease strike the eye of the reader of mortality 
records and excite wonder as to the final out- 
come. This mode of decease is doubtless a re- 
sult in part of the greater average duration of 
life, a greater proportion of citizens reaching 
the age at which degenerative diseases of the 
vital organs naturally occur. The exact causal 
factors cannot be visualized and it is customary 
to set these affections down as due to civiliza- 
tion, since the savage and primitive man show 
no such predisposition. Organic heart disease, 
hardening of the arteries and one form of chronic 
disease of the kidneys are so closely associated 
that they may be visualized as a single disease 
group, although not necessarily due to a single 
cause; for implication of one organ can readily 
bring about diseases in the others. Disease of 
the arteries leads to involvement of the heart, 


HEBER 


as does also disease of the kidneys. Some idea 
of the prevalence of these affections may be ob- 
tained by a glance at one of the Weekly Bul- 
letins of the New York City Health Department. 
Thus for the week ending Apr. 5, 1924, the total 
number of deaths lacked but one of 1700, and of 
this number 500, in round numbers, died of dis- 
ease of the heart, arteries and kidneys. 

Within the decade 1914-24, two casual factors 
received increasing emphasis. These were syph- 
ilis and so-called focal infection or medical sep- 
sis, as it is sometimes called. Other factors 
vaguely evident may be summed up under de- 
fective personal hygiene, which includes improper 
eating and drinking, the stress of modern living, 
and in general the drawbacks of civilized exist- 
ence. Since 1918, cardiac therapeutics seems to 
have been greatly enriched by the introduction 
of the drug quinidin; which already vies with 
digitalis in making it possible for a man to 
live and labor with advanced heart disease. 
Quinidin is even superior in some ways to the 
older remedy because it seems equal to an actual 
eure of cases of permanent loss of rhythm, in- 
dicating deep-seated disease. See ADRENALIN. 

HEBER, Cart Avcustus (1874- ) A 
sculptor who was born in Stuttgart, Germany. 
He studied with Taft, in Chicago, and became a 
member of the National Sculpture Society in 
1904. He was also a member of the New York 
Architectural League and well known for his 
designing of memorials. His work includes the 
“Champlain Memorial” at Crown Point, N. Y., 
the “Champlain Statue” at Plattsburg, N. Y., the 
“Schiller Monument” at Rochester, N. Y., the 
“Benjamin Franklin” at Princeton University 
and “Pastoral” exhibited at the Art Institute in 
Chicago, Among his awards were a_ bronze 
medal from the St. Louis Exposition in 1904 and 
a bronze medal from the Panama-Pacific Inter- 
national Exposition in 1915. 

HECHT, BEN (1893- ). An American 
author, born in New York City. He was edu- 
cated in Racine, Wis., and began his journalistic 
career with the Chicago Journal in 1910. He 
joined the staff of the Daily News in 1914. From 
December, 1918, to December, 1919, he was cor- 
respondent in charge of the Berlin Office of News. 
He is the author of Erik Dorn (1921); Gargoyles 
(1922); Fantazius Mallare (1922); The Ego- 
tistic (drama); The Florentine Dagger; 1001 


Afternoons (1923); and short stories in the 
magazines. 
HEDIN, Sven ANpDERS’ (1865- Deron’ 


Swedish explorer and author (see Vor. XI). 


His works have been translated into many 
languages. After 1914 he published: Andra 
varnunger (1914); Fyra tal (1914); Ett ord 


till Norges folk (1914) ; Tal till ungdemokrater, 
borgare och bénder (1914); Fran fronten 7% vas- 
ter (1915); Kriget mot Russland (1915); Till 
Jerusalem (1917); Bagdad, Babylon, Niniveh 
(1917); En levnads teckning (1920); Resare 
Bengt (1921); and other works. 

HEDJAZ. See ARABIA. 

HEDRICK, Earte Raymonp (1876- y. 
An American mathematician, born at Union 
City, Ind. He was graduated at the University 
of Michigan in 1896, then held fellowships at 
Harvard, and finally took his Ph.D. at Gottingen 
in 1901. During 1901-03 he was instructor of 
mathematics at the Sheffield Scientific School at 
Yale University, but in the latter year became 
professor of mathematics at the University of 
Missouri. During the War he served on the Di- 


609 


HEIFETZ 


vision of Physical Sciences of the National Re- 
search Council. He became editdr-in-chief in 
1921 of the Journal of the American Mathemati- 
cal Association, of which organization he was 
president in 1916. Dr. Hedrick edited A Series 
of Mathematical Texts and (with D. C. Jackson) 
the Engineering Science Series. He wrote A 
Course in Mathematical Analysis (1904); an 
Algebra for Secondary Schools (1908); and Ap- 
plication of the Calculus to Mechanics (1909). 

HEGELER, WILHELM (1870— ae: 
German novelist. He was born at Varel and 
studied at the universities of Berlin, Munich, 
Vienna and Geneva. He is the author of: Son- 
nige Tage (1898); Nellys Millionen (1899); 
Pastor Klinghammer (1903); Flammen (1905) ; 


Ingenieur Horstmann (1906); Das Aergerniss 
(1907); Die Leidenschaft des Hofrat Horn 
(1914); Die goldene Kette (1915); Zwei 
Freunde (1921), and other works. He also 


wrote a monograph on Heinrich von Kleist. 

HEGNER, Rorert WILLIAM (1880- bs 
An American zoélogist born at Decorah, lowa. 
He was educated at the University of Chicago 
and at the University of Wisconsin (Ph.D., 
1908). He was assistant at the University of 
Chicago (1905-07), professor of biology, State 
Normal School, River Falls, Wis. (1907), as- 
sistant in zodlogy at the University of Wisconsin 
(1907-08) and instructor at the University of 
Michigan (1908-10). In 1910, he went to Johns 
Hopkins University, where he was successively 
assistant professor (1910-18), associate (1918—- 
19), and associate professor in charge of depart- 
ment of medical zodlogy (1920-  ). He pub- 
lished: College Text Book of Zodlogy (1912) ; 
Introduction to Zodlogy (1910); The Germ Cell 
Cycle in Animals (1914); and numerous papers 
in journals: 


HEIBERG, GuNNAR EpvArp Rove (1857- 
). A> Norwegian dramatist and_ writer 


on drama (see VoL. XI). He published Set 
og hort (1917), Ibsen og Bjérnson paa scenen 


(1918), Franske visitter (1919), and Norsk 
teater (1920). 

HEIDENSTAM (KArt GuSTAF) WERNER 
Von (1859-— ). A Swedish poet and littéra- 


teur (see Vor. XI), who in 1916 received the 
Nobel prize. His recent works include Om Sven- 
skarnas lynne (1914), Vad vilja wi? (1914), and 
a volume of verse, Nya dikter (1914). 
HEIFETZ, Jascua (1899- ) cae ces. Inia 
sian violinist, born at Vilna. His is one of the 
most remarkable cases of precocity on record, for 
at the age of three he began to receive regular 
instruction on the violin from his father. After 
a little more than a year he was admitted to 
the Imperial Music School at Vilna. At the age 
of six he played Mendelssohn’s concerto in pub- 
lic at Kovno, scoring a sensational success. 
Nevertheless, he continued his studies at the 
Music School until 1907, when he became a 
pupil of Auer at the Petrograd Conservatory. 
Even before he graduated, he made frequent pub- 
lic appearances which spread his fame through 
Russia. His international fame dates from the 
phenomenal success of his Berlin début (1912), 
which he repeated the next year in Vienna, and 
the following year in all the principal cities of 
Germany. After an equally successful tour of 
Scandinavia, he made his American début in 
New York (Oct. 27, 1917). His American 
tours were an uninterrupted series of triumphs. 
In 1921, he made a tour of Australia. Even be- 
fore he was out of his teens he was universally 


HEIJERMANS 610 


recognized as the equal of the greatest living 
violinists. Auer is said to regard him as his 
greatest pupil. 

HEIJERMANS, HERMAN 
Dutch dramatist and novelist. Among his recent 
works are Robert Bertram et Cie. (1914), Hva 
Bonheur (1919), Feest, in the English transla- 
tion Jubilee (1923), and Saltimbank, also in 
English (1923). 

HEINZE, Ricuarp (1867- ). A German 
scholar and rector of the University of Leip- 
zig (1921-22). He was born at Naumburg and 
studied at Bonn, Leipzig and Berlin. He was 
lecturer at the University of Strasbourg (1893- 
99), then professor at the universities of Berlin, 
Kénigsberg and Leipzig. He is the author of: 
De Horatio Bionis Imitatore (1889); Xeno- 
krates (1893); an interpretation of the third 
book of Lucretius (1897); Virgils epische Tech- 
nik (1915), Ciceros politische Anfinge (1909) ; 
Tertulli Apologeticum (1911); Die lyrischen 
Werke des Horaz (1919); Ovids elegante Erzah- 
lungen (1920). 

HELFERRICH, Kart (1872-1924). A 
German economist and politician. He was born 
at Neustadt, and was educated at the universi- 
ties of Munich, Berlin and Strasbourg. He 
taught at the University of Berlin and later at 
the government school for colonial politics and 
oriental languages. In 1902, he entered upon a 
diplomatic career. He soon became a leader in 
the German government’s policy of economic im- 
perialism, and in 1906 he was appointed director 
of the Anatolian Railway. In 1908, he was made 
director of the powerful Deutsche Bank in Ber- 
lin. At the close of the Balkan War he was 
the German financial delegate to the interna- 
tional conference (1913). He was Minister of 
Finance from 1915 to 1917, and was said to be 
responsible for the policy of financing the War 
through loans instead of taxes. After the Treaty 
of Brest-Litovsk, he was sent to Moscow as the 
German Ambassador to Russia, succeeding Von 
Mirbach, who was assassinated. Elected to the 
Reichstag of 1920, Helferrich threw in his in- 
fluence with the extreme nationalists and would 
have nothing to do with the economic fulfillment 
of the Versailles Treaty. He was killed in a 
railway wreck on Apr. 23, 1924. His works com- 
prise chiefly economic and political studies. A 
partial list follows: Die Reform des deutschen 
Geldwesens nach der Griindigung des Reiches 
(1898); Handelspolitik (1901), Geld und Bank 
(1903), Die Weltkrieg (1919). 

HELICOPTER. See AERONAUTICS. 

HELIOTROPISM. See ZooLocy, T'ropisms. 

HELIUM. See AERONAUTICS; CHEMISTRY, 
ORGANIC; CHEMISTRY; PHYSICS. 

HELLER, Epmunp (1875- ). An Ameri- 
ean naturalist, born at Freeport, Ill. He gradu- 
ated from Leland Stanford, Jr., University in 
1901. From that year to 1907, he was natural- 
ist for the Field Museum in Chicago and was 
engaged in explorations in California, Mexico, 
Guatemala and East Africa. In 1907-08, he was 
curator of mammals at the University of Cali- 
fornia Museum of Natural History, and in 1909- 
10, naturalist for the Smithsonian African Ex- 
pedition in East Africa under the direction of 
Theodore Roosevelt. He was a member of ex- 
peditions in Africa, Peru and China (1909-17). 
During the War he served on the photographical 
staff of the Czecho-Slovak Army, and in 1919-20 
was a member of the Expedition of the Smith- 
sonian Institution in Africa. He was a member 


(1864- _-—). A 


HENDERSON 


of many societies and was the joint author (with 
Theodore Roosevelt) of Life Histories of African 


Game Animals. He wrote, also, numerous 
papers on fishes, reptiles and birds. 
HELLMAN, GeEorcE SIDNEY (1878— ). 


An American author, born in New York City, 
and educated at Columbia University. In 1918- 
19 he served as director of the Department of 
Fine and Applied Arts for the Army Educational 
Commission of the Y. M. C. A. and in 1919 was 
director of instruction in Fine and Applied Arts 
of the American Expeditionary Forces. He was 
director of the American Expeditionary Forces 
Art Training Centre at the Bellevue in Paris. 
He served on several commissions relating to 
war memorials and in 1920 was treasurer and 
director of the Hugo Ballin Productions. His 
writings include The Hudson and Other Poems 
(1909); Applied Arts and Education (1919); 
Art and the Citizen (1919), and The Way It 
Ended (1920). He also edited the works of 
other authors and contributed poems and stories 
to magazines. 

HELMICK, Err Atva_ (1863- i eA 
American military officer, born at Quaker Point, 
Ind. He was graduated at the United States 
Military Academy in 1888. He was promoted to 
second lieutenant in the 11th Infantry and con- 
tinued in the army until Nov. 7, 1921, when he 
was made Inspector-General with the rank of 
major-general. His services have included duty 
in Idaho during the Ceur d’Alene riots (1892), 
participation in the expedition to Santiago de 
Cuba (1898), campaign against the Moros 
(1902), duty on the Mexican border (1910 and 
1916), and service in the Inspector-General’s 
office (1916-18). During the War he com- 
manded the 8th Division with the provisional 
rank of major-general, and Jater was in com- 
mand of the service of supplies at Brest. The 
United States Distinguished Service Medal was 
conferred on him. 

HEMING, ArtTuuR (1870- ). An il- 
lustrator and writer, born in Canada at Paris, 
Ont., who came to the United States as a stu- 
dent and was a pupil of Frank Brangwyn and 
Frank V. DuMond. He is a member of the So- 
ciety of Illustrators and of the Arts and Letters 
Club of Toronto. Mr. Heming knows his natu- 
ral scenery and puts it on canvas with a peculiar 
gift. Among the books which he has written and 
illustrated are Spirit Lake and the Drama of 
the Forests. In the Royal Ontario Museum 
there are 10 of his pictures on exhibition and he 
is also represented in the Canadian National 
Gallery. 

HENCKELL, Karw Friepricu (1864- ); 
A German poet (see Vor. XI) identified with 
the Young Germany of the ’80s. After 1914, he 
published the following works: Lyrik und Kul- 
tur (1914); Weltmusik (1918); Gedichte 
(1921); Buch des Kampfes (1921); Buch der 
Saat (1923); An die neue Jugend (1924). 

HENDERSON, Arcuisatp- (1877- ). 
An American mathematician and author (see 
Voit. XI). His later books include O. Henry 
(1914); Star of the Empire (1919); Conquest 
of the Old Southwest (1920). 

HENDERSON, Arruur (1863- ae: 
British public official, born in Glasgow. He 
worked for several years in a foundry. Becom- 
ing interested in the labor movement, he speedily 
became a leading figure in trade unionism and 
held numerous official positions in connection 
with that movement. For several years he was 


. 
eae. ee ee a ee 


et! Be igi, 


HENDERSON 611 


a member of the Newcastle City Council. He 
was elected to Parliament in 1903 and was suc- 
cessively reélected until 1918. From 1908 to 
1910 he was secretary of the Labor party, and 
again from 1914 to 1917. In 1914 he was chief 
whip of that party and became its chairman at 
the outbreak of the War. Joining the first 
coalition cabinet as president of the Board of 
Education, he served in 1915-16 and in the lat- 
ter year was paymaster general and labor ad- 
visor to the government. He joined the second 
coalition cabinet as a member without port- 
folio. In May, 1917, he went on a government 
mission to Russia and in August of that year 
resigned from the cabinet. He was defeated for 
Parliament in the general election of 1918 but 
was elected in the following year. In the elec- 
tion of 1922 he was elected by the Labor party 
and became one of its prominent leaders in Par- 
liament. In the general election of 1923 he was 
defeated but was afterward elected and became 
a member of the Labor cabinet. 
HENDERSON, Lawrence JOSEPH (1878- 
). An American biological chemist born at 
Lynn, Mass. He was educated at Harvard (M.D., 
1902) and at the University of Strasbourg. He 
was lecturer in biological chemistry (1902-03), 
instructor (1903-10), assistant professor (1910- 
19), and professor (1919—- ) at Harvard. Pro- 
fessor Henderson published Fitness of the En- 
vironment (1913), The Order of Nature (1917), 
and numerous papers dealing with applications 
of physical chemistry to biology. 

HENDRICK, Burton JESSE (1871- Ye 
An American writer, born in New Haven, Conn., 
and educated at Yale. For several years he 
was on the staff of newspapers in New Haven 
and New York. He became associate editor of 
The World’s Work in 1913. He has written The 
Age of Big Business and Life and Letters of 
Walter Hines Page and was coauthor, with Ad- 
miral W. S. Sims, of The Victory At Sea. This 
book won the Pulitzer Prize for the best book 
published in 1920 on the history of the. United 


States. He was a frequent contributor to 
magazines. 
HENDRICK, ELttwoop’ (186l- ) a An 


American chemist, born at Albany, N. Y. He 


studied chemistry at Zurich under Victor Meyer, * 


and on his return to the United States was 
superintendent of the Albany Aniline and Chem- 
ical Works (1881-84), then, turning his atten- 
tion to insurance and stock brokerage, continued 
in that business until 1915, when he retired. In 
1917, he became a member of the staff of the 
research corporation of Arthur D. Little and 
Company of Cambridge, Mass. Besides being 
consulting editor of Chemical and Metallurgical 
Engineering, he is the author of many articles 
on science in popular magazines and published 
Everyman’s Chemistry (1917), Opportunities 
in Chemistry (1919), and Percolator Papers 
1919). 
HENEY, Francis Josepu (1859- ). ).An 
American lawyer (see Vot. XI). In 1917-18, he 
served as special attorney for the Federal- Trade 
Commission in charge of investigation of the 
high cost of living, with special reference to 
the packing industry. In 1918, he was Demo- 
eratic candidate for Governor of California. 

HENNING, H. See PsycnoLoey, ExpERrti- 
MENTAL. 

HENRI, Roperr (1865— ). An Ameri- 
can painter and portraitist (see Vor. XI). 
With the same sincerity of purpose and simplic- 


HERBERT 


ity of method which he had in former years de- 
voted to unsophisticated European types, he 
turned in 1914 toward the people of California 
and the Southwest, continuing to look at each in- 
dividual “with the eager hope of finding there 
something of the dignity of life, the humor, the 
humanity, the kindness, something of the order 

. of the universe.” Among these later works 
were “Tam Gan,’ “Ramon—a Mexican,” “Jim 
Lee,’ and “A Girl of the Southwest.” He was 
awarded the portrait prize, Wilmington Society 
of Fine Arts, 1920. His influence as a teacher, 
pre-eminently as a personality, continued to be 
of much importance. The Art Spirit (1923) is 
a compilation by Margery Ryerson of fragments: 
of his letters and of his talks to students on 
the spirit, technique, and appreciation of picture- 


making. 
HENRY, PRINCE or PRUSSIA (HEINRICH 
ALBERT WILHELM) (1862- ). A German ad- 


miral and brother of the ex-Kaiser of Germany 
(see Vor. XI). He was commander-in-chief of 
the Baltic fleet from 1914 to 1918. 

HENRY, Roserr L., Jr. (1882- ). An 
American professor of law, born at Chicago, edu- 
eated at the University of Chicago, and as 
Rhodes scholar at Oxford, England; also at 
Heidelberg, Germany, and Grenoble, France. He 
held the position of professor of law at several 
State universities, also holding the post of dean 
of the College of Law at the University of North 
Dakota from 1912 to 1914. He was commis- 
sioned captain of infantry in the Officers’ Reserve 
Corps in 1916, and promoted to major in 1919. 
He was instructor in several officers’ training 
camps from 1917 to 1919, and was a member 
of the War Department Board of Contract Ad- 
justment in Washington during 1919-20. He 
lectured at Oxford, England, during 1920-22. 
His writings include: Liens and _ Pledges 
(1913); Consideration in Contracts 601 A.D. to 
1520 A.D. (1917); Anglo-Saxon Contracts 
(191%): 

HENSON, HeErsertT HENSLEY (1863- ). 
An English clergyman and author (see Vou. XI). 
He was appointed Bishop of Durham in 1920. 
His later publications include: War-Time Ser- 
mons (1915); Robertson of Brighton, 1816-1853 
(1916); Christian Liberty (1918). He edited 


The Naked Truth, by Bishop Croft (1919) ; 
Sir William Anson: a Memoir’ (1920): 
Anglicanism (1921). 

HEPBURN, A(tonzo) BARTON’ (1846- 
1922). An American banker, philanthropist 


and author (see Vor. XI). He was a member 
of the Federal Advisory Council of the Federal 
Reserve Board in 1918, and was a prominent 
member or officer of important associations con- 
cerned with economics and political science. In 
1915, he wrote A History of Currency in the 
United States. He died in New York City. 

HERBERT, Victor (1859-1924). An Irish- 
American conductor and composer (see VoL. XI). 
Among the numerous productions of his last 
decade the following achieved conspicuous suc- 
cess: Princess Pat (1915), Hileen (1917), Angel 
Face (1919), Orange Blossoms (1921), The 
Dream Girl (1924). In the field of light opera 
Herbert not only towers far above all his Amer- 
ican colleagues because of his inexhaustible 
melodious invention, splendid orchestration and 
solid technical attainments, but has securely es- 
tablished his place by the side of such masters 
as Johann Strauss, Offenbach, Millécker, Suppé 
and Sullivan. 


HEREDITY 612 


HEREDITY. An observational and experi- 
mental study of the laws governing the trans- 
mission of physical or mental characteristics 
through successive generations of animals, or of 
physical characteristics in plants, the laws being 
in general the same in the two great groups of 
living beings. A complete theory of heredity 
must offer an explanation of two sets of phe- 
nomena—first, the fact that, on the whole, off- 
spring resemble their parents more than they 
resemble other members of the race; and sec- 
ond, that this resemblance is never absolute but 
the offspring always show some differences from 
the parents, i.e. they show variability. 

An important date in the history of this sub- 
ject is 1809, when Lamarck formulated his 
theory of the effects of use and disuse of or- 
gans and of the effect of environment on the 
structure of plants and animals. According to 
Lamarck, the increased size of an organ through 
use or its decreased size following disuse was 
passed on to the offspring so that in the course 
of generations descendants of the original ani- 
mals, through accumulation of these structural 
changes, would be quite unlike their ancestors. 
Similarly, plant structures would be modified in 
response to climatic conditions, or to changes 
in the environment such as moisture or chemical 
composition of the soil, so as to lead in the end 
to considerable structural modifications. 

Lamarck was arguing in favor of the evolu- 
tion of species and developed this theory as an 
explanation of this evolution, but running as it 
did, contrary to the generally held belief in 
the fixity of species, the theory met with nothing 
but opposition, and it was only after 1859, when 
Darwin’s formulation of a theory of evolution 
was widely accepted, that it received recognition. 
In the evolutionary writings from 1859 to 1890, 
there was general acceptance of the doctrine of 
use-inheritance. This was, indeed, carried to 
much greater extremes than it was by Lamarck 
himself, in that there was a general belief that 
sears resulting from injuries, or the effects of 
mutilations such as the loss of an organ through 
accident, would appear as a birthmark in the 
offspring. Thus the child of a German student 
had a birthmark reproducing the sear her father 
earried as the result of a student duel, and a 
eat whose tail was cut off by an accident hence- 
forth gave birth to tailless kittens. Cases of 
this sort which had wide acceptance as popular 
legends were repeatedly cited as illustrating the 
method of evolution. 

It was clearly recognized that the assumption 
of the inheritance of acquired characters carries 
with it the necessity of explaining the mechanism 
of the process. How, for example, is it pos- 
sible for the removal of a cat’s tail to so affect 
the sex cell of the cat, situated at a considerable 
distance from the tail, as to cause her to give 
birth to tailless kittens? Darwin proposed as 
an explanation the “provisional” theory of pan- 
genesis, which assumed that each cell of the 
body is constantly throwing off gemmules or 
ultra-microscopie particles which collect in the 
sex cells. When these sex cells develop the 
gemmules are distributed throughout the body 
of the new individual, and each going to its ap- 
propriate group of cells determines the charac- 
ter of their development. These gemmules mul- 
tiply by fission and may remain dormant for 
several generations. If through use or disuse or 
through accident, the structure of a group of 
cells is changed, the gemmules arising from 


HEREDITY 


these cells will be correspondingly modified and 
when they in turn take part in the construction 
of a new individual that individual may ex- 
hibit the changed character. Herbert Spencer 
had earlier attempted to explain heredity and 
the inheritance of acquired characters on the 
assumption of “physiological units” or ultra- 
microscopic particles having a definite polarity 
which are located in the body cells and by the 
form of their polarity determine the appear- 
ance of the cells in which they are. Use or 
disuse may modify the form of this polarity 
and thus affect the character of the race. 
Neither of the above explanations has any ex- 
perimental basis and both are purely formal. 

Later theories are based on more exact knowl- 
edge of the actual phenomena of development, 
knowledge not available at the time that Darwin 
and Spencer were writing, and a brief summary 
of these phenomena will be essential here. The 
starting-point for each new individual in bi- 
parental inheritance is the fertilized egg, a 
single cell formed by the union of two cells, the 
ovum from the mother and the spermatozo6n 
from the father. This fertilized egg divides 
into two cells, each of these divides again, and 
the process is repeated until eventually the 
many-celled adult appears. Coincident with 
these divisions a process of differentiation goes 
on, by which different portions of the complex 
of cells assume different structures adapted to 
different functions. Examination of any one of 
these cells under favorable conditions would 
show that in its central portion or nucleus is 
a substance called chromatin which just before 
the cell divides breaks up into rods called 
chromosomes, which are arranged in pairs and 
are constant in number in any one species. 
When the cell divides, each chromosome of a 
pair divides, half going to each daughter cell. 
Thus the number is kept constant and each cell 
gets a representative of each chromosome present 
in the cell from which it arose. 

A study of the immature sex cells shows that 
they also have paired chromosomes but as they 
approach maturity, the members of each pair 
unite more or less closely with one another in 
a very complex fashion, later separate and di- 


‘vide with the cells containing them so that the 


mature sex cell contains only half the normal 
number of chromosomes. This process is known 
as maturation. When these cells unite in the 
fertilization process the number is brought back 
to normal and it is quite certain that one mem- 
ber of each pair is derived from each parent. 
In fertilization only the head of the spermato- 
zoon, which is practically nothing but chromatin, 
enters the egg. Since observation shows that in- 
heritance from the father is as strong as that 
from the mother, it seems evident that what- 
ever material is the carrier of hereditary qual- 
ities must be located in the chromatin. It has 
also been shown in the case of a few animals 
that the cells which give rise to the sex or- 
gans oi the new generation seem to be set 
aside early in the development and to be quite 
distinct from the other organs of the body. 
In the light of this further information, Weis- 
mann attacked the problem and worked out an 
elaborate theory of heredity. He was the first 
to seriously question the validity of the La- 
marckian principle, and began by investigating 
supposed cases of inheritance of mutilations. 
For these he decided there is no evidence what- 
ever. In this connection he developed the con- 


HEREDITY 


cept of the germ plasm. This may be defined as 
a material contained in the nucleus of the fer- 
tilized egg, whose function is to determine the 
character of the individual resulting from that 
egg. For this purpose, during development por- 
tions of the germ plasm are distributed to the 
appropriate regions of the developing organism, 
each controlling the differentiation of its own 
particular area. Some of this germ plasm, 
however, is not distributed in this fashion but 
remains as residual material which goes by the 
shortest route to the cells which are to form 
the sex organs of the new individual and there 
locates itself in the nuclei of the embryonic sex 
cells. Here it remains until at the time of 
sexual maturity the cell containing it begins to 
develop, unites in fertilization with the cell from 
the opposite sex, and the process is repeated. 
While in this position this residual material 
necessarily must receive its nutrition from the 
surrounding body, but Weismann supposed that 
it is so effectually insulated from the latter as 
not to be affected in any qualitative fashion 
by any activities of the body itself or by any 
influence of the environment. 

If this germ plasm is thus isolated and un- 
changeable and determines the character of the 
individuals of successive generations, why are 
not all individuals alike? Weismann refers the 
origin of variations to the maturation process 
of the sex cells in which each cell apparently 
shuffles its chromatin and discards a portion of 
it, before fertilization takes place. Since by the 
law of chances this discarding is different in 
any two cells it follows that no two mature sex 
cells are exactly alike. Further variability is 
produced by the union of the chromatin of the 
two sex cells in fertilization. While much that 
is new has been discovered concerning the phe- 
nomena of maturation and fertilization since 
Weismann wrote, nothing has appeared that seri- 
ously affects this much of his theory. His 
further development of hypotheses concerning 
the structure of the germ plasm and its behavior 
are not of so much importance at the present 
time (see bibliography at end of article). . 

The net results of Weismann’s work are two. 
In the first place, there is agreement among all 
students of heredity that mutilations or their 
effects are not inherited, nor is there any rea- 
son to accept the validity of reported cases of 
maternal impressions and prenatal influences. 
In the second place, there is agreement that 
without necessarily accepting Weismann’s ideas 
as to the composition of the germ plasm it is 
necessary to assume the existence of such a sub- 
stance as the determiner of hereditary qualities. 
The question as it now stands is this: Is it 
possible for this germ plasm, lying in the sex 
cells, to be affected by any activity of the body 
or by any influence of the environment so as to 
produce precise and permanently heritable 
changes in the structure of subsequent genera- 
tions? 

Weismann at first claimed for germ plasm a 
complete insulation from external influences, but 
later modified this position. He found that cer- 
tain insects when subjected to lowered tempera- 
ture became darker in color and this modifica- 
tion was transmitted to subsequent generations. 
To explain cases of this sort where animals cer- 
tainly responded to external changes, Weismann 
developed the theory of Parallel Induction, which 
holds that some environmental influences are 
strong enough to penetrate through the body 


613 


HEREDITY 


and act directly on the germ plasm and the re- 
sults of such influences may be inherited. Only 
those agencies that are strong enough to thus 
penetrate may affect the germ plasm. 

The Neo-Lamarckians on the other hand, who 
believe in the transmission of acquired char- 
acters, hold that lesser influences, acting re- 
peatedly on the body, may gradually penetrate 
it and affect the germ plasm. Admitting that 
the mechanisms by which such an effect could 
operate are not clearly to be seen, they believe 
that some observations can be explained only 
on the assumption that this has taken place. 
Botanists are rather more apt to take this posi- 
tion than are zoélogists, for in the animal body 
are found much fewer protoplasmic connections 
between the organs, and the sex cells are more 
definitely isolated than is the case in plants. In 
fact, it is sometimes difficult to imagine any 
very complete separation in plants because of 
the elaborate arrangement of intercommunicat- 
ing protoplasmic connections. Among zodlogists 
the paleontologists are most apt to be Neo- 
Lamarckians because the history of many struc- 
tures seems to show a precise parallelism be- 
tween the changes that these organs show in 
successive ages and the changes that would have 
been set up in them in each generation by the 
uses to which they must have been put. 

It is evident that an apparent case of use in- 
heritance might be explained equally well by 
either of the above hypotheses, and thus a con- 
dition of deadlock results. 

Most of the earlier writers on this subject 
devoted their time mainly to arguing on what 
might be considered reasonable explanations of 
observed phenomena, and _ conclusive experi- 
mental evidence is lacking. Brown-Sequard, 
whose results were quoted by Darwin and by 
later writers, thought that certain injuries to 
the nervous system of guinea pigs would be fol- 
lowed by a condition of epilepsy and this was 
transmitted to descendants. This for a long 
time stood for a valid case of the inheritance of 
acquired characters, but the most recent work 
along this line indicates that the so-called “epi- 
leptic” condition of the guinea pig appears un- 
der favorable conditions in the perfectly normal 
pig, and it seems certain that this case may be 
ruled out. Practically all of the supposed cases 
to demonstrate this point are either of doubt- 
ful accuracy, or are capable of two interpreta- 
tions (see above) and clean-cut, precise evidence 
is lacking in favor of Neo-Lamarckism. 

What seem at this time of writing (1924) 
the most promising lines of investigation are 
through the study of hormones and antibodies. 
If we inject, for example, human blood into the 
blood vessels of an unrelated animal, say a 
rabbit, the body of the rabbit will react in a 
definite and precise fashion, developing what is 
known as an antibody which has specific re- 
lations to human blood. If the blood containing 
the antibody is mixed with human blood a 
precipitate will form, but if mixed with blood 
from any other animal (except a few of the 
higher apes) no reaction occurs. A similar 
formation of antibodies having a specific rela- 
tion to whatever material was injected would 
follow from the injection of any other body tis- 
sue, or on the entrance of bacteria into the 
blood. 

Guyer and Smith injected the material from 
a crushed lens from the eye of a rabbit into the 
blood of a fowl and in that way developed an 


HEREDITY 


anti-lens body in this blood. Some of this blood 
was injected into a pregnant rabbit at a time 
when the lenses of the embryos were forming, 
and a number of them were born with defective 
lenses. This defect persisted through several 
generations, being transmitted through the male 
as well as through the female and in a Men- 
delian fashion (see below). This would indicate 
that the defect was truly hereditary and not a 
case of infection from the mother in each gen- 
eration, and leads to the conclusion that the 
germ plasm of the rabbit had been modified by 
the antibody, and since antibodies are set up 
in response to the entrance of foreign matter in- 
to the body it seems probable that modifications 
of the body might alter the character of the 
germ plasm. 

The hormones are chemical compounds found 
in the blood of animals and have important func- 
tions as regulatory mechanisms. (See ZOOLOGY.) 
It seems possible that aside from the easily 
recognizable hormones others may be produced 
by any functioning tissue, and if this is true, it 
might be that the use of any organ sets free 
hormones which react on the germ plasm. Ex- 
periments along this line are still too few to be 
conclusive, but it seems probable that they in- 
dicate a procedure most likely to settle this 
problem which has puzzled biologists for over 
a century. 

Biometry. An important technique for the 
study of heredity was developed by Galton and 
later by Pearson in the study of Biometry. This 
is an application of mathematics to the study of 
variation in plants and animals. First, accur- 
ate measurements are made of the structures 
under consideration in as large a number of 
related individuals as possible. These results 
are then plotted in the form of a curve which 
is available for treatment by mathematical tech- 
nique. In such a curve the spread indicates the 
amount of. variability, its mean the average 
measurement for the group, and its highest point 
or mode, the largest class within the group. 
The “probable error” and the “standard devia- 
tion” of such a curve are mathematical terms 
indicating the amount of variability from the 
mean, within the group. An example of the 
use of this method in the study of heredity 
would be to compare such a curve derived from 
measurements of one group with those obtained 
from a related group, e.g. parents and offspring, 
brothers and sisters, ete. The degree to which 
one group varies from the average of the race 
and toward the other group is taken as a meas- 
ure of the strength of heredity in each case. 
This degree of resemblance or correlation may 
be expressed mathematically in the form of the 
“coefficient of correlation.” For further details 
concerning the technique consult the works re- 
ferred to in the bibliography. 

It is obvious that this method deals exclusive- 
ly with averages and not at all with individual 
inheritance, thus differing fundamentally from 
the Mendelian method described below, and there 
has been much disagreement as to the relative 
value of the two methods. Pearson and his as- 
sociates consider Biometry the only method that 
can give accurate results, while Bateson, writ- 
ing as a Mendelian, says that “To those who 
hereafter may study this episode (Biometry) in 
the history of biological science, it will appear 
inexplicable that work so unsound in construc- 
tion should have been respectfully received by 
the scientific world.” A reasonably conserva- 


614 _ HEREDITY 


tive position would seem to be that for cases 
where the experimental method is possible the 
Mendelian is the better method, while in cases 
such as human heredity where experimentation 
is out of the question, the biometric method is 
the one to be employed, but that in many cases 
it is desirable to use both. Biometry will often 
detect significant differences which are not pos- 
sible to demonstrate in any other way. 

Mendelism. In 1866, Gregor Mendel, an 
Austrian monk, working on the ordinary garden 
pea, discovered the laws which bear his name. 
These results were published in an obscure jour- 
nal and were overlooked by biologists until 1900, 
when results similar to Mendel’s were independ- 
ently and simultaneously discovered by de Vries 
in Holland, von Tschermak in Austria and Cor- 
rens in Germany. Later, Bateson and Punnett 
in England, Davenport, Castle and Morgan in 
the United States, have been leaders in the 
further development of the subject. 

Mendelism regards the individual as contain- 
ing a series of hereditary determiners of genes 
which singly or in combination determine the 
character of the body. By means of properly 
devised experiments it is possible under favor- 
able conditions to analyze the individual so as 
to determine the number and character of the 
genes responsible for the production of any char- 
acter or characters and, having made this analy- 
sis, to synthesize them into new combinations 
in very much the ‘same way that an organic 
chemist follows analysis with synthesis in the 
production of new chemical compounds. 

In its simplest form Mendel’s law may be il- 
lustrated by crossing a black and a white guinea 
pig. The offspring of the first generation 
(known technically as the first filial generation 
or F,) will all be black. If these are inbred the 
offspring of the second filial generation (F,) 
will, if the number is large enough to give 
smooth results, be in the proportion of three 
black to one white. If the whites be inbred 
nothing but white will ever appear among their 
descendants, i.e. the black has entirely disap- 
peared from their composition. If, however, the 
blacks are inbred it will appear that only one- 
third of them will give rise to only black off- 
spring while the other two-thirds will have both 
black and white descendants just as did the F, 
generation. The F, generation, therefore, are 25 
per cent pure black, 25 per cent pure white and 
50 per cent hybrid like F,. 

Mendel’s interpretation of these results was by 
the assumption of the “purity of the gametes,” 
“gamete” being a generalized term meaning 
either of the sex cells, ovum or spermatozoon. 
If we assume that the sex cells of the black 
animal carry genes for black and those of the 
white ones carry genes for white, and we rep- 
resent the black by B and the white by w, then 
in the hybrid there would be a union of the two 
though only one is visible. This could be rep- 
resented as Bw. The theory of the purity of 
the gametes assumes that when this hybrid 
forms sex-cells, the genes segregate so that each 


“sex cell of the hybrid (ovum in the female and 


spermatozoén in the male) contains one or the 
other of the genes but never both. The further 
assumption is made that in each individual the 
number of these two kinds of sex cells is equal. 
If now they unite at random in the fertilization 
process, the results could be expressed by the 
table that follows on page 615. 

Of the four classes possible under such condi- 


HEREDITY 
Ova 
B w 
B BB Bw 


Spermatozoa ry ip 


tions, 25 per cent of the whole contain only B 
and are pure black, 25 per cent contain only w 
and are pure white, while 50 per cent contain 
both black and white like the original F, hybrid. 

This theoretical explanation agrees with ob- 
served results and the statement that in any 
sex cell the gene for only one of any pair of 
opposed characters is present is a fundamental 
proposition in Mendelism. 

In this case where black and white guinea 
pigs are crossed the offspring are black. This 
condition is expressed by saying that black is 
“dominant” to white, meaning that when genes 
for both black and white are present in the 
same individual only the effects of one are visi- 
ble, the white being “recessive.” This relation 
of dominance and recessiveness is common but 
not universal in Mendelian heredity and by no 
means essential. The F, generation may be 
quite unlike either of the parents, but in all 
cases the segregation of the genes takes place 
whether there is dominance or not and both 
grandparental types appear in the F, generation. 

If instead of black and white opposed char- 
acters or “allelomorphs” we take into consid- 
eration the results of crossing a short-haired 
guinea pig with a long-haired one, the F, will 
be short haired and results exactly similar to 
those described above would follow inbreeding 
of this generation. If instead of limiting our 
attention to only one pair of allelomorphs we 
consider simultaneously two pairs, and mate a 
short-haired black guinea pig with a long-haired 
white one, we would get in the first generation 
short-haired black animals. If these are inbred 
we get in F, offspring in the proportion of nine 
short black: three short white: three long black: 
one long white. Returning to the original as- 
sumption concerning the genes in the sex cells 
of the parents, we would assume that each sex 
cell of one parent contained genes for black and 
short and in the other parent genes for white 
and long. In the F, these would all be in the 
same individual, but only the effects of the dom- 
inant genes are evident. When these genes 
segregate in the inLreeding of the F, individuals, 
four combinations are possible, BS, Bl, wS, wl; 
B and w standing for black and white genes 


Spermato- 
Z0a 


615 


HEREDITY 


respectively and S and 1 for the short and long 
ones. The assumption is that there are equal 
numbers of ova and spermatozoa carrying these 
genes, the four classes in each sex being equal 
to one another in size. The results of random 
union of these sex cells would be indicated by 
the diagram in preceding column. 

The letters in each square indicate, as in the 
earlier diagram, the character of the individual 
represented in it. Remembering that B and 8 
stand for dominant genes, it is obvious that in 
any square where these are both present the 
individual will appear to be black with short 
hair and there are nine such squares in the di- 
agram. 

In any square containing S and w without B 
the animal would be short haired and white and 
there are three such squares: in any containing 
B and 1 without § the animal would be black 
with long hair and there are three of such 
squares, while only one square contains neither 
dominant and the animal would be white with 
long hair. Here again, these theoretical results 
agree with those obtained by experiment and 
again the evidence is in favor of the hypothesis 
of the purity of the gametes. 

In Mendelian terminology individuals corre- 
sponding in composition to any one of the four 
squares lying on the diagonal from upper left 
to lower right-hand corners are “homozygous” 
because in none of them is a recessive character 
hidden by a dominant and they really are what 
they appear to be, while in each of the other 
squares one or two recessive genes are present 
but not evident because obscured by the dom- 
inant allelomorphic gene. These individuals 
having this composition are called “heterozy- 


It is evident that recessive characters are 
visible only in cases where their genes are 
homozygous. Breeding from homozygous _in- 
dividuals gives only homozygous offspring, while 
among the descendants of heterozygous in- 
dividuals a certain proportion will continue this 
heterozygous condition, some will become homo- 
zygous for the dominant characters and others 
homozygous for the recessive. In any one of 
the heterczygous squares the real character of 
the animal could only be determined by further 
breeding. Mendel in a generation of peas cor- 
responding to the above groups analyzed them 
further in this way and found that they con- 
formed in character to expectation, giving fur- 
ther demonstration of the truth of his “purity” 
hypothesis. 

This work on Mendelian heredity has devel- 
oped further proof that the carriers of heredity 
are located in the chromatin. The determina- 
tion of sex seems in some way connected with 
the activity of a certain XY chromosome. (See 
ZooLocy.) The distribution of this X chromo- 
some from.one generation to another as deter- 
mined microscopically follows so closely the in- 
heritance of certain peculiar characters as to 
lead to the conelusion that the gene for each of 
these characters is located in the X chromosome. 
If, for example, a color-blind man marries a 
normal woman, none of their children will be 
eolor-blind and none of the children of the sons 
will have this defect, but one-half of the sons of 
the daughters will show it. If we assume (see 
ZooLoay) that the female has two X chromo- 
somes while the male has but one, and that the 
gene for color-blindness is located in the X 
chromosome (indicating this condition by under- 


HEREDITY 


scoring the X in the male) then the union of 
the two would be as in the diagram: 


Ova 
xX 
x xx xX 
Spermatozoa 
y xy Xy 


Squares containing two X’s would be female and 
if one X is normal the individual would appear 
normal because normal is dominant to the color- 
blind condition. It is evident that the color- 
blind gene is only in the daughters and is en- 
tirely eliminated from the sons. If one of these 
daughters marries a normal man the condition 
would be as in the next diagram. 


Ova 


Spermatozoa 


The son in the lower right-hand corner would 
be color-blind, while the other son would not, 
and neither daughter shows the defect though 
one of them could transmit it. This theoretical 
result agrees perfectly with results of observa- 
tion on the mode of inheritance of this disease 
and there is no doubt of the correctness of the 
interpretation. Genes which are carried in this 
fashion in the X chromosomes are known as 
“sex linked” genes and a considerable list of 
such genes have been identified. 

Important practical suggestions arise from 
the study of sex linked characters. It is evident 
from a study of the last two diagrams that it 
would be possible to determine which individuals 
would transmit the sex linked character and 
which would not. If, as is true in some cases, 
the character is an undesirable one, it would be 
possible, by controlling matings, to eliminate 
the character from the race. On the other hand, 
if the sex linked character is desirable it would 
be possible so to control matings as to make it 
more common. It is evident from the diagram 
that, assuming absolute power to control mat- 
ings, either color-blindness could be entirely 
eliminated or a race could be developed all of 
whom would be color-blind, according to which 
was considered the desirable condition. 

Atavism or Reversion. These terms should 
be considered as synonymous and refer to the 
appearance in one generation of characters not 
represented in the immediate parents but present 
in some more remote ancestors. In the case just 
mentioned, color-blindness skips a generation and 
~ might even seem to skip more than one, if in 
the intermediate generations the individual who 
would otherwise show it did not happen to ap- 
pear. Another familiar case is where the child 
of brown-eyed parents has blue eyes inherited 
from a blue-eyed grandparent or earlier an- 
eestor. In eye color, the pigmented (brown or 
black) eye is dominant to the non-pigmented 
(blue or albino). If, therefore, the brown- 
eyed parents happen to be heterozygous for 
brown, having the blue as a recessive character, 


616 HEREDITY 


one-quarter of their children would be homozy- 
gous for blue and be blue-eyed (see diagram 
above, referring to the guinea pig which, mak- 
ing the necessary changes in the symbols, would 
apply as well to this case). Since the number 
of individuals is so small in any human family, 
it might happen that several generations would 
elapse before the homozygous individual appears 
and thus the child seem to inherit something 
not possessed by its parents. This emergence of 
a previously hidden recessive character explains 
one type of atavism. 

Another type has a different explanation. 
Bateson described a case where two white sweet 
peas when crossed gave a purple F, and this 
when inbred gave in F, nine purple to seven 
white. This purple color was present in the 
ancestral Sicilian sweet pea, so that this was an 
undoubted case of atavism. This can be ex- 
plained on the assumption that for the produc- 
tion of the purple color the coéperation of two 
genes is necessary. If either gene is present 
alone no color appears; when they are both 
present they produce the purple color. In the 
history of these two varieties of sweet peas it 
happened that these two genes became separated 
and thus two lines of white-flowered plants 
arose, one carrying one of the genes, the other 
carrying the other. When they were crossed 
color returned. Assuming that one of these 
genes is represented by C with an allelomorph 
ce and the other by R with r as allelomorph, 
the composition of one plant \ould be Cr and 
the other cR. When crossed this becomes CRer 
and color appears. Assuming that this is the 
case the hybrid would form gametes CR, Cr 
cR, cr. Representing the result of crossing by 
a diagram, as before, we have: 


Ova 


CR 


Cr 
Spermatozoa 


cR 


cr 


Nine of these squares contain both C and R 
while none of the other seven has both of them. 
Accordingly nine are colored and seven white, as 
actual observation showed. Again theoretical 
expectation and observations are in agreement 
and demonstrate the accuracy of the theory. 
Inbreeding. This is regarded, and with 
some experimental evidence in favor of the be- 
lief, as undesirable in that it tends to produce 
weakened or degenerate descendants. Many 
plants, however, as wheat, rice, barley, oats, 
tobacco, and beans are normally self-fertilizing 
and experiments on white rats have shown that 
no injurious effects follow on the closest in- 
breeding. It now seems certain that inbreeding 
in itself is not injurious, but that if there are 
in a race undesirable recessive traits these traits 
are more apt to become homozygous and thus 


a 


HEREDITY 617 


visible if two members of this race mate than if 
either mates with a more distantly related in- 
dividual. If a race is free from these unde- 
sirable recessives no harmful effects follow in- 
' breeding. On the other hand, “outbreeding” or 
mating of unrelated individuals is sometimes 
followed by an increase in vigor, apparently be- 
cause it results in a combination of several de- 
sirable dominant characters. 

The most elaborate experiments ever made in 
heredity were made by Morgan and his asso- 
ciates on the fruit-fly Drosophila, which is ideal 
for this purpose as it breeds rapidly and is easily 
kept under observation. As a result of these 
experiments they have not only identified a 
large number of genes but have demonstrated 
the exact location of each of these genes on the 
chromosome (consult bibliography). 

Of much interest is the question as to the 
number and character of these genes. To as- 
sume that there is in the sex cell a gene for 
each different character of the adult would be 
to assume an inconceivable complexity in the 
germ plasm. Moreover, it is known that some- 
times one gene may affect more than one body 
character or, on the other hand, several genes 
may coédperate to determine one character. It 
would be possible, therefore, to explain their 
action by the assumption of a comparatively 
few genes which, reacting on the original ma- 
terial of the fertilized egg, start the process of 
differentiation, then by a second reaction on 
this primary differentiated material set up a 
further differentiation, and this series of actions 
and reactions continue to the end, the process 
being more or less modified by the reactions of 
one set of genes upon the others. That the 
genes are complex chemical compounds, possibly 
of the nature of enzymes, acting upon the 
protoplasm of the body seems a reasonable as- 
sumption from what we know of their mode of 
working. 

It seems, however, certain that the cytoplasm 
of the egg plays some part in heredity and is not 
merely an inert mass, molded by the genes in 
the chromosomes. Appar ently the general char- 
acteristics, e.g. whether an egg shall develop 
into a dog or a horse, are determined by the 
eytoplasm while the individual characteristics 
are controlled by the genes. 

If genes are chemical compounds of the nature 
of enzymes it should be possible to modify their 
structure by chemical or other means and there 
is experimental evidence that this can be done. 
If the cases mentioned earlier, 
forces have permanently modified the _ race, 
are valid, the genes must have been modified. 
Mutations also (see ZOOLOGY) must owe their 
origin to changes in the composition of the 
genes, 

This work in heredity has decidedly modified 
opinion on one point which had seemed so obvi- 
ous as to be axiomatic. This was the prin- 
ciple which underlay all of Darwin’s work on 
selection, that of the supposed efficiency of the 
selection of individual variations. Among the 
members of any generation are always found 
variations in the degree of development of any 
one character. Darwin supposed, and this has 
generally been believed until quite recently, that 
if extreme variates be isolated from the remain- 
der and allowed to breed, some of their off- 
spring would vary still more widely in this di- 
rection and if this process is continued almost 
any amount of variability could be obtained. 


where external . 


HEREDITY 


If this is true it would mean that the character 
of genes could be changed by the act of selec- 
tion and the evidence indicates that it is prob- 
ably not true. 

In any species the range of variability is fixed, 
and selection of the greatest or the smallest 
variate from the mean of the species would not 
in any way affect the range of variability of 
the next generation. Where the selective proc- 
ess seems to be eflicient it may mean either that 
the original group was not homogeneous and 
selection has isolated different races from one 
another, each having its own range of variability, 
or that there were genes modifying cr interfer- 
ing with. the action of the genes under considera- 
tion and the selective process has removed these, 
thus allowing the original gene free expression. 
The gene is apparently not modified through 
selection. 

As a result of his study of biometry, Galton 
decided that inheritance is blending, i.e. that the 
offspring of two parents unlike in any particular 
character would be, with respect to that char- 
acter, intermediate between the parents. If 
this were true, it would mean that the genes 
from the two parents had modified one another. 
The Mendelian interpretation is that in such 
a case the apparent blending is due to the 
peculiar action of two or more genes. For ex- 
ample, a brown-chaffed and a_ white-chaffed 
wheat were crossed and F, was brown. F,, how- 
ever, did not have brown and white in the 
proportions of three to one as might have been 
expected but there were fifteen brown to one 
white and the browns were not all of the same 
shade. This can be explained on the assump- 
tion that there are two genes for brown, B and 
B1, each capable of producing the color, but 
BB gives a more intense shade than either B 
or B1 alone. Worked out on the checker-board 
diagram such as has been given, this theoretical 
expectation agrees closely with actual observa- 
tions and there is no evidence for a true blend- 
ing due to modifications in the character of the 
original genes. 

By offering precise information concerning 
the results to be expected from any given mat- 
ing, Mendelism has been of service to practical 
plant and animal breeders, and these services 
will undoubtedly be extended with advancing 
information. In human heredity, because of 
the obvious impossibility of experimental mat- 
ings and because of the small size of human 
families, accurate information is more difficult 
to obtain, but enough is known to offer to 
eugenics much valuable assistance in its ef- 
forts to improve human qualities. This is es- 
pecially true in the cases of a number of diseases 
which are sex linked in inheritance and which, 
by applying the rules mentioned above, might 


easily be eliminated from the race. See Ev- 
GENICS. 
Bibliography. The following books sum- 


marize the more important works in this field 
though several of them of course are the work 
of pioneers in this branch of biology: Darwin, 
Animals and Plants under Domestication (New 
York, 1876); Spencer, Principles of Biology; 
Galton, Natural Inheritance (New York, 1889) ; 
Bateson, Mendel’s Principles of Heredity; 
Thomson, Heredity ; Cunningham, Hormones and 
Heredity; Pearl, Modes of Research in Genetics ; 
Castle, Genetics and Eugenics; East and Jones, 
Inbreeding and Outbreeding; Morgan, Sturte- 
vant, Muller and Bridges, The Mechanism of 


HERELLE 618 HERRE 
Mendelian Heredity; Weismann, The Germ (1920). He is also the author of two volumes 
Plasm. of sketches Randbemerkungen and Kleine Er- 
HERELLE, F. d@’ (? - ). A Canadian-  lebnisse (1920). 


French pathologist distinguished for a remark- 
able discovery of a principle or organism which 
attacks and destroys bacteria. Born in Canada, 
he removed to France while young, and having 
taken a degree in medicine he joined the re- 
search force of the Pasteur Institute at Paris 
and made his discovery of the so-called “bacteri- 
ophage.” His labors in this field were summed 
up in a monograph originally published in 
French but issued in a more advanced form in 
English with the title The Bacteriophage 
(1922), 

HERFORD, CuHaArtes HAROLD (1853- y 
An English scholar (see Vor. XI). His later 
publications include: Is There a Poetic View 
of the World? (1916); Treatment of Love and 
Marriage, and Other Essays (1921). : 

HERGESHEIMER, JosEepu (1880— ih: 
An American author, born at Philadelphia, Pa. 
He studied painting for a time, but soon turned 
to literature, receiving his initial encourage- 
ment from George Horace Lorimer, editor of the 
Saturday Evening Post. His writings continued 
from time to time to appear in that periodical. 
His first novel, The Lay Anthony, which was not 
published until 1914, was at once acclaimed as 
a work of the first importance. There followed 
in rapid succession a series of notable books, in- 


cluding: Mountain Blood (1915); The Three 
Black Pennys (1917); Java Head (1919); 
Linda Condon (1919); Cytherea (1921); The 


Bright Shawl (1922); and the collected short 
stories Gold and Iron (1918) and The Happy 
End (1919). Possessed of a luxurious style 
that is peculiarly effective for his subjects, with 
a feeling for exotic backgrounds that he has, 
nevertheless, been able to render subordinate to 
the essential work of character delineation, Mr. 
Hergesheimer, in the Lay Anthony, in Linda Con- 
don, in the first parts of The Three Black Pen- 
nys and Java Head, has written fiction little 
surpassed or even equaled in the period. Al- 
ways intelligent and the man of the world, al- 
ways sure of his powers, a little too ostenta- 
tious in his devotion to the details of the luxuri- 
ous life, but saved by the brilliance with which 
he has been able to manipulate those details 
to build up a convincing word-picture, he has 
produced romances notable for character, atmos- 
phere, and circumstances. It is interesting to 
note that he has been least successful with mod- 
ern themes, that his Cytherea fails where his 
Three Black Pennys succeeds. But he is not 
concerned with problems so much as he is with 
life, and nothing gives him more pleasure or 
tests his powers better than the depiction of at- 
tempts at violent and perhaps maladroit read- 
justments. His young Anthony, the Chinese 
figures in Java Head, and The Bright Shawl are 
cases in point. 

HERMANN, GrorcE (pseudonym for GEORG 
HERMANN BorcHArpT (1871- ). A German 
novelist. He made old Berlin the background 
of most of his stories, some of which were dram- 
atized: Spielkinder (1897); Die Zukunfts- 
frohen (1898); Aus dem leteten Hause (1899) ; 
Jettchen Gebert (1906); Henriette Jacoby 
(1907); Aus guter alter Zeit (1913); Heinrich 
Schon, Jr. (1915); Von gesicherten und unge- 
sicherten Leben (1915); Hinen Sommer lang 
(1917). His plays include: Jettchen Cebert; 
Henriette Jacoby; and Mein Nachbar Ameise 


HERMANSSON, HAttpor (1878— ). An 
Icelandic philologist. He entered the university 
of Reykjavik in 1898 and three years later that 
of Copenhagen. In 1905, he was appointed 
curator of the Fiske Icelandic Collection at 
Cornell University Library and became con- 
nected with the university as instructor in 
Scandinavian languages, professor and lecturer. 
He is the author of Bibliography of the Icelandic 
Sagas (1908); The Northmen in America 
(1909) ; Bibliography of the Sagas of the Kings 
of Norway (1911); The Ancient Laws of Nor- 
way and Iceland (1911); Bibliography -of 
Mythic-Heroic Sagas (1912); Icelandic Authors 
of To-day (1913); Icelandic Books of the 16th 
Century (1916); The Periodical Literature of 
Iceland (1918); Modern Icelandic (1919); 
Bibliography of the Eddas (1920); ete. He 
has compiled a Catalogue of the Fiske Icelandic 
Collection (1914) and Runic Literature (1918) 
and has edited The Story of Griseldis in Ice- 
landic (1914) and An Icelandic Satire: Lof 
Lyginne (1915). 

HERMANT, ABEL (1862- ). A French 
man of letters, born in Paris, and educated at 
the Lycées Bonaparte and Condorcet. He de- 
voted himself to journalism and to literature, 
writing critical essays, novels, and theatrical 
comedies. In all his works he displayed a keen 
sense for satire and social caricature. One of 
his novels, La Carriére, dealt ironically with 
the diplomatic “career,” and it is this that is 
supposed to have prevented Hermant’s election 
to the official French Academy. He did, how- 
ever, receive the badge of Commander of the 
Legion of Honor. His works include: Les Mé- 
pris (1883); Monsieur Rabosson (1884); La 
Mission de Cruchod (1885) ; Le Cavalier Miserey 
(1887); Nathalie Madoré (1888); La Surinten- 
dante; Amour de Téte; Serge; Ermeline; Le 
Frisson de Paris; Ceurs a Part, Ceurs Privil- 
égiés; Les Confidences Wune Aieulle (1893) ; 
La Carriére (1894); Eddy et Paddy (1894); Le 
Disciple Aimé (1895); Le Sceptre; La Meute; 
Les Transatlantiques (1897); Le Char de VEtat 
(1899); Le Faubourg; L’Empreinte; Sylvie ou 
la Curieuse @Amour; Souvenirs du Vicomte de 
Courpiére (1901); La Confession @un Homme 
VAujour@Whui (1904); L’Esbrouffe (1904); M. 
de Oourpiére Marié (1905); La Belle Madame 
Héber (1905); Les Grands Bourgeois; Chaine 
Anglaise; L’Autre Aventure du Joyeux Gargon; 
Chronique Frangaise; Le Cadet de Coutras; 
Les Renards; Le Second Testament; Trains de 
Luxe; Affranchis; Le Caravanserail; L’Aube 
Ardente; La Vie @ Paris; Le Rival Inconnu; 
La Journée Bréve (1920); Phili; La Petite 
Femme (1921); Entretiens sur la Grammaire 
Francaise (1923). 

HERRE, Pau. (1876- ). A German his- 
torian, who in 1920 became director of the 
political-historical archives at Potsdam. He 
was born at Magdeburg, studied at the univer- 
sities of Berlin, Jena and Leipzig, and in pursuit 
of a commercial enterprise traveled in Germany, 
Austria, Italy, and Spain. He was lecturer at 
the University of Leipzig (1906-20). He is the 
author of: Preussens Befreiungs-und Verfas- 
sungkampf (1914); Spanien und der Welt- 
krieg (1915); Weltpolitik, Weltkatastrophe 
(1916); Geschichtliche .Schlaglichter auf den 
Weltkrieg (1916); Aufruf an die Neutralen zur 


HERRICK 


Geduld (1918); Bismarcks Staatskunst (1916) ; 
Vélkergemeinschaftsidee und Internationale 
Politik (1920). 

HERRICK, Myron T. (1854- ). An 
American diplomat (see Vor. XI). He was in 
charge of the American Embassy in Paris at the 
outbreak of the War and did efficient service 
in the protection and assistance of Americans 
in Europe. He was reappointed ambassador by 
President Harding in April, 1921. For these 
services in France, he received the Grand Cross 
of the Legion of Honor. After the war he was 


chairman of the American Commission for 
Devastated France. 
HERRICK, ROBERT (1868— ). An 


American writer and educator (see VoL. XI). 
His later books include His Great Adventure 
(1913), Clark’s Field (1914), The World De- 
cision (1916), The Conscript Mother (1916), 
Homely Lilla (1923), and Waste (1924). He 
was a member of the National Institute of Arts 
and Letters. 

HERRIN, Iti. See STRIKES. 

HERRIN MASSACRE. See COAL. 

HERRIOT, EDOUARD (1872— et. 
French politician and man of letters. He was 
educated at the Ecole Normale Supérieure, and 
at the conclusion of his studies became a _ pro- 
fessor of rhetoric and literature at the Uni- 
versity of Lyons. He entered politics and was 
successively counsellor-general of the Rhone, 
Mayor of Lyons, Senator, and minister in a 
radical government. Before the War he became 
one of the leaders of the Parti Radical Socialiste. 
This party was temporarily disorganized by the 
War and by the trial of Caillaux, but it came 
back strongly in the 1924 elections with Her- 
riot as its leader. After the Armistice, Herriot 
opposed the reparation policies of the nation- 
alist groups in France and favored a rapproche- 
ment with Germany and Russia. He made a 
visit to Russia in 1922 and described what he 
saw in the land of the Soviets in a book entitled 
La Russie Nouvelle. In June, 1924, he became 
premier of France, with a government drawn 
from the parties of the left bloc. As a man of 
letters, Herriot was best known by a work on 
Philo Judeus and the Jewish-Alexandrian 
school of philosophy which was crowned by the 
Academy of Moral and Political Science in 
1897. His other works include: Un Ouvrage 
Inédit de Mme. de Staél; Fragments dEcrits 
Politiques (1904); Précis d’Histoire des Lettres 


Frangatses (1905); Agir (1915-16); Créer 
(1919). 
HERRMANN, Conrad EDMUND GUSTAV 


(1871- ). A German writer. He was born 
at Leipzig and attended the university. He en- 
gaged in an export business and traveled in 
America (1893-95). During the War he was in- 
structor of oratory at the Volks-Akademie in 
Leipzig. He is the author of the plays: Savon- 
arola (1886); Sensation (1906); Der Triumph 
des Mannes (1906); Der grosse Baal (1907). 
Other works include: Vineta, a volume of verse 
(1908); Und doch (1915); Sakuska, a Russian 
story (1919); Lebensfahrt (1919); Wilhelm 
Busch an der Himmelstiir (1920); Gesichte und 
Grimassen (1920); Der lachende Olymp (1921) ; 
Maulwiirfe (1921). 

HERSHEY, Amos SHARTLE (1867- iy 
An American educator (see VoL. XI). Among 
his later writings were Modern Japan, with 
Frank M. Anderson (1919), and Handbook for 
the Diplomatic Relations of Europe, Asia and 


619 


HERTZOG 


Africa, 1870-1914 (1918). He was a member 
of the staff of the American Commission to 
Negotiate Peace, 1918-19. He was a frequent 
contributor to magazines on political science and 
law. 

HERSHEY INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. See 
EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES, 

HERTER, ALBert (1871- ). An Ameri- 
can painter and craftsman (see Vou. XI). 
Among his later mural works were a series for 
the Supreme Court room of the Wisconsin 
Capitol, and an allegorical pageant in the St. 
Francis Hotel, San Francisco. At his Herter 
looms he designed and produced artistic tapes- 
tries. 

HERTLING, GerEorG, BARON VON (1843- 
1919). A German administrator and Catholic 
philosopher (see Von. XI). On Nov. 1, 1917, 
he was appointed Chancellor by the Kaiser, and 
by his skill brought some measure of stability 
into the affairs of the German government. 
His task was made easier by the fact that at 
that time Russia collapsed and the invasion of 
Italy was succeeding. Later, when Bulgaria 
capitulated at the end of September, he was 
driven from office. In his last speech he de- 
clared that Germany’s discontent was due en- 
tirely to military reverses, but said that the 
German people would stand firm and not beg for 
mercy; that the iron wall on the western front 
would not be broken; that the U-boat war was 
slowly tending to success, and gradually would 
restrict the reinforcements from the United 
States; and that the hour would come when the 
enemy would see reason and be ready to make 
an end of war. See GERMANY, History. 

HERTY, CHARLES HOLMES’ (1867—- ). 
An American chemist, born at Milledgeville, 
Ga. He was graduated at the University of 
Georgia in 1886, and received his Ph.D. at Johns 
Hopkins in 1900, after which he took courses at 
Berlin and Zurich. In 1890-1901, he was assist- 
ant chemist of the Georgia Experiment Station 
and then taught at his alma mater, attaining the 
rank of adjunct professor of chemistry in 1894. 
From 1901 to 1904, he was with the Bureau 
of Forestry in the United States Department of 
Agriculture, and then for a year with the 
Chattanooga Pottery Company. In 1905, he 
was called to the chair of chemistry at the 
University of North Carolina, where he remained 
until 1916, when he became the editor of the 
Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chem- 
istry. His principal researches have been in 
organic chemistry and include the determination 
of the constitution of inorganic compounds by 
physico methods; also he invented a new method 
of turpentine orcharding and a rapid method 
for the determination of oil in cottonseed prod- 
ucts. 

HERTZ, ALFrRep (1872- ). A distin- 
guished German conductor (see Vout. XI). In 
1915, he resigned his position at the Metropol- 
itan Opera House and accepted the conductor- 
ship of the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra, 
which under him soon developed into one of 
the great orchestras of the country. He was 
largely instrumental in winning recognition for 
the native composer. While at the Metropol- 
itan he conducted all the operas by American 
composers produced there. 

HERTZOG, J. M. B. (? ). A South 
African statesman and soldier (see Vou. XI). 
At the outbreak of the South African rebellion 
in 1914, although he did not take an active 


HERTZSPRUNG 620 


part in opposition to the British government, he 
declined also to oppose the rebellion. In the 
years following the War, he headed the opposi- 
tion to the government of General Smuts and 
continued in aggressive opposition to the gov- 
ernmental policies of that statesman. On de- 
feat of the Smuts ministry, early in 1924, he 
became Prime Minister. 

HERTZSPRUNG, Esnar_ (1873- ) Wee 
Danish astronomer. He was born in Copen- 
hagen, studied at Leipzig, and was connected 
with the observatory of Potsdam, until called 
to Leyden, Holland, where he was first director 
of the observatory, and since 1920, professor at 
the university. He has written much on astro- 
physics for scientific periodicals. 

HERZOG, Rupoitr (1869- ). A popular 
German novelist (see Von. XI). In the first 
two years of the War he abandoned fiction and 
wrote the following volumes of verse: Ritter, 
Tod und Teufel (1915); Von Stiirmen, Sterben, 
Auferstehen (1916); and the dramatic poem 
Stromiibergang (1916). He later wrote: Die 
Stoltenkamps und ihre Frawen, a novel (1917) ; 
Jungbrunnen, a volume of stories (1918); Ger- 
maniens Gétter, a book of German myths 
(1919); Die Buben der Frau Opterberg, a 
novel (1921). 

HESS, ALrgep Fasian~ (1875- yee VA 
American pediatrist distinguished for his orig- 
inal researches into certain affections of child- 
hood, notably rickets, scurvy, tuberculosis, blood 
states and affections of the stomach and _ in- 
testines. Born in New York City, he was edu- 
eated at Harvard and at Columbia, receiving 
his medical degree from the College of Phiysi- 
cians and Surgeons in 1901. After studying 
pediatrics in Europe, he was made a professor 
of that chair in the University-Bellevue Medical 
College. The record of his work in pediatrics 
and experimental pathology is contained in 70 or 
more papers published in periodical literature. 

HESS, Myra _  (1890— ). An English 
pianist, born in London. At the age of five she 
began to study the piano and two years later 
entered the Guildhall School of Music, where 
she graduated as winner of the gold medal. 
After further study under Tobias Matthay, she 
made her début in London, in January, 1908, 
winning immediate success. She then made tours 
of Holland and France. Upon her American début 
(New York, Jan. 24, 1922) she became a prime 
favorite in the United States, not only as soloist, 
but also as a fine ensemble player. 

HESS, Victor (1883- ). An Austrian 
professor of physics and contributor on radio- 
activity, atmosphere electricity, and kindred 
subjects to the publications of the Academy 
of Science in Vienna. 

HESSE, HERMANN (1877- ). A German 
novelist and poet (see Vor. XI). He took up 
his residence in Switzerland before the War. 
His recent works include: Rosshalde (1914); 


In der alten Sonne (1914); Musik des EHin- 
samen (1915); Knulp (1915); Am Weg 
(1916); Briefe ins Feld (1916); Schén ist die 
Jugend (1916); Médrchen (1919).; Kleiner 
Garten (1919); Klingsors letzter Sommer 
(1920); Zarathustras Wiederkehr (1920); 


Blick ins Chaos (1920); Wanderung (1921). 
HETERODYNE. See RaApio TELEGRAPHY. 
HEWLETT, Maurice HENRY (1861-1923). 

An English novelist (see VOL. XI): His later 

books include: A Lover’s Tale (1915); The 

Little Iliad (1915); The Song of the Plow 


HICKS 


(1916); Thorgils of Treadholt (1917); Peri- 
dore and Paravail (1917); The Village Wife’s 
Lament (1918); Flowers in the Grass, poems 
(1920); In a Green Shade (1920); Wiltshire 
Essays (1922). 

HEYCK, Epuarp (1862- ). A German 
historian. He was born at Doberan and studied 
at Leipzig, Jena and Heidelberg. He was pro- 
fessor at the universities of Freiburg and Heidel- 
berg, and librarian at Donaueschingen. Included 
among his later works are: Die Kreuzziige und 
das Heilige Land (1900); Frauenschénheit 1m 
Wandel von Geschmack und Kunst (1903); Wil- 
helm von Oranien (1908); Florenz und die Medi- 
ci (1909); Das Deutschland von Morgen (1917) ; 
Parlament und Volksvertretung (1918); Héhen- 
feuer (1920). 

HEYMANN, Lira Gustava (1868- le 
A native of Hamburg, active from her youth in 
welfare work and municipal reform. She was 
instrumental in securing public baths, commer- 
cial courses for girls, and establishing club and 
lunch rooms for women workers. She engaged 
in propaganda for the abolition of the Sitten- 
polizei, worked for child protection and was 
active in municipal and communal reforms in 
Munich. She also wrote works about the sex 
problem and hygiene for young people. 

HIBBARD, BENJAMIN HorAcE (1870- it 
An American agricultural economist, born in 
Bremer County, Ia. He graduated from the 
Iowa State College of Agriculture and 
Mechanie Arts in 1898, and took postgraduate 
courses at the University of Wisconsin and in 
Germany. In 1910, he was special agent in the 
agricultural division of the Bureau of the 
Census, and in 1913, was appointed professor 
of agricultural economics at the University of 
Wisconsin. In 1918 Professor Hibbard became 
head of this department. He was a member of 
several societies and wrote Fiffect of the Great 
War on Agriculture (1919), and Marketing 
Agricultural Products (1921). 

HIBBEN, Paxton (1880- ). An Ameri- 
ean war correspondent and publicist, born at 
Indianapolis, Ind. He graduated from Prince- 
ton University in 1903 and studied law at 
Harvard. In 1906, he was admitted to the 
bar. Entering the diplomatic service, he 
served as Secretary of Legation at Russia, 
Mexico, Colombia, Holland and Chile, retiring 
from the service in 1912. He acted as war 
correspondent in Europe for several papers and 
magazines from 1915 to 1917, and in 1921 was 
secretary of the Russian Commission of Near 
East Relief. During the War he served as first 
lieutenant of field artillery and also with the 
Finance Bureau, and in the office of the 
Inspector-General. In 1919, he was on duty 
with the military mission of Armenia and was 
staff correspondent for the Chicago Tribune 
from 1919 to 1920. He wrote Constantine I 
and the Greek People (1920), and contributed 
many articles on subjects relating to the Near 
East to magazines. 

HICHENS, Roserr SmytTHe (1864-— ie 
An English novelist (see Vor. XI). Among 
his later books are: In the Wilderness (1917) ; 
Snake-Bite (1919); Mrs. Marden (1919); The 
Spirit of the Time (1921). 

HICKS, FREDERICK CHARLES (1875—- Miz 
An American librarian and educator, born at 
Auburn, N. Y. He graduated from Colgate Uni- 
versity in 1898 and from the Georgetown Law 
School in 1901. After several years spent in 


HICKS 6a 


practice of law, he was appointed librarian at 
the United States Naval War College at New- 
port, serving from 1905 to 1908. In 1908-09, 
he was assistant librarian of the Brooklyn 
Public Library and from 1911 to 1915 was law 
librarian and from the latter date associate 
professor of legal bibliography at Columbia 
University. He was the author of New World 
Order (1920), Men and Books Famous in the 
Law (1921), and edited several historical 
series. 

HICKS, FREDERICK CHARLES (1863- ). 
An American economist, born at Capac, Mich. 
He was graduated from the University of 
Michigan in 1886, where in 1890 he also re- 
eeived his Ph.D. During 1891-92 he was in- 
structor in economics at the University of Mich- 
igan, and then for eight years was professor of 
history and political economy at the University 
of Missouri, but in 1900, accepted a call to the 
chair of economy and commerce at the Uni- 
versity of Cincinnati. He became president of 
the latter institution in 1920. During 1888- 
90, he served on the United States Census and 
later was supervisor of the 13th United States 
Census in the First District of Ohio. In ad- 
dition to many technical papers, reports and 
monographs contributed variously, he is the 
author of Lectures on the Theory of Economics 


(1901) and Competitive and Monopoly. Prices 
(1911). 
HIDES. See LEATHER; LIVE STOCK. 


HIGGINS, WILLIAM VicTor (1884— ye. 
A painter and teacher, born at Shelbyville, 
Ind. He studied at the Art Institute in Chi- 
cago and at the Academy of Fine Arts there. 
In Paris, he was a pupil of René Menard and 
Lucien Simon, and when he was in Munich he 
studied with Hans von Hyeck. He is an As- 
sociate of the National Academy. Among his 
pictures in permanent exhibitions are his 
“Moorland Gorse and Bracken,’ in the Munic- 
ipal Gallery, Chicago; “Moorland Piper,” 
Terra Haute Art Association; “Juanito, the 
Suspicious Cat,” in the Union League Club, 
Chicago; “Women of Taos,” Santa Fé Rail- 
road; “A Shrine to St. Anthony,” in the col- 
lection of the Des Moines Association of Fine 
Arts; “Fiesta Day,” at the Butler Art Insti- 
tute, Youngstown, Ohio; “Pueblo of Taos” and 
“Indian at Stream” in the Los Angeles Mu- 
‘“seum. Examples of his murals are found in 
the decorations of the Englewood Theatre, Chi- 
cago. 


HIGGS, Henry (1864- ). An English 
economist and administrator (see Vou. XI). 


His later writings include: Financial System 
of The United Kingdom (1914); National Econ- 
omy (1917); A Primer of National Finance 
(1919). 

HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS. See BOILERS. 

HIGHWAYS. See Roaps AND PAVEMENTS, 

HILDEBRAND, Apvotr E. R. (1847-1921). 
A German sculptor of prominence (see VOL. 
XI). His most important recent work has 
been the “Hubertus” Fountain at the National 
Museum in Munich (1921). At the time of his 
death he had finished the model for a monu- 
mental fountain for Cologne, with “Father 
Rhine” as the central figure. 

HILDEBRAND, Jorn HeENry (1881- Me 
An American chemist, born at Camden, N. J. 
He was graduated at the University of Pennsyl- 
vania in 1903, took his Ph.D. there in 1906, 
then studied for a year in Berlin. During 


HILL 


1904-05 he was assistant and during 1907-13 
an instructor in chemistry at the University 
of Pennsylvania, after which he accepted a call 
to the University of California, where, in 1918, 
he became professor of chemistry. Physical 
chemistry, and such topies as electro-analysis, 
hydrogen electrodes, vapor pressures of metals 
and amalgams, dissociation of alcohol, and 
theories of solubility, are among those on 
which he has published the results of his studies. 
During the War he served as director of the 
laboratory of the Chemical Warfare Service 
in France with the rank of major and later com- 
manded the gas defense school as lieutenant- 


colonel. He is the author of Principles of Chem- 
istry (1917). 
HILL, Atspert Ross (1869- ). “An 


American educator (see Vor. XI). From 1908, 
he was president of the University of Missouri. 
During the War, he was on a leave of absence 
until 1922 as director of foreign operations of 
the American Red Cross. In 1917, he was a 
member of the board of the United States Naval 
Academy. 

HILL, ArcuiBaLtp V. (1886— ): & Brit- 
ish physiologist, educated at Cambridge and a 
fellow of Trinity College from 1910. He lectured 
on physical chemistry at the university from 
1914 to 1919 and was then appointed professor 
of physiology at Manchester University, resign- 
ing in 1923 to become Jodrel professor of phys- 
iology in the University of London. During the 
War he was director of the Anti-Aircraft Sta- 
tion. With O. Meyerhoff, he shared the Nobel 
prize for medicine and physiology for 1921. 
Since 1910, he had been investigating the pro- 
duction of lactic acid by exercising muscle. 
His cosharer, Otto Meyerhoff, professor of phys- 
iology at the University of Kiel, was a personal 
friend of Hill and engaged in the same field of 
research. 

HILL, Davip JAYNE (1850— ). An 
American diplomat and writer (see Vou. XI). 
In 1917 he was chairman of the War Finance 
Committee of the American Library Association. 
This committee raised over $1,700,000 to erect 
library buildings at army camps and to pro- 
vide reading matter for soldiers and sailors. 
His later writings include: The People’s Cov- 
ernment (1915); Americanism—What It Is 
(1916); The Rebuilding of Europe (1917) ; Im- 
pressions of the Kaiser (1918); Present Prob- 
lems in Foreign Policy (1919); American 
World Policies (1920). He is president of the 
National Association of Constitutional Govern- 
ment. 

HILL, Epwarp BURLINGAME 
An American composer, born at Cambridge, 
Mass. After completing, with highest honors, 
all the courses in music under J. K. Paine at 
Harvard University, he continued his studies in 
Boston with B. J. Lang (piano) and F. F. 
Bullard (composition), and in New York with 
A. Whiting (piano) and H. KE. Parkhurst 
(theory). In 1908, he was appointed instructor 
in music at Harvard and in 1918 was made as- 
sistant professor. He lectured extensively on 
modern French music, both in the United States 
and in France, and was also a frequent con- 
tributor to various periodicals. As a composer, 
his leaning is decidedly toward impressionism. 
His works include: two pantomimes, Jack 
Frost in Midsummer, and Pan and the Star; 
two symphonic poems, The Parting of Lancelot 
and Guinevere, and The.Fall of the House of 
Usher; two orchestral suites, Stevensoniana 


(1872- id 


HILL 622 


No. 1 and No. 2; Nine Waltzes for orchestra; 
Poem for violin and orchestra; Prelude to 
Euripides’s The Trojan Women; and choruses, 
songs and pieces for piano. 

HILL, FRANK PIERCE (1855— ). An 
American librarian (see Vou. XI). In 1917, he 
was chairman of the American Library Associ- 
ation war finance committee which raised over 
$1,700,000 for the purpose of erecting library 
buildings at army camps and providing books, 
newspapers and magazines for soldiers and 
sailors. He was also chairman of the Associ- 
ation’s committee on enlarged programme in 
1919. 

HILL, JosepH ADNA_ (1860- )ia An 
American statistician (see Vor. XI). After 
service as chief statistician of the United States 
Census he was appointed Assistant Director of 
the Census in 1921. He was the author of many 
census reports on child labor, the insane, di- 
vorce and kindred subjects. 

HILL, LEoNARD ERSKINE (1866— ). See 
Vou. XI). He published in two parts (1919- 
20) as a report to the Medical Research Com- 
mission The Science of Ventilation and Open 
Air Treatment; and in collaboration (Flack and 
Hill) Textbook of Physiology (1919). During 
the War, he was a member of the Medical Re- 
search Commission. 

HILLER, Kurt (1885- ). A German 
writer. He was born in Berlin and studied at 
the universities of Berlin, Freiburg and Heidel- 
berg, graduating as doctor of law. He is the 
author of: Das Recht iiber sich selbst (1908) ; 
Die Weisheit der Langeweile (1913); Hin 
deutsches Herrenhaus (1918); Unnennbares Bru- 
dertum (1918); Geist werde Herr (1920) ; 
Logokratie (1921); Schmach des Jahrhunderts 
(1922); and Der Aufbruch zum Paradies 
(1922). He also compiled the anthology Der 
Kondor and edited the posthumous works of 
Max Steiner. 

HILLIS, NEweLtt Dwicut (1858- )... An 
American clergyman and writer (see Vou. XI). 
‘Among his later books are: German Atrocities 
(1918); The Blot on the Kaiser’s ’Scutcheon 
(1918); Rebuilding the Ruined Lands of Eu- 
rope (1919); The Better America Lectures 


G1924.)¢ 
HILLQUIT, Morris (1869— )), ue 
American Socialist (see Vout. XI). He was the 


Socialist candidate for Mayor of New York City 


in 1917. In 1921, he published From Mara to 
Lenin. 
HINDEMITH, PAUL (1895- PA 


German composer, born at Hanau, Hessen. He 
was a pupil of MHoch’s Konservatorium, in 
Frankfort, and in 1915 became concertmaster at 
the Frankfort Opera. His first works, showing 
influences of Brahms, Reger and Mahler, at- 
tracted little attention, but when he had de- 
veloped into an uncompromising futurist, he was 
hailed as a new Messiah throughout Germany. 
As for ugly and grotesque effects, his music ap- 
pears as a caricature of the style of Stravinsky 
or Schénberg. His productivity has been enor- 
mous, especially in the field of chamber music 
(sonatas, string quartets, etc.). His three one- 
act operas, Nusch-Nuschi and Hoffnung, Mérder 
der Frauen (Stuttgart, 1921) and Sankta Susan- 
na (Frankfort, 1922) were immediately sup- 
pressed by the police because of the alleged re- 
volting immorality of the text. 
HINDENBURG, PAvL von BENECKENDORF 
UND von (1847- ). A German soldier born 


HINES 


in Posen. He entered the army in 1866, serv- 
ing in the war against Austria, and in 1870-71 
in the Franco-Prussian War. He was placed on 
the retired list in 1911, but when the World 
War broke out, and East Prussia was overrun 
by the Russians, he was recalled and given 
command of the VIII Army with General Luden- 
dorff as his chief of staff. For his victories at 
Tannenberg, the Masurian Lakes, etc., he was 
made colonel-general and, later, field marshal. 
In November, 1914, he was given command of 
the armies of the East, later of the Austrian 
front, and in 1916 he succeeded Falkenhayn as 
chief of the general staff. By that time he was 
the national idol of the German people, and 
they erected an immense wooden statue of him 
in the KG6nigsplatz in Berlin. Money was 
raised for war charities by charging a fee for 
the privilege of driving nails into the statue. 
After the War he was of great assistance in 
disbanding the armies. He published his recol- 
lections under the title Aus meinem Leben 
(1920). 

HINDENBURG LINE. See War In Ev- 
ROPE, Western Front. 

HINDHEDE, MIKKEL (?- ) ft Asy Dan 
ish physician, an eminent authority on dietetics, 
who during the War was responsible for the 
nutrition of the Danish people. Known especi- 
ally as a low protein advocate, he goes further 
in this direction than any other dietetic expert. 
Up to the outbreak of the War he was best 
known for two of his publications, Protein and 
Nutrition (1913) and What to Hat and Why 
(1914). These works are known through trans- 
lations into English and German. His experi- 
ences in feeding the populace during the War 
were given out in 1920 in an official report of 
the Danish Minister of the Interior. 

HINDS, Ernest (1864- ). An American 
military officer, born in Marshall County, Ala. 
He was graduated at the United States Military 
Academy in 1887, entered the army as second 
lieutenant in the 3d Artillery, and by succes- 
sive promotions attained the rank of major- 
general on Dee. 6, 1922. He participated in the 
war with Spain in Cuba and later saw duty in 
the Philippine Islands. During the War in 
Europe he was chief of artillery of the Ist Army 
Corps and then of the lst Army in France, with 
the provisional rank of major-general. In 1919 
he took command of the Field Artillery School 
of Fire at Fort Sill. For his “exceptionally 
meritorious and distinguished services” he re- 
ceived the United States Distinguished Service 
Medal and the decorations of the Legion of 
Honor from France, the Order of Leopold from 
Belgium, and the order of St. Maurice and St. 
Lazarus from Italy. 

HINDUS. See BRITISH COLUMBIA. 

HINES, Frank Tuomas (1879- ). An 
‘American soldier, born in Salt Lake City, and 
educated at the Agricultural College of Utah. 
He enlisted for the Spanish-American War. In 
1919 he was commissioned second leutenant in 
the Utah Light Artillery. He then joined the 
Regular Army, and rising through the various 
grades, became captain of the Coast Artillery 
Corps in 1908. He was made colonel of the 
National Army in 1918 and _ brigadier-general 
in the same year. In 1917 he was assigned to 
the office of the Chief of Staff as assistant in 
the Embarkation Service, which he headed in 
1918. In 1919 he was appointed Chief of the 
Transportation Service of the United States 


HINES 


Army. He served at several important inter- 
national conferences following the War. In 
1923 he was appointed director of the Veterans’ 
Bureau. 

HINES, Joun LeEoNArRD (1868- yuan 
American army officer, born in White Sulphur 
Springs, W. Va., and educated at the United 
States Military Academy. He was commis- 
sioned second lieutenant in 1868. He served 
during the Spanish-American War and in the 
Philippines and in the punitive expedition into 
Mexico in 1916-17. In the latter year he was 
appointed assistant adjutant-general in the 
American Expeditionary Forces and accom- 
panied the first detachment of American troops 
to France. He was appointed colonel of the 
16th Infantry in November, 1917, and in May, 
_1918, commanded the Ist Brigade Infantry, Ist 
Division. In October, 1918, he was appointed 
commander of the 3rd Army Corps, and in 
November, 1919, commander of the 4th Division. 
He commanded the 5th Division in 1920 and the 
8th Corps Area in 1921. General Hines suc- 
ceeded General Pershing as Chief of Staff of the 
United States Army in September, 1924. 

HINES, WALKER Downer (1870- yi (An 
American lawyer and public official, born at 
Russellville, Ky., and educated at Ogden College 
and the University of Virginia. In 1893 he be- 
gan the practice of law in Louisville and was 
general counsel of the Atchison, Topeka, and 
Santa Fé Railroad from 1906 to 1918 and was 
chairman of the Board of Directors of this 
road from 1916 to 1918. In 1906-16 he engaged 
in general law practice in New York. In the 
latter year he was appointed director general of 
railroads and served until 1920. In that year 
he was in Europe as arbitrator under the Peace 
Treaties of questions of river shipping. On his 
return to the United States in 1921 he resumed 
the practice of law. He is the author of numer- 
ous pamphlets and articles on railroad and 
governmental problems. 

HINKSON, Mrs. KATHARINE (maiden name 
TYNAN) (1861- ). An Trish novelist and 
poet (see Vor. XI). Her later writings in- 
clude: The Story of Margery Dawe (1915); 
John-a-Dreams (1916); Miss Mary (1917); 
Herb o’ Grace (1918); The Man from Australia 
(1919); Love of Brothers (1919); The Second 
Wife (1920); The Wandering Years (1922); 
and Mary Beaudesert, V.S. (1922). 

HINSHAW, WitttAmM WaApbeE (1867- hs 
An American operatic baritone and impresario, 
born at Union, Iowa. While pursuing the gen- 
eral academic course at Valparaiso University 
(Ind.), he studied singing and theory with R. 
A. Heritage and later continued with L. G. 
Gottschalk and L. A. Phelps in Chicago. He 
made his début on the concert stage in Chi- 
eago during the World’s Fair (1893). From 
1895 to 1899 he was dean of the Conservatory 
of Music at Valparaiso University. After coach- 
ing with A. Mareschalchi he was engaged for 
the Savage Grand Opera Company, and made 
his operatic début as Mephistopheles in St. Louis 
(Nov. 6, 1899) with marked success. In 1903 
he opened his own school of opera, which soon 
became merged with the Chicago Conservatory, 
and until 1907 he was president of the combined 
institutions. In 1909 he organized the Interna- 
tional Grand Opera Company of Chicago, of 
which he was general manager, stage-manager, 
and principal baritone. From 1910 to 1913 he 
was a member of the Metropolitan Opera Com- 

21 


623 


‘the practice of law at Columbia, Mo. 


HIRSCHFELD 


pany and then made guest appearances in ya- 
rious German opera houses. In 1918 he became 
president of the Society of American Singers, 
an organization devoted to the production of in- 
timate operas, especially Mozart’s, in English. 
Since 1920 he has been directing his own cham- 
ber productions of opéra comique. He offered, in 
1916, a prize of $1000 for a one-act opera by an 
American composer. It was awarded to Had- 
ley’s Bianca, produced by the Society of Ameri- 
ean Singers, New York, 1917. 

HINTON, Epwarp Witcox (1868— }e 
An American lawyer and educator, born at 
Rocheport, Mo., and educated at Christian Col- 
lege in Columbia, Mo., and at the University 
of Missouri, where he studied law. He began 
He was 
professor of pleading and practice at the Uni- 
versity of Missouri from 1903 to 1913 and from 
the latter year was professor of law at the 
University of Chicago. In 1918-19 he was act- 
ing dean of the law school of this University. 
He edited Hinton’s Cases of Trial Practice 
(1915) and Hinton’s Cases on Evidence (1919). 

HINTZE, PAvut von (1864— ).. A Ger- 
man admiral and diplomat, born at Schweldt- 
on-Oder. He served for several years as mil- 
itary attaché at several embassies and was mil- 
itary plenipotentiary to Russia in 1908. In 
1914 he was in service in the German embassy 
in Mexico and in the same year was sent to 
China, where he carried on extensive propaganda 
in favor of Germany. He was transferred to 
Norway later in the same year. In 1918 he 
was appointed Secretary of State for Foreign 
Affairs and continued in this post until the 
fall of the empire. 

HIROHITO, Prince (1901- ). Prince 
Regent of Japan, proclaimed heir apparent in 
1912 when his. father became Emperor. He was 
educated under private tutors at the Imperial 
Education Institute in Tokyo, and when he 
reached the age of 18 he was given a seat in the 
House of Peers in the Imperial Diet. His 
father’s ill health caused some of the imperial 
duties to devolve on the Prince in 1920, and 
early in 1921 there was a movement to have 
him declared Prince Regent. Instead, however, 
in the spring of that year he was sent on a visit 
to England, France, Belgium, and Italy and 
was thus the first Japanese prince to leave his 
native land. He was royally entertained wher- 
ever he went. All hope of the Emperor’s ability 
to continue his duties as ruler being abandoned, 
Prince Hirohito was designated Regent of Japan 
on Nov. 25, 1921. In December, 1923, a young 
student, inflamed by radical teachings, at- 
tempted to assassinate the young ruler. The 
whole nation was aroused, and the cabinet re- 
signed in a body as an expression of their hor- 
ror, for the Prince was very popular because of 
his democratic ways. On Jan. 26, 1924, he was 
married to Princess Nagako, eldest daughter of 
Prince Kuni, with ancient Shinto rites. 

HIRSCHFELD, GeEorc_  (1873- keh 
German author, at first chiefly a dramatist, now 
a prolific novelist (see Vor. XI). Among his 
recent works are Nachwelt (1915), Die Geborgte 
Sonne (1916), Die Deutsche Prinzessin (1920), 
and Das Haus mit der Pergola (1923). 

HIRSCHFELD, Lupwia (1882- Vi Meee 
Austrian writer, born at Vienna, and educated 
at technical schools. After drifting from one 
occupation to another, he settled down as a 
journalist. He was associate editor of the 


HIRSCHFELD 


Wiener Neue Freie Presse and editor of the 
illustrated magazine, Die Moderne Welt. Hirsch- 
feld is mainly a humorist but has written 
several comedies and texts for operettas, which 


include: Der Wetterhahn (1911); Der Be- 
riihmte Gabriel (1916); Die Steinerne Maske 
(1918); Die Grosse Dummheit (1919); Der 
Liebling der Frauen (1920); Die Silberne 


Jugend (1921), and he has also published Die 
Klingende Stadt, a volume of Viennese sketches 
(1912); Wo Sind die Zeiten? and Ten Years of 
Viennese Life (1920) 

HIRSCHFELD, Maenus (1868-— | A. 
German psychiatrist, famous for his exhaustive 
studies in sex confusion and allied subjects. 
Born at Kolberg, he settled in Berlin to prac- 
tice neurology and psychiatry in 1910, and 
within a few years he had published the fol- 
lowing exhaustive works: Die Transvestiten, 
2 vols. (1910-12); Die Homosexualitat (1914) ; 
Sexual Pathologie, 2 vols. (1917); and Sexual 
Zwischestufen (1922). 

HIRT, HERMANN (1865- ). A German 
philologist (see Vor. XI). Among his recent 
works are Geschichte der Deutschen Sprache; 
Fragen des Vokalismus und der Deutschen 
Stammbildung im Indogermanischen (1914), 
and Etymologie der Neuhochdeutschen Sprache 
(1920). 

HIRTH, Friepricu (1845-— ). A German- 
American sinologue (see Vou. XI). He was 
professor of Chinese and head of the Chinese de- 
partment of Columbia University, 1902-17. In 
1917 he wrote The Story of Chang K’ie’n, China’s 
Pioneer in Western Asia. 

HISTOLOGY. See ZooLoey. 

HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION, AMERICAN. 
A national organization founded in 1884 for the 
promotion of historical writing and studies in 
the United States. Throughout the decade 1914— 
24 it had its annual report published by the 
Smithsonian Institution, and brought out quar- 
terly The American Historical Review. In 1915, 
after a controversy in which the Review was 
criticized, the Association gave the editors a 
vote of confidence and took the Review more 
closely under control. Woodrow Wilson was 
elected president for 1924 and after he died the 
first vicepresident, Charles M. Andrews, be- 
came acting president. | 

HITCHCOCK, Gitspert MONELL (1859-— ye 
An American lawyer and public official. Dur- 
ing the administration of President Wilson he 
was chairman of the Foreign Relations Com- 
mittee of the Senate and led in the movement 
for the ratification of the League of Nations in 
that body, 1919-20. He was defeated for re- 
election in the Senate in 1922. 

HITCHCOCK, HELEN SANBORN SARGENT 
(Mrs. Riprey Hitcucock) (1870- yo An. 
American social worker, born at Elizabeth, N. J. 
She studied at the Art Students’ League and in 
1898 founded the Art Workers’ Club for Women, 
of which she was president for 11 years. In 
1914 she founded and was first vice-president of 
the Art Alliance of American Women. In 1917 
she founded and was chairman of the Art War 
Relief and was vice-chairman of the Ameri- 
can Jugo-Slav League. She took a prominent 
part also in other war activities. In 1914 
she married Ripley Hitchcock of New York 
City. 

HITLER, Apotr (?- ). Bavarian re- 
actionary leader, born in Austria, but a natural- 
ized Bavarian. In November, 1920, he organized 


624 


HOBSON 


a movement in Bavaria similar to the Fascist 
movement in Italy. His followers wore gray 
shirts and brassards with an anti-Semitic Swas- 
tika cross in a white circular field on red. 
They were armed with blackjacks and, it was 
reported, with revolvers. Hitler had great gifts 
as an orator and organizer and stood for a 
strong united Germany. On Nov. 8, 1923, he 
and General von Ludendorff seized the govern- 
ment at Munich, but their power lasted only 
a few hours. Ludendorff was captured first; 
Hitler was taken on November 12. They were 
tried for treason in April, 1924, and Hitler was 
sentenced to a short term in the fortress at 
Landsberg, Bavaria. 

HJARNE, HaAratp GABRIEL (1848-1922). 
A Swedish historian. His last works were Fran 
Forvarsstridden (1914), Osteuropas Kriser. 
och Sverges Férsvar (1914), Miéironsredisten- 
ismen (1915), and Var Ofverhingande Fara 
(1917). 

HOBAN, Epwarp Francis’ (1878- LS 
An American bishop, born at Chicago, and edu- 
eated at St. Ignatius College, St. Mary’s Sem- 
inary in Baltimore, and the Gregorian Univer- 
sity at Rome. He was ordained priest in 1903. 
In 1908 he was appointed chancellor of the 
archdiocese of Chicago and was consecrated 
bishop of that diocese in November, 1921. 

HOBART COLLEGE. An institution 
founded at Geneva, N. Y., under Episcopal aus- 
pices, in 1822. The number of students in- 
creased from 102 in 1914 to 209 in 1924, the 
number of teachers in the faculty from 21 to 
32, and the library from 55,000 to 75,000 
volumes. The productive funds rose from $400,- 
000 to $800,000, of which $200,000 was in schol- 
arship foundations, and the endowment from 
$600,000 to $1,000,000, which was being added to 
in 1924 by payment on the endowment fund 
campaign pledges. Murray Bartlett succeeded 
Lyman Pierson Powell as president. 

HOBHOUSE, LEONARD TRELAWNEY (1864— 

). A British sociologist and philosopher 
(see VoLt. XI). He published in 1918 A 
Philosophical Theory of the State, a work in 
which he attacked the metaphysical absolutistic 
notions set up by the Hegelian school. He held 
that the habit of conceiving the state as a be- 
ing led to political conservatism. The Rational 
Good (1921) is an attempt to treat ethics on 
a realistic and somewhat sociological basis. In 
addition to these works he was joint author, 
with G. C. Wheeler and Morris Ginsberg, of a 
survey of The Material Culture and Social In- 
stitutions of the Simpler Peoples (1915). 

HOBOHM, Martin (1883-— ). A lecturer 
on history at the University of Berlin. He was 
born at Friesdorf and studied in Heidelberg, 
Munich, Freiburg, Berlin, and Gottingen. He 
was lecturer at the University of Kiel in 1913 
and in Berlin in 1914. In 1916 he founded a 
bureau for the repression of chauvinism. He 
became very active in political life. His prin- 
cipal works include: Macchiavellis Renaissance- 
und Kriegskunst (1912); Torstensson als Vor- 
ganger Friedrichs des Grossen (1913); Die All- 
deutsche Bewegung; eine Politische Schuld und 
Gefahr (1915); Vaterlandspolitik (1917); Wir 
Brauchen Kolonien (1918); Chauvinismus und 
Weltkrieg (1919); and Delbriick, Clausewitz, 
Kritik des Weltkriegs (1920). 

HOBSON, Joun ATKINSON’ (1858-— ys 
An English economist (see Vou. XI). His later 
writings include: Towards International Gov- 


HOBSON 


ernment (1915); The New © Protectionism 
(1916); Democracy after the War (1917); 
Richard Cobden: the International Man (1918) ; 
Taxation in the New State (1919) ; Problems of 
a New World (1921); Incentives in the New 
Industrial Order; and Economics of Unemploy- 


ment (1922). 
HOBSON, RicHMoND PEARSON (1870- ). 
An American naval constructor, lecturer, and 


author (see Von. XI). Among his later books 
are: Destroying the Great Destroyer (1915) ; 
America and the World War (1917); The Great 
Reform (1918); Alcohol and the iB acies Race 
for Truth Inoculation of Society (1919). In 
1921 he organized the American Alcohol earner 
tional Association. 

HOCHENEGG, Juttus von (1859- ). 
An Austrian surgeon, known as the world’s 
leading operator for cancer of the rectum. Hav- 
ing obtained his medical degree from the Uni- 
versity of Vienna in 1885, he became an assist- 
ant to Professor Albert and in 1889 a private 
docent in surgery. From 1891 to 1904 he had a 
class in surgery in the Poliklinik of the Univer- 
sity, after which he was made full professor of 
surgery with charge of the University Surgical 
Clinic. He has published but. few books; in 1906 
he edited Lehrbuch der Spezielle Chirurgie (2 
vols.), which was reissued in 1918. His military 
experiences were summed up in his Kriegschirur- 
gische Mittheilungen in 1919. From time to 
time he has reported his experiences with rectal 
cancer in the Vienna medical journals. 

HOCHSTETTER, Gustav (1873- hi A 
German writer. He was born at Mannheim and 
studied in Heidelberg and Berlin. <A humorist, 
he edited the popular humorous magazine, Die 
Lustigen Blitter. He is the author of Das 
Starre System (1908); Diskretion Ehrensache 
(1909); Der Tausendste (1909); Das Fusschen 
der Gnidigen Frau (1912); Die Heiratsjagd 
(1912); Hundert Frauen (1913); Wir Sind Wir 
(1914); Bismarcks Historische Karrikaturen 
(1914); Das Morse Alphabet (1915) ; Debberit- 
zer Briefe (1916); Lachende Ceschichten 
(1917); Das Buch der Liebe (1917); Venus in 


Seide (1920); and Das Lustige Hundebuch 
(1920). 
HOCK, STEFAN (1877- ). An Austrian 


writer, born at Vienna, and educated in Vienna 
and Berlin. He was connected with the famous 
Buretheater and was lecturer at the State 
Academy for music and drama. He is the 
author of Die Vampyrsage (1901); Der Traum: 
ein Leben (1904); a history of German liter- 
ature for grammar schools (1913); an intro- 
duction to the study of Grillparzer (1909); a 
monograph on Paul Schlenther (1909) ; Die Ro- 
mantische Schule in Deutschland (1910); Karl 
May (1912); Friedrich Hebbel (1913); Ger- 
hart Hauptmanns Odysseus (1914); and Prinz 
Bugen, der Edle Ritter (1918). He compiled an 
anthology of Austrian verse, wrote a treatise 
entitled Giebt es eine Oesterreichische Literatur- 
geschichte? and edited the correspondence of 
Betty Paoli and Leopold Kompert. 

HOCKER, Pavunt Oskar (1865-— pal. 
popular German novelist, publisher of the mag- 
azine Velhagen und Klasings Monatshefte. He 
was born at Meiningen, had a university educa- 
tion and studied at the Royal Academy of 
Musie in Berlin. Included among his numerous 
works are: Fréulein Doktor (1897); Die Frau 
Rat (1898); Weisse Seele (1901); Letzeter Flirt 
(1902); Friihlingsstiirme (1904); Don Juans 


625 


HODGES 
Frau (1906); Die Verbotene Frucht (1908) ; Die 
Sonne von St. Moritz (1910); Die Lachende 
Maske (1911); Die Meisterin von LHuropa 


(1913); Ein Liller Roman (1916); Die Stadt 
in Ketten (1917); and other fiction. He also 
wrote a volume of war sketches, recollections of 
his youth, and two plays, Die Wappenhinse 
(1904) and Das Volk in Waffen (1913). 

HOCKEY. See Sports. 

HOCKING, Josrepn (1860— ). An Eng- 
lish clergyman and novelist (see Vor. XI). 
His later writings include: The Day of Judg- 
ment (1915); The Path of Glory and Tommy 
and the Maid of Athens (1917); The Pomp of 
Yesterday and The Price of a Throne (1918) ; 
and In the Sweat of Thy Brow (1920). 

HOCKING, Sintas Kitro (1850- ) 4 ean 
English novelist (see Vou. XI). His later writ- 
ings include: The Beautiful Alien (1916); His 
Own Aceuser (1917); Nancy (1919); Watchers 
in the Dawn (1920); The Greater Good (1922) ; 
and My Book of Memory (1923). 

HOCKING, WILLIAM ERNEST (1873- ). 
An American philosopher, born at Cleveland, 
Ohio, and educated at Harvard University He 
was instructor in the history and philosophy of 
religions at Andover Theological Seminary 
(1904-06). After 1906 he taught philosophy 
successively at California, Yale, and Harvard 
Universities He was appointed to the Alford 
professorship at Harvard in 1920. He is the 
author of two important works on religion and 
ethics, The Meaning of God in Human Experi- 
ence (1912) and Human Nature and Its Remak- 
ing (1918; rev. ed., 1924). During. the War he 
gave a series of lectures on Morale and Its 
Enemies (1918). 

HODGE, Jonn (1855— ). A British labor 
leader, born in Scotland. He founded and was 
president of the Iron and Steel Trades Confed- 
eration and took an active part in the political, 
municipal, and industrial movements of Glas- 
gow and western Scotland. He removed to Man- 
chester and was for several terms a member of 
the City Council. In 1906 he was elected to 
Parliament and was acting chairman of the 
Labor party in the House of Commons in 1915. 
He served on several important commissions and 
was Minister for Labor in 1916-17 and Minister 
for Pensions in 1917-19. He took an active part 
in the temperance movement. 

HODGES, Harry Foore (1860- An 
American army officer, born at Boston, Mass. 
He graduated from the United States Military 
Academy in 188], when he was made _ second 
lieutenant in the engineers. He continued in 
the army until December, 1921, when he was re- 
tired with the rank of major-general. His serv- 
ices have been chiefly with engineering work, at 
first on river and harbor duty, and then at ‘the 
Military Academy as assistant professor of en- 
gineering. In 1907 he became assistant chief 
engineer and a member of the Isthmian Canal 
Commission. Continuing in this position until 
1915, he had much to do with the designing of 
the locks and dams and other regulating work 
on the Panama Canal, for which he received the 
thanks of Congress. During the War he had 


command of Camps Devens (Mass.), Sevier 
(S. C.), and Travis (Tex.). He was also in 
France in command of the 20th Division. Later 


he was in command of the North Pacifie and 
3d Coast Artillery districts until his retirement. 
He received the United States Distinguished 
Service Medal. 


HOEBER 


HOEBER, Karu. (1867- ). A German 
pedagogue and editor of the Kélnische Volkszet- 
tung, born at Dietz and educated at the uni- 
versities of Freiburg, Heidelberg, and Strass- 
burg. He taught in various colleges and was 
director of the teachers’ seminary in Metz. He 
is the author of F. W.. Weber, Leben und Dich- 
tung (1903); Edmund Hardy, ein Lebensbild 
(1905); Sprachgebrauch im Volkslied des Vier- 
zehnten und Funfzehnten Jahrhunderts (1908) ; 
Das Deutsche Universitdts- und Hochschulwesen 
(1912); Die Religidsen Pflichten des Gebildeten 
Laienstandes (1913); Religion, Wissenschaft, 
Freundschaft (1921); and Pro Deo et Patria 
(PO2ZLY. 

HOENSBROECH, Pavut, Count (1852- 
1923). A German theologian and writer on his- 
tory and allied subjects (see Vor. XI). His 
later works include: Zwei Welten: Drama- 
tische Bilder (1918); Graf Hertling,: Reichs- 
kanzler (1918); Hin Stick Jesuitenmoral 
(1918); Wilhelm II, Abdankung und Flucht 
(1918) ; and Zuriick zur Monarchie (1918). He 
died Sept. 9, 1923. 

HOFFDING, Hararp (1843- ). A: Dan- 
ish philosopher (see VoL. XI). Despite advanc- 
ing age, he published several philosophic works 
after 1914. In 1921 he helped organize the So- 
cietas Spinozana, an international body for the 
study and interpretation of the works of the 
great Dutch philosopher. Professor Ho/ffding’s 
writings include: Modern Philosophers (1915) ; 
The Great Humor (1916); The Concept of To- 
tality (1917, 1918); Spinoza’s Ethics (1918); 
life and Interpretation (1918); Leading Con- 
ceptions of the Nineteenth Century (1920); and 
The Concept of Relation (1921, 1922). 

HOFFMAN, FREDERICK LuDwie (1865- De 
An American statistician (see Von. XI). 
Among his later books are: Industrial Ac- 
cident Statistics (1915); Mortality from Can- 
cer throughout the World (1915); A Plea and 
a Plan for the Eradication of Malaria through- 
out the Western Hemisphere (1916); National 
Health Insurance in Great Britain (1920); Race 
Amalgamation in Hawaii (1921); Health Con- 
servation and Vital Statistics of South American 
Republics (1921). 

HOFFNER, W. F. Jonannes (1886- Bs 
A German clergyman and writer, born at Dram- 
burg. He studied theology at Halle and Berlin. 
After some years as a pastor, he became editor 
of the popular magazine Daheim, a position 
which he filled until 1921. He is the author of 
Pastorentheologie in Beispielen (1906); Der 
Sinn des Lebens, a volume of stories (1909) ; 
Frau Rat (1910); Der Scharfe Weingesang 
(1909); El‘sabeth Goethe, geb. Textor (1910) ; 
Der Verschlossene Garten, a novel (1910); Mis- 
ericordia (1911); Gideon der Arzt (1911); 
Die Treue von Pommern (1912); Aus Bieder- 
meiertagen (1912); Schiller (1913); O du Hei- 


matsflur (1916); and a biography of Goethe 
(1920). | 

HOFMANN, Joser (1877- ). A cele- 
brated Polish pianist (see Vov. XI). In 1916 


he featured on his recital programmes works by 
an entirely unknown composer, Michel Dvor- 
sky, which attracted favorable comment. He 
also played two concertos for piano and or- 
chestra by Dvorsky, Chromaticon and a con- 
certo in Ab, and the Philadelphia Orchestra pro- 
duced the same composer’s symphonic poem, Le 
Chateau Hanté. A rumor began to circulate 
that Dvorsky was really Hofmann. No one 


626 


HOLDEN 


could get into communication with the supposed 
Dvorsky. Hofmann himself. declared that the 
composer had studied in Paris and was living 
in strict seclusion at San Sebastian, Spain. The 
mystery was cleared up on Dec. 28, 1923, when 
Stokowski gave an all-Hofmann programme, 
with Hofmann as soloist, which included all the 
compositions mentioned. This programme was 
repeated in New York a few days later. Hof- 
mann’s explanation was that he wished to secure 
an impartial opinion regarding the public’s val- 
uation of his works, an object which could not 
have been realized had the works been intro- 
duced under the composer’s real name. 
HOFMANNSTHAL, Huco von (1874—- ye 
An Austrian author whose dramas make him an 
outstanding figure in contemporary German 
literature (see Vout. XI). He published after 
1914: Prinz Eugen, der Edle Ritter (1915); 
Alkestis (1916); Rodauner Nachklange (1920) ; 
Der Tod des Tizian (1920); Der NSchwierige 
(1921); Die Frau ohne Schatten (1921), and 
other works. The last named. and others of 
his plays served Richard Strauss as librettos for 


his operas. 

HOG CHOLERA. See VETERINARY MEDI- 
CINE. 

HOG FEEDING. See GARBAGE AND REFUSE 
DISPOSAL. 


HOGS. See Live STocK. 

HOLBROOK, ELmMerR ALLEN (1880—- ). 
An American mining engineer and public of- 
ficial, born at Fitchburg, Mass., and educated 
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 
He served as engineer and superintendent of sev- 
eral mines. In 1911-12 he was professor of 
mining at the Nova Scotia .Technical College and 
after 1917 was associated with the United States 
Bureau of Mines in various capacities. He is 
the author of many articles on mining and en- 
gineering. 

HOLBROOK, Wittarp Ames (1860—- ys 
An American army officer, born in Arkansaw, 
Wis. He graduated from the United States 
Military Academy in 1885 and became second 
lieutenant in the First Cavalry. Continuing in 
the army, he became in 1920, after successive 
promotions, chiet of cavalry, with the rank of 
major-general. General Holbrook was also an 
honor graduate of the Infantry and Cavalry 
School in 1891 and of the Army War College in 
1912. His services have included duty in Cuba 
during the war with Spain, in the campaigns 
in the Philippines, at the Pennsylvania Military 
Academy, and on the Mexican border. During 
the War in Europe he was overseas, where he 
held the provisional rank of major-general in 
the National Army. On his return to the United 
States he was made chief of staff of the 
Southern Department; he later became chief of 
cavalry. His services won him the United 
States Distinguished Service Medal. 

HOLDEN, CuaArtes ArtTuuR (1872-— ys 
An American educator, born at Hudson, Mass., 
and educated at the Thayer School of Civil 
Engineering of Dartmouth College and at Har- 
vard. During 1895-98 he was engaged in con- 
struction work on the Boston and Albany Rail- 
road, after which for two years he was an 
instructor at the Worcester Polytechnic. In 
1901 he returned to the Thayer School where, in 
1908, he became professor of civil engineering, 
and in 1919, director. During 1901 he also lec- 
tured on civil engineering at the University of 
Wisconsin. Professor Holden has been able to 


HOLDEN 


give attention professionally to important en- 
gineering enterprises, notably as engineer for 
New Hampshire in the New Hampshire and 
Vermont boundary litigation; he has been fre- 
quently called into court as an expert. Dur- 
ing the War he was executive secretary of the 
emergency help and equipment commission of 
New Hampshire and supervisor of military 
training at Dartmouth. 

HOLDEN, Hartre. See Rairways, Consolida- 
. tions. 

HOLDICH, Sir THOMAS HUNGERFORD 
(1843- ). An English explorer (see Vot. 
XI). He was president of the Royal Geograph- 
ical Society from 1916 to 1918. His later pub- 
lications include Political Frontiers and Politi- 
cal Boundary Making (1916) and Boundaries 
in Europe and the Near East (1918). 

HOLITSCHER, ARTHUR (1869- ye An 
Austrian writer, born at Budapest. He engaged 
in the banking businéss in Fiume, traveled in 
Europe and America, and took up his residence 
in Berlin. He is the author of novels and 
short stories, among them: Leidende Menschen 
(18938); Weisse Liebe (1896); Das Sentimen- 
tale Abenteuer (1905); Der Vergiftete Brun- 
nen (1900); Der Golem, (1909) ; Worauf War- 
test Du? (1910); Bruder Wurm (1910); Schlaf- 
wandler (1919); and Adele Bourkes Begegnung 
(1920). He also wrote a play, Das Andere Ufer 
(1901) ; some essays, Jdeale des Alltags (1920) ; 
and books of travel, Amerika Heut und 
Morgen (1912), Geschichten Zweier Welten 
(1920), Ost Siidwest (1915), Das Amerikanische 
Gesicht (1918), and Drét Monate in Soviet 
Russland (1921). He translated Oscar Wilde’s 
Ballad of Reading Gaol. 

HOLL, Kart (1866- ). A German 
Protestant theologian, and professor at the 
university of Berlin (see Vor. XI). Like 
many other German writers, after the War 
he turned to Luther for spiritual guidance. 
He published Die Bedeutung des Grossen Krieges 
fiir das Religiose und Kirchliche Leben der 


Protestanten (1917); Was Verstand Luther 
unter Religion? (1917); Luther und Calvin 
(1919). 

HOLLAND. See NETHERLANDS. 


HOLLAND, Cuirrorp MiLsurN (1883- ie 
An American civil engineer, born at Somerset, 
Mass. He studied at Harvard. His profession- 
al work has been chiefly under the New York 
State Public Service Commission. In 1906-09 
he was assistant engineer in the building of the 
Joralemon Street tunnel under the East River, 
and in 1906-12, with the Fourth Avenue sub- 
way. Subsequent to 1916 he continued this 
service as division engineer in charge of all tun- 
nels built under the East River. He later became 
chief engineer of the New York State Bridge 
and Tunnel Commission and of the New Jersey 
Interstate Bridge and Tunnel Commission, di- 
recting construction of the bridge and tunnel 
connecting New York and New Jersey. 

HOLLAND, Rupert SArcent (1878- ie 
An American lawyer and writer, born at Louis- 
ville, Ky. He graduated from Harvard in 1900 
and from the Law Department of the University 
of Pennsylvania in 1903. In the same year he 
was admitted to the bar. He was chief attorney 
for the Legal Aid Society of Philadelphia from 
1904 to 1910 and lectured also for the American 
Society for the Extension of University Teach- 
ing. He was well known as a writer of histor- 
ical works and fiction. Among his works are 


627 


HOLM 


Builders of United Italy (1908); Historical In- 
ventions (1911); Historical Events of Colonial 
Days (1916); The Blue Heron's Feather 
(1917): and The Paneled Room (1921). 

HOLLANDER, JaAcosp Harry (1871- ye 
An American economist (see Vor. XI.) His 
later writings include The Abolition of Poverty 
(1914) and War Borrowiig (1919) 

HOLLINGWORTH, Harry Levi (1880- We 
An American experimental psychologist, born 
at DeWitt, Neb., and educated at Columbia 
University. In 1909 he was appointed  in- 
structor of psychology at that institution, 
and in 1916 he became associate professor. 
He was one of the leaders in the movement 
for industrial application of scientific psychol- 
ogy. His principal works are Studies in Judg- 
ment (1913); Outline for Experimental Psychol- 
ogy (1914); Outlines for Applied and Abnormal 
Psychology (1914); Advertising, Its Principles 
and Practice (1915); Vocational Psychology 
(1916); Science of Taste (1917); Applied Psy- 
chology (1917); and Psychology of Functional 
Neuroses (1920). 

HOLLIS, Henry FRENCH (1869- > » An 
American public official (see Vor. IX). He 
served in the United States Senate from 1913 
to 1919 and during the War did relief work in 
Poland and Siberia. He was decorated by these 
governments for his services. 

HOLLIS, W(ILL1AmM) STANLEY (1866— ye 
An American public official, born in Chelsea, 
Mass. He studied at the United States Naval 
Academy in 1883-84 and left on account of a 
gun accident. He served in several capacities 
in the consular service from 1889 to 1911, when 
he was appointed consul general of Beirut, 
Syria. On the entrance of Turkey in the War, 
he had charge of the interests of the Allies 
in Syria. He was also head of the American 
Red Cross in Beirut and was prominent in re- 
lief work in Syria and elsewhere. He served 
as consul general in London in 1919 and dur- 
ing other periods and was a_ representative 
in London of the United States War Trade 
Board and other important bodies. In 1920 he 


was appointed consul general at Lisbon, 
Portugal 

HOLLISTER, NEp (1876— ). An Ameri- 
can zodlogist, born at Delaware, Wis. He col- 


lected extensively in field zodlogy throughout 
the western part of the United States (1902- 09) 
and was then assistant curator of mammals at 
the United States: National Museum (1910-16) 
and superintendent of the National Zodlogical 
Park (1916- ). He published Birds of Wis- 
consin (1903); Systematic Synopses of Musk- 
rats (1911); Mammals of the Philippine Is- 
lands (1912); Mammals of Alpine Club Exa- 
pedition to Mt. Robson (1913); Philippine 
Land Mammals in the United States National 
Museum (1913); A Systematic Account of the 
Grasshopper Mice (1914); and Kast African 
Mammals in the United States National Museum 
(1918, 1919). 

HOLM, FRiItTz (VILHELM) (1881- eicdes 
Danish explorer, born at Copenhagen, and edu- 
cated at Copenhagen University and in the 
Danish Royal Navy. After serving in the navy 
from the time he was fourteen years of age until 
he was 19, he went to the Far East, acting as 
journalist and in other positions until 1904, 
when he visited the United States. In 1905 he 
was engaged in journalistic work in London, 
and in 1906 he commanded a scientific mission 


HOLM 628 


into the interior of China, the result of which 
was the bringing to the western world of the 
only existing monolithic replica of the famous 
Nestorian Monument of a.p. 781, which was lent 
to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New 
York, 1908-16. This replica is now in the 
Lateran Palace in Rome, Italy. He was very 
active in the War as correspondent and as Red 
Cross Commissioner and received many decor- 
ations for his work. 

HOLM, Gustav FREDERICK (1849- ee 
Danish explorer, who published a number of 
works on Greenland (see Vou. XI). An Eng- 
lish translation of Legends and Tales from 
Augmasalik appeared in 1914. 

HOLMES, Harry NIcnHoitts§ (1879- its 
An American chemist, born at Fay, Pa., and edu- 
cated at Westminster College and Johns Hop- 
kins University. During 1906-07 he was an as- 
sistant in chemistry at Johns Hopkins and then 
became professor of chemistry at Earlham Col- 
lege until 1914, when he was called to a similar 
chair at Oberlin College and was made head of 
the department. Dr. Holmes is a specialist in the 
chemistry of soaps and in colloid chemistry, in 
consequence of which he became the chairman of 
the subcommittee on coloid chemistry of the Na- 
tional Research Council in 1919-22. The re- 
sults of his studies on the specialties which he 
has made his own have been published in papers 
contributed to the American Chemical Society 
of which he is a member and of whose division 
of physical and inorganic chemistry he was 
chairman in 1920. He is the author of an Out- 
line of Qualitative Analysis (1908), Laboratory 
Manual of General Chemistry (1909), General 
Chemistry (1921), and Laboratory Manual of 
Colloid Chemistry (1921). 

HOLMES, JoHN HAYNES (1879- ). An 
American clergyman (see Vor. XI). He was 
chairman of the General Unitarian Conference 
from 1915 to 1917, was president of the Free 
Religious Association from 1914 to 1919, and 
was made director of the Civil Liberties Bureau 
in 1917. He broke from Unitarianism and be- 
came an independent in 1919. His later writ- 
ings include: Js Death the End? (1915); New 
Wars for Old (1916); Religion for To-day 
(1917); The Life and Letters of Robert Collyer 
(1917); Readings from Great Authors (1918) ; 
The Grail of Life (1919); and Is Violence the 
Way Out? (1920). 

HOLMES, SAMUEL JACKSON (1868— iy: 
An American zoélogist, born at Henry, Ill. He 
was educated at the University of California and 
the University of Chicago (Ph.D., 1897). He 
was instructor in zodlogy at the University of 
Michigan (1899-1905), associate professor there 
(1905-11), and associate professor (1911-16) and 
professor (1916— ) at the University of Cal- 
ifornia He published Biology of the Frog 
(1906); Evolution of Animal Intelligence 
(1911); Studies in Animal Behavior (1916) ; 
Elements of Animal Biology (1918); The Trend 
of the Race (1921); and A Bibliography of Eu- 
gemes (1924). 

HOLMES, Wirttiam HENRY (1846- ). 
An American anthropologist (see Von. XI). 
He was curator of the department of anthropol- 
ogy at the Field Museum in Chicago, of the de- 
partment of aboriginal pottery at the National 
Museum in Washington, and of the National Art 
Gallery of Washington (1910-20). He has pub- 
lished many works on archeological and an- 
thropological subjects. His most recent publica- 


HOLT 


tion is Handbook of Aboriginal American An- 
tiquities (1918). 

HOLSCHER, Gustav (1877- ). A Ger- 
man theologian and authority on the Old Testa- 
ment. He was born at Norden and studied at 
the universities of Berlin, Munich, and Leipzig. 
In 1893 he made a journey to Palestine and 
Phenicia under the auspices of the German 
Orient Society. He lectured at the universities 
of Halle, G6ttingen, and Giessen (1904-20) and 
in 1921 became professor of Old Testament 
science at Marburg. He is the author of Palds- 
tina in Persischen und Hellenischen Zeiten 
(1903); Quellen des Josephus (1904); Saddu- 
edismus (1906); Landes- und Volkskunde Palo- 
stinas (1908); Two Greek Inscriptions from 
Khurbet Harrauwi (1909); Geschichte der Juden 
in Palistina von Siebzig nach Christus (1910); 
Propheten (1915); Entstehungszeit der Him- 
melfahrt Moses (1919); Entstehungszeit des 
Buches Daniel (1920); and a work on the meter 
of Arab, Summerian, and Hebrew poetry. 

HOLST, Gustav (1874- ). An English 
composer, born at Cheltenham. He studied at 
the Royal Academy of Music under Stanford and 
Parry, then played for some seasons in various 
orchestras, and finally settled in London as 
a teacher. In-1907 he became director of music 
at Morley College and also at St. Paul’s Girls’ 
School. In May, 1923, he conducted several of 
his works at the Ann Arbor (Mich.) Festival. 
His works include four operas, The Revoke and 
The Youth’s Choice (neither of them produced), 
Savitri (London, 1916), and The Perfect Fool 
(ib., 1923); a masque, The Vision of Dame 
Christian; a symphony, Cotswolds; an overture, 
Walt Whitman; the orchestral suites, Beni 
Mora, Phantastes, The Planets, and Japanese; a 
symphonic poem, Indra; a Fugal Concerto for 


flute and oboe with string orchestra; The Mystic. 


Trumpeter for soprano and orchestra; Ornult’s 
Drapa for baritone and orchestra; the choral 
works with orchestra, Clear and Cool, King 
Estmere, Choral Hymns from the Rig Veda, 
The Cloud Messenger, Christmas Day, Hecuba’s 
Lament, Hymn .to Dionysus, The Hymn _ of 
Jesus, Ode to Death; and chamber music, songs 
and part songs. 

HOLT, Epwin BISsEeL (1873- ).y An 
American psychologist and philosopher, born at 
Winchester, Mass., and educated at Harvard and 
Columbia Universities. He was instructor in 
psychology at Harvard University, 1901-05; as- 
sistant professor, 1905-18. His two important 
works, The Concept of Consciousness (1914) and 
The Freudian Wish (1915), combine the ap- 
proach of behavioristic psychology with a real- 
istic metaphysics. Professor Holt was one of 
the group of six who published a joint profession 
of neo-realistic doctrine (1912). His own con- 
tribution to that philosophy included the notion 
of neutral entities; that is, entities neither 
mental nor physical, which he presumed to be 
the ultimate elements of the universe. 

HOLT, HAMILTON (1872- ). An Ameri- 
ican editor (see Vor. XI). In 1917 he was 
special lecturer for the World Peace Founda- 
tion, and the Isaac Bromley lecturer on journal- 
ism at Yale University. In the spring of 1918 
he visited the Allied battle fronts as guest of 
the British, French, American, Belgian, and 
Italian governments and represented the League 
to Enforce Peace at the Peace Conference at 
Versailles in 1919. 


HOLT, Henry (1840- ). An American 


ee es 


| 
| 
: 


HOLT 


author and publisher (see Von. XI). In 1915 
he became a member of the Harvard Overseers 
Visiting Committee on philosophy and _ psychol- 
ogy From 1914 to 1921 he edited The Un- 
partisan Review (formerly The Unpopular Re- 
view) and in 1919 he published The Cosmic Re- 
lations and Immortality. 

HOLT, Lucius Hupson (188l- )s An 
American author, born in Atchison, Kan., and 
educated at Yale. He was instructor in English 
there from 1905 to 1908 and assistant editor of 
Webster’s International Dictionary from 1908 to 
1910. From 1910 he was professor of English 
and history at the United States Military Acad- 
emy. He was a member of several societies and 
wrote Introduction to the Study of Government 
(1914); Leading English Poets (1915); History 
of Europe, 1862-1914, with A. W. Chilton 
(1917); Brief History of Europe 1789-1915, 
with A. W. Chilton (1918); and Military Cor- 
respondence, Reports and Orders (1918). 

HOLT, L(UTHER) EMMET (1855-1924). An 
American physician (see Vout. XI). Dr. Holt’s 
death occurred suddenly in China, where he had 
gone to deliver a course of lectures on pediatrics 
in the new medical college established at Pe- 
king by the Rockefeller Foundation. The only 
considerable recent work published by him is 
Food, Health, and Growth (1922). The Holt 
treatise on pediatrics was reissued in 1922 un- 
der the joint authorship of Holt and Howland 
of Johns Hopkins University. Dr. Holt was 
recognized as one of the great medical figures 
of his day, notably in the field of pediatrics. 
His popular booklet on the feeding and care of 
infants was translated into many languages. 

HOLT, WINIFRED (?- ). An American 
sculptor and philanthropist, born in New York 
City. She was educated privately and studied 
anatomy, drawing, and sculpture in Florence. 
Her works, exhibited in New York and in sev- 
eral cities of Europe, included portraits, busts, 
and bas-reliefs. She founded and was secretary 
of the Association for the Blind, and through 
her efforts several homes for the blind were 
founded. She also organized so-called light- 
houses for the blind in France and other parts 
of Europe. In 1921 she visited Poland as a 
guest of the Polish Government for the relief 
of the Polish blind. During the War she did 
much relief work among those blinded in bat- 
tle. She was awarded medals by France and other 
governments and was the author of A Short 
Life of Henry Fawcett (1911); The Beacon for 
the Blind (1914), and numerous papers. 

HOLY PLACES. See ARABIA. 

HOLZKNECHT, Guipo (1872- } etn 
Austrian physician, pioneer in rodntgenology, 
who has recently attracted much attention 
through his attempts to “rejuvenate” elderly 
women by raying the -genital glands. MHolz- 
knecht is indirectly responsible for Gertrude 
Atherton’s novel, Black Oxen. UHaving received 
his medical degree from the University of 
Vienna, just as the Réntgen rays were coming 
into use in medicine, he began to devote him- 
self to this subject and was eventually ap- 
pointed professor of radiology in the university. 
He published the results of X-ray diagnosis in 
tuberculosis and diseases of the chest in 1901 
in a volume entitled Die Réntgenologische Diag- 
nostik der Erkrankungen der Brusteingeweide. 
In collaboration (Holzknecht and Jonas) he 
wrote Die Radiologische Diagnostik der Intra- 
und Extraventrikuliren Tumoren (1908), and 


629 


HONDURAS 


in 1921 he edited the large two-volume work, 
Roéntgenologie. 

HOME RULE, MuniIcIPAt. 
GOVERNMENT. 

HONDURAS. A Central American republic 
with an area of about 44,275 square miles, and 
a population, on Jan. 1, 1922, of 662,422 (a 
gain of 17 per cent over the last decennial cen- 
sus). The capital, Tegucigalpa, had 38,950 in 
1920. Other important towns are: La Esper- 
anza (11,453), Santa Rosa (10,574), Nacaome 
(8152), Choluteca (8065), Amapala (2800), La 
Ceiba’ (8000), Puerto Cortés (4000). The per- 
centage of illiteracy among children was 56 
per cent and school attendance increased only 
slightly over 1911. By the school census of 
1919 only 35,912 children out of the 87,207, 
were receiving instruction. 

Industry. The cultivation of bananas and 
coconuts continued as the leading activity. 
For the year ending Dec. 31, 1922, 12,520,495 
bunches of bananas were exported, and 10,056,- 
977 coconuts. Exports of both bananas and co- 
conuts declined for 1923, banana shipments to 
the United States (over 99 per cent) being 10,- 


See MUNICIPAL 


725,004 bunches, and coconuts 7,485,519. The 
coffee production remained stationary while 
that of rubber decreased. Cattle and _ horse 


raising was on the decrease, there being 500,000 
heads in 1920, compared with 800,000 in 1922. 
After 1912 the country’s trade consistently 
made gains, the imports being $14,342,237 in 
1922-23 as compared with $5,132,679 in 1912- 
13; and the exports in 1922-23, $10,016,270 as 
compared with $3,180,968 in 1912-13. The 
United States supplied 85 per cent of the goods 
imported into the country in 1922-23, and took 
90 per cent of its exports. The balance of trade 
was overwhelmingly against Honduras. 
Finance. For the year 1922-23, the budget 
estimates balanced at 7,949,032 pesos. (In 
1913-14, this was 4,824,000.) The national 
budget appropriations steadily increased after 
1913-14, while both revenues and expenses were 
always larger than the budgeted amounts. The 
1921-22 budget called for revenues and expenses 
of 6,674,895 pesos, but revenues were actually 
7,386,979 pesos and expenses 7,196,161 pesos, 
showing a surplus of 190,818 pesos. The inter- 
est arrears on the foreign debt were not being 
paid with the result that the foreign debt to- 
taled $125,000,000 in 1923. The internal debt 
in 1921 amounted to over $6,000,000, United 
States currency. In 1922, the Banco de Hon- 
duras became the national bank of issue. In 
1918, the peso was legally fixed at one-half the 
value of the American dollar. In 1920, an 
ambitious programme of fiscal reform was 
launched under the direction of an American 
expert, but it was not carried out because of 
lack of funds, while the years 1922, 1923, and 
part of 1924, were years of political disturb- 
ances, which made expenditures for war out of 
all proportion to other expenses, and created 
huge deficits. In 1920 the national railway of 
95 kilometers was turned over to Compaifia 
Agricola de Sula to secure a credit of $1,000,- 
000 to be used in the complete reconstruction 
of the road. This Compania Agricola, a sub- 
sidiary of the American Fruit Company, was 
changed in 1924 to the Cortes Development 
Company, and retained control over the nation- 
al railroad. Slightly over 500 miles of rail- 
ways, in addition to the national line, were the 
property of American fruit companies operat- 


HONEGGER 


ing on the north coast. There were no rail- 
ways on the Pacific coast. There were about 
200 miles of highways open the year around to 
wheeled traffic. A national coast-to-coast high- 
way, which was to have been opened in 1924 
(385 kilometers in length), was damaged dur- 
ing the revolutions. 

History. Internal affairs were stormy dur- 
ing the period 1914-24. In 1919, President 
Bertrand’s well prepared plans for his own re- 
election were upset by a revolt led by General 
Gutierrez. Bertrand fled the country; Gutier- 
rez had himself declared dictator; and, in Oc- 
tober, 1919, was elected president. In 1920, 
disturbances were again reported with the re- 
sult that United States battleships had to pro- 
ceed to the scene to protect American property. 
In 1923, on the eve of the forthcoming election, 
civil war again threatened and many prominent 
Hondurans sought safety in flight. After a 
contest, in which bloodshed and violence were 
not wanting, and which was marked by the 
continuous interference of the president, Gen- 
eral Carias, Conservative candidate, received a 
plurality vote. The election was now thrown 
into the Congress which, in 1924, declared it 
could find for no one candidate. The usual 
round was now repeated. American marines 
were rushed to the scene but could effect noth- 
ing; the president, Gutierrez, proclaimed him- 
self dictator, Feb. 1, 1924; the disappointed 
presidential aspirants took up arms in rebel- 
lion and waged war intermittently on each oth- 
er throughout February. In March, Gutierrez 
was put to flight, and, after a chaotic interreg- 
num, Dr. Fausto Davilla, Conservative, was pro- 
claimed provisional president by a group of 
revolutionary “generals”; but the forces defend- 
ing Tegucigalpa set up a rival in the person 
of Zufiiga Hueta. In the hope of restoring or- 
der, President Coolidge sent Mr. Sumner Welles 
as his special representative, in April, to me- 
diate, and the four neighboring republics were 
invited to join in a conference with the warring 
Honduran factions. This somewhat unusual 
procedure met with success early in May, when 
one of the revolutionary chieftains, Gen. Vicente 
Tosca, was elected president and the civil war 
was ended. 

The government applied itself toward further- 
ing the union of Central American States, and 
with Guatemala and Salvador signed a _ pact 
in 1921 for common action in matters of trade, 
communications, and coinage. In 1919, Guate- 
mala and Honduras submitted their long out- 
standing boundary dispute to the United States 
Secretary of State and a scientific survey under 
the administration of the American Geographi- 
cal Society was provided for. A further ad- 
vance toward realizing peace in Central Amer- 
ica was made in 1922 at a conference of the 
presidents of Nicaragua, Salvador, and Hon- 
duras on board the U.S.S. Tacoma in Fonseca 
Bay (Aug. 20, 1922), at which the three coun- 
tries reaffirmed in part the Treaty of Peace and 
Friendship of Dec. 20, 1907 (see CENTRAL 
AMERICAN UNIon). On July 19, 1918, Hondu- 
ras declared war on Germany and thus became 
an Associate Power and original member of the 
League of Nations. On Nov. 15, 1922, how- 
ever, Honduras notified the League of its inten- 
tion to withdraw because of the onerous annual 
dues. 

HONEGGER, ArtTuHuR  (1892- ) ee 
French composer, born at Havre. He studied 


630 


HOOVER 


in Zurich, 1907-09, and then with R. Martins 
in Havre and L. Capet in Paris, where he lived 
after 1913. He began as an extreme futurist 
and was soon recognized as the leader of the 
notorious group, “Les Six” (Auric, Durey, Mil- 
haud, Poulenc, and Taillefer). His works com- 
prise an opera, La Mort de Ste.-Alméenne; in- 
cidental music to Morax’ Le Roi David and 
Méral’s Dit des Jeuxw du Monde; a ballet, Ver- 
ité? Mensonge?; a symphonic poem, Pastorale 
@Eté; a mimic symphony, Horace Victorieux ; 
Rhapsodie for piano, flutes, and clarinet; cham- 
ber music; and songs. 

HOOKER, BRIAN (WILLIAM BRIAN) 
(1880-— ). An American author (see VOL. 
XI). In 1915 he was awarded the prize in an 
America Opera Association competition for the 
opera Fairyland, with music by Horatio Parker. 
In the same year he published another opera, 
Morven and the Grail, and a commemorative 
poem, A.D. 1919, also with music by Horatio 
Parker, and a volume of Poems, 1915. He be- 
came literary editor of the New York Sun in 
1917; 

HOOVER, C(HARLES) R(UGLAS) (1885- ES 
An American chemist, born in Oskaloosa, Iowa, 
and educated at Haverford College and Harvard 
University, where he held a Carnegie fellow- 
ship, 1912-13. He was professor of chemistry 
at Penn College in Iowa (1909-10) and associ- 
ate professor at Syracuse University (1913- 
15). In 1918 he became professor of chemistry 
at Wesleyan University. He has made deter- 
minations of atomic weights of elements, inves- 
tigated tobacco smoke, and studied the analyses 
of gases. During the War he served with the 
Chemical Warfare Service and invented a gas 
absorbent and a gas detector, both of which 
were of value. 

HOOVER, HERBERT CLARK (1874— ). An 
American public official. He was born in Iowa, 
where his father, a Quaker, cultivated a farm. 
Left an orphan at 10 years of age, he was sent 
tc his uncle’s farm in Oregon to live. He ran 
away when he was 14 and went to Portland, 
Ore., where he worked for a while in a real 
estate office. In 1891 he entered the newly 
established Leland Stanford Junior University, 
working his way through by establishing a 
laundry of which he made a success. Special- 
izing in geology and engineering, he was in the 
first class graduated by the university. To per- 
fect himself as a mining engineer he went to 
California and became a common workman in 
mining, passed through the several grades, and 
acquired familiarity with every part of the 
work. In 1897 he went to Australia as a min- 
ing engineer for an English syndicate and was 
successful in developing some mines there. In 
1899 he was appointed director general of 
mines by the Chinese government. His work in 
China was interrupted by the Boxer troubles; 
he was in Tientsin when the foreigners were be- 
sieged there. He defended not only his Euro- 
pean coworkers but his Chinese workmen too, 
rescuing them in some cases from the firing 
squad. Later he was engaged in mining opera- 
tions in various parts of the world. He made 
and lost two fortunes and eventually won lasting 
success. He was living in England at the out- 
break of the War, and his services were at once 
required in aid of Americans stranded’ there 
with their funds cut off. Soon afterward he 
was put in charge of the Belgian relief work 
and attracted wide attention by his great abil- 


HOPE 631 


ity and enthusiasm. During three years he 
traveled throughout Belgium and visited Brus- 
sels, London, Rotterdam, Lille, and Berlin, in 
order to confer with the heads of governments. 
Although $1,000,000,000 was expended on food 
and transportation, about one-half of 1 per cent 
was required for overhead expenses. He was 
appointed United States Food Administrator in 
1917. He announced that the people of the 
United States could diminish their expenses in 
the necessaries of life by 50 per cent. He in- 
stituted “wheatless days,” and ‘meatless days,” 
and urged avoidance of all waste. After the 
War, Mr. Hoover devised a chain of food dépéts 
throughout central Europe on which relatives 
and friends in the United States could draw for 
relief of the starving people in the countries 
desolated by the conflict. In March, 1921, he 
entered President Harding’s cabinet as Secre- 
tary of Commerce, with the understanding that 
he was to continue his relief work. In 1921, 
he assumed general supervision of the relief 
work in Russia, on condition that all Ameri- 
can prisoners held by the Soviet authorities 
should be released. 

He wrote Principles of Mining (1909), and 
in collaboration with his wife, who was Lou 
Henry of Monterey, Cal., a fellow-student at 
Stanford University, he translated into English 
Agricola’s De Re Metallica. 

HOPE, ANTHONY. See HAWKINS, ANTHONY 
HOPE. 

HOPE, Joun (1868- ). An American 
educator, born at Augusta, Ga., and educated 
at Brown and Chicago Universities. After 
graduation from college he devoted all his time 
to teaching colored youth. He served on the 
faculties of several colleges and universities in 
the South and was appointed president and pro- 
fessor of ethics at Morehouse College (then At- 
lanta Baptist College) in Atlanta, Ga., in 1906. 
In 1918-19 he did war work among the colored 
troops in France. He was a director and 
trustee of many institutions for colored people. 

HOPKINS, ArtHUR MELANCTHON (1878-— 

). A dramatic producer, born in Cleve- 
land, Ohio, who began his work in New 
York City in 1912. His best recent produc- 
tions include The Poor Little Rich Girl; On 
Trial; The Deluge; Good Gracious, Annabelle ; 
The Rescuing Angel; Be Calm, Camilla; The 
Jest; Night's Lodging; Daddy’s Gone a-Hunt- 
ing; The Claw; Anna Christie; The Hairy Ape; 
The Old Soak; Rose Bernd; The Laughing 
Lady; Launzi; A Royal Fandango, and plays 
by Tolstoy, Ibsen, and Shakespeare. 

HOPKINS, Epwarp WasiBurn (1857- ‘a 
An American philologist (see Vou. XI). He 
has been professor of Sanskrit language and 
literature and comparative philology at Yale 
since 1915 and has published Epic Mythology 
(1915) and History of Religions (1918). 

HOPKINS, Ernest Martin’ (1877- Le 
An American educator, born at Dunbarton, N. 
H. He graduated from Dartmouth in 1901 and 
from that year to 1905 was secretary to the 
president there. He was secretary of the col- 
lege from 1905 to 1910 and until 1916 was en- 
gaged in original research for various indus- 
trial concerns in Chicago, Boston, and other cit- 
ies. He became president of Dartmouth on 
July 1, 1916. During 1918 he was in charge of 
the Industrial Relations of the Quartermaster 
Department, United States Army, and assistant 
to the Secietary of War in charge of industrial 


HORNE 


relations. He represented the War Department 
on the War Labor Policies Board in 1918. 

HOPKINS, Wu1iAm Jonn_ (1863- ). 
An American author (see Vot. XI). His later 
works include Those Gillespies (1916); The 
Clammer and the Submarine (1917); and She 
Blows! and Spurn at That (1921). 

HOPPE, WivuiaAm H. (1887- ). World’s 
champion at 182 and 18.1 balkline billiards. 
He was born at Cornwall-on-the-Hudson, N. Y. 
From 1910 he reigned supreme as a _ wielder 
of the cue despite the many times he has been 
called upon to defend his laurels. Beaten in 
match play at rare intervals by such stars of 
the game as Jacob Schaefer, he has always suc- 
ceeded in defending his championship honors. 

HOPWOOD, Avery (1884- ). An Ameri- 
ean playwright, born in Cleveland, Ohio. He 
came to New York City as a correspondent for 
the Cleveland Leader and there sold his first 
play, Clothes, written with Channing Pollock. 
His plays have been produced in the United 
States, Canada, Europe, and the Orient. The 
best known inelude Fair and Warmer; The 
Gold Diggers; The Bat; Spanish Love, in col- 
laboration with Mary Roberts. Rinehart; La- 
dies’ Night; The Demi-virgin; Little Miss Blue- 
beard; Why Men Leave Home; The Alarm 
Clock, and The Best People, with David Gray. 

HORMONES. See SeEcrRETIONS, INTERNAL; 
ZOOLOGY, Physiology; HEREDITY. 

HORNBY, Lester GEoRGE (1882- ).9% Ani 
American illustrator, engraver and painter, 
born at Lowell, Mass., and educated at the 
Rhode Island School of Design at Providence, 
the Pape School in Boston, and the Art Stud- 
ents’ League of New York. In Paris he stud- 
ied with Laurens and others. Representative 
pictures of his are in the Victoria and Albert 
Museum (London), the Library of Congress 
(Washington), the New York Public Library, 
the Art Institute of Chicago, Detroit Institute, 
Carnegie Institute (Pittsburgh), etc. He has 
illustrated sketch books of London, Edinburgh, 
Paris, and Boston. His war etchings are well 
known. 

HORNE, Henry SINcLAIR, first BARON 
(1861— ). A British soldier. He was edu- 
eated for the army at Woolwich and served in 
the South African War. In 1914 he was made 
commander of the artillery of the Ist Corps, 
and in the following year commanded the 2d 
Division. He was sent to Egypt to defend the 
Suez Canal in 1916 and in the same year com- 
manded the 15th Army Corps. Later in that 
year he was given command of the Ist Army 
in France. He served with great distinction. 
In 1909 he was created Baron of Stirkoke and 
was given the eastern command. Until 1920 he 
was general to the King. 

HORNE, Sir ROBERT STEVENSON (1871- Vy: 
A British statesman, born in Glasgow. He was 
educated at the University of Glasgow. He lec- 
tured on philosophy at the University College 
of North Wales in 1895. In the following year 
he was admitted to the Scottish bar and was 
elected to Parliament in 1910. In 1917 he was 
appointed assistant inspector general of trans- 
portation and in the same year became director 
of materials and priority in the Admiralty. In 
1918 he was director of the Admiralty Labor 
Department. He was appointed, also in 1918, 
Third Civil Lord of the Admiralty. He was 
Minister of Labor in 1919; president of the 
Board of Trade in 1920-21; and Chancellor of 


HORSLEY 


the Exchequer in 1921-22. He was knighted in 
1920. In 1921 he was elected Lord Rector of 
Aberdeen University. 

HORSLEY, Sir Vicror ALEXANDER HADEN 
(1857-1916). An English surgeon and neurol- 
ogist (see Vor. XI). On the outbreak of the 
War Sir Victor was put at the head of a hos- 
pital which saw service in Egypt. At a later 
period he was made a colonel in the Mesopo- 
tamia Expeditionary Force and in the course of 
his duties succumbed at Amara to heat stroke. 
A biography of him by Stephen Paget appeared 
in’ 19.19; 

HORTHY DE NAGYBANYA, NIKOLAUS 
(1868— ). Regent of Hungary. Early in 
life he entered the navy. During the War he 
gave efficient service as captain of the battle- 
ship Novara. He was promoted to be admiral 
of the fleet and in this capacity surrendered thie 
Austrian fleet to the Allies in 1918. In 1919 
he organized a counter-revolution against the 
Soviet government in Hungary, under Bela 
Kun, and on the fall of that government, came 
into supreme control. He was elected regent in 
1920 on the theory that the monarchy in Hun- 
gary was only temporarily suspended. By pro- 
vision of the laws, he holds this office for an 
indefinite period. See Huncary, History. 

HORTICULTURE. Activities in this field 
showed both the destructive and stimulant ef- 
fects of the War during the period dominated 
by it. Increased demands for fruits and vege- 
table products of all kinds resulted in ‘an un- 
precedented speeding-up of production, followed 
by a corresponding decline on the close of hos- 
tilities. At the same time labor costs rose ex- 
cessively, and failing to recede with the drop 
in prices, they made the period of readjustment 
particularly difficult for the growers of all 
forms of perishable products. The long contin- 
ued and bitterly contested railroad strike of 
1922 was a bitter blow to fruit and vegetable 
producers, sorely needing an opportunity to re- 
cover from the disastrous conditions following 
the War. The period showed a gradual move- 
ment from amateur to commercial production. 
The ravages of insect and fungus pests, making 
expensive spraying machinery an absolute ne- 
cessity, eliminated many poorly kept orchards 
and plantations. The haphazard methods of 
the past yielded to scientific practices. This 
trend in commercial horticulture is clearly out- 
lined in statistics furnished in the 1920 census, 
which shows that the number of bearing, decid- 
uous fruit trees dropped from 301,117,277 in 
1910 to 230,781,135 in 1920. In the Pacific 
Coast States, always the stronghold of commer- 
cial orcharding, there was at the same time a 
noticeable increase in the number of trees. The 
greatest decline occurred in the Mississippi Val- 
ley region, where small farm orchards were the 
general rule. The greatest loss in bearing trees 
occurred in the apple and peach; the pear, 
plum, and cherry nearly held their own, and 
the apricot showed slight gains. Despite the 
decline in the number of trees the total pro- 
duction of orchard fruits increased slightly dur- 
ing the period, and the value of fruits trebled. 
The number of grapevines in the United States 
gained slightly during this census period, and 
citrus fruits of all species showed consistent 
increases. Bearing orange trees increased from 
9.737,927 in 1910 to 14,397,836 in 1920; lemons 
from 956,920 to 2,921,608; grapefruit from 
710,040 to 1,938,453; and tangerines from 27,- 


632 


HORTICULTURE 


271 to 41,310. The total production of citrus 
fruits increased from 23,502,128 boxes in 1909 
to 38,107,060 in 1919. 

One of the striking changes in the fruit in- 
dustry of the country during the same census 
period was the serious setback to the pineapple 
industry, as indicated in figures showing that 
the number of bearing plants declined from 37,- 
948,399 in 1910 to 2,897,141 in 1920. Bearing 
nut trees, pecans, Persian walnuts, almonds, 
ete., increased from 5,027,788 in 1910 to 6,524,- 
125 in 1920. At the same time the value of the 
nut crops increased from $4,447,674 in 1909 to 
$29,714,396 in 1919. Peanut acreage enlarged 
from 869,887. acres in 1909 to 1,125,100 acres 
in 1919; white potato acreage decreased from 
3,666,855 to 3,251,701; sweet potato acreage in- 
creased from 641,255 to 803,727; and small 
fruit acreage decreased from 272,460 to 249,- 
084. The nursery industry of the country 
showed no gain; sales in 1919 amounted to $20,- 
434,389 as compared with $21,050,822 in 1909. 
The number of square feet under glass was in- 
creased from 114,655,276 to 162,368,593. Im- 
ports of vegetables, fruits, and nuts reached a 
maximum in 1919 and 1920 and thereafter ex- 
hibited a sharp decline. Export trade in these 
items followed the same general trend. How- 
ever, both imports and exports were considera- 
bly higher in value at the end of the 10-year 
period than at the beginning. In respect to 
the horticultural industry throughout the world 
at large, one of the most striking features was 
the rapid extension of the citrus industry in 
South Africa and Australia. Both countries 
developed their plantations to such an extent 
as to oversupply home consumption and render 
exportation to Great Britain a necessity. 

Protective Acts. One of the most important 
developments was the organization of the Fed- 
eral Horticultural Board, as the result of the 
plant quarantine act of Aug. 20, 1912. ‘This 
board, given power to promulgate and enforce 
necessary protective measures for preventing 
the entrance of insect and fungus pests into the 
United States, became at once a power for good 
to the Nation’s agriculture. That such protec- 


‘tion was long needed is shown by the entrance 


in the past of many serious pests, including 
the San José scale, gipsy moth, Japanese beetle, 
chestnut blight, white pine blister rust, ete. 
The enactment of Quarantine 37, effective on 
and after June 1, 1919, prohibiting, with cer- 
tain exceptions, the importation of nursery 
stocks and other plants and seeds into the Uni- 
ted States, had a very great effect on American 
horticulture, especially on those branches con- 
cerned in the propagation and dissemination of 
ornamental plants. As a result, it became nec- 
essary for the nurserymen in this country to 
propagate many species of plants hitherto im- 
ported from foreign countries. 

The continued spread, despite vigorous repres- 
sive efforts, of the European corn borer, Japa- 
nese beetle, and many other serious pests enter- 
ing the United States previous to the organiza- 
tion of the Federal Horticultural Board, caused 
serious alarm. In many cases the pests had 
spread so rapidly that their eradication was con- 
sidered out of the question. The potato wart 
disease, for a time considered a very serious 
menace to the potato industry of the United 
States, was found controllable by the planting of 
resistant varieties. (See PoTAToES.) The gipsy 
moth, continuing its westward march through- 


HORTICULTURE 


out New England, threatened the Adirondack 
and Catskill forests, in spite of vigorous efforts 
made to stay its progress. More encouraging 
was the likelihood of eradicating the Parlatoria 
date scale, an insect which, if uncontrolled, was 
believed capable of wiping out the infant date 
industry of the southwestern States. 

Transportation. Material advances were 
made in the shipping of perishable products. 
The cooling of fruits and vegetables previous to 
placement in refrigerator cars became general 
and enabled distant growers to get their prod- 
ucts to the consumer without material loss in 
quality. The motor truck practically replaced 
the horse in the truck garden industry in the 
vicinity of large cities, making possible not only 
a geographical expansion of the trucking indus- 
try but also a quicker movement of highly per- 
ishable products. 

Marketing. No phase of horticultural activ- 
ity exhibited such radical changes ‘as that of 
marketing. Literally hundreds of codperative 
agencies sprang up in various parts of the coun- 
try and in most cases rendered material assist- 
ance to the long-suffering grower. The marked 
success of the California Fruit Growers’ Ex- 
change, operating under the adverse conditions 
of the War, propagated the codperative idea, at 
a time when extremely low prices were being re- 
ceived for most commodities. A new system of 
selling fruits and vegetables arose. This was 
the f. o. b. auction, in which the product is in- 
spected at the point of origin by government 
authorities and sold on this basis while in transit 
to market, and the returns are made to the 
grower within 48 hours after sale. One strik- 
ing development was the tremendous growth 
of roadside markets in the vicinity of cities and 
along important highways. An idea of the im- 
portance of this way of selling can be gained 
from the rough estimate of 500,000 stands in 
operation in the United States in 1923. These 
markets became important in the disposal not 
only of fruits and vegetables, but also of flowers, 
eanned products, cider, etc. Marketing was 
greatly aided by the development of better grad- 
ing and packing practices, stimulated not only 


by greater demand for selected uniform prod- - 


ucts but also by the enactment of various Fed- 
eral and State laws on the marketing and brand- 
ing of fruits and vegetables. In response to 
these regulations numerous codperative packing 
plants sprang up in various parts of the country. 

Investigation. Despite the serious disrupt- 
ing forces of the War, investigation progressed 
satisfactorily. The Oregon Experiment Station 
promulgated in 1918 the theory that growth and 
fruitfulness in plants is directly related to the 
proportion of carbohydrates and nitrogen in 
them. This concept has been of great benefit in 
assisting in the explanation of many cultural, 
pruning, and fertilization practices hitherto gen- 
erally accepted but not understood. During the 
period it became definitely acknowledged that of 
the many fertilizers applied to fruit trees, ni- 
trogen is the only material making an adequate 
return, and then only on poor soils or where 
trees are growing in sod. Studies in fruit stor- 
age contributed greatly to the knowledge of the 
proper time of picking and the importance of 
careful handling of fruit at all stages. Work 
of the United States Department of Agriculture 
in the standardizing of fruit and vegetable pack- 
ages did much to protect the consumer from 
fraud. The development by the same depart- 


633 


HORTON 


ment of large-fruited blueberries afforded proof 
that much may yet be done to improve our na- 
tive species of fruits. The discovery of bud 
variations in the citrus family explained the ex- 
istence of many unfruitful and undesirable trees. 
Experimental results disproved one popular fal- 
lacy, namely, that all fruit trees require severe 
annual pruning. 

War Gardens. Literally thousands of vege- 
table gardens were grown in war gardens, dur- 
ing the two years of the United States’ participa- 
tion in the war, by people who hitherto had 
never been interested in horticulture. The value 
of these gardens to the food reserves of the na- 
tion was estimated as approximately $500,000 in 
1918. 

Plant Protection. Material advances were 
made in the method of protecting horticultural 
plants from various insect and fungus enemies. 
The utilization of dry insecticides and fungicides, 
known as dusts, steadily increased, until in 
many parts of the United States and Canada 
their use became an important part of the pro- 
tective programme. The discovery that many 
economic plants, including the potato, tomato, 
raspberry, etc., are subject to a serious form of 
disease commonly known as mosaic caused a 
great deal of concern. Widespread, disastrous 
freezes occurring during the blooming periods 
of 1921 greatly injured the fruit crop in many 
parts of the country and reawakened an inter- 
est in orchard heating as a means of protecting 
fruits from disastrous loss. Considerable agita- 
tion was aroused in New England and New York 
over the death of Baldwin apple trees follow- 
ing the severe winter of 1919. However, it was 
generally conceded that this old and standard 
variety, despite its occasional tenderness to cold, 
could not be replaced. 

Miscellaneous. One striking feature of the 
period was the gradual replacement of estab- 
lished varieties of fruits and vegetables by new 
and better sorts. The Delicious apple, from a 
modest position, became one of the leading vari- 
eties. The Stayman Winesap proved so much 
better than its parent, the Winesap, as to re- 
place it largely in new plantings. The Golden 
Bantam and other yellow sweet corns gained 
favor over the older white sorts. 

Necrology. Among prominent horticultur- 
ist. who died between 1914 and 1924 were Jackson 
Dawson, horticulturist, Aug. 3, 1916; Philippe 
de Vilmorin, ‘French seedsman and _ scientist, 
June 30, 1917; J. H. Hale, fruit grower and 
public servant, Oct. 11, 1917; J. C. Whitten, 
scientific horticulturist, June 5, 1922; G. Harold 
Powell, manager of the California Fruit Grow- 
ers’ Exchange, Feb. 18, 1922; Walter Van Fleet, 
plant breeder, Jan. 27, 1922; and Samuel Par- 
sons, landscape gardener, Feb. 3, 1923. 

Bibliography. A few of the large number of 
horticultural books appearing during this decade 
were S. W. Fletcher, The Strawberry in North 
America (New York, 1917); V. R. Gardner, F. C. 
Bradford, and H. D. Hooker, Jr., Fundamentals 
of Fruit Production (New York and London, 
1922); U. P. Hedrick et al., The Cherries of 
New York (Albany, 1915), The Peaches of New 
York (Albany, 1917), and The Pears of New 
York (Albany, 1921); W. Poponoe, Manual of 
Tropical and Subtropicel Vegetable Gardening 
(New York and London, 1916); E. A. White, 
The Principles of Floriculture (New York, 
1915). 

HORTON, Rosert FoRMAN (1855- ). An 


HOUBEN 634 


English Congregational minister (see Vor. XI). 
His later volumes include Reconstruction 
(1915); An Autobiography (1917); and The 
Mystical Quest of Christ (1923.) 

HOUBEN, Hertnricuh Husertr (1875- i 
A German author and director of the literary 
department of the annual Leipzig book fair. He 
was born at Aix-la-Chapelle and studied in Bonn, 
Berlin, and Greifswald. He founded the Deut- 
sche Bibliographische Gesellschaft and was lit- 
erary director of F. A. Brockhaus’ publishing 
house (1907-19). He is the author of Karl 
Gutzkow (1899-1901); Emil Devrient, Leben 
und Wirken (1903); Jungdeutschlands Sturm 
und Drang (1911); Die Deutsche Revolution 
(1919) ; Hartmanns Revolutionare Erinnerungen 


(1919); Karl Schurz’s Befrewng Kinkels 
(1920); and Adele Schopenhauer, Tagebuch 
einer HEinsamen (1921). He also compiled 


Beriihmte Autoren des Verlags F. A. Brockhaus 
and edited the works of Sven Hedin. 

HOUDINI, Harry (1874- ). An Ameri- 
can magician, born at Appleton, Wis. He be- 
gan his career as a trapeze performer in 1882. 
He invented a diving suit, was interested in 
producing moving pictures, and was awarded a 
prize by the Australian Aéronautic League in 
1910 for the first successful flight in Australia. 
He made many tours of the world and gave per- 
formances before the notables of various coun- 
tries. He gained fame by exposing the tricks of 
mediums, as well as by his own remarkable 
achievements as a magician. He wrote The 
Right Way to do Wrong (1906); Handcuff Se- 
crets (1907); The Unmasking of Robert Houdini 
(1908); Miracle Mongers (1920); Spooks and 
Spiritualism; and Rope Ties and Escapes. 

HOUGH, Emerson (1857-1923). An Ameri- 
can writer, born in Newton, Iowa, and educated 
at the University of Iowa in 1880. He spent 
many years in. traveling over the West and 
wrote much on the protection of game and other 
subjects relating to the public domain of the 
United States. He was responsible for the pas- 
sage of the act of Congress for preserving buf- 
falo in Yellowstone Park. He wrote The Sing- 
ing Mouse Stories (1895); The Story of the 
Cowboy (1897); Mississippi Bubble (1902) ; 
The Lady and the Pirate (1913); The Magnifi- 
cent Adventure (1915); The Way Out (1918) ; 
The Covered Wagon (1922); North of 36 
(1923); and the posthumous Mother of Gold 
(1924). The Covered Wagon,'as a moving- 
picture, was the most successful made up to that 
time. It ran steadily over a year. in New 
York City. 

HOUGH, Lynn Harortp (1877- ). An 
American clergyman (see Vout. XI). Among his 
later works were: The Quest for Wonder 
(1915); In the Valley of Decision’ (1916); The 
Little Old Lady (1917); The Significance of the 


Protestant Reformation (1918); The Clean 
Sword (1918); The Productwe Beliefs (Cole 
Lectures at Vanderbilt University; 1919); 


The Eyes of Faith (1920); The Opinions of 
John Clearfield (1921); and other volumes. 
HOUGHTON, Aranson BIGELOow  (1863- 
). An American manufacturer and dip- 
lomat, born at Cambridge, Mass., and edu- 
cated at Harvard University, in Germany, and 
in Paris. He engaged in the manufacture of 
glass at Corning, N. Y., and became president 
and official in several important glass com- 
panies and other concerns. He was a member 
of Congress, 1919-23, but resigned on his ap- 


' HOURS OF LABOR 


pointment as Ambassador to Germany by Presi- 
dent Harding in February, 1922. 

HOURS OF LABOR. ‘The last 10 years have 
seen a marked general reduction of. hours of 
labor. That long hours do not pay had been 
coming more and more to be believed. The ex- 
periences of the War and particularly the re- 
port of the British munitions workers’ commit- 
tee established this general principle beyond 
doubt. Moreover, the influence of the forces of 
labor was steadily gaining and culminated in 
considerable economic power during the War. 
These two circumstances combined not only to 
stimulate legislation for the limitation of work- 
ing hours, but also to decrease hours of work 
in the industries which were not affected by the 
protective laws. 

According to the Census of Manufacturers of 
1914, 11.8 per cent of the workers covered worked 
in eight-hour establishments. In the 1919 cen- 
sus, 48.6 per cent did so, while advance figures 
compiled for the 1924 census showed that 51.5 
per cent worked in eight-hour plants. 

Hour legislation in this country is still, due 
to constitutional limitation, largely confined to 
the protection of women and children. During 
the past decade, however, were enacted the La 
Follette Seamen’s Act of 1915 and the Adam- 
son Act of 1916, regulating respectively the hours 
of maritime and interstate railway workers. 
Numerous eight-hour restrictions on work under- 
taken for the State and several special pro- 
hibitions of long working hours in certain par- 
ticularly dangerous occupations such as mining 
and caisson work have also become law. A re- 
cent Oregon statute provides for an eight-hour 
day in the lumbering industry when the adjoin- 
ing States have adopted similar restrictions. 
Within the decade, 16 States have been added 
to the ranks of those which regulate the work- 
ing day or week of women either generally or in 
certain occupations, while the scope of many 
other laws and orders which applied only to 
specified employments has been made more gen- 
eral. 

Legislation, however, has not been limited 
to the restriction of daily or weekly hours of 
work. In addition, nine more jurisdictions now 
prohibit or regulate the night work of women, 
while of the eight night-work laws already in 
effect in 1914 several have since been enlarged 
in scope. New regulations providing for daily 
rest periods and a weekly day of rest have also 
been adopted, while the effectiveness of many of 
those previously operating has been increased 
(see WoMEN IN INDUSTRY). 

The working hours of children are limited to 
eight in 35 jurisdictions—a substantial gain 
over 1914—while every State now regulates to 
some extent either the daily or weekly hours of 
child labor. Some of these restrictions, how- 
ever, are generally regarded as inadequate, such 
as a 60-hour week in South Dakota, Louisiana, 
Georgia and North Carolina and an 11-hour 
day in North Carolina. Some are difficult to 
inforce, while others permit a large number of 
exceptions. The recent Federal child labor 
amendment will, when it has been ratified by 
the necessary three-fourths of the States, enable 


Congress to enact an adequate universal restric- 


tion of hours of labor for children (see also 
Cuitp Lagor). 

In addition to these statutory limitations on 
working hours in the United States, union pres- 
sure as well as public sentiment has worked 


HOURTICQ 635 


towards a general reduction of hours in fields 
not affected by legislation. Perhaps the most 
outstanding example of this is the final adoption 
in 1923 by the steel industry of a three-shift 
eight-hour system instead of the former two- 
shift system, in deference, according to the ex- 
ecutive head of the United States Steel Cor- 
poration, to “public sentiment, however creat: 
ed.’ See TRADE UNIONISM; LABOR ORGANIZA- 
TIONS, INTERNATIONAL; LABOR LEGISLATION; LaA- 
BOR ARBITRATION; STRIKES. 

HOURTICQ, Louis (1875- ). A French 
art critic, born at Brossac, in Charente, and edu- 
eated in Paris at the Ecole Normale. He was 
appointed professor of esthetics and the history 
of art at the Ecole des Beaux Arts and was 
also a member of the Superior Council of Public 
Instruction. 

He is the author of Rubens; France, Histoire 


_ Générale de VArt Francais; Les Tableaux du 


Louvre; Récits et Réflexions @un Combattant ; 
La Jeunesse de Titien; Initiation Artistique; 
Manet; Histoire de la Peinture, des Origines 
au Seiziéme Siécle; La Galérie de Médicis au 
Louvre; Every One’s History of French Art; 
De Poussin a Watteau. 

HOURWICH, IsAAac A(ARONVICH) (1860- 

). An American statistician (see VOL. 
XI). His later works include Mooted Questions 
of Socialism (1917); he was also editor of a 
Yiddish translation of Das Kapital by Karl 
Marx (1919). 

HOUSE, Epwarp MANDELL (1858- ie 
An American publicist, born at Houston, Tex., 
and educated at Cornell University. He en- 
gaged in business in Texas and was at the same 
time active in Democratic politics as adviser, 
though not as an active participant or candi- 
date for office. He was among the most prom- 
inent of those who worked for the nomination of 
Woodrow Wilson for the presidency in 1912, and 
he gained the confidence of Mr. Wilson to a 
marked degree. The President relied on him for 
advice in matters of appointment and policy. In 
1914, at the outbreak of the War, he visited the 
warring countries in an effort to find a basis 
for peace. During the years following he made 
several other visits to Europe with the same 
purpose. When the United States entered the 
War in 1917, he attended the meetings of the 
Supreme War Council of the Allies in London, 
as chairman of the American Commission, and 
in that capacity communicated the views of the 
American government in regard to the conduct 
of the War to the Allied premiers and foreign 
ministers. As the end of the War approached 
in 1918, he was designated by President Wilson 
to act for the United States in negotiations for 
an armistice with the Central Powers. He was 
a member of the American Commission to Nego- 
tiate Peace at Paris, and during the absence of 
President Wilson from the United States, was 
practically in charge of American negotiations. 
On President Wilson’s return to Paris, a break 
occurred in the relationship, and Mr. House 
ceased to take a prominent part in the deliber- 
ations. Following the War he retired from 
public life. He was joint editor, with Prof. 
Charles Seymour, of What Really Happened at 
Paris, and «180 published an autobiographical 
novel. In 1920 he joined the staff of the Phil- 
adelphia Public Ledger. 

HOUSE, Roy Tempre (1878- rere An 
American educator, born at Lexington, Neb., 
and educated at Miami University and the Uni- 


HOUSING 


versity of Michigan. He taught French and 
German in several schools and colleges until 
1905, when he was appointed head of the mod- 
ern language department at the Oklahoma 
Southwestern State Normal School, where he 
served until 1910. In the following year he was 
exchange professor in Germany. In 1911 he be- 
came professor of German and in 1918 head of 
the modern language department of the State 
University of Oklahoma. He was director for 
the Commission of Relief in Belgium in 1916 
and was engaged in other important war work; 
he received decorations from the Belgian gov- 
ernment for his services. His published writ- 
ings include Three French Comedies (1905) and 
Classroom French (1910). He also translated 
several foreign plays and contributed book re- 
views to periodicals. 

HOUSING. The housing problem even before 
the War was rapidly becoming serious. Al- 
ready overcrowded conditions were being aggra- 
vated by the normal increase in population and 
the concentration in industrial centres. The 
difficulty of providing houses to rent at a figure 
attractive to workmen was discouraging new 
building by investors, and the tradition of home 
ownership by workers appeared to be dying out. 
War conditions brought the situation to a 
crisis. For a time after the opening of the 
War there was practically general suspension 
of building activities, on account of the short- 
age of material and labor and the highly in- 
creased costs: Repairs were neglected, replace- 
ments were not made, adequate provision was 
not supplied even for the normal increase in 
population, to say nothing of the emergency 
concentration at industrial centres. The con- 
gestion reached the previously unaffected middle 
classes. The return of the soldiers after the 
Armistice increased the urgency, and those gov- 
ernments which were not forced to deal with 
the situation during the War were unable to 
evade the issue in the years that followed. A 
brief account is given below of the widespread 
legislation, marking the post-war period, which 
aimed fully to utilize existing facilities, to curb 
profiteering, and to. encourage building. Al- 
though in 1921 the house shortage was still se- 
rious, not only in every important country but 
even in centres as remote as Bagdad and Bom- 
bay, it was generally held that the crisis had 
been passed, notwithstanding the fact that it 
would take many favorable years to make up 
the deficit. : 

United States. In 1917, the acute scarcity 
of housing accommodation, especially in muni- 
tions and shipbuilding centres, made Federal 
action imperative. The United States Shipping 
Board was given an appropriation to provide 
housing for its workers ($10,000,000 was spent 
at Hog Island alone in that year); and in 1918 
an additional $95,000,000 was granted for this 
purpose, $20,000,000 of which was to go for trans- 
portation facilities. The War Department also 
built temporary villages adjacent to inaccessible 
munitions plants. The United States Housing 
Corporation, with a total appropriation of $100,- 
000,000, carried on construction for the Bureau 
of Industrial Housing and Transportation in 
128 communities, housing 25,000 families and 
25,000 single lahorers; after the Armistice, 6000 
families and 8000 single laborers. (See BRIDGE- 
PORT.) One of the benefits resulting from Fed- 
eral investigation was the development of stand- 
ards for industrial housing. Although it was 


HOUSING 


estimated that between $150,000,000 and $250,- 
000,000 was spent for workers’ housing through- 
out the country in 1918, rents continued high, 
and in 1919 it was estimated that 1,000,000 ad- 
ditional houses were needed. ‘There was a short- 
age of 35,000 apartments in New York City, and 
Chicago reported facilities 20 per cent less than 
requisite. To alleviate the situation, New York 
passed laws to permit the remodeling of old- 
type buildings, to protect tenants, and to stimu- 
late building; the St. Louis Chamber of Com- 
merce formed a $2,000,000 building association ; 
North Dakota launched a programme of State 
aid for houses not exceeding a cost of $5000. 
The effort to stimulate building produced laws 


Owned 
Year Rented Owned Free 
1910 54.2 45.8 30.8 
1920 54.4 45.6 28.2 


636 


HOUSING 


of their incomes for rent, and that the total 
surplus of vacancies was so small as to neces- 
sitate the immediate extension of the emer- 
gency rent legislation, without discrimination as 
to rentals, for two years. It recommended the 
use of State and municipal credit for housing 
purposes. By the middle of January, 1924, sev- 
eral bills relating to rent laws were before the 
Legislature and two constitutional amendments 
had been proposed. See LAw, PRoGRESS OF THE. 

The following table comparing home-ownership 
statistics for the years 1910 and 1920 shows a 
decrease, slight yet of some significance, in the 
economic independence of the population of the 
United States: 


Per cent of owned homes 


Owned En- 

cumbered Free Hncumbered 
15.0 67.2 32.8 
Ib rhgas 61.7 Bore 


exempting new structures from taxation; and 
other laws attempted to control profiteering by 
setting a maximum per cent of increase within 
a given period and by limiting the landlord’s 
arbitrary right to dispossess. In 76 cities profit- 
eering committees were formed; in 50 others, the 
Bureau of Industrial Housing and Transporta- 
tion adjusted rent disputes. Although, aiter 
some improvement in conditions during the sum- 
mer and fall, the crisis was believed to have been 
passed toward the close of 1920, the United 
States in 1921 was still facing a deficit of about 
147 per cent of its normal building programme, 
which affected about 4,000,000 people. It was 
true that building costs had fallen, but private 
builders were still holding off awaiting a still 
further decrease. As for investors, with build- 
ing costs still 100 per cent above the pre-war level 
and rents only 25 per cent above, home-building 
did not attract their capital; and while investi- 
gation pointed to from 13 to 14 per cent gross 
as the minimum return from any rented prop- 
erty, it was claimed that legislative interference 
kept rents at a figure that did not encourage 
building as an investment. About this time, 
price-fixing combines among contractors and 
producers of material, in some cases working 
in conjunction with corrupt labor leaders, were 
uncovered in New York and in Illinois. The 
general level of rent increases in 1921 was far 
above 25 per cent over pre-war figures. In one 
or two localities where there were rent laws, 
landlords were required to prove the reasonable- 
ness of any increase over 25 per cent above 1914 
rents, but in general there were few places where 
the increase was not much greater. The cities 
covered by the Bureau of Labor Statistics 
showed in 1921 an increase ranging from 25.8 
per cent in San Francisco and Oakland to 93.4 
per cent in Norfolk, Va., the general increase 
ranging about 60 per cent (Monthly Labor Re- 
view, February, 1922, pp. 59-64). Other au- 
thorities show a greater increase. (See CosT oF 
Living.) Figures for the first six months of 
1923, returned from 65 cities of 100,000 or more 
inhabitants, showed issues of permits to house 
195,015 families, or an increase of 47,766 over 
the first half and 49,361 over the second half of 
1922. 

In New York State, the housing commission, 
after an investigation, handed in a report in 
December, 1923, finding that rents had increased 
in three years between 40 and 93 per cent, that 
families with an income of from $1000 to $1500 
a year were paying approximately 23 per cent 


Investigation of housing conditions and leg- 
islation for their control were much stimulated 
and guided during the years after 1910 by the 
activities of the National Housing Association. 
Other attempts to improve the type of workers’ 
homes were made by limited dividend companies 
(formed by philanthropic organizations, cham- 
bers of commerce, etc.), codperative housing as- 
sociations, and by both Federal and State au- 
thorities. Codperative housing showed a little 
progress. There were some successful experi- 
ments in the larger cities, and Wisconsin passed 
an act promoting it. There had been no tend- 
ency in the United States to follow that Eu- 
ropean policy under which the government builds 
workers’ homes; for, although Massachusetts 
did, with State money, build and sell 12 houses, 
the experiment seemed to have been abandoned 
afterward, and the Federal government’s con- 
struction during the period was concerned only 
with war industry. Those forms of encourage- 
ment most in favor seemed to be the elimination 
of taxes on mortgages, tax exemption on new 
buildings, and government aid in the financing 
of local activities; construction itself was chief- 
ly in the hands of contractors, although a con- 
siderable activity was shown by building and 
loan associations. 

Great Britain. Following the outbreak of 
the War, two housing acts were passed, in 1914, 
but these being limited in scope were not gener- 
ally productive of results. Investigations in 
1917 uncovered an immediate need of 400,000 
dwellings in England and Wales and 109,000 
in Scotland. Since it was evident that private 
enterprise could not meet the situation, the 
Housing Bill of 1919 was passed, making it in- 
cumbent on local authorities to carry out hous- 
ing schemes, with the government assuming the 
annual deficit in excess of a penny rate. In the 
same year an additional act went into force, pro- 
viding a subsidy of £15,000,000 for private per- 
sons building small houses; checking luxury 
building and the wrecking of dwellings; and 
otherwise facilitating construction. This under- 
taking to provide for a shortage of from 500,- 
000 to 800,000 houses was abandoned in 1921, in 
an effort to cut down expenditures. The new 
policy called only for the completion of 198,000 
houses already undertaken, at a cost of £10,005,- 
000, and an expenditure of £200,000 in improve- 
ment of slum areas. This discouraging outlook, 
however, was lightened by the activities of 
about 60 local building guilds. A rent law fix- 
ing the percentage of increase and controlling 


HOUSING 


dispossession had been extended in 1919, and re- 
placed by a new law in 1920, Further exten- 
sion of these provisions became a definite politi- 
cal issue in 1923, when general decontrol was de- 
ferred to June 24, 1925, and the protection of 
the tenant extended to 1930. Nevertheless, un- 
der the 1923 rent law, it was much easier for 
landlords to evict tenants, and since with the 
coming in of a new tenant a house was ‘‘decon- 
trolled,” thereafter the landlord could charge 
what rent he pleased, subject only to a vague re- 
view by the courts. Complaints were coming in 
from various cities that tenants were being 
forced out, and being unable to secure other 
quarters, were crowding workhouses in London 
to an alarming extent. Another bill providing 
for state aid to housing, on a smaller scale, was 
passed also in 1923, under which about 40,000 
houses a year were being built. 

France. In 1919, there were still 550,000 
buildings to be supplied in the devastated area, 
and there was much overcrowding in the larger 
towns. A Cheap Dwellings Bureau was making 
some progress in that year with garden suburbs 
outside of Paris; and the destruction of the 
Paris wall and military zone was ordered, mak- 
ing available about 3025 acres. Government aid 
was being given in 1921 to about 2000 codpera- 
ative societies of reconstruction. Rent-limiting 
legislation had been found necessary; also some 
control over lodging and boarding houses. 

Germany. The situation in Germany was 
complicated by the unsettled financial and labor 
conditions. In a number of towns, house room 
was rationed and civilians were billeted in pri- 
vate homes; and letting or selling was subject 
to regulation. In 1921, a national law required 
all states to spend at least 30 marks per head 
on house construction in 1921-22. Neverthe- 
less, by 1922, construction had practically ceased. 
The owners, with only about 1499 of their in- 
terest left to them by the rent-fixing law, had 
been practically expropriated. An attempt to 
raise a special fund for building was made in 
1923 by levying a housing tax, fixed at 30 times 
the pre-war rent of houses. A law passed in 
1923 to protect tenants was to have force until 
1926. 

Italy. In 1920, Italy was trying to meet 
the situation through coéperative societies and 
building clubs in the north and by the building 
of garden suburbs around Rome (where one-third 
of the population were without permanent 
homes), building activity being encouraged by 
a government subsidy of 100,000,000 lire, a dras- 
tic rent law passed in 1919, and certain tax ex- 
emptions. Restrictions on rent were, however, 
to end June 30, 1923, profiteering thereafter to 
be checked by the creation of a court of arbitra- 
tion with power to decide in case of a deadlock 
between landlord and tenant, and by a threat 
to renew the rent law for 10 years if the land- 
lords abused their privileges. 

Other Countries. Canada did nothing with 
respect to housing during the War but in 1919 
voted $25,000,000 to assist workingmen, par- 
ticularly soldiers, to build homes at lowest 
cost, the fund to be distributed among the prov- 
inces on the basis of population; and similar 
action was taken in Australia in 1920 and in 
New Zealand in 1921. Belgium provided a hous- 
ing subsidy of 100,000 francs in 1920; only 
4000 of its 150,000 devastated dwellings having 
been replaced by that time. In Holland, where, 
notwithstanding an act in 1918 that provided 


637 


HOVGAARD 


for 90 per cent loans for building purposes, 
there was a shortage of 60,000 houses in 1920, 
the situation in 1923 was much improved, 
partly due to a movement back to country towns 
and villages. Norway had a shortage of 18,000 
houses at the beginning of 1919 and in 1920 sev- 
eral municipalities were going heavily into new 
construction. In Sweden where it had _ been 
necessary in 1919 to float a lottery bond loan 
to aid in building, and to pass rent restriction 
laws, by 1923 the shortage had perceptibly de- 
ereased. In 1920, Czecho-Slovakia was ration- 
ing rooms. Conditions in Soviet Russia were 
difficult to ascertain, but-building permits to the 
number of 8914 from 271 municipalities in 1923 
showed that 98.6 per cent of the structures 
planned for in that year were one-story 
houses of wood and other semipermanent mate- 
rials; no buildings were to be more than two 
stories; and all were being built by owners. A 
survey of the principal centres of Denmark in 
October, 1923, showed 20,088 homeless individ- 
uals. In May, 1923, Copenhagen, finding part 
of its congestion due to an influx from the prov- 
inces, passed a law, retroactive to April 21, to 
check the movement by forbidding the leasing 
of apartments without a permit to persons with 
a residence elsewhere or whose last residence was 
outside the city. 


HOUSMAN, LAvuRENcE (1865- ). An 


English artist and author (see VoL. XI). His 
later publications include: Bird in Hand 
(1916); The Sheepfold (1918); St. Francis 


Poverello (1918); The Heart of Peace (1919); 
The Wheel (1919); Ploughshare and Pruning- 
hook (1919); The Death of Orpheus (1921) ; 
Angels and Ministers (1921); A Peep-show in 
Paradise (1921); Inttle Plays of St. Francis 
(1922); Dethronements (1922); Moonshine and 
Clover (1922) ; A Doorway in Fairyland (1922) ; 
False Premises (1922); and Echo de Paris 
(1923). 

HOUSTON. A city and port of entry of 
Texas, situated on the Houston Ship Channel. 
The population increased 61 per cent from 85,- 
784 in 1910 to 138,278 in 1920, to 154,970 by 
estimate of the Bureau of the Census for 1923 
and to.195,409 by local estimate. In 1919, the 
development of Houston as a cotton port was 
inaugurated; in 1924, the city celebrated the 
exportation of her millionth cotton bale for one 
shipping season, and the attainment of rank of 
second cotton port in America. A $4,000,000 
bond issue was voted in 1923 to provide for the 
construction of six additional wharves 500 by 
150 feet, a 5-mile extension of the harbor belt 
railway, and a grain elevator with initial capac- 
ity of 1,000,000 bushels and storage capacity of 
9,000,000 bushels. The tonnage of the port in- 
creased 340 per cent in the four years from 
1920 to 1923, from 714,621 to 3,149,196, and its 
value 194.8 per cent from $72,967,344 to $215,- 
109,522; building increased 435 per cent be- 
tween 1914 and 1923. 

HOUSTON, Davin FRANKLIN (1866- hy 
An American public official (see Von. XI). 
From February, 1920, to March, 1921, he was 
Secretary of the Treasury. He was also chair- 
man of the Federal Reserve and Farm Loan 
Boards. From 1916 to 1920 he was a member 
of the Council of National Defense. 

HOVGAARD, WititAmM (1857- }. aa 
American naval architect. born at Aarhus in 
Denmark. He graduated from the Naval Acad- 
emy of Denmark in 1879 and from the Royal 


HOWARD 


Naval College at Greenwich, England, in 1886. 
After service in the Royal Danish Navy he was a 
member of the Danish expedition at St. Croix to 
observe the transit of Venus in 1882. After 
naval service from, 1897 to 1901, he came to the 
United States and became professor of naval 
design and construction at the Massachusetts In- 
stitute of Technology. He was employed in the 
Bureau of Construction and Repair of the De- 
partment of the Navy in 1917-18. He is a 
member of many naval and scientific societies 
and is the author of Submarine Boats (1887); 
Voyages of the Norsemen to America (1914) ; 
Structure and Design of Warships (1915); Mod- 
ern History of Warships (1920), and Gen- 
eral Design of Warships (1920). 

HOWARD, CLinton NorMan (1868— 1 
An American lecturer and temperance advocate 
(see Vor. XI). Some of his later lectures were 
“The World on Fire’ (1917); “A Scrap of 
Paper” (1917); and “Cost, Cause and Cure of 
War” (1917). 

HOWARD, JouHN GALEN (1864—- ). SAT 
American architect (see Vou. XI). From 1912 
he was a member of the Board of Consulting 
Architects of San Francisco and from 1913 di- 
rector of the School of Architecture of the Uni- 
versity of California, for which he designed the 
Greek Theatre and other buildings. He was a 
member of the National Institute of Arts and 
Letters and was formerly president of the 
Society of Beaux Arts Architects. In 1918-19 
he served as captain in the American Red Cross 
in France. 

HOWARD UNIVERSITY. A nonsectarian, 
coeducational institution for the higher educa- 
tion of Negroes in Washington, D. C., founded 
in 1867, and largely supported by Congress. 
In 1918, all the secondary schools of the uni- 
versity were abolished and the whole plan of 
undergraduate work changed. The four-year 
college course was divided into two periods of 
two years each, the Junior College, and the 
Senior Schools. The semester system was abol- 
ished in June, 1919, and the quarter system sub- 
stituted. Departments of architecture, of pub- 
lic health and of physical education were estab- 
lished. Despite the loss of the secondary stu- 
dents the total enrollment of the university rose 
from 1463 students in 1914 to 2123 in 1923. 
Twenty-six new members were added to the fac- 
ulty between the reorganization of the univer- 
sity in 1918 and 1923, and the Congressional 
appropriations in the same period increased 
from $117,937 to $232,500 annually. A dining 
hall building with class rooms for the depart- 
ment of home economics was built in 1921 at a 
cost of $301,000, and plans were under way for 
a new gymnasium and stadium. A greenhouse 
was erected in 1919, and Howard Hall, for many 
years used as a detention house for incorrigible 
children, was renovated and made a dormitory 
for girls; many improvements were also made 
on the campus. The General, Education Board 
offered to give $250,000 as an endowment to 
the Medical School provided the university 
raised a like sum. J. Stanley Durkee, Ph.D., 
D.D., became president in 1918. 

HOWE, FREDERICK CLEMSON (1867- yt 
An American lawyer and public official (see 
Vout. XI). From 1914 to 1919 he was Commis- 
sioner of Immigration at the Port of New York 
and published Socialized Germany (1915), Why 
War? (1916), and other economic and political 
works. 


638 


HOWZE | 


HOWE,, Grorcn (1876— ). An American 
educator, born at Wilmington, N. C., and edu- 
cated at Princeton, the University of Halle, Ox- 
ford, and the American Classical School in 
Rome. He became professor of Latin at the 
University of North Carolina in 1903, and in 
1919 dean of the College of Arts. He was a 
member of the State Council of Defense, 1917- 
18. Professor Howe was the author of several 
textbooks and associate editor of Study and 
Philology. 

HOWE, Harrison ESTELL (1881- ). An 
American chemist, born at Georgetown, Ky., 
and educated at Earlham College and Michigan 
and Rochester Universities. In 1901 he became 
chemist to the Sanilac Sugar Refining Company 
and in 1902 went to the Bausch and Lomb Op- 
tical Company, with which he remained until 
1915, when he became assistant to the president 
and later department manager of the research 
concern of A. D. Little in Cambridge, Mass. 
In 1919-22 he was chairman of the division 
of research extension of the National Research 
Council and also served as consulting chemist 
to the Ordnance Bureau. Later he was a major 
in the Retired Corps. In 1921 he became editor 
of the Journal of Industrial and Engineering 
Chemistry, and in the same year published The 
New Stone Age. ; 

HOWE, MARK ANTONY DE WOLFE 
(1864— ). An American editor and author 
(see Vou. XI). His later works include: The 
Humane Society of the Commonwealth of Mas- 
sachusetts (1918); The Atlantic Monthly and 
Its Makers (1919); George von Lengerke Meyer, 
his Life and Public Services (1919); and Mem- 
oirs of the Harvard Dead in the War against 
Germany, 2 vols. (1920, 1921). He was the 
editor of Harvard Volunteers in Europe (1916). 

HOWELLS, Joun MEAp (1868—- ye An 
American architect, born at Cambridge, Mass., 
son of William Dean Howells. He _ grad- 
uated from Harvard in 1891 and afterward 
studied at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. From 
1907 to 1917 he was a member of the architec- 
tural firm of Howells and Stokes of New York 
and Seattle. He designed and erected buildings 
for Harvard, Yale, and Columbia Universities 
and for banks and other financial institutions 
in New York, San Francisco, Seattle, and other 
cities. He was a member of the American In- 
stitute of Architects and the American Institute 
of Arts and Letters and president of the New 
York Society of Diplomaed Architects of Paris. 
He contributed frequent articles on technical 
and literary subjects to magazines. 

HOWITZERS. See ARTILLERY. 

HOWLAND, Harorp Jacoss (1877- ). 
An American writer, born at Chatham, N. Y., 
and educated at Amherst College. He was with 
several publishing companies in New York and 
elsewhere until 1902, when he became a member 
of the editorial staff of The Outlook. He was 
associate editor of The Independent, 1913-20, 
and managing director of the Independent Cor- 
poration, 1919-20. In 1910 he was a candidate 
of the Progressive party for Congress and was a 
member of the State Executive Progressive Com- 
mittee of New Jersey. During the War he 
served with the Y. M. C. A. in Italy. He was 
the author of Theodore Roosevelt and His 
Times, in the Chronicles of America series. 

HOWZE, Ropert LEE (1864- ). “An 
American soldier, born in Rusk county, Tex. 
He graduated from the United States Military 


HRDLICKA 


Academy in 1888 and was commissioned 2d 
lieutenant in the same year. He served as a 
volunteer in the Spanish-American War and 
rose to the rank of captain. In 1901 he was 
commissioned captain of the Regular Army. 
He served as major of the Porto Rico provisional 
regiment, 1901-04, and from 1905 was command- 
ant of cadets of the United States Military 
Academy. After service in Porto Rico and as 
colonel of the 11th Cavalry, he was detailed to 
the General Staff in 1916. In the following 
year he was appointed brigadier-general in the 
National Army and commanded the 2d Cavalry 
Brigade on the Mexican border. He became 
major-general in 1918 and was given command 
of the 38th Division. With this he served in 
the Meuse-Argonne campaign and then was 
commander of the 3d Division with the Army 
of Occupation in Germany until Aug. 14, 1919. 
He was assigned to the Mexican border, com- 
manding the Ist Cavalry Division. 
HRDLICKA, AtLeEs (1869- ). An Ameri- 
can anthropologist (see Vor. XI). His later 
works include Notes on the Pathology of the 
Ancient Peruvians (1914); The Most Ancient 
Skeletal Remains of Man (1914); Physical An- 
thropology in America (1914); Anthropology 
of the Chippewas (1916) ; Physical Anthropology 
of the Lenape, Delaware and Eastern Indians in 
General (1916); The Old White American 
(1917); The Genesis of the American Indian 
(1917); and Anthropology of Florida (1922). 
HUARD, FRANCES WILSON’ (BARONESS 
Hvuarp) (1885-— ). An American’ writer 
and relief worker, born in New York City. She 
was privately educated and in 1905 married 
Baron Charles Huard, a painter and illustrator 
of Paris. At the outbreak of the War she 
turned her chateau over to the French govern- 
ment. When this building was destroyed, she 
transferred the hospital in 1917 to Paris, where 
she maintained 100 beds through funds col- 
lected during lecture tours in the United States. 
She wrote My Home in the Field of Honor 


(1916); My Home in the Field of Mercy 
(1917); and Lilies White and Red. 
HUBBARD, HEnry VINCENT (1875- yi 

An American landscape architect, born at 


Taunton, Mass. He graduated from Harvard 
_ University in 1897 and afterward studied land- 
scape architecture there and also at the Mas- 
sachusetts Institute of Technology. From 
1906 to 1918 he was a member of the firm of 
Pray, Hubbard, and White, Boston. He was 
appointed instructor of landscape architecture 
at Harvard in 1906, assistant professor in 
1910, and professor in 1921. He was a founder 
and chief editor of Landscape Architecture. 
During the War he designed and built several 
cantonments and also assisted in designing 
housing communities. He was a Fellow of the 
American Society of Landscape Architects and 
a member of the American City Planning In- 
stitute and the British Town Planning Insti- 
tute. His writings on architectural subjects 
include Introduction to the Study of Landscape 
Design, in collaboration with Theodora Kim- 
ball (1917). In 1919 he edited the report of 
the United States Housing Corporation 
HUBERICH, Cuartes HENRY (1877- yi 
An American lawyer, born at Toledo, Ohio. He 
was educated privately and studied law at the 
University of Texas, and in Germany. In 1898 
he was admitted to the bar. He was a member 
of the faculty of the University of Texas from 


639 


HUDSON 


1900 to 1905, when he was appointed assistant 
professor of law at Leland Stanford Junior Uni- 
versity. He became professor in 1907. In 
1909-10 he was professor of law at the Univer- 
sity of Wisconsin. He was a member of several 
legal associations and is the author of The 
Trans-Isthmian Canal (1904), Law Relating to 
Trading with the Enemy (1918), and volumes 
on the commercial law of Australia, New Zea- 
land, Canada, and other British dominions. He 
also edited volumes on the laws of the United 
States. 

HUCH, Ricarpa (1864— ). A German 
poet, novelist, and historian (see Vou. XI). 
Her later works include a war novel in three 
volumes, Der grosse Krieg in Deutschland 
(1914); Natur und feist als die Wurzeln des 
Lebens und der Kunst (1914): Wallenstein 
(1915); Das Judengrab (1916); Luthers 
Glaube (1916); Der Fall Deruga (1917); and 
Der Sinn der Heiligen Schrift (1919). 

HUDSON, MANLET OTTMER (1886- Te 
An American lawyer and educator, born at St. 
Petersburg, Mo., and educated at William Jewell 
College, Harvard University, and the Harvard 
Law School. He was assistant in history at 
Harvard and Radcliffe Colleges from 1907 to 
1910, and from 1910 to 1919 professor of law at 
the University of Missouri. He joined the fac- 
ulty of Harvard as assistant professor of law 
in 1919 and was made full professor in 1921. 
He was a member of many important commis- 
sions on State laws and in 1917 was attached 
to the office of the Solicitor to the Department 
of State. He was counsel of the United States 
Government Inquiry on the terms of peace, 
1917-18, and served in other capacities at the 
Peace Conference in Paris. In 1919 he was a 
member of the legal section of the Secretariat 
of the League of Nations and acted as legal ad- 
viser to the International Labor Conferences 
in Washington and Genoa. He was the author 
of many articles in legal periodicals. 

HUDSON, W. H. (1841-1922). A British 
naturalist and author, born at Quilmes near 
Buenos Aires, Argentina, of American parents 
who had settled there. He remained in South 
America till the age of twenty-nine, when after 
the death of both parents he made his home in 
England. Details of his early life except so far 
as they appear in his books are not known, but 
from the age of fifteen until he went to England 
he had traveled beyond the Rio Negro to Banda 
Oriental across the La Plata and westward over 
the pampas. Apart from his considerable rep- 
utation as an originally sympathetic and under- 
standing writer in natural history, which began 
with the publication of Argentine Ornithology 
(1888-9), he attained also, by the quality of his 
prose, a high place in English literature. 
While his books dealing with England, in their 
informal, pleasing revelation of its people, its 
birds, all its small life, as he came upon these 
in less frequented corners, are here and there 
set with passages of a stirring, lyric beauty, 
it is in his writings on South America that he 
is most effective, poetic and colorful. In 
‘Green Mansions (1904), by far his finest liter- 
ary work, he produced a masterpiece of poetic 
and compelling fiction, woven consistently in 
beautifully-textured prose. His published works 
include also: The Purple Land (1885); A 
Orystal Age (1887); Naturalist in La Plata 
(1892); Idle Days in Patagonia and Birds in a 
Village (1893); British Birds (1895); Birds 


HUDSON RIVER TUNNEL 


in London (1899) ; Nature in Downland (1900)+% 
Birds and Man (1901); El Ombi (1902); 
Hampshire Days (1903); A Little Boy Lost 
(1907); The Land’s End (1908); Afoot in Eng- 
land (1909); A Shepherd’s Life (1910); Ad- 
venture Among Birds (1913); Far Away and 
Long Ago and History of My Early Life (1918) ; 
Birds in Town and Village and The Book of a 
Naturalist (1919); A Traveller in Little 
Things and Dead Man’s Pluck (1921); and A 
Hind in Richmond Park (1922). Mr. Morley 
Roberts in W. H. Hudson, A Portrait (New 
York, 1924) while expressly disclaiming the 
office of biographer supplies a valuable body of 
information and personal reminiscences. 

HUDSON RIVER TUNNEL. See Tun- 
NELS. 

HUGEL, Friepricu, BARON yon (1852- . ). 
An Austrian-English writer on religion: (see 
Vout. XI). In 1916 he wrote The German Soul; 
in 1921, Essays and Addresses. 

HUGGENBERGER, ALFRED (1867— }: 
A Swiss writer. He was born at Bewangen of 
farmer folk and attended only a village school. 
His writing, done in intervals of hard manual 
labor, found warm appreciation among German 
critics. He has written, in verse and _ fiction, 
Hinterm Pfluge (1908); Von den Kleinen Leu- 
ten (1909); Das Ebenhéchst (1911); Die Bau- 
ern von Steig (1913); Die Stille der Felder 
(1913) ;Dorfgenossen (1914); Die Geschichte 
des Heinrich Lentz (1915); Aus Meinem Son- 


nengarten (1917); Die Heimliche Macht 
(1919); and Wenn der Mérzwind Weht (1920). 
HUGGINS, MILiter J. (1880- ). Profes- 


sional baseball player and manager, born at 
Cincinnati, Ohio. His first big league engage- 
ment was with the Cincinnati National League 
Club where he served from 1904 to 1909 when 
he was traded to the St. Louis Club of the same 
league. He managed this club for five years 
and was then made manager of the New York 
American League Club, his team the “Yankees” 
winning pennants in 1921, 1922 and 1923, and 
the world’s championship in the last-named 
year. 

HUGHES, Cuartes Evans’ (1862- ie 
An American jurist and public official (see Vou. 
XI). He resigned from the Supreme Court, to 
which he had been appointed in 1910 by Pres- 
ident Taft, in order to become Republican can- 
didate for the. presidency in 1916. He was de- 
feated by Woodrow Wilson and returned to the 
practice of law. In 1919-20, by the appoint- 
ment of President Wilson, he investigated al- 
leged irregularities in the building of army and 
navy airplanes during the War. In March, 
1921, he became Secretary of State in the cab- 
inet of President Harding, and as such presided 
at the Disarmament Conference, Washington, in 
1921-22. Other important problems which he 
handled as Secretary of State related to the 
German treaty, mandates, the oil controversy, 
and American participation in the World Court, 
which he advocated in 1923. 

HUGHES, CHARLES FREDERICK (1866- yi 
An American naval officer, born in Bath, Me. 
He graduated from the United States Naval 
Academy in 1884. During the Spanish-Amer- 
ican War he served on board the Monterey, par- 
ticipating in the battle of Manila. He was on 
duty with the Bureau of Equipment from 1904 
to 1906 and served as Chief of Staff of the At- 
lantic Fleet in 1913-14. He was a member of 
the General Board of the Navy Department 


640 


HUGHES 


from 1914 to 1916 and served with the British 
Grand Fleet in the North Sea in 1917-18. In 
the latter year he was promoted to the rank of 
rear-admiral and was placed in command of 
the Navy Yard in Philadelphia. 

HUGHES, HATCHER (?- ). An Ameri- 
can playwright, born in South Carolina, and 
educated at the University of South Carolina 
and Columbia University. In 1912 he started 
giving courses in the drama and playwrighting 
at Columbia. For four years he directed the 
Morningside Players, an organization of Co- 
lumbia University, which was the first to 
present a play by Elmer Rice. In 1922, with 
Elmer Rice, Mr. Hughes wrote Wake Up, Jona- 
than, in which Mrs. Fiske starred on tour for a 
solid season after three months in New York. 
In 1924 Mr. Hughes’s Hell-bent fer Heaven was 
awarded the Pulitzer Prize. 

HUGHES, Hecror JAmes_ (1871- 2 
An American educator, born at Centralia, Pa. 
He graduated from Harvard in 1894 and later 
studied at its Lawrence Scientific School. 
Meanwhile, during 1894-98, he was connected 
with the Brookline (Mass.) Town Engineer’s 
Office and in 1899-1902 was connected profes- 
sionally with the Chicago, Burlington, and 
Quincy Railroad in Chicago. In 1902 he returned 
to Harvard as instructor in civil engineering, 
becoming in 1914 professor of that subject, and 
in 1920 dean of the Engineering School. Also 
during 1914-18, he lectured on his specialty at 
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He 
is the author of A Treatise on Hydraulics, with 
A. T. Safford (1911), Roads and Toll Roads in 
America (1913), and Highway Engineering Ed- 
ucation (1914, 1916). 

HUGHES, Rupert (1872- ). An Ameri- 
can writer (see Vor. XI). His later writings 
include: Empty Pockets (1915); Clipped 
Wings (1916); The Thirteenth Commandment 
(1916); In a@ Little Town (1917); We Can’t 
Have Everything (1917); The Unpardonable 
Sin (1919); Long Ever Ago, a volume of Irish 
stories (1919); What’s the World Coming To? 
(1920); Beauty (1921); Monna (1921); Souls 
for Sale (1922). He wrote and directed many 
motion pictures, including Scratch My Back 
(1920); The Old Nest (1921); Dangerous 
Curve Ahead (1921). 

HUGHES, THomAs WELBURN (1858- yy 
An American lawyer and educator, born in Can- 
ada and educated in Canada and at the Univer- 
sity of Michigan. From 1892 to 1898 he was 
instructor in law at that university and later 
served on the faculties of the University of I1l- 
inois and Louisiana State University. From 
1912 to 1915 he was dean and professor of law 
at the University of Florida and served as dean 
there from 1919. He was the author of Hughes 
on Hvidence (1906); Hughes on Criminal Law 
(1913); Hughes: Cases on Evidence (1920), 
and many pamphlets and magazine articles. 

HUGHES, WitLtiAM Morris (1864— ye 
An Australian statesman, born in Wales. In 
1844 he went to Australia, where he entered 
politics as a member of the Legislative Assem- 
bly of New South Wales, in 1893. He resigned 
this position to become a member of the Federal 
Parliament. In this body he devoted himself 
to the interest of labor and advocated a very 
advanced policy. He was attorney-general of 
various labor administrations from 1908 to 
1915. In the following year he became Prime 
Minister. During the War he was defeated 


HULETT 641 


twice on the subject of conscription. He formed 
a coalition with the Liberals and was again de- 
feated in 1922. In 1923 he was again chosen 
Premier but was obliged to resign on the de- 
feat of his government later in that year. He 
was a delegate at the Paris Peace Conference 
and took a prominent part in the deliberations. 
See AUSTRALIA. 

HULETT, Grorak Avaustus (1867- y 
An American chemist, born in Illinois, and edu- 
eated at Princeton and Leipzig. He was an 
assistant in chemistry at Princeton, then an 
instructor at the University of Michigan 
(1899-1904), and again at Princeton, where in 
1909 he became professor of physical chemistry. 
He was also chief chemist of the Bureau of 
Mines (1912-13). During the War he was a 
member of the foreign service commission of 
the Natural Research Council and _ visited 
France and England to study the origin and 
development of scientific activities in connection 
with warfare. His original investigations were 
almost entirely in problems of physical chem- 
istry, e.g. isomorphism in precipitates, occlu- 
sions in electrodeposits, and decomposition 
potentials. He was a member of the United 
States Assay Commission in 1906. 

HULL, Corpdetit (1871- yi 
public official (see Vor. XI). He served as a 
member of Congress, 1907-21. From the latter 
date he was chairman of the Democratic Na- 
tional Committee and was later chairman of the 
Democratic National Executive Committee. In 
this capacity he called to order the Democratic 
national convention of 1924 and was also chair- 
man of the platform committee at that con- 
vention. 

HULSE, Hiram RIcHARD (1868- An 
American bishop, born at Middletown, N. Y., 
and educated in Philadelphia. After studying 
theology he was ordained deacon and _ priest. 
He was for several years vicar of the Pro- 
Cathedral in New York and from 1899 to 1912 
was rector of St. Mary’s Church there. He was 
also Secretary of the American Church Mis- 
sionary Society and in 1915 was consecrated 
bishop of Cuba. 

HULSEN, Curistian K. F. (1858- yi 
A German historian and archeologist. He was 
born in Berlin and studied at the university un- 
der Mommsen. After teaching several years he 
was appointed director of the German archeol- 
ogical institute in Rome; in 1917 he became 
honorary professor at Heidelberg. He is the 
author of Die Thermen des Caracalla (1898) ; 
Forum Romanum (1904); Topographie der 
Stadt Rom im Altertum (1897); Die Thermen 
des Agrippa (1910); Il Libro di Giuliano di 
Sangallo (1910); and Roms Antikengdrten 
(1917). 

HUMAN EVOLUTION. See ANTHROPOL- 
OGY. 

HUMBERT, Gerorces Louis (1862- rota 
French general, born in Gazaran. He entered 
the army in 1883 and served in Indo-China, 
\Madagascar, and other French colonies. He was 
in service in Morocco in 1913 and in 1914 and 
was placed in command of the Moroccan di- 
vision at the outbreak of the War. Later in 
1914 he commanded the 23d Army Corps. He 
was given command of the 3d Army in 1915, 
This post he held for three years, with dis- 
tinguished success. In 1919 he was made gov- 
ernor of Strassburg and in 1920 a member of 
the Superior War Council. 


An American 


HUNGARIAN LITERATURE 


HUME, Samvurn JAmeS (1885- Aa 
dramatic director and producer, born in San 
Francisco, Cal., and educated at California and 
Harvard Universities. He organized the first 
exhibition of stagecraft in the United States in 
1914 and exhibited in Boston, New York, Chi- 
cago, Detroit, and Cleveland. In 1918 he _ be- 
came assistant professor of dramatic literature 
and art at the University of California and 
directed the Greek Theatre there. He is also 
interested in pageant and masque productions. 

HUNEKER, JAMES Gipsons (1860-1921). 
An American musical and literary critic (see 
VoL. XI). In 1921 he published Steeplejack, 
largely autobiographical. His death cost Amer- 
ican letters one of its most discerning critics 
whose large and contagious enthusiasms suc- 
ceeded, more than any other single. force, in 
familiarizing Americans with modern European 
artistic movements. He was one of the first to 
write of Gauguin, Ibsen, Wagner, Nietzsche, 
France, Faguet, Van Gogh, and George Moore. 
In this sense possibly he was only a reporter; 
but he reported the advent of new genius with 
discrimination, a rare gift. 

HUNGARIAN LITERATURE. The great 
events of the decade 1914-24 did not much in- 
fluence the literature of Hungary, as that coun- 
try acted always a rather passive part in Euro- 
pean politics. As no Hungarian felt enthu- 
siasm for the War and nobody surmised the 
tragic end fate prepared for the old kingdom, 
the national literature of the Hungarians con- 
tinued its course of natural evolution even dur- 
ing the great cataclysm. Literary production 
grew continuously and the people were willing 
to pay hundreds of thousands of their depre- 
ciated crowns for a good book. During the last 
years, as was to be foreseen, modern tendencies 
became prevalent. Tradition and political con- 
ditions had created for centuries a retrospective 
seclusion of Hungarian literature. On the eve 
of the new century a small group of young 
poets and writers, all admirers of the great 
western nations, revolted against the old tra- 
ditions. The very title of their magazine Nyu- 
gat (The West) expresses their programme. 
Amid the great contest of national and human 
ideas they were fighting on humanity’s side, 
but after their victory they were again return- 
ing to a sound and sober nationalism. The 
representatives of the old school, some of them 
fed at the breast of classicism, but finally grow- 
ing into a languishing triviality, were slowly 
dying out. The young authors revived the 
whole literature, filled it with strength, added 
very much to the treasury of language and 
were refining all styles of writing from classical 
down to the futurist. Among the modern poets, 
Endre Ady (1877-1919) representing lyric 
poetry, was the most prominent. A staunch ad- 
mirer of the French ‘‘deeadents,” he learned 
their affectation in showing a neglect of the 
forms while, in fact, they were bringing these 
same forms to perfection. Many of his poems 
are of permanent value. Mihaly Babits was 
the most sensible, most erudite, and perhaps the 
greatest living poet of Hungary. His transla- 
tion of Dante’s Divina Commedia is unsur- 
passed. Dezs6 Kosztolinyi was also a great 
master of his art, and a soul of very deep feel- 
ing. His Complaints of a Poor Little Child is 
on a level with the best creations of modern 
poetry. Being a keen philologist, he translated 
many American, English, French, German, Ital- 


HUNGARY 642 


ian, and Spanish poems into Hungarian (Mod- 
ern Poets, 3 vols., 1922). Among the other lyric 
poets, Gyula Juhisz, Simon Kemény and Arpad 
Toth were most popular. In the field of fiction, 
after the quarter-century interval of sterility 
that followed the great novels of I6kai and 
Mikszath, Zsigmond Moéricz was in the last 
years of the decade leading a small but vigorous 
troop of young novelists, the best among them 
Margit Kaffka, Lajos Biré, Mihaly Babits, 
Dezsié Kosztolinyi, Aurél Karpéti, and Miklos 
Suranyi. In a class by herself was Renée Erdés 
with her realistic novels; Cardinal Santerra is 
her most admirable work. The modern Hun- 
garian drama already enjoyed a good reputa- 
tion in the theatrical world. The vigorous, 
quick action and. the finely-spun dialogue, full 
of life and wit, made some Hungarian drama- 
tists world-famous. Ferene Molnar’s The Devil, 
Liliom, Fashions for Men, The Swan, Lajos 
Biro’s Moonflower and Highwayman, Menyhért 
Lengyel’s Typhoon and Sancho Panza and Erné 
Vajda’s Fata Morgana, were uncommon successes 
on the American stage, too. Among modern 
dramatists, not yet known in America, Ferenc 
Herezeg, Jené Heltai, and Frigyes Karinthy 
are to be mentioned. In the scientific litera- 
ture, two great historical works, Sandor MAarki’s 
Francis Rakoéczi II, and Laszlé Erdélyi’s The 
Period of the Arpdd Dynasty, also Jené Chol- 
noky’s monumental Geography of America and 
the literary studies of Gyérgy Kiraly, are 
achievements of serious value. 

HUNGARY. A republic of Europe from 
Nov. 16, 1918, to Mar. 23, 1920, when the coun- 
try was declared a monarchy. The throne, how- 
ever, was vacant. Under the terms of the 
Treaty of Trianon, the area of Hungary is 35,- 
790 square miles. It is bounded on the north 
by Czecho-Slovakia, on the east by Rumania 
and Poland, on the south by Jugo-Slavia, and 
on the west by Austria. The population, ac- 
cording to the census of 1921, was 7,945,000. 
The principal cities were Budapest with a pop- 
ulation of 1,194,616; Szeged, 110,000; and De- 
breezen, 103,000. - 

Agriculture. Hungary was chiefly an 
agricultural country. The acreage and yield 


of the principal crops for °1923 was as 
follows: 
Area Yield 

Commodity (acres) (metric tons) 
Wiheath i e:cicds. teen bite elebet 3,478,150 1,841,880 
EUVe pee be eae threes < eas yaienbele ely sos 1,682,087 815,660 
Bari r tes. beet s, Sie eemes ee) 193,657 536,660 
Oatshe Ae GSE R ey ut: 872,763 379,820 
Morn? aw cbgs Mae Re 2,513.983 1,401,100 
I OtalOGS en dictaiejale ct shea 649,988 1,715,800 
SUEAT WeCtSte nes ta keweee © vous LT oDw 881,500 


According to the census of 1920, the live 
stock was as follows: horses, 746,423; cattle, 
2,221,988; sheep, 1,817,405; pigs, 3,729,190. 

Commerce. According to figures published in 
1924, the trade balance for 1923 showed an excess 
of imports over exports of 80.4 million gold 
crowns as compared with an adverse balance of 
214 million gold crowns in 1922. While details 
for the 1923 trade were not available, the 1922 
figures showed imports of 166 billion paper 
crowns and exports of 91 billion paper crowns, 
or an adverse balance of 75 billion crowns, 
which is estimated at 214 million gold crowns. 
The chief items entering into the 1922 figures 
were as follows (in millions of paper crowns) : 
wheat: and rye flour, 18,000; wine, 3600; fruit, 


HUNGARY 


880; vegetables, 924; grain, 1539; food prod- 
ucts, 20,800. 

The chief countries of destination of Hun- 
garian goods in the order of importance were 
Austria, Czecho-Slovakia, Rumania, Jugo-Slavia, 
Germany, Italy, and Switzerland. Hungarian 
imports were drawn principally from Austria, 
Czecho-Slovakia, Germany, Rumania, Poland, 
Great Britain, and Italy. 

Mining and Manufacturing. The Hungar- 
ian production of coal in 1922 totaled 741,000 
tons of bituminous and 5,615,000 tons of brown 
coal. The chief Hungarian industries were 
those that were allied with the agricultural 
resources of the country and consisted of grain 
mills, distilleries; sugar refineries, and plants 
for the manufacture of hemp and flax. Some 
iron and steel was produced. 

Transportation. The total length of Hun- 
garian railways in 1922 was 4493 miles, of which 
1858 were owned by the state. Of the total rail- 
ways, 598 miles were of double track. 

Finance. Figures on Hungary’s national 
debt were difficult to obtain. Considerable con- 
fusion existed as to Austria’s share of the debts 
of the old Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, and un- 
til this question could be cleared up no definite 
figures were possible. The rapid depreciation of 
the Hungarian crown, which occurred through- 
out 1922 and 1923, made it impossible accurately 
to estimate the amount of government revenue 
and expenditure. The budget for the fiscal year 
1922-23 (June 30, 1922, to July 1, 1923,) es- 
timated expenditures at 193,000,000,000 paper 
crowns and revenues at 153,000,000,000 paper 
crowns, or a deficit of 40,000,000,000 crowns. 
Inasmuch as this budget was not presented 
until the eighth month of the budget year, 
and since exchange fluctuated considerably in the 
meantime, any conversion into stable values 
would be misleading. During 1921 and 1922 
and the early months of 1923, the Hungarian 
crown, except for occasional periods of stability, 
declined steadily. At no time, however, were 
fluctuations as violent as in the summer of 
1923, when the crown fell from 0.0118 cent to 
0.0039 cent in less than two weeks. Foreign 
exchange quotations for the Hungarian crown 
stood at 0.0409 on Jan. 1, 1923; at 0.0052 cent 
on December 31; and at 0.0013 cent on Mar, 15, 
1924. The statement of the Royal National 
Bank of Hungary of Dec. 23, 1923, showed a 
total note circulation of 901,000,000,000 paper 
crowns as compared with 75,000,000,000 paper 
crowns on Dee. 31, 1922. The metal reserve 
of the bank, consisting of gold coin and gold 
bullion, and foreign currencies and securities, 
amounted to 22,800,000 gold crowns. Silver 
and other currency totaled 595,674 gold crowns. 
On Dec. 31, 1922, the metal reserve amounted to 
16,000,000,000 paper crowns. 

‘Economic Conditions. Throughout 1923 the 
cost of living rose steadily. On the basis of 
100 for 1913, the general average cost of living 
index figure for Oct. 31, 1923, was 410,529, as 
against 48,516 on Mar. 31, 1923, and 25,624 on 
Dec. 31, 1922. As a result primarily of the 
rapid depreciation of the foreign exchange value 
of the crown, the second half of the year 1923 
was marked by disorganization both in business 
and in finance. The principal causes of the de- 
cline were the inability of the government to 
balance its budget and the heavily adverse bal- 
ance of trade. In order to meet these condi- 
tions the government was obliged to resort to 


EL ———— 


_— — 


eee OE ee 


f 
- 
. 
‘ 


wm — 


note inflation. Thanks to Hungary’s agricul- 
tural character, however, the effects on trade 
and industry of currency depreciation were less 
severe than in the case of Germany and Po- 
land. As a matter of fact, many industries, 
notably the cotton, wool and silk industries, 
were temporarily stimulated by increased for- 
eign and domestic demand Internal buying 
was largely of a speculative character and con- 
tributed to a great extent to the sharp increases 
in living costs which followed the decline in 
exchange. The most important development 
during 1923 was the application made to the 
Reparations Commission by the Hungarian gov: 
ernment for an international loan for the pur- 
pose of rehabilitating the country’s finances. 
The plan, which was accepted by the Hungarian 
government, provided for a loan of $50,000,000 
to be repaid over a period of 20 years; amortiza- 
tion and interest charges to be met from re- 
ceipts from monopolies and other sources. The 
plan also granted a moratorium of two years on 
reparations payments. At the expiration of this 
period Hungary would be required to pay $2,- 
000,000 a year for 20 years on account of repara- 
tions. In consideration of this loan, Hungary 
agreed to discontinue the policy of note infla- 
tion; to establish a new bank of issue indepen- 
dent of the state; to balance its budget by 
June 30, 1926; and to place the railways and 
other state institutions on a self-supporting 
basis. The plan also called for a financial 
supervision by the League of Nations similar 
to that of Austria. 

History. Under the government of Count 
Tisza, Hungary participated in the conduct of 
the War, unquestioningly as far as the Magyars 
were concerned, but with reluctance by the other 
nationals. The death of the aged Emperor 
(Nov. 21, 1916) loosed all those dissident forces 
which had yielded only a reluctant allegiance. 
The independent spirit of the Prime Minister 
quickly antagonized the new King, who, listen- 
ing to the counsels of the court cabal, dismissed 
Tisza in May, 1917. Weaker men assumed con- 
trol, with the result that the country was rent 
by political dissensions. Count Esterhazy be- 
came premier for a time but was soon succeeded 
by Herr Wekerle. The agitation over the ex- 
tension of the political franchise attracted at- 
tention away from more pressing concerns, with 
the result that the hardships of the civil popu- 
lation increased with the failure of the govern- 
ment to buy up the harvests, ete. All the fa- 
miliar customs were now to go down before 
the new revolutionary spirit that gripped the 
Hungarian people as the War dragged on. The 
demand for reform became increasingly in- 
sistent and gained importance from the personal 
prestige of Count Karolyi who had assumed 
teadership of the forces of discontent. His hand 
was strengthened by the royal manifesto of 
Oct. 16, 1918, which was tantamount to a dis- 
solution of the Dual Monarchy. Thenceforth 
Hungary went her separate way. Believing 
that Karolyi was in a position to gain more 
favorable terms from the Allies, Hungarian 
statesman yielded to his advice and on Oct. 25, 
1918, formed a National Council. Five days 
later Karolyi was summoned to head it as 
minister-president. In accordance with his lib- 
eral, nay, republican professions, he recalled the 
Hungarian troops from the front and viewed 
with complacency the formation of workers’ and 
soldiers’ councils in Budapest. The revolution 


UNGARY 


took a more violent character when, on October 
30, Count Tisza, the leading representative of 
the old régime, was killed. On November 16, 
the National Council proclaimed Hungary a 
republic; on Jan. 11, 1919, it elected Karolyi 
provisional president. Karolyi’s hopes that his 
anti-war and republican sentiments might serve 
to gain more favorable peace terms for Hun- 
gary received a rude check when a new armistice 
deprived Hungary of large territories in favor 
of Rumania and Serbia This setback, the in- 
vasion of Hungarian lands by Rumanian and 
Czech troops, the increasing war-weariness that 
made any régime other than the one in power 
desirable, the growing turbulence of the work- 
ers, and the example of the successful Russian 
Revolution, united to undermine the government. 
Karolyi, with more prudence than courage, 
yielded up his post, and on Mar. 22, 1919, Hun- 
gary became a Soviet Republic dominated by an 
alliance between the Social Democrats and the 
Communists, the only well organized parties. 

From March 22 to August 1, the doctrine of 
the dictatorship of the proletariat ruled the dis- 
tracted country. Alexander Garbai became 
president of the Republic, though the actual 
ruler was Béla Kun, commissary for foreign 
affairs, and friend of Trotsky and Lenin. Other 
leaders were Szamuelly, Pagany, Bohm, and 
Varga. Initial measures were rigorous. The 
revolutionary government council proclaimed 
the socialization of large properties, mines, in- 
dustries, banks, and other commercial institu- 
tions. All ranks and titles were abolished and 
church and state separated. A _ strict censor- 
ship of the press was imposed. Money was 
sent into Vienna in an attempt to spread the 
Bolshevik propaganda there. The middleman 
was singled out for attack; all raw materials 
were made a state monopoly. For the concilia- 
tion of the peasantry, private property in hold- 
ings of 100 acres or less was permitted. The 
career of the Soviet Republic was short. The 
closing of the factories for want of materials 
stirred the workers into hostility, while the 
persecutions of the church and the placement 
of Jews in high offices antagonized the devout 
peasants. The nobility was naturally embitter- 
ed and intrigues soon led to the formation of 
a counter-government with an army recruited 
by Vice-Admiral Horthy. Béla Kun’s failure to 
come to an understanding with the Supreme 
Council’s representative, General Smuts, and his 
policy of militant opposition to Hungary’s 
enemies, hastened his downfall. His Red Army 
was soon at war with the troops of Rumania, 
Jugo-Slavia, and Czecho-Slovakia An_ initial 
victory against the Czechs brought down the 
wrath of the Supreme Council on Béla Kun, and 
Hungary was threatened with military and 
economic reprisals. To conciliate the Peace 
Conference, Béla Kun withdrew his forces from 
the conquered Slovak territory, only to be con- 
fronted by an advancing Rumanian army on 
the east. Resistance was useless; the Ruma- 
nians advanced on the capital with the tacit con- 
sent of the Allies; and beset by obstacles every- 
where, the Soviet government resigned and took 
refuge in flight, finding a haven first in Vienna 
and later in Russia. 

A White government, except for a brief in- 
terval, now succeeded the Reds. As a result of 
the intercession of the Allies, a moderate Social 
Democratic government was at once overthrown 
on August 7, and the reactionary Archduke 


HUNGARY 


Joseph was set up as regent of the state with 
Herr S. Friedrich as premier. All interest was 
diverted from internal affairs in the face of the 
advancing Rumanian army. On August 3, after 
having pillaged the countryside, the Rumanians 
entered the suburbs of Budapest; on August 5, 
against the injunction of the Supreme Council, 
the army took the city; on August 6, an ulti- 
matum was served on the Hungarians demand- 
ing 30 per cent of the harvest, farm animals, 
and farm tools, 50 per cent of the rolling stock, 
and the equipment for an army of 300,000 men. 
Not until after they had stripped the country 
bare did the Rumanians yield to the reiterated 
remonstrances of the Allied Supreme Council 
and quit the capital, November 11, and the 
country entirely, February, 1920. Meanwhile, 
reaction was in the saddle. Archduke Joseph, 
at the order of the Allies, was compelled to quit 
the regency only to be succeeded by the virtual 
rule of Admiral Horthy backed by his White 
army. For a time Friedrich stayed on as pre- 
mier; he was succeeded for another brief period 
by Herr K. Huzzir. A rapid succession of 
ministers during 1920-21 availed the country 
nothing in view of the economic demoraliza- 
tion, the hostility of her neighbors, and the 
loss of the rich agricultural territories of the 
Banat, the Batka and the Little Alféld. 

On Jan. 25, 1920, a general election chose 
delegates to the National Assembly. Hostility 
toward the Socialists accounted for heavy vic- 
tories for the parties of the Right. In March, 
Admiral Horthy was formally chosen regent, 
the step being dictated by the antagonism of 
the Little Entente toward the creation of a 
monarchy. An indication of the bitterness of 
the reaction was revealed in the obstructions 
placed in the way of the trade unions’ partici- 
pation in politics. To lift such discriminations, 
the International Federation of Trade Unions 
ordered an economic boycott against Hungary 
and Hungarians retaliated by ‘boycotting Aus- 
tria. Demonstrations against the Jews occurred 
frequently and even the government participated 
by restricting the number of Jewish students in 
the universities. Monarchist sentiment contin- 
ued to prevail, and on Mar. 26, 1921, believing 
that the country favored his accession, the ex- 
King Charles (q.v.) suddenly appeared, to as- 
cend the throne. The regent refused to counte- 
nance his restoration, with the result that Charles 
left for Switzerland, only once more to appear 
in Hungary on October 22. The hostility of 
the Little Entente again proved disastrous for 
his hopes, with the result that Charles was com- 
pelled to surrender himself to the British and 
suffer internment on the island of Madeira 
which he reached November 19, and where he 
died, Apr. 1, 1922, of pneumonia. 

The international situation, - possibly more 
than any other single factor, contributed to the 
prevailing hopeless temper. On June 4, 1920, 
a Hungarian peace delegation, of which Count 
Albert Apponyi was the chief, was compelled to 
sign away, by the Treaty of the Trianon, at 
least two-thirds of the former Hungarian king- 
dom to the new succession states. Hungarian 
groups were left in Czecho-Slovak, Jugo-Slav, 
and Rumanian districts, while the new 
frontiers cut across railways, roads, waterways, 
and long-established administrative units. In 
the Backa and the Banat, rich maize and wheat 
lands were lost, and in the Little Alf6ld north 
of the Danube, barley and sugar-beet fields, and 


644 


HUNGARY 


pastures. With the cession of the Carpathian 
and Transylvanian country, Hungary saw taken 
from her all her salt deposits, four-fifths of her 
iron ore and many coal fields, as well as her 
sources of water power and a large share of 
her valuable forests. The continued hostility 
of the Little Entente prevented the formulation 
of an economic accord between Hungary and 
those territories upon which her industries so 
much depended. In August, 1921, Hungary’s 
burdens were increased by the cession of the 
Burgenland to Austria, at the bidding of the 
Allies. 

The events of 1922 and 1923 proved how pro- 
foundly Hungary was shaken by its unhappy 
economic and _ political status The republic 
was continually being threatened by the agita- 
tions of the royalists, headed by Counts 
Andrassy and Apponyi, who proclaimed Prince 
Otto heir to the throne after the death of 
Charles. Horthy, quite as reactionary as the 
royalists, attempted to reduce the electorate by 
one-fourth, and to substitute open voting for 
secret. A rigorous censorship of the press was 
maintained which applied, too, to the publica- 
tion and circulation of the writings of such men 
as Marx, Lenin, and Walt Whitman. A move 
was originated for the practical suppression of 
the civil liberties, its purpose being the impris- 
onment or banishment of all those suspected of 
questioning the prevailing political, economic 
and religious beliefs. Two disturbing factors 
were also evident in 1923: that the courts had 
become the mere instruments of the authorities 
and that conscription had ‘been practically re- 
stored. The populace was daily irritated by the 
presence of the Inter-Allied Commission of Mil- 
itary Control which was being maintained at 
Hungary’s expense. Anti-Semitism was on the 
increase and Hungarian Fascisti were being re- 
cruited. Nothing indicated better the broken 
morale of the people than the ease with which 
lawless bands incessantly operated. The most 
powerful, led by one Hejjas, terrorized Jews, 
trade unionists, and Communists, and led forays 
into the Burgenland in the summer of 1922. 
Attempts to suppress them legally were unavail- 
ing. Liberals in other countries believed that 
Hungary had been given over to a “White Ter- 
ror,’ characterized by reactionary violence as 
cruel, perhaps, as any revolutionary terrorism. 

The deplorable economie and financial situa- 
tion resulting from the War and, hardly less, 
from civil turmoil and territorial transfers after 
the War, presented so grave an international 
problem that in December, 1923, at the instance 
of Czecho-Slovakia, the League Council pro- 
posed to undertake the financial rehabilitation of 
Hungary on a basis similar to that which had 
proved so successful in Austria. In return for 
an international loan of 250,000,000 gold crowns, 
floated under the League’s auspices, Hungary 
was to accept League supervision of her finances, 
assign to the League the revenue from customs 
and state monopolies, abide by the terms of 
the Treaty of Trianon, and pay the war in- 
demnity in 20 annual installments of 10,000,000 
gold crowns. Humiliating as they were to 
Hungarian nationalists, these terms were accept- 
ed by Premier Bethlen in February, 1924, and 
an American banker, Mr. W. P. G. Harding, was 
invited by the League to act as its Commissioner- 
General in charge of Hungarian finances. On 
Mr. Harding’s refusal, the post was accepted 
by Mr. Jeremiah Smith of Boston, who was 


HUNGERLAND 


cordially received in Budapest, May 1. Mean- 
while, despite stubborn Socialist opposition, 
Premier Bethlen had carried through Parlia- 
ment, April 18, a series of bills authorizing his 
government to fulfill the agreement. For Hun- 
gary’s role in Central European politics, see 
LittLE ENTENTE. For the history of Hungary’s 
lost territories, see BURGENLAND, BANAT, 'TRAN- 
SYLVANIA, FIUME-ADRIATIC CONTROVERSY. Also 
see HUNGARIAN LITERATURE. 

HUNGERLAND, Heinz F. W. (1873- he 
A German writer, born at Bremen and educated 
at the universities of Greifswald, Géttingen, 
Kiel, and Miinster. He traveled in England and 
Seandinavia, did some work at the universities 
of London, Copenhagen, and Lund, and was in- 
structor at Lund. He specialized in Old Ger- 
man language and Old Norse literature. He is 
the author of Zeugnisse zur Woélsung- und Nibe- 
lungensage aus der Skaldenpoesie (1903); Das 
Wissenschaftliche Studium der Deutschen 
Sprache (1906); Deutschland und die Deut- 
schen (1913) ; Deutsche Marvnenhymnen (1911) ; 
Die Weisen aus dem Morgendimmer (1911); 
Siegrunen, Kriegsgedichte (1915); and Die 
Volkshochschule, Deutschlands Rettung (1919). 
He also compiled an anthology of Scandinavian 
lyrics, which he had translated. 

HUNSAKER, JEROME C. (1886- ) iran 
American airman born in Creston, [owa, and 
educated at the Naval Academy and the Massa- 
chusetts Institute of Technology. He studied 
aérodynamics abroad and in 1914-16 was in- 
structor at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
nology in aéronautical engineering and research 
in aérodynamics. He translated much of Eiffel’s 
work, including Resistance of the Air, and built 
the first wind tunnel at the Institute where 
original research was conducted, the results of 
which were given to builders. Under him, grad- 
uate students were trained as aéronautical en- 
gineers. Commander Hunsaker was in charge 
of the aircraft division of the Bureau of Con- 
structidn and Repair of the Navy Department, 
1916-17. He designed the first modern airship 
produced in the United States as well as the 
C and D class Navy airships. He also designed 
the NC flying boats with Westervelt and 
Richardson. In 1917 he was a member of the 
joint Army and Navy Technical Board to frame 
an aircraft programme and in 1918 was at- 
tached to the Inter-Allied Naval Armistice Com- 
mission. Among his published works are Stable 
Biplane Arrangements; Aérodynamic Properties 
of the Triplane; and Aéroplane Stability. 

HUNT, Ciara WHITEHILL (1871- eo reAn 
American librarian, born at Utica, N. Y. She 
graduated from the New York State Library 
School in 1898 and for several years taught in 
the public schools. In 1898 she organized the 
work with children in the Apprentices’ Li- 
brary in Philadelphia and from that year 
to 1902 was with the Newark Free Pub- 
lic Library. In 1903 she became superintendent 
of the Children’s Department of the Brooklyn 
Public Library. She lectured much on library 
topics and was the author of What Shall We 
Read to the Children? (1915); About Harriet 
(1916); .and The Little House in the Woods 
(1918). 

HUNT, Epwarp Ayre _ (1885- ). An 
American sociologist, educated at Harvard. He 
was engaged in clerical work and as assistant 
in the Harvard English department, 1910-12. 
From 1912 to 1914 he was on the editorial staff 


645 


HUNT 


of the American Magazine and was also war 
correspondent in Europe. From 1914 to 1916 he 
was American delegate of the Commission of 
Relief to Belgium in charge of the province of 
Antwerp. He was a director of publicity for 
the American Red Cross in 1917 and was head 
of the economic rehabilitation work of the Red 
Cross in France in the year following He 
served in several other important capacities dur- 
ing the War and in 1920 was a member of 
the commission on the elimination of waste in 
industry. In 1921 he acted as secretary of the 
conference on unemployment. His published 
writings include War Bread—A Personal Nar- 
rative of the War and Relief in Belgium (1916) ; 
Tales from a Famished Land (1918); and Waste 
in Industry, with Herbert Hoover and others 
(1921). 

HUNT, GrEorRGE WyLrty PAauL (1859-— ye 
An American public official and diplomat, born 
at Huntsville, Mo., and educated in the public 
schools. For several years he was engaged in 
ranching in Arizona. In 1893 he was elected a 
member of the Legislature of that State and of 
the Senate in 1897 and was reélected for several 
terms. He was president of the Constitutional 
Convention (1910) and in 1911 was elected 
first governor of the State of Arizona. He was 
reélected for terms from 1915 to 1919 and was 
meanwhile United States Commissioner of Con- 
ciliation to negotiate settlement of the miners’ 
strike in Arizona (1917). In 1920 he served 
as minister to Siam, resigning in the following 


year. He was again elected governor of Arizona 
invl9223 ; 
HUNT, Henry Tuomas (1878— yet Am 


American lawyer, born at Cincinnati, and edu- 
cated at Yale and the Cincinnati Law School. 
In the same year he was admitted to the bar. 
He took an active interest in civic and State 
politics and was a member of the Ohio House 
of Representatives, 1906-07. From 1908 to 
1911 he was prosecuting attorney of Hamilton 
County and was mayor of Cincinnati from 1912 
to 1914. He was active in securing elective re- 
forms in municipal and State government. Dur- 
ing the War he served in France and as a mem- 
ber of the War Department Claims Board in 
Washington. In 1920-21 he was a member of 
the Railroad Labor Board. 

HUNT, Tuomas ForsytH (1862- ). An 
American agriculturist, born at Ridott, IL, 
and educated at the University of Illinois. Af- 
ter serving as assistant to the Lllinois State 
entomologist, he became assistant in agriculture 
at the University of Illinois in 1886, and from 
1888 to 1891 was assistant agriculturist for the 
Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. He 
was on the faculty of the Pennsylvania State 
College as professor of agriculture, 1891-92, 
and became in 1892 professor of agriculture at 
the Ohio State University, where from 1896 to 
1903 he was dean of the College of Agriculture 
and Domestic Science. He was professor of 
agronomy at Cornell University from 1903 to 
1907 and dean of the School of Agriculture and 
director of the Pennsylvania Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station of the Pennsylvania State Col- 
lege from 1907 to 1912. In the latter year he 
became professor of agriculture and dean of the 
College of Agriculture at the University of 
California. Until 1919 he was also director of 
the Agricultural Experiment Station at that 
university. Professor Hunt wrote: History 
of Agriculture and Rural Economics (1899) ; 


HUNTER 


How to Choose a Farm (1906); and Farm Ani- 
mals, with Charles W. Burkett (1917). 

HUNTER, Georce LELAND’ (1867- be 
An American art authority (see Vor. XI). 
During the period he published Inside the House 
That Jack Built (1914); Italian Furniture and 
Interiors (1917); and Decorative Textiles 
(1918); and contributed to the magazines 
many articles on related subjects. . 

HUNTER, WALTER SAMUEL (1889- ), 
An American psychologist, born at Decatur, II1., 
and educated at the universities of Texas and 
Chicago. He taught at the University of Texas 
from 1912 to 1916 and after 1916 at the Uni- 
versity of Kansas. In 1916 he became associate 
editor of the Psychological Bulletin. We was 
the author of various studies in animal behavior, 
space perception, and social psychology. His 
best known work is his textbook, General Psy- 
chology (1919). 

HUNTER, Wites’ Rosert_ (1874— \s 
An American social worker, born at Terre Haute, 
Ind., and educated at the University of Indiana. 
He was for several years an official of the Chi- 
cago Bureau of Charities and a resident at 
Hull House from 1899 to 1902. After doing 
settlement work in England, he became head 
worker at the University Settlement of New 
York City in 1902 and served for one year. 
From 1902 to 1906 he was chairman of the New 
York Child Labor Committee. He was presi- 
dent of the Berkeley Commission of Public 
Charities in 1921. His books include: Tene- 
ment Conditions in Chicago (1901); Poverty 
(1904); Violence and the Labor Movement 
(1914); Labor and Politics (1915); and Why 
We Fail as Christians (1919). In 1918 he be- 
came lecturer on economics and English at the 
University of California. 

HUNTER, Wiriam (1861-, ). A Brit- 
ish physician, credited by the English with 
priority in the recognition of buccal infection 
(oral sepsis) as an extensive cause of disease 
(neuritis, anemia, ete.). His announcement of 
this doctrine appeared in 1901, years before that 
of Billings and others in the United States. 
After studying at the University of Edinburgh, 
he spent several years as a research student at 


Cambridge. He then became associated with 
Charing Cross Hospital and was dean of the 
medical school there, 1910-15. He was also 


physician to the London Fever Hospital and in 
1915 was sent by the British Government to 
Serbia to study the epidemics of typhus and 
relapsing fever. His major writings comprise 
Pernicious Anemia (1901), expanded in 1909 to 
Severest Anemias, the second volume of which 
had not yet been published in 1924. He also 
wrote Historical Account of Charing Cross Hos- 
pital and Medical School (1914). 

HUNTER COLLEGE OF THE CITY OF 
NEW YORK. A college of liberal arts estab- 
lished in 1870 for the education of women. 
The student enrollment increased from 1400 in 
1915 to 1514 in 1924, and the teaching staff from 
121 to 124 members. A summer session was 
established in 1916 which in 1923 had 894 stu- 
dents and a faculty of 55 members. In the 
year following evening and extension sessions 
were established which enrolled 3265 students 
and 110 members of the faculty in 1924; in 
1921 courses leading to the A.M. degree were 
offered in this division. The name of the 
college was changed in April, 1914, from Nor- 
mal College of the City of New York to the 


646 


HURLEY 


title given above. President, George Samler 
Davis, LL.D. 

HUNTING, Georce Cootince (1871- Pe 
An American bishop, born at Milwaukee. He 
studied theology at the Virginia Theological 
Seminary and was ordained deacon of the Prot- 
estant Episcopal Church in 1894 and priest in 
1897. For several years he was engaged in 
missionary work in Nevada and Utah and from 
1899 to 1902 was rector of St. Paul’s Church 
at Evanston, Wyo. For the five years follow- 
ing he was superintendent and chaplain at St. 
Mark’s Hospital at Salt Lake City and again 
engaged in missionary work until 1914, when 
he was consecrated bishop of Nevada. From 
1909 to 1911 he was editor of The Nevada 
Churchman. 

HUNTINGTON, Epwarp VERMILYE (1874- 

). An American mathematician, born 
at Clinton, N. Y., and educated at Har- 
vard and in Europe. He was instructor in 
mathematics at Harvard, 1895-97, and held a 
similar place at Williams College during 1897— 
99. In 1901 he went to Harvard, where he be- 
came in 1919 professor of mechanics. During 
1918-19 he was engaged in statistical work for 
the General Staff with the rank of major. His 
scientific work has had to do with various sys- 
tems of postulates forming the bases of elemen- 
tary mathematical theories. He was editor of 
Annals of Mathematics during 1902-11 and was 
president in 1918 of the Mathematical Associa- 
tion of America. In addition to editing various 
scientific memoirs and works, he is known as 
author of Four Place Tables of Logarithms 
and Trigonometric Functions (1907), The Fun- 
damental Propositions in Algebra, the fourth in 
Young’s Mathematical Monographs (1911), Es- 
sentials of Elementary Dynamics (1916), The 
Continuum and other Types of Serial Order 
(1917), and Handbook of Mathematics for Be- 
ginners (1918). 

HUNTINGTON, ELutswortny (1876- ). 
An American geographer and educator (see VOL. 
XI). From 1910 to 1915 he was assistant pro- 
fessor of geography at Yale and from 1917 was 
research associate. During the War he served 
as captain of the Military Intelligence Division. 
His later books include The Climatic Factor 
(1914); Civilization and Climate (1915); 
World Power and Evolution (1919); The Red 
Man’s Continent (1919); and Principles of 
Human Geography, with 8S. W. Cushing (1920). 

HURLBUT, JESSE LYMAN (1843- ). o An 
American clergyman and writer (see Vout. XI). 
His later books include Traveling in the Holy 
Land through the Stereoscope (1913); Hurl- 
but’s Story of Jesus (1915); Story of the Chris- 
tian Church (1918); and The Story of Chau- 
tauqua (1921). 

HURLEY, Epwarp Nasu (1864— ) witcAn 
American public official, born in Galesburg, II]. 
He was educated in the public schools of Chi- 
eago. He served as engineer and _ traveling 
salesman for several companies and organized 
and developed the pneumatic tool industry in 
the United States and Europe. From 1908 to 
1915 he was president of the Hurley Machine 
Company of Chicago. In 1913 he was appointed 
trade commissioner to the Latin-American re- 
publics and served as vice-chairman and later 
as chairman of the Trade Commission until 
1917, when he was appointed chairman of the 
United States Shipping Board and president of 
the Emergency Fleet Corporation. ‘This post 


he resigned in 1919. 
of Business (1916) 
Marine (1920). 

HURST, Fanny (1889- ). An Ameri- 
can author, born in St. Louis, and educated at. 
Washington and Columbia Universities. She 
early applied herself to a study of the technique 
and subject matter of fiction. Her short stories 
made an immediate popular success. They were 
ingenious in theme, though the characters as a 
rule were sentimentalized. Jewish life in Amer- 
ica was her most usual subject. These short 
stories, collected in book form, included Gas- 
light Sonatas (1916); Humoresque (1918); 
and The Vertical City (1921)..+ An early novel, 
Star Dust (1919), won little attention. Her 
Lummowx (1923) at once raised Miss Hurst to 
the front rank of American fictionists. Un- 
doubtedly showing the influence of May Sin- 
clair in the terseness with which plot-outlines 
and characters were sketched, as well as that 
of “expressionism” with its half-hinted and at 
times symbolical phrasing, Lummow neverthe- 
less presents the working of a mature and con- 
fident mind. 

HUSH, HARRY McLaren PINCKNEY 
(1858— ). An American naval officer, born 
at West Point, N. Y. He graduated from the 
United States Naval Academy in 1878 and was 
appointed ensign in 1882. In 1905 he served 
as professor of mathematics at Annapolis and 
was promoted to be commander in 1907, captain 
in 1909, and rear-admiral in 1916. In 1919 he 
served as commander of the Atlantic Fleet 
Train and was on special duty in London and 
Paris. In 1920 he commanded the United 
States naval forces in European waters, with 
the rank of vice-admiral and after 1921 was a 
member of the General Board of the Navy. 

HUSSEIN IBN ALI (1856- ). First 
King of the Hedjaz. He belonged to the family 
of the Katada in which the sherifate of Mecca 
has been vested for eight centuries. He was rec- 
ognized by the Mohammedans as senior descend- 
ant of Mohammed. From 1890 to 1908 he was 
a prisoner at Constantinople, where he gave 
his four sons, Ali, Abdullah, Feisal, and their 
half-brother Zeid, a modern education. After 
the Turkish revolution of 1918, he was ap- 
pointed Grand Sherif of Mecca, and gained 
great influence over the Arab troops. He re- 
fused to proclaim a Holy War on behalf of 
Germany and was invited by societies in Syria 
and Mesopotamia to lead an Arab revolt. He 
subsequently took the side of the Allies and 
rendered efficient service with the British troops 
in Arabia and Mesopotamia. In recognition of 
these services, he was proclaimed King of the 
Hedjaz on Oct. 29, 1916. He vigorously set 
himself to organize his new kingdom, which was 
recognized by all the Allied Powers. With the 
assistance of Great Britain, he established and 
maintained a well organized government. See 
CALIPHATE. 

HUSSEY, WrtLiAM JOSEPH (1862- Vie 
An American astronomer, horn at Mendon, 
Ohio, and educated at the University of Mich- 
igan. During 1884-89 he was principal of va- 
rious schools in Ohio and Illinois and in 1889 
served as an assistant on The Nautical Almanac 
of Washington. Also in 1889, he went to the 
University of Michigan as an instructor of math- 
ematies; in 1891, he became acting director of 
the Detroit Observatory; and a year later went 
to Stanford University, where in 1894 he became 


He wrote The Awakening 
and The New Merchant 


HUTIER 


full professor. During 1896-1905 he was astron- 
omer at the Lick Observatory but in 1905 re- 
turned to Michigan where he became professor 
of astronomy and director of the observatory. 
Dr. Hussey was director of the Argentina Na- 
tional Observatory at La Plata (1911-17), of 
the Lick Eclipse Expedition to Egypt in 1905, 
and of La Plata Eclipse Expedition to Brazil in 
1912. He has discovered more than 1600 double 
stars; in recognition of this achievement he 
received the Lalande Prize of the French Acad- 
emy in 1906. He is a foreign associate of the 
Royal Astronomical Society of Great Britain 
and a member of other scientific societies, in- 
cluding the Astronomical Society of the Pa- 
cific. In addition to many minor contributions 
to scientific journals he is the author of Loga- 
rithmic and Other Mathematical Tables (1891, 
1895), Mathematical Theories of Planetary Mo- 
tions (1892), and Micrometrical Observations 
j Hi Double Stars Discovered at Pulkowa 
HUSTON, CHARLES ANDREWS (1876- ye 
An American lawyer and educator, born at 
Stratford, Ont. After graduating from the Uni- 
versity of Chicago he was fellow in political 
economy there. He served as assistant in Eng- 
lish at the University of Chicago and then 
joined the faculty of Leland Stanford Junior 
University, where he was successively instruc- 
tor, assistant professor, associate professor, and 
professor of law. In 1916 he became dean of 
the law school. He wrote Enforcement of De- 
crees in Equity (1915) and several articles on 
legal subjects. In 1917-18 he served with the 
War Trade Board and the Provost Marshal- 
general’s Department at) Washington. 
HUTCHESON, Ernest (1871- \eurvAn 
American pianist, born at Melbourne, Australia. 
He received his first instruction there from Max 
Vogrich and was exhibited as a wonder-child at 
the age of five. After graduating from the 
Leipzig Conservatory, where he had been a pu- 
pil of Reinecke, he studied for some time with 
Stavenhagen in Weimar. During the next 10 
years he devoted himself mainly to teaching. 
After a successful tour of Germany and Russia 
in 1900, he came to the United States, where he 
taught at the Peabody Conservatory in Balti- 
more until 1912. His second European tour 
(1912-14), established his reputation as one of 
the foremost contemporary pianists. At the 
conclusion of this tour he returned to the 
United States, making his home in New York. 
HUTCHESON, Grore = (1862- yon An 
American soldier, born in Cincinnati, Ohio. He 
graduated from the United States Naval Acad- 
emy in 1884 and was commissioned second lieu- 
tenant in the same year. He served in the 
Spanish-American War and in various com- 
mands in the Regular Army and became colonel 
of cavalry in 1916. He was promoted to be 
major-general of the National Army in 1917. 
In 1918 he created and organized ports of em- 
barkation at New Port News and Norfolk, Va. 
He was promoted to be major-general in the 
same year and brigadier-general in the Regular 
Army in 1921. He was awarded the Dis- 
tinguished Service Medal for specially meritor- 
ious service in the administration of the Port 
of Embarkation. He saw service, during his 
career, against the Indians, and in Porto Rico, 
China, and the Philippines. 
HUTIER, Oskar von (1857— ). A Ger- 
man soldier, born near Erfurt. In the German 


HUXLEY 


advance in France in 1914, he commanded the 
Prussian Guards and was one of the most ag- 
gressive and skillful of the German leaders in 
that movement. In 1915 he was given com- 
mand of the 2lst Army Corps and in 1917 com- 
manded Army Group D. Later in the same 
year he was assigned as commander of the 8th 
Army, and with this occupied Riga. He was 
transferred to the 18th Army on the western 
front and took an important part in the great 
German advance which began in March, 1918. 

HUXLEY, Atpous (LEONARD) (1894— ie 
An English author, son of Leonard Huxley. 
He atténded Eton and Balliol, Oxford, and soon 
entered journalism. He wrote first for The 
Atheneum and then for The Westminster Ga- 


gette. His published works include poems, es- 
says, and novels. The better known were 
Limbo (1920); Leda (1920); On the Margin 


(1923); and the novels, Crome Yellow (1921), 
Mortal Coils (1922), and Antic Hay (1923). 
Possessed of a lively wit and a feeling for the 
unusual in character and scene, he attracted 
attention with each of his published works. 
His characters were vivid, his situations pi- 
quant, and his intelligence mordant and un- 
relenting. 

HYATT, ANNA VAUGHN (1876- ). An 
American sculptor (see Vout. XI). Her able 
craftsmanship in the sculpture of animal life, 
consistently evidenced in such later works as 
“Great Danes,” “Colts in a Snowstorm,” and 
“Reaching Jaguars,” gave her a foremost po- 
sition in this field in the United States. Her 
achievement in the statue of Joan of Are, River- 
side Drive, New York (1915), notable among 
such for its truth of detail, its simplicity and 
dignity, turned her interest somewhat toward 
equestrian subjects, with noteworthy results. 
Among her awards were the Rodin gold medal, 
Philadelphia, 1917, and the Saltus gold medal, 
1920. She became a member of the American 
National Academy in 1916, and a chevalier of 
the Legion of Honor (France), in 1922. 

HYDE, CHARLES CHENEY (1873- je eAn 
American lawyer, born in Chicago, and edu- 
cated at Yale University and the Harvard Law 
School. In 1898 he began practice in Chicago, 
where he remained until his removal to Wash- 
ington in 1920. He was a lecturer on diplo- 
macy at the Northwestern University Law 
School, and from 1908, professor of law and 
lecturer on international law at Yale Univer- 
sity. His several works on international law 
included International Law Chiefly as Inter- 
preted and Applied by the United States (1922). 

HYDROAEROPLANE. See A#RONAUTICS. 

HYDROCARBONS. See CHEMISTRY, OR- 
GANIC. 

HYDRO-ELECTRIC STATIONS. See ELEc- 
TRIC POWER STATIONS AND GENERATING APPARA- 
TUS; WATER Power; TURBINES; STEAM. 

HYDROGEN. See CHEMISTRY. 


648 


HYVERNAT 


HYDROGEN ATOM. See Puysics. 

HYDROPHONE. This name has been ap- 
plied to any instrument for listening to sounds 
transmitted through water. Before the War 
such instruments were used for receiving signals 
from submerged bells. The hydrophone as 
usually fitted consisted of a small water-tight 
box of which one side was a metal diaphragm 
operating a microphone enclosed in the box. 
The box itself was suspended in a tank built 
against the ship’s outer plating which formed 
one side of it. Early in the war attempts were 
made to use some form of hydrophone for de- 
tecting the presence of vessels (particularly 
submarines) within sound range of their inter- 
nal machinery or propellers. For some time 
no great success was attained but the effective- 
ness of listening devices was materially im- 
proved. Several fish-shaped hydrophones, 12 
feet apart, towed astern and electrically con- 
nected for receiving the sound on board the 
vessel, gave fair results; but the Walzer hydro- 
phone (the invention of a French naval officer) , 
which attained its final form early in 1918, is 
said to have given greater satisfaction and was 
much used after March of that year. The re- 
ceiving diaphragms were arranged at regular 
intervals over the surface of a hemispherical 
bulge built into the hull on each side towards 
the bows. The system acted as a sound lens, 
the sound focus occurring at a point where the 
sound paths by alternate routes were equal. 
From the results received the direction of the 
source of sound could be calculated. 

HYLAN, Joun F. (1868- ). An Ameri- 
can public official, born at Hunter, Greene Co., 
N. Y. He was educated in the public schools 
and engaged in various occupations in New York 
City. He graduated from the New York Law 
School in 1897 and in the same year was ad- 
mitted to the bar. From 1906 to 1914 he was 
city magistrate and in 1914-15, judge of the 
county court. Mr. Hylan became mayor of New 
York City in 1918 and was reélected in 1922 for 
the term ending 1925. 

HYTHE CONFERENCE. See 
TIONS. 

HYVERNAT (EUGENE XAVIER’ LOUIS) 
HENRY (1858-— ). A French Orientalist. He 
studied at Lyons, Paris, and the Pontifical Uni- 
versity of Rome. He was _ professor-interpreter 
of Oriental languages for propaganda and profes- 
sor of Assyriology and Egyptology in Rome, 
1885-89, and in 1889 went on a scientific mis- 
sion to Armenia for the French government. 
He then came to America as professor of Orien- 
tal languages and archeology at the Catholic 
University. He is the author of Les Actes des 
Martyres de VEqypte (1886), Du Caucase au 
Golfe Persique (1892), and A Check List of 
Coptic Manuscripts in the Pierpont Morgan Li- 
brary (1919). He is a contributor to Amer- 
ican, British, French, and German reviews. 


REPARA- 


BANEZ, Buasco. See Brasco IBANEz, 
VICENTE. 

IBSEN, Sicurp (1859- ). A Nor- 
wegian statesman and author (see VOL. 


XI). His later works include Robert 

Frank (i914) and Tempel der Erinner- 
ung (1918), both of them translated into 
German. 


ICELAND. An island in the North Atlantie, 
formerly a Danish possession, but since 1918 a 


separate kingdom united to Denmark under a. 


single crown. Its area is estimated at 39,709 
square miles, and its population (1920) at 94,- 
679, making a density of 2.4 per square mile. 
The 1910 population was 85,183. Of the 1920 
population, 54,246 lived in rural districts, and 
the rest in towns of over 300. Except for 706, 
it was entirely native born. The capital city, 
Reykjavik, had (1920) 17,678 inhabitants. Be- 
sides this, there were six other towns with a 
total population of 11,377. Only one quarter 
of one per cent of the land is under cultivation, 
mainly in hay, potatoes, and turnips. In 1921. 
the crops were hay, 2,800,000 ewt., potatoes, 
83,000; turnips, 13,000. Live stock showed a 
little increase over the preceding decade, with 
a 1921 figure of 49,300 horses, 23,700 cattle, 
554,000 sheep, and 554,000 goats. In 1918, the 
total value of the fisheries, the most important 
single industry, was 30,570,000 kroénur (about 
$9,415,000), of which the cod catch alone was 
valued at 27,720,000 krénur. There was little 
manufacturing, although Iceland has great po- 
tentialities because of its innumerable water- 
falls. In 1919, exports were valued at 75,013,- 
584 krénur (about $20,000,000). In 1910 they 
were $4,000,000. Imports were put at 62,565,532 
knonur (about $18,000,000). In 1910 they were 
$3,000,000. In 1919, as before, Great Britain 
and Denmark were Iceland’s leading trade fac- 
tors; the United States was a very close third, 
with 16,503,518 kronur imports coming thence. 
The 1923 budget estimate listed revenues at 
7,813,450 krénur and expenditures at 7,922,329 
kroénur. The largest charges were for commu- 
nications, 1,940,540 krénur; for instruction, 
1,305,188 kr6énur. At the beginning of 1922, the 
public debt was 16,385,525 kronur, held for the 
most part in Denmark. There are no rail- 
ways, but there were 320 miles of carriage 
roads in excellent repair. In 1922, 42 steam 
vessels of 7456 tons were flying the Icelandic 
flag. 

History. By the Act of Union of Nov. 30, 
1918, Iceland was granted home rule under the 
Danish crown. Complete sovereignty was vested 
in the home government; foreign affairs alone 
were to be the charge of the Danish govern- 
ment until 1940. Iceland’s perpetual neutral- 
ity was established, and no armed force or 
fortifications were permitted her. Danish 
goods in Iceland and Icelandic goods in Den- 
mark were to receive no more consideration 
than the products of other countries. By the 


new constitution promulgated in 1920, the ex- 
ecutive power rests in the King through a re- 
sponsible ministry of three, the chief of which 
is the president of the council; the legislative 
power resides in a bicameral house (Althing). 
The lower chamber is elected by universal man- 
hood and womanhood suffrage; the upper, of 
14 members, is chosen, six by proportional rep- 
resentation at large, and eight by the lower 
house. All bills must be sent to Denmark for 
the King’s approval. At the head of the local 
judicial system is the Supreme Court stationed 
at Reykjavik; this is the court of last appeal. 
Complete prohibition of the import and sale 
of liquors containing more than 2% per cent 
alcohol has been in force since 1912. 

IDAHO. Idaho is the twelfth State in size 
(83,888 square miles) and the forty-second in 
population; capital, Boise. The population in- 
creased from 325,594 in 1910 to 431,866 in 1920, 
a gain of 32.6 per cent. The white population 
rose from 319,221 to 425,668; Japanese, from 
1363 to 1569; and native white, from 278,794 
to 386,705; while the foreign-born white popu- 
lation showed a decrease from 40,427 to 38,963, 
the Indian from 3488 to 3098, and the Chinese 
from 858 to 585. The urban _ population 
mounted from 68,898 to 119,037; the rural pop- 
ulation, from 255,696 to 312,829. The chief 
cities of the State are Boise and Pocatello. 
The former grew from 17,358 to 21,393; and 
the latter from 9110 to 15,001. 

Agriculture. While the population of the 
State increased 32.6 per cent in the decade 1910- 
20, the number of farms increased 36.7 per cent 
(from 30,807 to 42,106) ; while the acreage of 
land in farms rose from 5,283,604 to 8,375,873, 
and the improved land in farms from 2,778,740 
acres to 4,511,680. The total value of farm 
property showed an apparent increase, from 
$305,317,185 in 1910 to $716,137,910 in 1920, 
and the average value of farms from $9911 to 
$17,008. In interpreting these values, how- 
ever, and, indeed, all comparative values in the 
decade 1914-24, the inflation of the currency in 
the latter part of the period is to be taken into 
consideration. The index number of prices paid 
to producers of farm products in the United 
States was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 1920. The 
total percentage of land used for agricultural 
purposes in 1910 was 9.9; in 1920, 15.7. The 
percentage of improved land in farms increased 
from 52.6 to 53.9. White farmers in 1920 
numbered 41,598 (35,284 native-born), com- 
pared with 30,402 in 1910; foreign born 
farmers numbered 6314, compared with 5708. 
Farms free from mortgage numbered, in 1920, 
11,872; 17,933 in 1910. Those under mortgage 
in 1920 numbered 20,060, compared with 9010 
in 1910; the change was due to the agricultural 
depression following the War. Of the 42,106 
farms in 1920, 34,647 were operated by owners 
as compared with 27,169 in 1910; 758 by man- 
agers, compared with 450 and 6701 by tenants, 


649 


IDAHO 650 


compared with 3188. The area under irriga- 
tion had increased from 1,430,848 acres in 1909 
to 2,488,806 in 1919. The total number of 
cattle on farms in 1920 was 714,903; in 1910, 
404,518. Sheep numbered 2,356,270 in 1920, 
compared with 2,110,330 in 1910. Dairy cattle 
in 1920 numbered 202,391. The.estimated pro- 
duction of the chief farm crops of 1923 was: 
corn, 2,648,000 bushels; wheat, 30,115,000 bush- 
els; oats, 7,834,000 bushels; barley, 3,540,000; 
potatoes, 11,733,000; hay, 2,990,000 tons; and 
sugar beets, 384,000. Comparative figures for 
1913 are: corn, 448,000 bushels; wheat, 14,- 
094,000; oats, 15,112,000; barley, 7,560,000; po- 
tatoes, 5,780,000; and hay, 2,044,000 tons. 
Apple trees of bearing age numbered 1,005,668 
in 1910 and 2,380,523 in 1920. In 1909, 659,- 
959 bushels of apples were grown; in 1919, 
3,645,640. 

Mining. Idaho is one of the important 
mineral-producing States, especially for its 
metal mining. The products in the order of 
their value are lead, silver, gold, and stone. In 
addition there is produced copper, sand and 
gravel, and a small amount of zine. The con- 
dition of the mining industry in the decade 
1914-24 is shown by the following comparison 
of production for several years: 1914, lead, 
348,526,069 pounds, valued at $13,592,517;  sil- 
ver, 12,479,516 ounces, $6,901,172; gold, $1,152,- 
315; zine, 42,012,435 pounds; 1917, lead, 393,- 
559,521 pounds; silver, 12,025,338 fine ounces; 
gold, $804,809; zinc, 79,854,136 pounds; 1920, 
lead, 249,609,976 pounds; silver, 7,326,794 fine 
ounces; gold, $485,590; zine, 27,932,326 pounds; 
1922, lead, 195,834,205 pounds, $10,770,881; 
silver, 6,081,865 ounces; gold, $501,405; zinc, 
4,109,131 pounds, $234,220. A considerable 
amount of copper is produced; the output, in 
1922, was 3,282,842 pounds, compared with 2,- 
538,396 pounds in 1920 and 6,445,187 pounds 
in 1914. Since the beginning of mining in Ida- 
ho in 1860, mineral products to the value of 
more than $925,000,000 have been obtained. In 
addition to those already mentioned, there have 
been produced antimony, bismuth, tungsten, 
cobalt, nickel, molybdenum, mica, asbestos, and 
coal. The total value of the mineral products 
in 1921 was $16,502,273, compared with $32,- 
449,783 in 1920, $19,044,567 in 1919, $36,872,- 
270 in 1918, and $24,913,223 in 1914. _ 

Manufactures. Idaho is not an important 
manufacturing State, although its industries 
have increased considerably in number and in 
value of products since 1909. There are only 
two cities having a population of more than 
10,000, Boise and Pocatello. These cities, with 
8.4 per cent of the total population of the State, 
reported, in 1919, 11.4 per cent of the total 
value of products. The number of establish- 
ments in the State in 1909 was 725; 1914, 698, 
and 1919, 922; persons engaged in manufacture, 
9909, 10,529, and 16,268; while the capital in- 
vested was $32,476,749, $44,960,489, and $96,- 
061,709, in those years. The value of the prod- 
ucts rose from $22,399,960 in 1909 to $28,453,- 
797 in 1914, and in 1919 to $80,510,749; but 
this increase was chiefly due to the change in 
industrial conditions brought about by the War, 
and therefore cannot be used to measure the 
growth of manufactures between the industrial 
censuses in 1914 and 1919. The increase in 
number of persons engaged in manufacture, and 
in the number of manufacturing establishments, 
however, indicates a large increase in the in- 


IDAHO 


dustrial activities of the State. The chief prod- 
ucts in point of value are those from the manu- 
facture of lumber and timber, which in 1909 
were valued at $10,689,000; 1914, $13,329,000; 
and 1919, $30,643,000. Flour-mill and grist- 
mill products rank second, in 1909, amounting 
to $2,480,000; 1914, $3,396,000, and in 1919, 
$13,501,000. Car construction and repair, in 
third place, had a production valued at $1,366,- 
000 in 1909; $2,034,000 in 1914, and $4,402,- 
000 in 1919. 

Education. Idaho has always been in the 
forefront of the States in educational progress. 
In 1912 a constitutional amendment was adopt- 
ed which established the so-called Idaho System. 
This, in brief, provided for unity in the educa- 
tional system; it established a State Board of 
Education which has charge of both the higher 
institutions and the public schools. The school 
code of 1913 provided that the State Board of 
Education should consist of five members ap- 
pointed by the governor. This board was made 


-also the board of regents of the universities; 


board of trustees for the normal schools, the 
Technical Institute, the School for the Deaf and 
Blind, and the Industrial Training School, and 
had general charge of the entire publie school 
system. It has since been made also the State 
Board for Vocational Education. This system 
had admirable results from the year in which it 
was inaugurated, and during the decade still 
further advances were made. One of the most 
important of these was in 1917, when it was 
provided that thereafter candidates for the 
teaching profession must have completed courses 
in one of the high schools of the State, or have 
equivalent education, and must have had at 
least some professional training before being 
certified to teach. The Legislature of 1923 
passed several important measures affecting 
education, among them one abolishing county 
institutes and several amending the tax laws 
relating to education. One of the most notable 
features of the decade was the growth of the 
Technical Institutes. Under the codperative 
agreement with the United States, vocational 
education was carried on with great efficiency 
since 1917; and work on the rehabilitation of 
persons injured in industry was also begun. 
The enrollment in the public schools increased 
from 92,437 in 1914 to 138,730 in 1923-24. In 
the high schools there were enrolled in the latter 
year 19,083 pupils. The expenditure for edu- 
eation in 1923 was $6,722,155. The percentage 
of illiteracy in the State decreased from 2.7 in 
1910 to 1.9 in 1920. In the native white pop- 
ulation, it remained at 0.4 per cent; and in the 
foreign-born white population, at 6.6 per cent. 
The decrease was among the Negro population, 
from 6.8 per cent to 5.9. 

Finance. See STATE FINANCES. 

Political and Other Events. During the 
decade 1914-24, political control in the State 
fluctuated between the Republican and Dem- 
ocratic parties. For the greater part of the pe- 
riod the former party was in control. In 1914, 
J. H. Brady, Democrat, was elected to the Sen- 
ate, while Moses Alexander, also a Democrat, 
was elected governor. The Democrats were suc- 
cessful also in 1916, when they elected their 
State ticket by a plurality of 572 votes. The 
Republicans, however, elected two representa- 
tives to Congress. In the presidential election 
of this year, President Wilson received 70,021 


votes; Hughes, 56,368. A new irrigation proj-- 


| 
. 
; 
‘ 


“= —— 


IDAHO 


ect was begun during the year to develop the 
territory known as the Bruneau country, about 
400,000 acres in extent, and an electric railroad 
through this territory was begun. Several anti- 
alien bills were introduced: in the Legislature of 
1917, but at the request of the Secretary of 
State, followed by the protest of the Japanese 
Ambassador to Secretary Lansing, they were 
not pressed to passage. These bills would have 
prevented any Japanese from owning land in 
the State. On Dee 10, 1917, the United States 
Supreme Court upheld the State prohibition 
law. In the election of 1918, Senator Borah 
was reélected, and John F. Nugent, Democrat, 
also was elected to the Senate, to complete the 
unexpired term of J. H. Brady, deceased. As 
a result of legislation in 1919, the State ad- 
ministration was reorganized. For the 46 
boards and commissions that were abolished 
was substituted a commission or cabinet of 
nine officials representing the department of 
agriculture, commerce and industry, finance, 
immigration, labor and statistics, law enforce- 
ment, public investment, public works, public 
welfare, and reclamation. In the election of 
1920, the Republicans again carried the State, 
electing D. W. Davis governor and Frank R. 
Gooding United States Senator for the full 
term. At this election several constitutional 
amendments were adopted, one of them increas- 
ing the membership of the Supreme Court from 
three to five, and another authorizing a bond 
issue of $2,000,000 for the improvement of 
State highways. In the elections of 1922, C. C. 
Moore, Republican, was elected governor, defeat- 
ing both the Democratic and Progressive can- 
didates. The question of the direct primary, 
the chief issue in this election, occupied the at- 
tention of the Legislature in 1923. The State 
primary law so far as it related to State officers 
had been repealed by the previous Legislature, 
which had a Nonpartisan-Democratic majority, 
and the governor had been elected on a plat- 
form which endorsed the repeal. However, suf- 
ficient number of Democrats and Progressive 
Republicans who favored a new direct primary 
law having been elected to the Legislature, a 
new primary law was passed; but it was vetoed 
by the governor. There was also an abortive 
attempt to pass a measure putting into effect 
the initiative and referendum authorized by the 
constitution of 1912. 

Legislation. The most important actions 
taken by the Legislature in the decade 1914-24 
are noted below. In 1915 it passed an anti- 
alien land ownership bill similar in its pro- 
visions to the California measures prehibiting 
the ownership of land in the State by alien per- 
sons, firms, or associations. A State-wide pro- 
hibition bill, to be effective in 1915, also was 
passed. A workmen’s compensation measure 
was vetoed by the governor. The Legislature 
provided in this year for absentee voting and 
passed a workmen’s compensation law. In 1919 
it ratified the Federal prohibition amendment. 
In 1921, measures were passed authorizing the 
school districts to provide for the education of 
adult residents who were unable to read and 
write; creating a bureau of budget and tax- 
ation; providing for codperative marketing; 
and establishing a teachers’ retirement fund. 
The Legislature of 1923 created a small claims 
court and provided that where a person has 
been three times convicted of a felony, whether 
within or without the State, he is declared a 


651 ILLINOIS 


persistent violator of the law and may be sen- 
tenced to prison for not less than five years. A 
measure was passed extending the absent voter 
privilege to persons who because of physical 
disability expect to be confined to their homes 
on election day. Another measure reserved the 
mineral rights of State lands to the State, and 
provided for their lease on a royalty basis. 

IDAHO, UNIVERSITY or. A _ coeducational 
State institution at Moscow, Idaho, founded in 
1889. In the decade 1914-24, the enrollment 
increased from 747 to 1647, the resident faculty 
from 80 to 126, and the size of the library from 
32,000 volumes to 80,000. The School of Mines 
and the School of Forestry were established in 
1917 and the School of Education in 1920, bring- 
ing the total of separate schools and colleges 
to seven. Curricula in pre-medical studies, in 
music, and in business were established in the 
College of Letters and Science, and departments 
of agricultural education, psychology, and archi- 
tecture were created. The south wing of the ad- 
ministration building was completed in 1920; 
Lindley Hall, a men’s dormitory, was built in 
1920-22; and Mary E. Forney Hall, a dormitory 
for women, was opened in 1923. Accommoda- 
tions of the College of Engineering were aug- 
mented in 1923 by purchase of the plant and 
equipment of a Mescow industrial concern, in- 
cluding several shop buildings. Eleven minor 
buildings were acquired or built in the decade. 
Melvin A. Brannon, Ph.D., was president until 
1917; Ernest Hiram Lindley, Ph.D., from 1917 
to 1921; and Alfred H. Upham, Ph.D., from 
1921. 

IDDINGS, Epwarp JoHN (1879- yseV An 
American educator and expert in agriculture, 
born at Peru, Ind., and educated at Butler Col- 
lege in Indianapolis and Colorado Agricultural 
College. He was a member of the faculty of 
the latter until 1910, when he joined the facul- 
ty of the University of Idaho. In 1910-11 he 
was principal of the School of Practical Agri- 
culture and assistant in animal husbandry, and 
in 1911 he became professor of animal hus- 
bandry. Since 1918 he has been dean of agri- 
culture and director of the Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station. He is the author of numer- 
ous bulletins and articles relating to live stock. 

IDO. See INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE. 

ILLEGITIMACY. See Cuitp WELFARE. 

ILLINOIS. Illinois is the twenty-third State 
in size (56,665 square miles), and the third in 
population; capital, Springfield. The popula- 
tion increased from 5,638,591 in 1910 to 6,485,- 
280 in 1920, a gain of 15 per cent. The white 
population rose from 5,526.962 to 6,229,333; 
Negro, from 109,049 to 182,274; native white, 
from 4,324,402 to 5,092,382; foreign-born from 
1,202,560 to 1,206,951. The urban population 
mounted from 3,476,926 in 1910 to 4,403,153 in 
1920, while the rural decreased from 2,161,662 
to 2,082,127. The growth of the principal cities 
of the State was as follows: Chicago (q.v.), 
2,185,203 to 2,701,705; Peoria, 66,950 to 76,- 
121; East St. Louis, 58,547 to 66,767; Rockford, 
45,401 to 65,651. 

Agriculture. Illinois is one of the most im- 
portant of the agricultural States, and condi- 
tions during the decade 1910-20, especially in 
the latter part of that period, were therefore 
affected by the general agricultural situation in 
regard to wheat and other products. See AaRI- 
CULTURE, Corn, and WHEAT. While the popu- 
lation of the State increased 15 per cent in the 


ILLINOIS 


decade 1910-20, the number of farms decreased 
5.8 per cent (from 251,872 in 1910 to 237,181 
in 1920); the acreage in farms decreased from 
32,522,937 to 31,974,775; and the improved land 
from 28,048,323 to 27,294,533 acres. The total 
value of farm property, on the other hand, show- 
ed an apparent increase from $3,905,321,075 in 
1910 to $6,666,767,235 in 1920, and the average 
value per farm from $15,505 to $28,108. In 
interpreting these values, however, and, indeed, 
all comparative values in the decade 1914-24, 
the inflation of the currency in the latter part 
of the period is to be taken into consideration. 
The index number of prices paid to producers 
of farm products in the United States was 104 
in 1910 and 216 in 1920. The percentage of 
land in farms decreased from 90.7 in 1910 to 
89.1 in 1920; percentage of improved farm land, 
from 86.2 to 85.4. Of the total of 237,181 in 
1920, 132,574 were operated by owners, 3411 by 
managers, and 101,196 by tenants, while the 
comparative figures for 1910 were 145,107, 2386 
and 104,379. The white farmers in 1920 num- 
bered 236,288, compared with 250,447 in 1910; 
foreign-born farmers, 22,111 and 33,394;  col- 
ored farmers, 893 and 1425. In 1920, 68,892 farms 
were free from mortgage, compared with 86,713 
in 1910; 51,039 were mortgaged, compared with 
55,792 in 1910. The number of dairy cows on 
the farms in 1920 was 1,148,173, as compared 
with 1,050,223 in 1910; “beef cows,’ 501,034, 
as compared with 281,957; mules, 168,274, as 
compared with 140,631; hogs, 4,639,182, as com- 
pared with 4,686,362; and sheep, 637,685, as 
compared with 658,484. The estimated produc- 
tion of the principal farm crops in 1923 was: 
corn, 362,678,000 bushels; wheat, 62,506,000; 
oats, 146,394,000; rye, 3,450,000; barley, 6,656,- 
000; potatoes, 10,696,000; and hay, 3,786,000 


tons Comparative figures for 1913 are: corn, 
282,150,000 bushels; wheat, 41,888,000; oats, 
104,125,000; rye, 808,000; barley, 1,404,000; 


potatoes, 5,750,000; and hay, 2,450,000 tons. 
Mining. Illinois, although it produces prac- 
tically no metals, is one of the most important 
of the mineral producing States. It ranked fifth 
in the value of its mineral products in 1921. 
These, in the order of their value, are coal, 
petroleum, clay products, and cement. The 
condition of mineral production in the decade 
1914-24 is indicated by the comparative figures 
given below. The production of coal in 1914 
was 57,589,197 short tons, valued at $64,693,- 
529; 1915, 58,829,576 and $64,622,471; 1916, 
66,195,336 and $82,457,954; 1917, 86,199,387 
and $162,281,822; 1918, 89,291,105 and $206, 
860,291; 1919, 60,862,608 and $140,075,969 ; 
1920, 88,724,893 and $273,509,000; 1921, 69,- 
602,763 and $190,986,000; and 1922, 58,467,736 
and $168,925,000. The falling off in 1921 and 
1922 was largely the result of the six months’ 
strike in the Middle West coal fields. Produc- 
tion of petroleum decreased with comparative 
steadiness during the decade. In 1914 there 
were produced 21,919,749 barrels, valued at $25,- 
426,179; in 1916, 17,714,235 and $29,237,168; 
1918, 13,365,974 and $31,230,000; 1920, 10,774,- 
000 and $39,583,000; 1922, 9,383,000 and $19,- 
291,000. The value of clay products on the 
whole increased in the decade: in 1914 they 
amounted to $13,318,953; 1918, $12,459,777; 
1920, $26,138,419, and 1921, $19,041,182. The 
production of cement, exclusive of natural 
cement, was practically constant, ranging from 
5,401,605 barrels in 1914 to 3,594,038 in 1918; 


652 


ILLINOIS 


5,538,558 barrels in 1920, and 5,587,825 barrels 
in 1921. The value of the product, however, 
greatly increased, owing chiefly to the decreased 
purchasing power of money and the consequent 
higher prices. The value of shipments in 1914 
was $4,848,522, while in 1921 for practically the 
same production the value was $9,092,982. In 
addition to the products mentioned above, the 
State produces large quantities of coke, sand 
and gravel, and stone, and smaller quantities 
of asphalt, mineral waters, and natural gas. 
The total value of the mineral products in 1921 
was $254,019,136, compared with $373,926,540 
in 1920; $213,701,212 in 1919, $271,244,365 in 
1918, and $117,166, 370 in 1914. 
Manufactures. [Illinois is one of the most 
important manufacturing States. It has 44 
cities with populations of more than 10,000, 
which form 587 per cent of the total popula- 
tion. Of the total value of the manufactured 
products in 1919, these cities reported 84.3 per 
cent. In 1909 there were, in the State, 18,026 
manufacturing establishments; 1914, 18,388; and 
1919, 18,593; while persons engaged in manufac- 
ture numbered 561,044, 617,927, and 804,805, in 
those years. The capital invested amounted to 
$1,548,170,701, $1,943,835,846, and $3,366,452,- 
969. The value of the products in 1909 was 
$1,919,276,594; in 1914, $2,247,322,819, and 
1919, $5,425,244,694; this increase, however, was 


‘due largely to changes in industrial conditions 


brought about by the War and cannot be 
properly used to measure the growth of the 
manufactures during the census period, but the 
increase shown in the number of wage earners 
clearly indicates a decided growth in the manu- 
facturing activities of the State. The most 
important industry in point of value of prod- 
ucts is that connected wth slaughtering and 
meat packing, the value of which in 1909 was 
$389,595,000; in 1914, $489,230,000, and 1919, 
$1,294,167,000. Foundry and machine shop 
products rank second, amounting in 1909 to 
$138,579,000; 1914, $141,329,000, and 1919, 
$421,969,000. The manufacture of men’s cloth- 
ing, in third place, in 1909 amounted to $89,- 
473,000; in 1914, $89,144,000, and in 1919, $201,- 
816,000. Industries relating to the manufacture 
of iron and steel products rank fourth, with 
products valued at $86,608,000 in 1905; $64,- 
995,000 in 1914, and $173,345,000 in 1919. The 
chief manufacturing cities are Chicago, Peoria, 
East St. Louis, and Rockford. In Chicago, in 
1909, there were 9656 manufacturing establish- 
ments, with a product valued at $1,281,171,000; 
in 1914, 10,115 with $1,483,498,000; in 1919, 
10,5387 with $3,657,424,000. Rockford, in 1909, 
had 205 manufacturing establishments, with a 
product valued at $22,226,000; in 1914, 265 
with $26,371,000, and in 1919, 312 with $74,- 
919,000. In Peoria, in 1909, there were 283 
establishments, with a product valued at $63,- 
061,000; in 1914, 283 with $64,689,000, and in 
1919, 253 with $57,075,000. Similar figures for 
East St. Louis were: in 1909; 138 establish- 
ments, with a product of $18,104,000; in 1919, 
157 with $77,293,000. 

Education. Illinois has always been one of 
the most aggressive States in the development of 
educational systems, and its progress continued 
during the decade 1914-24. During the latter 
part of this period an active campaign was 
carried on by the State Teachers’ Association to 
secure an annual distribution of $20,000,000 
from the State and the various counties for 


ILLINOIS 


educational purposes. This movement had a 
great effect in turning the attention of tax- 
payers and lawmakers to the principles under- 
lying the educational State distributive fund. 
The Legislatures during the period enacted sev- 
eral important laws, including measures _ pro- 
viding for humane education; physical educa- 
tion; the teaching of all elementary subjects in 
the English language only; and, in 1921, a 
measure for making the teaching of representa- 
tive government in the public schools and other 
educational institutions in the State compulsory. 
In 1923 a State continuation school law became 
effective, requiring that continuation classes be 
organized in districts having as many as 20 
boys and girls between the ages of 14 and 18 
out of school, unless such individuals have 
completed a four-year high school course. Vo- 
cational education was carried on successfully 
during the decade and included, under vocational 
home economics, courses in home-making, nurs- 
ing and dietetics. The Legislature of 1921 cre- 
ated a State Educational Commission to investi- 
gate the entire educational system of the State 
with a view to the standardizing, unification, 
and correlation of its various efforts, policies, 
and agencies, and for other purposes. A teach- 
ers’ pension law was enacted by the Legislature 
of 1915. In 1923, 325 school districts had been 
consolidated, in the elementary schools of which 


7332 were enrolled, and in the high schools 


1337. Vocational courses, including courses in 
agriculture, industrial education, and home 
economics, were being conducted in 199 cities in 
1923; and $435,327 was disbursed from Federal 
and State funds for their support. The en- 
rollment in the public schools increased from 
1,007,894 in 1911 to 1,200,922 in 1921; in the 
elementary schools from 941,549 to 1,060,304; in 
the high schools from 66,355 to 140,618, or 
111.92 per cent. The total expenditure for edu- 
eational purposes in 1922-23 amounted to $103,- 
434,444; in 1914-15, the total was $41,284,275. 
The percentage of illiteracy in the State de- 
creased from 4.7 per cent in 1910 to 4.3 per cent 
in 1920; among the native white population 
from 2.2 per cent to 1.4; among the Negro 
population, from 12.4 to 7.9. Among the 
foreign-born white population it increased from 
10.3 to 11.7 per cent. 

Finances. See STATE FINANCEs. 

Political and Other Events. The political 
history of Illinois is always eventful, and the 
decade 1914-24 was no exception to the general 
rule. In the elections in 1914, women for the 
first time took part. Lawrence Y. Sherman 
was reélected to the Senate. The Republicans 
also elected 16 members of the House of Repre- 
sentatives, including Joseph G. Cannon. The 
Supreme Court in 1915 upheld the woman 
suffrage act passed in 1913. In 1915, Carter H. 
Harrison, five times elected mayor of Chicago, 
was defeated for the Democratic nomination by 
Robert M. Schweitzer, who in turn was defeated 
by William Hale Thompson, Republican candi- 
date, by about 147,000 votes. Women for the 
first time participated in the city elections. 
Frank O. Lowden in 1916 was nominated by the 
Republicans for governor, and Edward F. 
Dunne by the Democrats; Lowden was elected. 
In the election for president, Charles E. Hughes 
received 1,152,316 votes; President Wilson, 950, 
081. In 1916 a serious race riot in East St. 
Louis occurred on June 8 from trouble between 
negroes and white men; it lasted for three days. 


653 


ILLINOIS 


For this period the city was in the hands of a 
mob. The killed numbered 29 persons, of 
whom 25 were negroes; over 300 houses were 
burned. The riot began when a negro attacked 
an automobile which contained several police- 
men. Indictments were found against more 
than 100 persons, 32 of whom were accused of 
murder. A grand jury declared in its findings 
that the police had been grossly negligent and 
could have prevented the riot. On May 26, 
1917, a terrific windstorm caused considerable 
loss of life and great damage to several towns 
of the State. In the elections of 1918, Medill 
McCormick was elected United States Senator, 
defeating Senator James Hamilton Lewis, Demo- 
erat. Elections were held in 1920 for governor 
and other State officers, and for United States 
Senator. Len Small, Republican, was elected 
governor, and William B. McKinley, also a Re- 
publican, was elected United States Senator. 
In the voting for president, Warren G. Harding 
received 1,420,480 votes; J. M. Cox, 543,395. 
During the summer of 1920 and at various later 
periods, a constitutional convention was in ses- 
sion. The new constitution proposed by the 
convention was rejected by the people in Decem- 
ber, 1922. On July 20, 1921, Governor Small 
and Lieut.-Gov. Fred E. Sterling were indicted 
for conspiracy to defraud the State and for em- 
bezzlement of public money during their re- 
spective terms as State Treasurer. These in- 
dictments were based on charges that the ac- 
cused. officials had retained for their own use 
large sums paid them as interest on State 
funds. Governor Small was arrested on August 
8 and was released on $50,000 bail. After a 
trial he was acquitted on June 24, 1922. Dur- 
ing 1922, the State suffered from coal mining 
strikes which were accompanied in several cases 
by riots. In Herrin a mob of striking coal 
miners killed 50 nonunion miners, after they had 
surrendered their arms, under the most brutal 
conditions. The town was placed under mar- 
tial law, and many persons were arrested. In 
trials held in 1923, the jury returned a verdict 
of not guilty. A report of the committee of the 
Legislature, on June 20, 1923, placed the blame 
for these riots and killings on public officials 
who had failed to send militia to prevent the 
outbreak. (See STRIKES.) In 1923, William 
E. Dever, Democrat, was elected mayor of Chi- 
cago, succeeding William Hale Thompson. Fred 
Lundin, the political boss of the city during the 
Thompson administration, was indicted in 1923, 
together with officials of the Board of Educa- 
tion, for fraud. Lundin was tried and acquitted, 
as were most of the other defendants. Pri- 
maries for the nomination for governor, for 
United States Senator, and for other officers 
were held in April, 1924. Senator McCormick, 
a candidate for reélection, was defeated by 
Charles 8. Deneen. Len Small was renominat- 
ed for governor by the Republicans. The Demo- 
crats nominated Albert Arnold Sprague for 
United States Senator and Norman L. Jones for 
governor. Serious trouble arose early in 1924 
in Williamson County, the scene of the Herrin 
murders of 1922, over attempts to destroy illic- 
it stills and to suppress related forms of law- 
lessness. Conflicts took place between the po- 
lice, alleged members of the Ku Klux Klan, and 
citizens. The National Guard took control until 
the disturbances were quieted. 

Legislation. The most important proceed- 
ings of the Legislature in the decade 1914-24 


ILLINOIS 654 


are noted below. In 1917 the Legislature adopt- 
ed a State civil administrative code by which 
all branches of the government were readjusted, 
duplicated services were abolished, and depart- 
ments with responsible heads were established, 
many beneficial changes being thus _ effected. 
The Legislature also enacted a “blue sky” law. 
The Legislature in 1919 ratified the Federal 
suffrage amendment; it was the first State Legis- 
lature to take this action. It passed a “search 
and seizure” bill for the enforcement of the 
prohibition law; entered on a roadbuilding proj- 
ect involving the expenditure of more than 
$87,000,000; abolished the State Board of 
Equalization of 25 members; substituted a State 
Tax Commission of 3 members to be appointed 
by the Governor, and provided for changes in 
the government of Chicago, including the non- 
partisan election of aldermen. The movement 
to establish an eight-hour day for women was 
defeated. In 1921 the Legislature passed 
measures providing for equality in voting be- 
tween men and women. An act was also passed 
providing for compensation to veterans of 
the War, to be paid out of a bond issue of $55,- 
000,000, subject to the approval of the people. 
The act was duly approved by popular vote. 
The Legislature in 1923 passed a measure for- 
bidding the wearing of masks in public places 
with the intent to conceal the wearer’s identity. 
It also passed a bill to facilitate codperative 
marketing of agricultural products and made 
provisions for creating associations for this 
purpose. 

ILLINOIS, University oF. <A coeducational 
State institution at Urbana, IJ]., founded in 
1867. The enrollment increased approximately 
70 per cent during the decade 1914-24, with 
5500 at the beginning of that time and 9309 
for the first and second semester of 1923-24. 
Counting additional students in the summer 
term, the total net enrollment for 1923-24 was 
more than 11,000. The faculty increased cor- 
respondingly, from 704 in 1914 to 818 in 1922- 
23; the library was increased from 310,000 
volumes in 1914 to 577,321 in 1923-24, and the 
income of the institution from $2,775,000 to 
$6,211,564. The genetics building and the viva- 
rium were erected in 1916, a women’s residence 
hall in 1917, education building in 1918, the 
Smith Memorial music building in 1919, and 
the medical research laboratory and library at 
Chicago. The horticultural and agricultural 
buildings and the stadium were begun in 1922, 
and work was to begin in the spring of 1924 
on the following buildings, for which money had 
been granted by the Illinois Legislature: first 
unit of a new library ($750,000) ; new commerce 
building ($500,000); new men’s gymnasium 
($500,000) ; women’s residence hall ($250,000) ; 
and a miscellaneous agricultural service build- 
ing ($380,000). David Kinley, Ph.D., LL.D., 
succeeded Edmund J..James, Ph.D., LL.D., in 
1919, as president. 

ILLINOIS COLLEGE. The oldest collegiate 
institution of Illinois, founded in 1829 at 
Jacksonville, Ill. The enrollment of the college 
department increased from 131 in 1914 to 332 
in 1924, while that of the conservatory of music 
was 189 in 1914 as compared with 184 in 1924. 
The preparatory department was discontinued 
during the period. The productive endowment 
increased in the 10 years from $386,717 to $871,- 
374, and the total yearly income from $48,448 
to $120,517. The science building was burned in 


IMMIGRATION 


1920; the walls remained standing, and the 
building was reconstructed at a cost of $50,000. 
Departments of psychology and education and 
of economies and business administration were 
established. Preparations were under way in 
1924 for the celebration of the centenary of the 
college. President, Charles Henry Rammel- 
kamp, Ph.D. 

ILLINOIS WOMAN’S COLLEGE. An in- 
stitution for women founded in 1846 at Jackson- 
ville, Ill. The number of students registered 
in the regular college courses increased from 
185 in 1914 to 284 in 1924, and the number in 
special courses from 97 to 274. The prepara- 
tory academy was closed during the period, 
and the two-year courses in fine arts, public 
speaking and home economics were discontinued. 
The library increased from 3000 to 13,800 vol- 
umes, and the gross income from $105,000 to 
$190,000. In 1914 there was no productive en- 
dowment; in 1924 the endowment amounted to 
$400,000, plus $300,000 in pledges. A gymna- 
sium was built in 1917. President, Joseph R. 
Harker. 

ILLITERACY. See 
UNITED STATES. 

ILLUMINATION. See Etectric Licur- 
ING. 
IMELMANN, Rupotr H. R. (1879- ). 
A German writer and specialist on the English 
language and literature, born in Berlin, and 
educated at the universities of Jena, Bonn, Ber- 
lin, and Freiburg. For many years he made fre- 
quent trips to England. He became professor 
of English literature at Rostock. His principal 
works are: Das _ Altenglische Menologium 
(1902); Layomon (1906); Der Deutsche Krieg 
und die Englische Literatur (1915); Forschun- 
gen zur Altenglischen Poesie (1920); a history 
of English literature; and translations of By- 
ron and Browning. 

IMMIGRATION. The widespread agitation 
for the restriction and control of immigration, 
which was increasingly successful from 1914 to 
1924, seemed to indicate the abandonment, at 
least temporarily, of the time-honored theory 
that the United States should be a refuge for 
those persecuted and in distress; the stand was 
definitely taken in this period that immigration 
should be regulated primarily in accordance 
with the need and best interests of the country 
itself. The growth in this sentiment for restric- 
tion was based not so much, perhaps, on actual 
increase in the number of alien immigrants (al- 
though fear of flooding after the War had much 
to do with bringing the issue to a head) as on 
the changed character of the immigration. It 
was the rapidly increasing proportion from 
southern and eastern Europe, a class regarded 
as less easy to assimilate, which gave rise to 
fears in some quarters that the problem of as- 
similation, already serious, would grow quickly 
out of hand unless restrictive measures were 
taken. Some groups saw in a flood of this diver- 
gent type a danger to the fundamental character 
of the population and a menace to cherished in- 
stitutions. Labor fought against the overcrowd- 
ing of the market with workmen whose stand- 
ards of living and inaccessibility for organiza- 
tion had a tendency to lower wages and living 
standards. The steady growth of this senti- 
ment against so-called unassimilable elements in 
immigration, and the success of the attempt to 
check their influx, made thc period important in 
the development of a definite immigration policy. 


EDUCATION IN THE 


IMMIGRATION 


See ANTHROPOLOGY; ETHNOGRAPHY; RACE PROB- 
LEMS. 


The tendency in immigration was generally to 


increase numerically. For 1905-14 the average 
was 1,012,194 alien immigrants entering in one 
year. With the War there came a sharp de- 
celine in numbers, and the annual average for 
1915-18 dropped to 257,887; but in 1921 the 
number of alien immigrants admitted was again 
over 800,000. The table, giving the net increase 
of population by arrival and departure of 
aliens, 1908-23, shows an equally sharp curve. 


655 


IMMIGRATION 


in 1920-21, 66.7 per cent of the total number 
of immigrants admitted were of races and peo- 
ples peculiar to South and East Europe and 
Asiatic Turkey. With the turn of the tide in 
the latter part of 1920, and the prospect of in- 
creasing numbers from southern and eastern 
Europe, the feeling against this type of immi- 
grant grew stronger. Because of racial differ- 
ences they were not easy to assimilate; they 
showed a greater tendency than the north- 
western Europeans to crowd in urban centres 
and thus oversupply the labor market; they 


NET INCREASE OF POPULATION BY ARRIVAL AND DEPARTURE OF ALIENS, FISCAL YEARS 
ENDING JUNE 30, 1908 TO 1923 


Admitted Departed 

Nonimmi- Nonemi- 
Immigrant grant Total Emigrant grant Total Increase 
LATE. 2 a I 782,870 141,825 924,695 395,073 319,755 714,828 209,867 
DO ey anal, eee 751,786 192,449 944,235 225,802 174,590 400,392 543,843 
Rea eo es 1,041,570 156,467 1,198,037 202,436 177,982 380,418 817,619 
1911s 1) 7s epee 878,587 151,713 1,030,300 295,666 222,549 518,215 512,085 
1912 - ocx eget 838,172 178,983 1,017,155 333,262 282,030 615,292 401,863 
TOTS? OP ie eee Ls 1,197,892 229,335 1,427,227 308,190 303,734 611,924 815,303 
16140 ese |S 1,218,480 184,601 1,403,081 303,338 330,467 633,805 769,276 
101 SNAP ie 326,700 107,544 434,244 204,074 180,100 384,174 50,070 
191 Giese ele. 298,826 67,922 366,748 129,765 111,042 240,807 125,941 
pe Ae hoe oe 295,403 67,474 362,877 66,277 80,102 146,379 216,498 
De ae aera 110,618 101,235 211,873 94,585 98,683 193,268 18,585 
POS SESE SR eo 141,132 95,889 237,021 123,522 92,709 216,231 20,790 
LGR ReE aE, 473 430,001 191,575 621,576 288,315 139,747 428,062 193,514 

Total 10 years, 

1911-1920 5,735,811 1,376,271 7,112,082 2,146,994 1,841,163 3,988,157 3,123,925 
Te Ta Pee, is se) 805,228 172,935 978,163 247,718 178,313 426,031 552,132 
pe Ee ee eee Cie , 309,556 122,949 432,505 198,712 146,672 345,384 STL 
HOS Satis Pere as. 2 522,919 150,487 673,406 81,450 119,136 200,586 472,820 

Grand _ total 9,949,740 25513,489. 32,265,123 3,498,185 2,957,611 6,455,796 5,807,327 


The number of alien immigrants admitted in 
the decade ending in 1910 was 8,795,386, or 
116 per 1000 of the initial population. For 
the decade ending in 1920 the number was 5,- 
735,811, or 62 per 1000. While in 1910, out of 
a total population of 91,972,266, the foreign- 
born numbered 13,345,545 or 14.5 per cent, in 
1920, out of 105,710,620, they numbered 13,- 
712,754, or 13 per cent, practically the same 
proportion as in 1860 (13.2). (See Poputa- 
TION.) The lessening of the proportion of 
foreign-born during the decade was no doubt 
due in large part not only to the falling off in 
immigration during the War but also to the un- 
usually high rate of emigration among aliens. 
In 1916, 129,765 aliens left the United States; 
in 1917-21, the average annual emigration 
amounted to 164,083; in the two years follow- 
ing the War the outward movement to Europe, 
largely to the south and east, practically offset 
the immigration from that continent. In the 
latter part of 1920, however, the tide began to 
turn, and by 1921 the annual increase in popu- 
lation because of immigration was well on its 
way back to the peak figure. 

It was the marked change in the character of 
the immigration, however, which seemed the 
main cause of uneasiness. In 1882, 85 per cent 
of the European immigrants came from the 
North and West; by 1907, 85 per cent was com- 
ing from the East and South. For a consider- 
able number of years before 1914 the normal 
annual number of alien immigrants from the 
North and West had been 185,000, as compared 
‘with 750,000 from the East and South. Al- 
though immigration from Austria, Hungary, 
Germany and Russia fell off to practically noth- 
ing in the years immediately after 1917, and al- 
though about this time there was a striking in- 
crease in immigration from Mexico and Canada, 


22 


brought with them more often the danger of 
radicalism. 

The growing movement to control immigra- 
tion, which up to 1910 had developed only so 
far as to exclude the morally and physically 
undesirable and the contract laborer, to bar 
Chinese, and practically to bar Japanese by 
virtue of the “Gentleman’s Agreement,” at first 
contented itself with efforts to set a literacy 
test. The struggle for this restrictive measure 
dated back to 1897, when Cleveland vetoed the 
proposal; it had become prominent again in 
1906. Taft vetoed such a bill in 1912, Wilson 
in-1915. In 1917, Wilson vetoed the proposal 
for the second time, on the ground that it 
punished the immigrant for what was no fault 
of his, and because, in allowing for the exemp- 
tion of refugees from religious persecution, it 
might lead to embarrassing expressions of opin- 
ion on governmental policies abroad; but the 
measure was passed over his veto. This bill 
required that all aliens over 16, who were physi- 
cally able, in order to be admitted must be 


able to read English or some other language 


or dialect, although it allowed for the bringing 
in of father or grandfather over 55, wife, 
mother, grandmother, unmarried or widowed 
daughter, and for the entry of those persecuted 
for religious reasons, even if illiterate. It also 
contained a clause restricting Oriental immigra- 
tion and increased the poll tax on entering 
aliens to $8. The effect of this bill is shown 
in the fact that while between 1908 and 1917, 
1,617,000 illiterates over 14 had been admitted, 
and while in 1913 illiterates made up 26.6 per 
cent of the entering alien immigrants, in 1920 
this class numbered only 15,094, or 4.4 per cent 
of the total number admitted. There is some 
significance also in the increased proportion of 
rejected applicants: 2.3 in 1914; 5.3 in 1915; 


IMMIGRATION 656 


4.9 in 1916; 4.2 in 1917; 3.3 In 1918; 3.6 in 
1919; this, although due in some measure to 
the more rigid inspection possible when immi- 
gration had fallen low during the War, was 
also attributable to the new requirement. 

In 1920, with a marked increase in immigra- 
tion toward the end of the year, the fear of a 
flood from the war-stricken countries of Europe 
was intensified, and the demand for still fur- 
ther restriction became insistent. In 1921, the 
American Federation of Labor, fearful for one 
thing of the unemployment situation, was vigor- 
ously advocating complete prohibition of im- 
migration for two years. The American Legion 
was calling for rigorous exclusion of revolu- 
tionaries. On the other hand, the Inter-Racial 
Council, chiefly representative of large em- 
ployers, continued to argue the need of un- 
skilled labor, and the danger of giving labor 
in this country a monopolistic control of the 


IMMIGRATION 


ed with excess applicants to such a serious extent 
that steps had to be taken to admit many tem- 
porarily. The congestion continued for about 
six months, to some degree. Nevertheless, from 
July 1, 1921, to Apr. 30, 1922, less than 4000 
in excess of quotas had applied, and only about 
1250 of these had been returned. There was 
some question as to whether priority was to be 
established by arrival or by application, and the 
method of deciding which of the excess appli- 
cants should be rejected came in for criticism. 
The law succeeded, however, in restricting the 
number of alien immigrants to 180,000 in the 
first nine months of 1921-22, as compared with 
793,000 in the same period in 1913-14; and it 
had about doubled the proportion from the 
North and West of Europe, raising it from 14 
to 31 per cent. Its effect is shown in the table, 
which compares the figures for 1922-23 with 
those for two years before the law was passed. 


IMMIGRANT ALIENS ADMITTED BY PRINCIPAL RACES OR PEOPLES IN FISCAL YEARS 
SPECIFIED 


Number admitted 


1922-23 


Northern and western Europe ........... 274,507 
Southern and eastern Europe and Turkey .162,695 


RACE OR PEOPLE 


MEXICANS wlic le Srbotete sels: Gi edrane as aun sea 62,709 
ATT othersis ater aes el cles wick hee ea orton 23,008 
cL'O tall } \\ weeds oui iets: +. a Deete CURRROL Ode jo) canoe 522,919 


market; and there was not lacking a large body 
of sentiment that the United States should still 
continue to be an asylum for the politically and 
economically oppressed. Among the remedies 
proposed was an agency to regulate the flow and 
the nature of immigration in accordance with 
the country’s need; examination at ports of 
debarkation was advocated. An emergency 
measure presented to Congress in 1920 provided 
for a practical shutting off of immigration for 
14 months. The bill finally passed, in 1921, 
was based on the percentum limit plan; it 
provided that the number of aliens of any na- 
tionality admitted in any fiscal year was not 
to exceed 3 per cent of the number of foreign- 
born residents of that nationality in the United 
States in 1910, nationality to be determined by 
country of birth. It applied only to Europe, 
the Near East (including Turkey, Persia, Meso- 
potamia, and Arabia), Africa, Australia, New 
Zealand, Asiatic Russia, and islands of the At- 
lantic and Pacific not adjacent to the mainland 
of the western hemisphere. This percentum 
limit arrangement was designed seemingly to 
decrease the number of immigrants from south- 
ern and eastern Europe and to increase. pro- 
portionately the number from the North and 
West; whereas in the years before 1914, the 
normal annual number of immigrants from the 
North and West had been about 185,000 and 
from the South and East about 750,000, under 
the new quota arrangement these figures were 
limited to 200,000 and 155,000 respectively. 
Since the law was passed only on May 19 and be- 
came effective June 3, a good deal of confusion 
and difficulty followed. According to its pro- 
visions, not more than 20 per cent of the total 
of any quota was admissible in any one month; 
in June, 1921, 11,000 in excess of quotas ap- 
lied for admission. Entering ports, particularly 
Ellis Island (which at this time and later came 
in for violent criticism on the score of inhumane 
accommodation for detained aliens), were crowd- 


Per cent of total 


1920-21 1913-14 1922-23 1920-21 1913-14 
206,995 253,855 52.5 25.7 20.8 
537,144 921,160 31.1 66.7 75.6 
29,603 13,089 12.0 3.7 Deal 
31,486 30,376 4.4 3.9 2.5 
805,228 1,218,480 100.0 100.0 100.0 


In May, 1922, the life of this percentum act 
was extended to June 30, 1924; at the same time 
the requirement of one year’s residence in an 
adjacent country, to escape the quota restric- 
tion, was raised to five years. 

Restriction still continued an important issue. 
In 1922 there was an agitation for relaxation. 
In that year 100,058 unskilled laborers had 
left the country and only 32,728 had been ad- 
mitted; it was urged that there was about to 
be a dearth of men for work that did not at- 
tract workers already in the country. But the 
advocates of more severe restriction were suc- 
cessful. A measure to replace the existing bill, 
which expired June 30, 1924, was drawn up in 
that year, and after much heated discussion 
over the method of fixing the quota, and over 
the Japanese exclusion clause, it was passed in 
both houses by a large majority. After Con- 
gress, by more than a two-thirds majority, had 
refused his request to postpone until March, 
1925, the date on which the Japanese exclusion 
clause became effective, President Coolidge 
signed the bill on May 26. By this measure the 
aggregate immigration from outside the western 
hemisphere was limited to 161,000 persons an- 
nually for three years, and to 150,000 thereafter. 
After July 1, 1927, the aggregate quota was to 
be divided exactly in accordance with the na- 
tional origin of the whole population, according 
to the latest census. Under the new arrange- 
ment, 75 per cent of the immigrants would be 
drawn from northern and western Europe. 
Wives, minor children, and elderly parents were 
privileged to enter as a nonquota class. Apart 
from the contention that it was not in accord- 
ance with American ideals to base immigra- 
tion on a selfishly economic basis, the bill was 
criticized as an undesirable “expression of re- 
sponsible thought in America on controversial 
theories as to relative worth of nationalities.” 
As proclaimed by President Coolidge, June 30, 
1924, the largest quota for 1924-25 was that of 


IMMIGRATION 


Germany, 51,227. The quota for Great Britain 
and Northern Ireland was 34,007; Irish Free 
State, 28,567; Italy, 3845; Russia, 2248, 
Asiatic Immigration. Under the Chinese 
exclusion bill, and the “Gentleman’s Agree- 
ment” (1907) by which Japan bound herself 
to give no passports to laborers coming to the 
United States and to limit the number to Canada 
and Mexico, the influx of Asiatics had already 
been greatly restricted. The 71,531 Chinese 
residents in the United States at the census of 
1910 had decreased to 61,686 in 1920. On the 
other hand, the number of Japanese had in- 
creased 53.86 per cent in the 10 years, from 
72,157 to 111,025, an increase of about 30,000 
in California and about 4000 in Washington. A 
growing protest against Oriental immigrants be- 
gan to make itself heard. In 1914 two amend- 
ments to the general immigration bill were 
proposed and_ rejected, one to exclude all 
Asiaties except those with rights under exist- 
ing agreements, and the other anti-Japanese. 
The immigration bill of 1917 contained a clause 
excluding Oriental laborers and directed chiefly 
at Hindus and Malays. Meanwhile on the Pa- 
cific coast, feeling against the Japanese had 
been growing more intense. Not only was the 
Japanese, like other Orientals, considered un- 
assimilable; the American farmer was not able 
to compete with his gift for intensive cultiva- 
tion, his unflagging energy, and lower working 
and living standards; his growing numbers, and 
increasing success at the expense of other far- 
mers, changed uneasiness into alarm. The de- 
sire for protection was reflected in State laws in 
California, Washington, Arizona, and Oregon. 
Not only the right to own land was taken from 
the Japanese; the right to lease it for three 
years, which had previously been allowed, was 
denied in 1920; in 1923 even croppage contracts 
were forbidden. Resolutions were passed in the 
latter year in California asking Congress to pro- 
hibit Japanese immigration altogether and peti- 
tioning for an amendment to the Constitution 
to exclude from citizenship those children born 
in the United States of parents ineligible to 
citizenship. Following all this there was in- 
corporated in the new immigration bill in 1924 
a clause excluding would-be immigrants who 
were not eligible for citizenship, in abrogation 
of the “Gentleman’s Agreement.” During the 
lively debate that followed, the Japanese Am- 
bassador Hanihara, in a letter to the State De- 
partment, asked that Japan be given the oppor- 
tunity to arrange the matter by treaty and 
called attention to the possibility of “grave con- 
sequences” if the Japanese were subjected to 
the indignity of such discrimination. His let- 
ter aroused much criticism, and was styled an 
attempt to intimidate and to dictate legislation 
on a domestic matter. Contrary to the advice 
of Secretary Hughes that Japan be placed on 
the quota basis, the bill was quickly passed by 
the Senate by a vote of 76 to 2. The House had 
previously passed the bill by a vote of 376 to 71. 
All Japanese, except ministers, members of the 
learned professions and arts, and students, with 
their wives and children, were barred. Presi- 
dent Coolidge favored tle general principle of 
exclusion but recommended a delay till March, 
1925, to arrange the matter by treaty with 
Japan, if possible. Congress, however, refused 
by a large majority to accept this recommenda- 
tion, and the President, moved by other con- 
siderations, gave the bill his signature as it 


657 


INDIA 


originally stood. Among. the arguments  ad- 
vanced in favor of the bill was the impossibility 
of a situation in which two races with such 
divergent standards of living were side by side; 
the right to retain the country for the Caucasian 
race against a flood of unassimilables; the feel- 
ing in some quarters that Japan had not lived 
up to the “Gentleman’s Agreement”; that since 
no other Oriental country was included in the 
quota arrangement, Japan had no right to feel 
herself the object of discrimination. On the 
other hand the bill was severely criticized as 
abrupt and a breach of international good 
manners. It was contended that Japan had 
kept her agreement to the best of her ability 
and that if Japanese laborers had continued to 
be smuggled in under that arrangement, the 
smuggling could only increase without Japan’s 
codperation. Moreover, Japan was willing to 
codperate in excluding any or all of her citi- 
zens and desired only that it be by a law putting 
her on a par with other nations or by a treaty. 
Perhaps the most convincing argument against 
the clause was the claim that it was unneces- 
sary. Secretary Hughes had advocated that the 
Japanese be included in the 2 per cent quota pro- 
vision, calling attention to the fact that the 
entailed admission of 250 immigrants a year 
was virtual exclusion. The President, in favor 
of settlement of exclusion by treaty, styled the 
measure “unnecessary and deplorable.” There 
was much comment on the fact that in so vital 
a matter, affecting sensibly the general attitude 
of Japan toward the United States, the definitely 
expressed opinion of the President and Depart- 
ment of State could be overridden by a Congress 
without party control. 

IMPERIAL CONFERENCES. See Barir- 
ISH EMPIRE. 

IMPRESSIONISM. See Parntine; Scurp- 
TURE; AND MUSIC. 

INCANDESCENT LAMPS. See ELectric 
LIGHTING. 

INCH, Tuomas HARPER (1880— haan 
American moving-picture director, born at New- 
port, R. I., and educated in the public schools. 
He was for several years an actor under Charles 
Frohman. In 1909 he was appointed general 
director of the New York Motion Picture Cor- 
poration and was later president of the Thomas 


H. Ince Studios and other companies. He di- 
rected many successful pictures. 
INCOME TAX. See TAXATION IN THA 


UnITEpD STATES. 

INDIA. The peninsula of Hindustan and 
the regions to the North, including all those 
territories governed directly and indirectly by 
the British. Total area, 1,802,332 square 
miles; total population in 1911, 315,156,396; in 
1921, 318,942,480; gain in population for the 
decade, 1.2 per cent. Of the British provinces, 
losses for the decade 1911-21 were shown by 
Bihar and Orissa, Bombay, Berar, and the 
United Provinces of Agra and Oudah. Among 
the native states and agencies the following de- 
clined: Central India Agency, Hyderabad, Raj- 
putana Agency, and the United Provinces States. 
The heavy ravages of famine, the plague, and 
other diseases accounted for the population’s 
remaining almost stationary. In 1919, for ex- 
ample, births were 30.24 per 1000 to 35.87 
deaths; for 1920, births were 33 per 1000 and 
deaths were 30.8. The 1918 losses of population 
as a result of harvest failures and the influenza 
epidemic were among the severest recorded. 


INDIA 


The death rate in that year mounted past 62 
per cent per 1000. Populations of the largest 
cities in 1921 were (1911 figure in parenthe- 
ses): Caleutta, with suburbs, 1,327,547 (1,222,- 
313) ; Bombay, 1,175,914 (979,445) : Madras, 526,- 
911 (511,660): Hyderabad, 404.187 (500,623) ; 
Rangoon, 341,962 (293.316); Delhi, the winter 
capital, 304,420 (232,837) By religions, the 
population in 1921 was divided as follows (1911 
figure in parentheses): Hindus, 216,734,586 
(217,586, 900); Sikhs, 3,238.803 (3,014,466) ; 
Buddhists, 11,571,268 (10,721,449); Moham- 
medans, 68, 35 233 (66,623,412); Christians, 
4,754,079 (38,876,196) ; Animists, 9,774,661 (10,- 
295,168). 

Education. The 1921 census indicated that 
in spite of recent educational progress, the total 
illiteracy remained enormous. In Bengal, the 
most advanced of the provinces, 43,000,000 out 
of the total 47,000,000 were classed as wholly 
illiterate. Only some 500,000 of the women of 
Bengal might be classed as literate. The in- 
crease in education may be seen from the fact 
that in 1919-20, in a total of 202,981 institu- 
tions there were in attendance in British India 
7,612,839 (1,306,711 of these female) as com- 
pared with 6,128,725 (875,660 female) in 1912. 
The cost of maintenance of educational insti- 
tutions in 1913-14 was £6,696,585; 1919-20, 
£14,889,696. The well attended colleges and 
secondary schools seemed strangely out of place 
in a system where primary education was so 
largely neglected. This feature was one of the 
leading preoccupations of the administration 
during the decade 1914-24, with the result that 
more attention was being applied toward reach- 
ing the masses. University supervision over 
the colleges was exercised by the six univer- 
sities of Caleutta, Madras, Bombay, the Punjab, 
Allahabad, and Patna (established in 1917) ; 
the three residential universities of Dacca, Luck- 
now, and Rangoon; the two denominational uni- 
versities at Benares (Hindu, established 1917) 
and Aligarh (Moslem); and the two univer- 
sities in Indian states at Mysore (established 
1916) and Hyderabad. 

Agriculture. Agriculture, which occupied 
the great mass of the population (225,000,000 
out of 313,000,000 in 1911) accounted for the 
eultivation of 224,931,000 acres in 1922-23, 
out of the 426,988,000 acres of agricultural 
land, as compared with 219,192,000 acres out of 
the 387,599,000 of 1913-14. Distribution in 
1922-23 was fallow land, 47,411,000 acres; 
net area sown, 224,931,000; culturable waste, 
154,656,000; not available for cultivation, 152,- 
650,000; under forest, 85,595,000; irrigated 
area, 48,054,000. The table in the next column 
indicated the progress of agriculture over the 
period (figures in thousands). 

Figures for live stock in 1921-22, with 1913- 
14 fioures in parentheses, were: cattle, 117,- 
665,000 (125,141,000) ; buffalo, 27,334,899 (18,- 
232,000) ; sheep, 22,082,000 (23,092,000) ; goats, 
24,333,000 (30,673,000); horses, mules, and 
donkeys, 3,128,000 (3,230,000) ; camels, 410,000 
(496 000). The favorable harvests which con- 
tinued up to 1918, and the increasing demands 
made on agriculture by the Empire during the 
War, accounted for an unprecedented prosper- 
ity. The government instituted a control on 
prices to protect the laboring classes and in 
general directed the export flow of wheat and 
rice. In 1918 the failure of the monsoon hit 
agriculture severely and caused the necessity 


658 INDIA 


for heavy importations of cereals from Austra- 
lia. The spread of coéperative societies among 
agriculturists was noteworthy. In 1923 there 


Crop 1913-14 1921-22 
Acres Tons Acres Tons 

Total area of food 

CTODS/Rie Geet cel 2027406 pyet-aar-ae 1915000) Bassn. te 
RICE; tee eae ak 79,908 81,547 81 256 37,003 
Wheat 4, seer ety: 28,49 237 28234 9 817 
Milletit bP x... 36,213 67753 41,128 7,584 
Graintawetiu ok 8,958 2,170 14,630 4,855 
Sugar-cane ....... PTAs iy PN 2,382 Tet 
Raw 'sugareeec. ts “Sores PAPAS js walt Wes AEA 2,590 


Total area of non- 


food crops 46 LOOMIS. so 40,700 
Oilseeds +4662). 44 « 16,490 2,627. 15;700 3,015 
CGN bial bute 25,027 1,013 18,346 992 
Jute eo eee wees eric 3,302 1,699 1,546 1,567 
daid ig. tehees Leer aiat ee 173 2,680 Bie 6,090 
Teast oiler hed bas be 625 313,301 709 274,264 


“Crop given in pounds; all others in net tons. 


were 56,136 codperatives with a membership of 
2,102,446, engaged for the most part in credit 
activities. The movement was regarded as an 
excellent instrument for placing the agricul- 
tural classes on a _ securer foundation. The 
problem of irrigation continued to loom large. 
In 1922-23, .48, 054, 000 acres were being irrigat- 
ed as compared with 40,679,000 in 1911-12. It 
was estimated that irrigation canals in exist- 
ence were valued at £78,600,000 in 1920-21; the 
net revenue from them was £5,422,000. The 
Punjab, which has been the seat of greatest ac- 
tivity, saw completed in 1915 a system of canals 
serving 1,750,000 acres. After the War schemes 
were projected for the construction of several 
systems, notably in the Punjab and in Sind, 
which would serve 10,000,000 acres. In the 
Madras, Mvysore, and Gwalior state govern- 
ments, important projects were under construc- 
tion in 1923 for the damming of the Cauvery 
and Chambal Rivers for hydro-electric as well 
as irrigation purposes. 

Mining. The following comparative figures 
reveal the state of the mining industry over the 
period under discussion. Coal production: 
1914, 17,565,000 tons; 1922, 19,010,986 tons; 
1923, 18,672,798 tons. Gold production: 1914, 
4007 fine ounces; 1921, 2855 fine ounces; 1922, 
2900 fine ounces. Silver production:1914, 236,- 
446 fine ounces: 1921, 3,587,587 fine ounces; 
1922, 4,244,304 fine ounces. Iron ore produc- 
tion: 1914, 441,674 tons; 1921, 942,084. tons; 
1923, 625,274, tons. Manganese production: 
1914, 622,898 tons; 1921, 679,286 tons; 1922, 
474,401 tons. Petroleum production: 1914, 
259,342,710 imperial gallons; 1922, 298,504,000 
imperial gallons. Mica production: 1914, 4,- 
537,000 pounds; 1921, 3,639,000; 1922, 3,536,- 
000. Progress was thus inconsiderable. The 
average number of workers in the mines was 
250, 000, of which, in 1921, 65,786 men, 42,000 
women, and 1171 children were engaged in the 
collieries. Legislation affecting mine workers 
prohibited the employ of children in the mines; 
fixed the maximum hours of labor at 54 hours 
a week; and gave the government power to reg- 


ulate the conditions of women employed under- . 


ground. 

Manufacturing. The weaving of cotton 
cloths continued the most important single in- 
dustry and showed increases, too; the produc- 
tion of cotton cloth mounted from 1,164,292,000 
gree 1 1913-14 to 1,752.000,000 yards in 1922- 

Sinklarly, the manufacture of gunny bags 
Fae jute cloth rose from 487,848,000 bags and 


ee ae en 


INDIA 


447,309,000 yards of jute cloth (1914) to 500,- 
000,000 bags and 1,450,000,000 yards of jute 
cloth (1923). The impetus that the War gave 
to industry in India by cutting off the foreign 
sources of supply, and the encouragement ac- 
corded to industrialization by the existence of 
such large stocks of raw materials, were imme- 
diately perceptible. From 1917 to 1922 rice 
mills increased 12 per cent, engineering works 
30 per cent, woolen mills 50 per cent, sugar fac- 
tories 37 per cent, and flour mills 25 per cent. 
In all, the 4939 establishments of 1917 increased 
to 6140 in 1922; 1,252,606 workers of 1917 in- 
creased to 1,367,136 in 1922. The increased 
capitalization of joint stock companies over the 
period 1913-22 again reflected the trend toward 
industrialization. The total paid-up capital 
of such companies increased from 750,000,000 
rupees in 1913 to 2,500,000,000 in 1922. Again, 
imports of industrial machinery displayed the 
same tendency; in 1913-14, such imports were 
valued at £6,076,606; in 1920-21, £21,004,032. 
The years 1922 and 1923 saw an alleviation of 
the political and economic disturbances. char- 
acteristic of India’s late history. In 1923 there 
were only 132 industrial disputes involving 
350,000 workers and ineurring a loss of 2,736,- 
000 days as compared with 400 disputes, 523,155 
workers, and 6,637,862 days in 1921. It was 
becoming evident that with encouragement of 
trade unionism, readjustment of wages, de- 
creased cost of living, better housing conditions, 
and increasing interest in technical education, 
the status of labor was taking on an optimistic 
cast. 

Commerce. It did not take long for India 
to become readjusted to war conditions. The 
insistent demand for foodstuffs, cotton ma- 
terials, bagging, and hides from the Allies im- 
mediately put Indian raw materials at a prem- 
ium. But for the depression of 1921, India’s 
commercial activity showed an unbroken ad- 
vance. Total exports, foreign and domestic, 
were valued at $610,836,000 in 1913-14; $991,- 
378,000 in 1922-23. Total imports for 1913-14 
were $826,875,000; $956,778,000 in 1922-23. 
That the increases were real may be adduced 
from the following export figures, in volume: 
raw cotton in 1913-14, 531,000 tons; in 1922- 
23, 673,000 tons; cotton piece goods in 1913-14, 
89,234,000 yards; in 1922-23, 156,951,000 yards; 
tea in 1913-14, 289,474,000 pounds; in 1922-23, 
287,448,000 pounds. Similarly, the trade in 
foodstuffs showed a favorable balance of 38,- 
171,000 rupees for 1921-22 as compared with an 
adverse balance of 234,320,000 in 1913-14. The 
following figures reveal proportions by coun- 
tries of origin (imports) and countries of des- 
tination (exports) of India’s foreign trade for 
1913-14, 1918-19, and 1921-22. Imports: 
United Kingdom, 64, 46, 57 per cent; Japan, 2, 
20, 5 per cent; the United States, 3, 10, 9 per 
cent. Exports (pre-war and 1921-22): United 
Kingdom, 25 and 18 per cent; Japan, 7 and 16 
per cent; the United States, 7 and 10 per cent. 
Principal imports and countries of origin for 
1921-22 were, for electrical appliances, Great 
Britain and the United States; hardware, Great 
Britain, Germany, the United States; iron and 
_ steel, Belgium and Germany; sheets and plates, 
Great Britain, Belgium, Germany; machinery, 
Great Britain, Germany, the United. States; 
kerosene oil, the United States, Borneo; fuel 
oil, Persia; textiles, Great Britain and Japan. 
Similarly for exports: raw cotton, Japan, China, 


659 


INDIA 


Germany; dyes and tanning substances, Great 
Britain and the United States; rice, Ceylon, 


Straits Settlements, Germany; wheat, Great 
Britain, Egypt; hides and skins, Germany, 
Great Britain, the United States; oilseeds, 


Great Britain, Belgium, France; spices, Aden, 
Ceylon, the United States; tea, Great Britain, 
Canada, Australia, the United States; cotton 
piece goods, Turkey, Persia, Ceylon; raw jute, 
Great Britain, Germany, the United States; 
jute bags, Great Britain, Japan, Australia, the 
United States. Another indication of India’s 
sound commercial status was the record of ship- 
ping. In 1913-14, 3168 ships of 6,785,000 tons 
entered; in 1921-22, 3527 ships of 6,966,000 
tons. In 1913-14, 4012 ships of 8,252,000 tons 
cleared; in 1921-22, 3529 ships of 6,553,000 
tons. In 1922-23, 2,986, ships entered of 6,518,- 
150 tons and 3502 cleared of 7,443,517 tons. 
Communications. Comparative figures are 
instructive. In 1913-14 there were 34,652 miles 
of railway open; in 1921-22, 37,265 miles; in 
1922-23, 37,618 miles. Of the last, 7698 miles 
were state lines worked by the state; 19,107 
miles state lines worked by companies; 2951 
Indian state lines worked by Indian states; 
2306 miles were company lines subsidized by 
the central or local governments. The passen- 
gers carried in 1913-14 were 457,718,000; in 
1922-23, 572,695,400. Freight tonnage in 
1913-14, 82,613,000 tons; in 1922-23, 93,704,000 
tons. In 1922-23 there were 9740 locomotives, 
24,695 passenger cars, and 209,134 freight cars. 
Total capital expended on railways to the end 
of 1921-22 was 6.560,624,000 rupees as compared 
with 4,768,250,000 rupees at the end of 1912. 
Up to the end of the War the Indian railways 
were able to show a profit, but with deprecia- 
tion of stocks as a result of the great strain of 
carrying war materials, higher wages, etc., the 
inevitable decline manifested itself. The result 
was that in 1922 the British Parliament sane- 
tioned the request for the flotation of loans 
amounting to £50,000,000 for the rehabilitation 
of Indian railroads. Another £50,000,000 was 
allowed in 1923 for allocation as necessary. By 
1921-22 working expenses absorbed 76.2 per 
cent of the gross earnings so that the net loss 
to the state, after meeting interest charges, 
was £9,273,000. By comparison, in 1918-19 the 
net profit was £11,000,000. In 1920 a commit- 
tee headed by Sir William Acworth took under 
consideration the whole problem of railway 
management. ‘The question which agitated In- 
dians primarily was that of foreign, i.e. English, 
corporation control of the majority of the lines 
operated. In the opinion of five members of 
the committee, direct state management was 
the most feasible scheme; five others advocated 
a combination of direct state management and 
company operation, with central administration, 
however, located in India. In conformity with 
the recommendations of the Acworth commis- 
sion, a high commissioner for railways, as head 
technical officer, was appointed in November, 
1922. An indication of the prevailing trend 
was the decision on the part of the Legislative 
Assembly in 1923 to put under state manage- 
ment two of the largest Indian railway systems, 
operated by English companies, on the expira- 
tion of their contracts. These were the East 
Indian Railway (contract ending 1924) and 
the Great Indian Peninsular Railway (1925). 
The perplexing problem of fuel supplies turned 
India toward a serious consideration of elec- 


INDIA 660 


trification. The first important project aimed 
at the damming of the Sutlej River for the 
electrification of the Kalka-Simla line (60 
miles). Important schemes carried through in 
the period 1914-24 were the Muttra-Kotah line, 
connecting northern India with Bombay, and 
the bridge across the Ganges at Sara. 
Finance. Beginning with 1921, a policy of 
devolution was applied to the Indian budget 
whereby the provincial revenues and expendi- 
tures were separated from the central govern- 
ment accounts. Incidentally the budget of 
1921-22 was the first submitted to the Legis- 
lative Assembly. Strenuous measures to check 
the advancing expenditures, the chief concern of 
Indian financing for the five years 1919-24, 
were of no avail, for deficits steadily mounted. 
The annual deficits of the period totaled 1,000,- 
000,000 rupees, so that the estimated national 
debt amounted to 7,810,000,000 rupees on Mar. 
31, 1923, as against 4,110,000,000 rupees in 
1914. It should be noted, however, that 310,- 
000,000 rupees of the annual deficit were cov- 
ered by the inflation of the currency. Total 
revenues for 1913-14 for imperial and provincial 
governments, with the rupee rated at 15 to £1, 
were £85,207,000; expenditures, £82,895,000 
Revenues for 1922-23 for the imperial govern- 
ment alone, with the rupee rated at 10 to £1, 
were £133,228,000; expenditures. £142,391,000. 
By the devolution rules, the following heads of 
revenue were allocated to the central govern- 
ment: opium, salt, customs, income tax, trib- 
utes, post office and telegraph, railways, mint, 
military services; the following to the provin- 
cial governments: land revenue, stamps, ex- 
cise, forest, registration, irrigation, and civil 
departments. Provincial governments were re- 
quired to pay annual contributions to the cen- 
tral government. The revenue items to show 
the largest increases over the period, in the fig- 
ures for 1913-14 and 1922-23, were: customs, 
£7,558,000 to £45,418,000; income tax, £1,950,000 
to £22,114,000; land, £21,392,000 to £35,030,000 
(for 1921-22). The greatest single expenditure 
was that on the military establishment, which 
mounted from £19,789,239 for 1913-14 to £60,- 
317,100 for 1921-22, or almost half of the total 
expenditure. The debt service rose from £2,- 
037,735 (1911-12) to £15,200,900 (1922-23). 
In 1916 the salt duty was increased, and in 
1917 a supertax on incomes was imposed. In 
1917 and 1918 Indian war loans were raised 
for a total of £100,000,000 to aid the home gov- 
ernment in the conduct of the War. Of this, 
£77,274,000 was paid to the British govern- 
ment. Additional amounts to a total of £20,- 
705,000 were paid out toward the same end by 
1920-21. The rise in the value of the rupee, 
due to heavy war expenditures and favorable 
trade surpluses, and the disappearance of sil- 
ver from the money markets of the world, sent 
it from the fixed rate of 1s. 4d. before the 
War to 2s. 4d. by the end of 1919. With sil- 
ver selling at almost 90d. per ounce in 1920 
as compared with 26d. per ounce before the 
War, it was inevitable that silver should dis- 
appear from circulation. The government was 
compelled to resort to the issuance of paper, so 
that within the war period almost £80,000,000 
in notes was put into circulation. Inconverti- 
bility seemed imminent and might have become 
an actuality had it not been for the sale of 
200,000,000 ounces of silver to the Indian gov- 
ernment by the United States, beginning with 


INDIA 


1918. However, the factors above cited, to- 
gether with the fall of the pound sterling and 
the melting down of rupees into bullion, ne- 
cessitated drastic action in fixing the relation- 
ship between the rupee and the gold sovereign, 
instead of the pound sterling. Finally in 1920 
a committee recommended that the rupee be 
converted into the gold sovereign on the basis 
of 10 rupees to the pound instead of the former 
15 rupees. The Indian government tried to 
maintain the new rate by selling drafts on the 
London exchange, but the depression of 1920-21, 
the turning of the favorable trade balance into 
an unfavorable one in 1921, and the fall of the 
value of silver to 32d. per ounce in 1921, com- 
pelled the authorities to relinquish their at- 
tempt to bolster up the exchange. By 1924 
nothing had been done to force the universal 
acceptance of the new rate, although in govern- 
ment transactions the rupee was converted at 
the one-tenth pound sterling rate. Notes in 
circulation, 1913-14, 661,175,935 rupees; in 
1920-21, 1,661,569,750; Dec. 31, 1923, 1,966,- 
000,000. By an amendment to the Indian Paper 
Currency Act in 1920 the government was per- 
mitted to emit paper notes without limit on 
provision that 50 per cent was to be secured by 
gold or silver, most of it held in India and not 
England. The financial system was further 
strengthened by the amalgamation, in 1920, of 
the three Presidency Banks into the Imperial 
Bank of India. The general prosperity during 
the period under discussion accounted for a 
higher level of wages, though prices rose pro- 
portionately. Using prices of July, 1914, as 
the basis, i.e. at the index 100, the general 
average wholesale price index for 1920 was 204; 
1921, (1805) 19225,1805 71923)" 176; 
Immigration. In 1916 it was announced by 
the Indian government that the policy of pro- 
viding for the eventual abolition of indentured 
labor in Jamaica, Trinidad, British Guiana, 
Dutch Guiana, and Fiji, had been accepted by 
the Secretary of State for India. The system, 
which had been inaugurated in 1842 and had 
been pressed by licensed agents, had led to an- 
nual migrations of 10,000 coolies, on an average, 
for work under contract. The permanent set- 
tlement of these coolies in Africa, in particular, 
had led to vexing internal problems. (See 
KENYA; SoutH AFRICA, UNION OF.) The re- 
sult had been the prohibition of such emigra- 
tions to Natal and Mauritius (1910) and then 
(1917) to the areas cited above. The decision 
to put an end to this system was received with 
approval by the Indians, who had always re- 
garded contract labor as a form of slavery. 
Government. In 1919, in order to hasten a 
more effective native participation in Indian 
affairs, the Government of India Act was passed, 
effective for 1919-29. It was based on the re- 
port formulated by the- Secretary of State for 
India, Mr. Montagu, and by Lord Chelmsford, 
the Viceroy. The keynote of the report was 
the recommendation of a progressive movement 
toward responsible government founded on a 
native ministry. With this as its purpose the 
Act incorporated the idea of a dual form of 
government for the major provinces, ie. the 
Presidencies of Madras, Bombay, and Bengal; 
the United Provinces, the Punjab, Behar, Cris- 
sa; and the Central Provinces, Assam, and 
Burma. This system, called “dyarchy,” con- 
sists of the division of provincial matters into 
two groups, viz., “reserved subjects” over which 


INDIA 661 


the governor-in-council of the province retains 
control, and “transferred subjects” over which 
the provincial ministry is the final arbiter. The 
“transferred subjects” include local self-govern- 
ment, medical administration, public health and 
sanitation, education, publie works, agriculture, 
fisheries, codperative societies, excise, registra- 
tion, adulteration, weights and measures, and 
religious and _ charitable endowments. The 
governor-in-council was in charge of the “re- 
served subjects”; the governor and a _ respon- 
sible ministry were in charge of the “trans- 
ferred subjects.” The purse for both branches 
was held in common, and definite sources of rev- 
enues were assigned the provinces (see above, 
Finance). Responsible government was cssured 
by making the provincial ministers, appointed 
by the governor of each province, answerable 
to the provincial legislative council, at least 70 
per cent of whose members were to be elected. 
Representation by special interests was _ pro- 
vided for; the franchise was extended, and in 
Madras (by statute) and in Burma women 
were given the ballot. For example, of Ben- 
gal’s 139 members, 113 were elected, 20 were 
nominated officials, and 6 were nominated non- 
officials representing special interests. The gov- 
ernor’s powers remained large; he was_per- 
mitted to withdraw from consideration or to 
pass over the heads of the council any legisla- 
tion which he considered jeopardizing the tran- 
quillity or safety of his province. Incidentally 
he was the focal point to which the affairs of 
the executive council, the legislative council, 
and the larger concerns of the central govern- 
ment radiated. 

Responsible government was not the rule of the 
central government. In place of the unicameral 
house there was a_ two-chamber legislature, 
made up of the Council of State and the Legis- 
lative Assembly. The Council of State con- 
sists of 60 members, only 29 of whom were to 
be nominated members. The ‘Legislative As- 
sembly was to be made up of 144 members, of 
whom only 26 of the 41 nominated members 
could be officials; the other 103 were elective. 
The Governor-General, or Viceroy, was not a 
member of the legislature, but for the direction 
of affairs he was to have to aid him an Execu- 
tive Council consisting, in 1923, of 8 members. 
The Governor-General had the power of enact- 
ing legislation, subject to the approval of Par- 
liament, and of vetoing legislation that affected 
the tranquillity or safety of the country. With- 
in clearly defined limitations the annual budget 
was to be submitted to the Legislative Assembly 
and Council of State for their approval, though 
the Governor-General may certify any item in 
the budget, or even the whole of it. The Act 
of 1919 also provided for the appointment of 
a high commissioner for India resident in 
London. 

History. The outbreak of the War found 
India tranquil. The pledges of loyalty and the 
offers of money and munitions which poured in 
reassured the home government that any effort 
in the war prosecution would not meet with an 
organized opposition. Thé result was that In- 
dia was stripped of its internal defenses to a 
remarkable degree so that men and war ma- 
terials might be dispatched to the theatres of 
war. By 1916 upward of 300,000 men, both 
British and natives, had left the country. In- 
dian contingents saw service in France, Egypt, 
East Africa, Gallipoli, and Mesopotamia, The 


INDIA 


campaign in Mesopotamia was under the ex- 
elusive control of the Indian government. Even 
the entry of Turkey into the War failed to stir 
up any considerable discontent. Recruiting 
was pushed vigorously; a war munitions board 
controlled the output of materials; and a loan 
of £100,000,000 was floated for the aid of the 
Empire. The active measures taken by the 
government in the regulation of prices and ex- 
ports and the increased prosperity which came 
to the population from the sale of raw ma- 
terials served further to assure tranquillity. 

Lord Hardinge was followed by Lord Chelms- 
ford as Viceroy in 1916. The latter’s admin- 
istration was confronted by an awakened na- 
tionalistic sentiment taking on greater pro- 
portions as the War progressed, and echoed in 
a growing repressive policy on the part of the 
Indian government. Under the lead of the Na- 
tional Congress and the Moslem League, the de- 
mand for Indian Home Rule became widespread. 
In 1916 the proposal formulated at the meeting 
of the two organizations at Lucknow became 
the official statement of policy of the dissidents 
and received wide currency as the agitation 
continued. Unfortunate official tactics added 
fuel to the flames. Mrs. Annie Besant was in 
1917 compelled by the Madras government to 
quit the city and confine her activities to certain 
delimited areas. It became increasingly neces- 
sary for the home government to make a clear- 
cut pronouncement of its policy as Lord Chelms- 
ford’s position became more difficult. In 1917, 
Edwin Samuel Montagu, who had just come to 
the Indian Office after the resignation of Aus- 
ten Chamberlain, realizing the changed state 
of affairs in India as well as the new attitude 
toward the country in the whole Empire, made 
a declaration promising radical reforms. The 
chief point of his statement was that an increas- 
ing measure of self-government for India was 
inevitable. In the winter of 1917 and into 
1918, Montagu, together with Lord Chelmsferd, 
held extended hearings in India, resulting in 
the Montagu-Chelmsford Report. The findings 
set forth the proposal that self-government be 
tried just in the major provinces under a lim- 
ited scheme, and that, for the whole of India, 
complete home rule was as yet inadvisable be- 
cause of the dissimilar elements in the popula- 
tion and the general unpreparedness. Some 
moderate elements in the Indian population ex- 
pressed their approval, but their attitude was 
overshadowed by the pronounced disappoint- 
ment and indignation of the thoroughly con- 
scious Indian nationalists, who regarded the 
proposed reforms as utterly inadequate. On 
Sept. 1, 1918, the Indian National Congress at 
Bombay unanimously rejected the _ reforms. 
Counter-proposals demanded the extension of 
the dual government idea to the central govern- 
ment of India and the abolition of the Council 
of State. Other resolutions passed called for 
a guarantee of full responsible government with- 
in 15 years, equal rights for women, and a 
large proportion of native Indians in the civil 
service. Meanwhile the suggestions embodied 
in the report had been incorporated in the Gov- 
ernment of India Bill, which passed the British 
Parliament in December, 1919. (See above, 
Government.) 

India’s war effort may be summarized here. 
In men, India had contributed upward of 1,250,- 
000 recruits, of whom some 30,000 had died 
overseas as a result of wounds and disease, A 


INDIA 662 


loan of £100,000,000 had been guaranteed. In- 
dia had been the sole source of supply for the 
operations in India, Mesopotamia, and Egypt 
in respect to great variety of commodities, 
including butter, oatmeal, tinned beef, mut- 
ton, biscuits, boots, wearing apparel, as well as 
1500 miles of railway, 4500 vehicles, and 250 
engines. Strong measures in 1918 had prevent- 
ed an invasion of India from the North after 
the collapse of Russia, and the friendly rela- 
tions with Afghanistan had kept that country 
well disposed during the War. In all, consider- 
ing the usual poverty of the great proportion of 
India’s population, the effort had been extraor- 
dinary. No doubt the following unrest was en- 
gendered by the after-effects of the War. 

The years 1919-24 saw increasing disorder. 
The passage of the untimely Rowlatt Acts in 
March, 1919, brought matters to a head. These 
measures, which included the Indian Criminal 
Law Act and the Emergency Criminal Law Act, 
were aimed at a more rigorous enforcement of 
the penal statutes against sedition and gave the 
Governor-General extraordinary powers in the 
matter of search and punishment of those sus- 
pected of propagating revolutionary doctrines. 
Many members of the Legislative Council re- 
fused their consent to the passage of the acts; 
several members of the government resigned in 
protest; Indian leaders universally condemned 
the measures. The Indian National Congress, 
meeting at Allahabad, pronounced against the 
laws and approved several other resolutions of 
a radical tenor. Among these was a demand 
for self-determination and the appointment of a 
commission comprising Tilak, Gandhi, and Has- 
san Imam, to put the Indian case before the 
Peace Conference. As the only way open, short 
of violence, to contest the growing British 
power, a Passive Resistance League was formed 
at Bombay as a result of the activities of M. K. 
Gandhi. The movement quickly spread through 
northern India, and in March and April, 1919, 
disturbances were frequent throughout the Pun- 
jab and the Bombay Presidency. A riot and 
street fighting occurred in Delhi; at Amritsar, 
government buildings were burned, telegraph 
wires were cut, and fighting was general. 
Lahore became prominent in the troubles, and 
the government was compelled to extend martial 
law over the whole district from April to June. 
Meanwhile, the arrest of Gandhi had inflamed 
the rioting. The intemperance with which the 
disorders had been put down, in Amritsar in 
particular, made no friends for the British 
eause. On Apr. 13, 1919, an outbreak which 
reached tragic proportions occurred at Amritsar. 
As a result of the zeal of General Dyer, British 
soldiers fired on a meeting of unarmed Indians, 
with the result that 400 were killed and at 
least 1000 wounded. 

Affairs were rendered more serious for the 
British by the outbreak of the Afghan War in 
1919. The accession of the Amir, Amanulla, 
in February, 1919, as a result of the assassina- 
tion of his father, and the unfriendly feeling 
which had been generated among Mohammedans 
as a result of British successes in the War, to- 
gether with excesses in India, made the north- 
ern regions a real danger zone for India. The 
Amir moved his troops into the Khyber, at- 
tempting to catch the Indian army unawares, 
but a hasty mobilization of troops and the cap- 
ture of Dacca, together with the bombing of 
Kabul and Jalalabad, immediately brought the 


INDIA 


Amir to terms. The treaty, as signed in Aug- 
ust, terminated the payment of the subsidy to 
Afghanistan but freed her from outside control 
in foreign relations. Another campaign in the 
country adjacent, the Waziristan, as a result of 
the outbreak of the Mahsuds and Wazirs, was 
undertaken at the same time. Before the tribes- 
men could be completely pacified the British 
lost heavily in two encounters, one in December, 
1919, and the other in January, 1920. Not 
until May, 1920, did hostilities terminate. An 
official investigation revealed the inefficiency of 
the Indian army and the fact that these two 
operations had cost the government £15,000,000. 

Indian nationalistic activity continued. The 
unhappy results of the passive resistance policy 
merely strengthened the opposition. The “non- 
cooperation” movement inaugurated by Gandhi 
late in 1919 received the approval of the Indian 
National Congress in 1920. Boycotts against 
the courts by lawyers, of the legislative councils 
by public men, of foreign imports by consumers, 
and of educational institutions by students, be- 
eame the rule. The hostility was reflected in 
England, where Montagu was severely attacked 
in the House of Commons; General Dyer, who 
had been responsible for the killings at Amrit- 
sar, was penalized by retirement and a vote of 
censure. The anti-Mohammedan character of 
the Treaty of Sévres was responsible for serious 
disorders in southern India, for in Malabar 
rioting was frequent throughout 1921. The in- 
fluence of Gandhi showed no signs of weakening. 
As a result of his propaganda the committee 
sitting for the Congress of All India in No- 
vember, 1921, adopted a resolution advocating 
the principle of “civic disobedience,” i.e. a re- 
fusal to pay taxes and to codperate with the 
government. The boycott of English imports, 
cotton goods, and clothing in particular, spread 
over the country. The meeting of the Indian 
National Congress at the end of 1921 put its 
stamp of approval on Gandhi’s procedure and put 
down an attempt to force through a policy fa- 
voring violence. The Prince of Wales’s visit 
in November, 1921, while it was received with 
good will in official quarters, indicated the tem- 
per of the people. Rioting, in which some 20,- 
000 natives participated, broke out in Bombay; 
similar demonstrations took place all along the 
route. The tidal wave of unrest and censure 
reached even the distant English — shores. 
Throughout 1921 and 1922 liberal opinion was 
unsparing in its criticism of the government’s 
position. Authority was given to the opposi- 
tion by the attack on the government of India 
by Sir Michael O’Dwyer, former lieutenant 
governor of the Punjab, who declared that the 
reforms effected by the Government of India 
Act were illusory. It was evident in 1921 that 
the high-handed policy of the government had 
only the reluctant consent of Montagu and Lord 
Reading, the new Viceroy. Matters came to a 
head in 1922 when Montaeu’s resignation was 
asked for, following his publication of a dis- 
patch from the Indian government setting forth 
the objections of Mohammedans to the Treaty 
of Sévres. Point was given to the matter by 
the evidences of acute disaffection in the Mos- 
lem communities. Outbreaks were prevalent 
in Malabar in particular; Moslems everywhere 
prayed openly for the success of the Turkish 
arms; protests were made against the dispatch- 
ing of British forces to Constantinople. Mean- 
while, noncoédperation continued unabated. In 


: 


~ 


INDIA 663 


spite of Gandhi’s protests, violence was fre- 
quent; tax-collectors in particular were sub- 
jected to indignities. On Feb. 9, 1922, the gov- 
ernment proceeded to a summary step by order- 
ing the arrest of Gandhi on the charge of se- 
dition. After a brief hearing he was found 
guilty and sentenced to prison for six years. 
Under the executive committee of the Indian 
National Congress the obstructionist tactics 
were carried on. At the meeting of the Con- 
gress late in 1922 the proposal to seek seats in 
the Legislative Assembly was rejected. Non- 
intercourse thus continued, and Gandhi’s in- 


earceration strengthened the resolve of the Na- 
& 


tionalists. 

In the following year, 1923, these matters ap- 
peared to be near a solution. With Gandhi in 
jail and the boycott of British-made goods a 
failure for economie reasons, it became increas- 
ingly evident that noncodperation was doomed. 
As early as December, 1922, a group of influen- 
tial members of the Indian Nationalist Congress 
had formed a new party for the purpose of con- 
testing seats in the provincial and national as- 
semblies, and this action merely presaged the 
subsequent events of 1923. The Indian Na- 
tionalist Congress, meeting at Delhi, September 
15, was therefore advised by Gandhi to relin- 
quish noncodperation, at least for the time be- 
ing, to permit its members to contest seats in 
the Legislative Assembly and provincial coun- 
cils, and to drop the boycott of British-made 
goods. As far as participation in government 
was concerned, nationalists hastened to point 
out that their acceptance of the governmental 
machinery was for the purpose of employing ob- 
structionist tactics rather than an indication 
of a change of policy. At any rate, this was 
the announced programme of the Swaraj party, 
headed by Das of Bengal; its strength was in- 
dicated by its gaining 50 seats of the total 145 
in the elections for the second Legislative As- 
sembly late in 1923, as well as a preponderating 
majority in the Central Provinces. Disorders 
did not abate. That Communism was gaining 
a foothold in India was indicated by the ener- 
getic steps taken by the government against 
suspects. There were outbreaks in the Punjab 
in midsummer; conflicts between the police and 
nationalists at Calcutta in July; and a per- 
ceptible antagonism between Hindus and Mo- 
hammedans which very often throughout 1923 
revealed itself in open fighting. In the face of 
these disorders nothing revealed the short- 
sighted policy of the Indian government better 
than its inability to cope with situations such 
as these. 

In July, 1923, the last session of the first 
Legislative Assembly closed. Its initial steps 
had been taken with so much caution that doubt 
was expressed in British circles as to whether 
its work was of a nature to justify its existence. 
The rise of the Labor party to power in Great 
Britain did not materially affect the situation. 
True, Gandhi was released, on Feb. 4, 1924, be- 
cause of illness, Sir Sidney Oliver, appointed 
to the Indian Office was a champion of equal 
rights. But the British Labor government pro- 
ceeded to reject the native Assembly’s demand 
for a round-table conference on home rule; and 
point was given to this general attitude when 
Ramsay Macdonald issued a warning against 
the entertainment of too sanguine hopes. Hos- 
tility thus became general and outspoken once 
more. On March 17 the Swaraj majority re- 


INDIANA 


jected the government’s budget in the Legisla- 
tive Assembly, which had convened January 31; 
three days later, in spite of the recurrence of 
disorders, the Assembly voted to deprive the 
government of summary power. The only an- 
swer the British government could give to all 
this was the appointment of a commission to 
consider defects in the Government of India 
Act of 1919, and not a wholesale revision. It 
was plain in the summer of 1924 that militant 
nationalism was in the saddle, and that, as far 
as Indians were concerned, only one of two 
alternatives was feasible, i.e. home rule or com- 
plete independence. 

INDIA RUBBER. See Russer. 

INDIAN PROBLEM. See Kenya Colony; 
SoutH Arrica, UNION OF. 

INDIANA. Indiana is the thirty-seventh 
State in size (36,354 square miles), and the 
eleverith in population; capital, Indianapolis. 
The population increased from 2,700,876 in 
1910 to 2,930,390 in 1920, a gain of 8.5 per cent. 
The white population rose from 2,639,961 to 
2,849,071; Negro, from 60,320 to 80,810; native 
white, from 2,480,639 to 2,698,203; and the 
foreign-born white decreased from 159,322 to 
150,868. The urban population of the State 
mounted from 1,143,835 in 1910 to 1,482,855 in 
1920; the rural fell from 1,557,041 to 1,447,- 
535. The principal cities of the State grew 
during the decade, as follows: Indianapolis 
(q.v.), 233,650 to 314,194; Fort Wayne, 683,- 
933 to 86,549; Evansville, 69,647 to 85,264; 
South Bend, 53,684 to 70,983. 

Agriculture. Indiana is one of the chief 
agricultural States, and general conditions dur- 
ing the decade 1910-20 were reflected by fluc- 
tuations in the local production and prices of 
the chief products, particularly grains. For a 
full discussion of this general situation, see 
AGRICULTURE, CORN, WHEAT, OATS, etc. 

While the population of the State increased 
8.5 per cent in the decade 1910-20, the rural 
population declined from 65.7 per cent in 1900 
to 57.6 per cent in 1910 and 49.4 per cent in 
1920. The number of farms decreased 4.8 per 
cent (from 215,485 to 205,126), the total acre- 
age in farms from 21,299,823 to 21,063,332, or 
1.1 per cent; and the improved land in farms 
from 16,931,252 to 16,680,212 acres. The total 
value of farm property, on the other hand, 
showed an apparent increase, from $1,809,135,- 
238 in 1910 to $3,042,311,247 in 1920; the av- 
erage value per farm, from $8396 to $14,831. 
Prices of farm land increased greatly, stim- 
ulated by war-time prices for products. In in- 
terpreting these values, however, and, indeed, 
all comparative values in the decade 1914-24, 
the inflation of the currency in the latter part 
of that period is to be taken into consideration. 
The index number of prices paid to producers 
of farm products in the United States was 104 
in 1910 and 216 in 1920. The percentage of 
land in farms decreased from 92.3 in 1910 to 
91.3 in 1920, while the improved land in farms 
decreased from 73.4 to 72.3 per cent. Of the 
205,126 farms in 1920, 137,210 were operated by 
owners, 2329 by managers, and 65,587 by tenants. 
The comparative figures for 1910 were 148,501, 
2297, and 64,687. White farmers in 1920 num- 
bered 204,554, compared with 214,680 in 1910; 
colored farmers, 572 compared with 805. The 
farms free from mortgage in 1920 numbered 
73,233; those under mortgage, 51,474. In 1910, 
89,847 farms were free from mortgage; 56,914, 


INDIANA 


under mortgage. The total 
in 1920 was 1,546,095, compared with 1,363,016 
in 1910. Dairy cows increased to 946,401 
from 633,591; hogs, from 3,613,906 to 3,757,- 
135; but sheep decreased to 643,889 from 1,336,- 
967. The estimated production of the principal 
farm crops in 1923 was: corn, 201,473,000 
bushels; spring wheat, 81,000; winter wheat, 
34,188,000; oats, 48,909,000; rye, 4,186,000; 
barley, 965,000; potatoes, 7,308,000; sweet po- 
tatoes, 368,000; tobacco, 22,374,000 pounds; and 
hay, 2,470,000 tons. Comparative figures for 
1913 are: corn, 176,400,000 bushels; wheat, 39,- 
775,000; oats, 36,380,000; rye, 1,566,000; bar- 
ley, 200,000; potatoes, 3,975,000; hay, 1,800,000 
tons; and tobacco, 11,925,000 pounds. 

Mining. Indiana ranked tenth among the 
States in the value of its mineral products in 
1921. These are almost entirely nonmetallic; 
in order of their value, they are coal, cement, 
clay products, and stone. There is also a large 
quantity of petroleum. During the decade 
1914-24, coal production showed considerable 
fluctuation, indicated by the following com- 
parative values: In 1914 16,641,132 short tons, 
valued at $18,290,928; in 1915, 17,006,152 at 
$18,637,476; 
1917, 26,539,329 at $52,940,106; 1918, 30,678,- 
634 at $70,384,601; 1919, 20,912,288 at $46,- 
345,750; 1920, 29,350,585 at $92,867,000; 1921, 
20,319,509 at $52,269,000. The production in 
1922 was 19,132,889 tons; the decrease was due 
chiefly to the protracted coal miners’ strike in 
the Middle West. Cement ranged from 9,595,- 
923 barrels in 1914 to 10,050,433 in 1916 and 
5,291,851 in 1918. The value of clay products 
showed a considerable increase, largely the re- 
sult of the decreased purchasing power of 
money, and the consequent higher prices during 
the decade. The value in 1914 was $7,655,285; 
in 1918, $7,950,926; in 1920, $15,494,795, and 
in 1921, $11,199,024. The output of stone in- 
creased in value from $4,136,132 in 1914 to $8,- 
985,036 in 1921. Petroleum production during 
the decade varied from 1,335,456 barrels in 
1914 to 769,036 in 1916; 877,558 in 1918; 1,158,- 
000 in 1921, and 1,087,000 in 1922. In addition 
to the minerals noted above, the State produces 
coke, sand and gravel, and pig iron. The total 
value of the mineral production in 1921 was 
$97,700,676, compared with $146,736,294 in 
1920; $82,270,784 in 1919, $96,558,784 in 1918, 
and $42,864,267 in 1914. 

Manufactures. Indiana is an important 
manufacturing State. It has 31 cities with a 
population over 10,000, and six of these, Evans- 
ville, Fort Wayne, Gary, Indianapolis, South 
Bend, and Terre Haute, have 50,000 or more. 
Of these cities, 29, with a combined population 
of 37.8 per cent of the total for the State, had, 
in 1919, 62.5 per cent of the value of the manu- 
factured products. There were in the State, 
in 1909, 7969 manufacturing establishments; 
8022 in 1914, and 7916 in 1919, while persons 
engaged in manufacture numbered 218,263, 
233,270, and 330,145. The capital invested in 
those years amounted to. $508,717,197, $666,- 
863,232, and $1,335,714,103. The value of the 
products in 1909 was $579,075,046; in 1914, 
$730,795,021, and in 1919, $1,898,753,387. The 
large increase in the value of products is, how- 
ever, due largely to the change in industrial 
conditions brought about by the War and can- 
not properly be used to measure the growth of 
manufactures during the census period 1914— 


664 


number of cattle. 


1916, 20,093,528 at $25,506,246; - 


INDIANA 


19; but the increase in the number of wage 
earners clearly indicates a decided growth in 
the manufacturing activities of the State. The 
first industry in point of value of products is 
that connected with iron and steel works and 
rolling mills, the value of which in 1909 was 
$38,652,000; 1914, $58,883,000, and 1919, $199,- 
274,000. Slaughtering and meat packing ranks 
second, with $47,289,000 in 1909; $51,022,000 
in 1914, and $134,029,000 in 1919. Automobiles 
are third, valued at $23,764,000 in 1909; in 
1914, $29,389,000, and in 1919, $179,065,000. 
The manufacture and repair of steam railways 
had products in 1909 worth $9,498,000; in 1914, 
21,570,000, and in 1919, $86,021,000. Indian- 
apolis is first among the cities of the State in 
manufactures, having, in 1909, 853 establish- 
ments, with a product of $126,313,000; in 1914, 
886 with $139,700,000, and in 1919, 1004 with 
$398,667,000. In South Bend there were, in 
1909, 218 establishments, with a product of 
$27,855,000; in 1914, 250 with $31,180,000, and 
in 1919, 214 with $75,339,000. Similar figures 
for Fort Wayne were: 230 with $23,687,000 in 
1909; 1914, 228 with $30,205,000; 1919, 247 
with $76,713,000. 

Education. Indiana has always been in the 
forefront among the States in the interest of its 
citizens in education, and great progress was 
made during 1913-23. In 1913 the Legislature 
enacted three measures which had an important 
effect on the schools of the State; the vocational 
educational law, the high school inspection law, 
and a compulsory attendance law. Succeeding 
Legislatures amended these laws and _ passed 
others. The Legislature of 1920 enacted a min- 
imum wage law for teachers, fixing the min- 
imum at $800, which became effective in 1920- 
21. The general Senate of 1921 enacted a com- 
pulsory attendance law providing that employ- 
ment certifications shall not be issued until a 
pupil has completed the elementary school 
course. The establishment of a division of 
teacher training in excellent work was followed 
by improvement in ability of the teaching force. 
In 1921-22, 98 school corporations conducted 
schools in one or more of the fields of agricul- 
ture, home economics, and industry, with 
nearly 20,000 pupils enrolled. The Division of 
Vocational Rehabilitation, charged with the 
duty of returning physically disabled civilians 
to profitable employment, was eminently success- 
ful. In 1922-23, the General Education Board 
made a comprehensive investigation of the pub- 
lic school system of the State and recommended 
sweeping changes in regard to a State school ad- 
ministration, local school administration, and 
the training and certification of teachers. The 
enrollment in the public schools in 1914 was 
548,497, including both elementary and high 
school; in 1921-22 it was 589,763, with 494,760 
in elementary and 96,930 in high schools. The 
expenditures for elementary schools in 1921-22 
amounted to $26,830,588, and for high schools, 
$10,133,628. The percentage of illiteracy in the 
State decreased from 3.9 in 1910 to 2.8 in 1920. 
Among the native white population it fell from 
3 per cent in 1910 to 1.8 per cent in 1920; among 
the Negro, from 17.5 to 11.7; among the foreign- 
born population illiteracy increased from 11.8 
to 12.4. 

Finance. See STATE FINANCES. 

Political and Other Events. There was 
much political activity in Indiana during the 
decade 1914-24. Elections were held in 1914 


INDIANA 


for congressman, United States senator, and 
several State officers. Although the Democratic 
vote showed a decrease of about 10,000, Senator 
Shively, Democrat, was reélected. The Demo- 
erats also elected 11 representatives to Con- 
gress. Charges of election frauds in Vigo and 
other counties resulted in investigations which 
brought about the arrest of the mayor of Terre 
Haute, two judges, the chief of police, the 
sheriff, other officials, and nearly 100 citizens. 
In June, 1915, 128 men, including some of the 
most important politicians of the State, were 
indicted by the Marion County grand jury; sev- 
eral pleaded guilty. In the presidential elec- 
tion of 1916, both candidates for vice-president 
were residents of Indiana. As a result of the 
election the Republican Party was returned to 
power in the State; James P. Goodrich was 
elected governor. Owing to the death of Sena- 
tor Shively in 1916, it was necessary to elect 
two senators. James E. Watson and Harry S. 
New, both Republicans, were the successful 
eandidates. In the voting for president in 
1916, Charles E. Hughes received 341,005 votes; 
President Wilson, 334,063. In 1917 the mayor 
of Indianapolis, Joseph E. Bell, and other offi- 
cials were indicted for alleged election frauds 
during the campaign of 1914. In the elections 
of 1918, the Republicans elected the entire State 
ticket. On Aug. 2, 1918, the State came under 
the operation of the “bone dry” prohibition 
law. Elections were held in 1920 for governor 
and other State officers and United States 
Senator. Warren T. McRay, Republican, was 
elected governor, and James E. Watson, Repub- 
lican, was reélected United States senator. In 
the voting for president in this year, Warren 
G. Harding received 696,370 votes; James M. 
Cox, 511,364. In 1921 a special election was 
held on September 26 for the ratification or re- 
jection of 13 proposed constitutional amend- 
ments adopted by the Legislature in 1919 and 
1921. One amendment, conferring full suffrage 
on women and prohibiting aliens from voting 
until they were fully naturalized, was adopted; 
the others were defeated. In the primary elec- 
tions of 1922, Albert J. Beveridge, nominated 
for United States senator, defeated Harry S%. 
New. The Democrats nominated Samuel M. 
Ralston, former governor of the State. In 
the November elections, Mr. Ralston was elected 
senator. On Mar. 31, 1921, the mayor of Gary, 
Roswell C. Johnson, and other officials, were 
found guilty of a liquor conspiracy and were 
sentenced to fines and terms of imprisonment. 
Gov. Warren T. McRay was indicted for fraudu- 
lent misuse of the mails and for other offenses 
in 1923, and in 1924 he was found guilty and 
sentenced to a term in the Federal prison in 
Atlanta. In the presidential primary elections 
of May, 1924, President Coolidge defeated Hiram 
W. Johnson. 

Legislation. Following are the most im- 
portant acts of the Legislature in the decade 
1914-24. In 1915 several important measures 
were passed, relating to electoral reform and 
liquor regulation, and also a workmen’s com- 
pensation law. The Legislature of 1917 passed 
an act providing for a constitutional conven- 
tion, granted women the right to vote, and en- 
acted a State-wide “bone dry” prohibition law 
which went into effect on Apr. 2, 1918. On 
Jan. 14, 1919, the Legislature approved the 
National Prohibition Amendment. At this ses- 
sion was enacted a measure giving the State 


665 


INDIANA UNIVERSITY 


Board of Tax Commissioners power over State 
and local levies and municipal bond issues, and 
women were given the right to vote for presi- 


dent. The Legislature recreated the legislative 
reference bureau which had been permitted to 


lapse in 1917. Measures were also passed for- 
bidding the display of the red flag or any other 
symbol or emblem calculated to excite hostility 
or violence against the government. The Legis- 
lature of 1921 enacted a pure agricultural seed 
law, provided for the creation of an executive 
State budget, authorized cities to create city 
planning and zoning commissions, and_ pro- 
vided for a commission to make an educational 
survey of the State. In 1923 the Legislature 
passed a measure for establishing equal rights 
for women, abolishing the legal disability of 
married women to make contracts and allowing 
them to hold property as if single. At this 
session, the penalties for violating the prohi- 
bition law were increased, and a uniform stock 
transfer act was passed. 

INDIANAPOLIS. The capital and largest 
city of Indiana. The population rose from 
233,650 in 1910 to 315,746 in 1920, a growth of 
30 per cent, and to 342,718, by estimate of 
the Bureau of the Census, for 1923. A city 
planning commission of nine members was 
created in 1921, and in the year following a 
comprehensive zoning plan with distinct use, 
height, and area districts was adopted. The 
city purchased the privately owned reduction 
works in 1918; in 1924 it was engaged in build- 
ing a new sewage plant using the activated 
sludge system, which, when completed, was ex- 
pected to be the largest of its kind in the world. 
Two municipal theatres were established in 1922 
in the public parks, and free entertainments 


were given. National headquarters of the 
American Legion were established in Indian- 
apolis. The number of industrial establish- 


ments increased from 886 in 1914, employing 
31,971 persons and making products valued at 
$39,700,016, to 1215 in 1922, employing 56,000 
persons and making products valued at $427,- 
100,000; the capital investment rose from $87,- 
569,251 to $220,250,000. Bank clearings in- 
creased from $414,612,000 in 1914 to $910,881,- 
000 in 1922, new building from $7,933,081 to 
$26,038,579, the assessed valuation from $310,- 
000,000 to $605,000,000 and post office receipts 
from $1,542,032 to $3,307,943. 

INDIANA UNIVERSITY. A _ coeduca- 
tional State institution at Bloomington, Ind., 
founded in 1820. It has the following divisions: 
College of Arts and Sciences, Graduate School, 
School of Education, School of Law, Sehool of 
Medicine, School of Commerce and Finance, 
School of Music, and Extension Division. The 
work in the School of Medicine is done at Bloom- 
ington and at Indianapolis. The 27 buildings 
were valued at $1,842,263. The new commerce 
and finance building, costing $235,000, was 
completed in 1923, and a stadium with a seat- 
ing capacity of 22,000, costing approximately 
$150,000, was under construction. There were 
155 members of the faculty at Bloomington and 
50 members at Indianapolis in 1923. During 
the decade 1914-24, the attendance increased 
from 2620 to 4837. The income increased dur- 
ing that time from $396,216 to $1,492,265, and 
the number of volumes in the library rose from 
99,760 to 157,066. By the close of 1923 more 
than $1,000,000 had been subscribed toward a 
goal of $1,600,000 for the erection of memorial 


INDIANS 


buildings; and the campaign to raise $2,000,000 
for the construction and equipment of the James 
Whitcomb Riley Hospital for Children had 
passed the halfway mark, while the first unit 


of the hospital was nearing completion. Presi- 
dent, William Lowe Bryan, Ph.D. 
INDIANS (UNITED STATES). The Ameri- 


ean Indian continued to be on the public con- 
science. In the latter part of the nineteenth 
century the policy of assimilation was  pro- 
jected as the greatest possible good that could 
be meted out to the Red Man. By education 
and civil discipline the members of the race 
were to be inducted gradually into citizenship 
and established upon parcels of land as farmers, 
and of this land they were to attain full owner- 
ship. Each Indian was to be allotted a farm 
and settled thereon. It was then contemplated 
that the Indians, as individuals, would merge 
into the national population and cease to con- 
cern the government and the public as a_ prob- 
lem. While the theory upon which this policy 
rests is sound and ethical, the fundamental 
difficulty lay in that the Indian was still a de- 
pendent and that those administering his ward- 
ship were naturally averse to relinquishing 
their power. The Indian lands were surveyed, 
divided into farms, and allotted to individual 
Indians. The surplus lands were then sold or 
thrown open to white settlers. As the Indian 
was a ward, and inexperienced, he had little 
chance of getting the land allotments best suited 
for farming, and in consequence he often found 
himself assigned to worthless land, or to land 
whose cultivation would require expensive and 
complicated equipment. It is not strange then 
that he failed to become self-supporting and 
thus delayed his release from guardianship. 
Another factor was important. Only a small 
portion of the Indian tribes were native agricul- 
turists, and farming did not appeal to them; to 
become farmers meant a radical turnover in 
their lives. The resistance thus caused, together 
with the frequent unsuitableness of the lands 
allotted, greatly delayed the consummation of 
the national Indian policy with regard to the 
Indians as a whole. It is obvious therefore 
that the day is far distant when there will be 
no Indian wards to look after. For instance, 
the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1924 was rent- 
ing out more than 16,000,000 acres of land and 
cared for personal property of Indians to the 
value of approximately $200,000,000. 
Naturally, during the War public attention 
was drawn away from the Indian, except for the 
Jaudable part his young men took in the con- 
flict; but with the close of the War and the cen- 
tring of attention on the nation’s internal af- 
fairs, several events served to bring this prob- 
lem to the fore again. Among these was the 
Pueblo Indian land question. A bill was intro- 
duced into Congress providing that the white 
claimants to Pueblo Indian lands and water 
rights in New Mexico should be recognized 
without regard to the right of the Indians and 
that if in this way the Indians were de- 
prived of sufficient land to support them, then 
the National Government should remove them 
to other lands. It happened that these In- 
dians held their lands under titles from the 
Government of Mexico, which were granted 
by treaty between the United States and 
Mexico when the territory was taken over 
at the close of the Mexican War. The proposed 
legislation so aroused public sentiment that the 


666 


the number of Protestant churches, 


INDIANS 


bill was withdrawn and new legislation framed 
which in 1924 was pending enactment. Whether 
the Pueblo Indian would receive his due in full 
remained problematical. One beneficial result 
of this agitation was to bring into review the 
whole land policy of the Indian Bureau and to 
halt for the time a number of land bills and 
lease projects. For the time being, at least, all 
such questions were to be held pending public 
discussion. 

About the same time the Commissioner of In- 
dian Affairs issued a pronouncement against 
Indian dances, a term which, as used in the In- 
dian country, meant any kind of social or 
religious gathering. This policy, if rigidly en- 
forced, would stop all ceremonial and_ tradi- 
tional practices except those favored by govern- 
ment officials. The demands for such prohibition 
came in the main from religious organizations 
and were aimed at the native Indian religion. 
Thus another fundamental issue was raised, 
this time a question of religious freedom. In the 
first place all those interested in art and Indian 
lore, a large part of the traveling public, the 
leaders of Boy Scout and similar organizations, 
etc., were aroused, chiefly because these people 
had come into an understanding of the serious side 
of Indian life and desired that the Indian should 
have fair play. They saw no reason why the 
Indian should not be accorded full religious 
freedom and the right of peaceful assembly, even 
if some of his practices were considered un- 
christian. It was pointed out that Jew, Moham- 
medan, and Mormon were free to set up their 
churches where they would, and that so long 
as the Indian obeyed the law, he should have 
the same privilege. 

As a matter of fact, the past policy of the 
Indian Bureau had been not to interfere with | 
native ceremonies except in respect to unlawful 
practices. Such practices were rare, and their 
prohibition did not greatly interfere with the 
Indian’s religious freedom. Naturally the pro- 
nouncement of the Indian Commissioner, which 
seemed to threaten all native practices, even the 
eare of the sick, aroused the Indians themselves, 
or at least all who were not completely Chris- 
tianized. Opposition spread rapidly among the 
whites also, and led to the organization of the 
Indian Defense Society. The idea back of this 
organization was an advanced view of the right 
of a social group to work out its own adjust- 
ment to modern conditions. In the matter of 
costume, for example, the effort of those having 
the Indian in charge was to force the aborigines 
to adopt the current style of shoes and dress 
and to give up their own idea of what is be- 
coming; so the Defense Society was organized 
to defend the right of the Indian to exercise his 
individuality on the ground that modern cos- 
tume and similar conventionalities are not es- 
sential to civilization or to Christianity. 

The movements just enumerated were related 
to a survey of Protestant religious and educa- 
tional work among the Indian tribes of the 
United States, under the auspices of the Inter- 
Church World Movement. This survey was be- 
gun in 1919 and a report published in 1923, 
over the name of G. E. E. Lindquist, on The Red 
Man in the United States. Unfortunately, this 
report did not deal with the work of the Ro- 
man Catholic Chureh, which had been in the 
field from the start, but it gave in great detail 
schools, 
financial support, ete., for each Indian Reserva- 


INDIANS 


tion in turn. It also commented upon the econom- 
ic status for each and particularly the non- 
Christian influences to be observed. The statis- 
ties compiled showed that the annual contribu- 
tion for Protestant Indian Missions is about 
$750,000 and the number of Indians enrolled in 
the churches a little more than 30,000. The 
Catholic enrollment was estimated at 60,000. 
If the total number of adherents to all churches 
be counted, the estimate was for 80,000 Prot- 
estants and 65,000 Catholies. On the other 
hand, 46,000 were listed as pagan. The situa- 
tion respecting schooling was stated as 70,000 
children in school, 20,000 not attending, and 
, 10,000 unprovided with school facilities. One 
effort of this survey report was to stimulate 
Protestant missionary efforts to convert the 
pagan Indians, and it. was from this source also 
that the pressure came on the Indian Bureau 
for the forceful suppression of all vestiges of 
native Indian culture. 

To add to the tensity of the situation it should 
be remembered that in almost every tribe there 
were two factors, the Christian Indians and 
the pagans. The former were fired with the 
zeal of all new converts and were ready to ad- 
vocate forceful measures to suppress. their 
heathen brothers. Many of the protests and 
appeals to the Indian Bureau come from these 
Christian Indians, who would, in some instances, 
favor the arrest and imprisonment of any one 
attempting to observe a pagan form of worship. 
When Dr. Hubert Work became Secretary of 
the Interior in 1922, the Indian Bureau was 
facing protests on all the points mentioned. An 
Advisory Committee of One Hundred was named 
by the Secretary. On this committee were dis- 
tinguished statesmen, educators, scientists, mis- 
sionaries, philanthropists, and a few outstand- 
ing Indian leaders. A two days’ session of this 
committee was held in Washington, Dec. 12 and 
13, 1923, for the discussion of Indian policy, 
and a series of recommendations were made to 
the Secretary. These embodied general recom- 
mendations to increase the effectiveness of In- 
dian schools, to provide adequate medical and 
health supervision and, while recognizing the 
value of missionary work among the Indians, to 
emphasize the right of the Indian to freedom 
of thought and religious belief. Perhaps the 
most significant pronouncement of the Com- 
mittee of One Hundred was its resolution: 
“These same problems have faced the govern- 
ment for nearly fifty years. Regardless of prog- 
ress actually made, the great objectives of our 
benevolent desires have not been attained. This 
situation and this history show the extrava- 
gance of all efforts which are not directed by the 
best ability, supported by adequate funds, or 
maintained by sufficient consistency.” This 
statement seemed to accord with enlightened 
public opinion. 

The fundamental ideal has been to make the 
Indian a citizen and thus destroy his identity. 
Progress toward civilization among the In- 
dians was showing rapid strides. Everywhere 
the young men were seeking seasonal employ- 
ment and thus gradually adapting themselves 
to the economic life of the country. Yet, re- 
viewing the history of the Indian tribes during 
the last century, it is noted that few tribes 
have become extinct, and no matter how com- 
pletely Christianized some of them may now 
be, the tribal group is maintained. The func- 
tion of the tribal organization under these new 


667 


-in primitive dwellings: 11 


INDIANS 


conditions is social. Also, the native language 


still survives in the home and the social 
circle. Naturally, these languages carry with 
them old elements of social procedure, 


ethics, and ideals, the background to Indian 
thought and aspiration, and so long as 
the memory of these survives it may be ex- 
pected that the social nucleus of the tribe will 
persist, but it will for the most part be valued 
for its esthetic qualities. The Indians of New 
York State, for example, have been in direct 
contact with civilization for a long time, but 
they still maintain a number of social and cere- 
monial procedures peculiar to their forefathers. 
It is, therefore, evident that so long as Indians 
maintain their tribal communities, they will 
tend to preserve their native tongues and to 
hold on to a core of social traditions and as- 
pirations. In course of time, however, this will 
be outside of the main affairs of life which will 
become in all respects American and so put the 
Indian on the same level as other racial blocs 
in the national population. The student of 
social phenomena have, however, from time to 
time protested against the overambitious forcing 
methods of missionaries and educators, on the 
ground that the transition must be gradual, or 
the individual will be wrecked. In the meetings 
of the Committee of One Hundred, attention 
was called to the entire collapse of morale in 
a number of tribes by the hasty destruction of 
traditional procedures. The plea of scientific 
men is for a policy based upon knowledge of 
primitive life, a policy that will efficiently as 
well as humanly conserve the native’s wellbeing 
to the end that he may normally grow into 
citizenship. 

Finally, a bird’s-eye view of the Indian in the 
United States may be obtained from the follow- 
ing statements compiled from the reports of the 
United States Indian Bureau. The population 
in 1923 totaled 344,303 a gain of about 18,000 
in ten years. There were 200 reservations and 
193 Indian tribes, speaking languages of 58 
different stocks. Two-thirds of the Indians were 
citizens, and about 50,000 were voters. In all 
about 240,000 Indians were still under govern- 
ment guardianship. Allotments of land were 
made to 227,000 Indians, 38,000,000 acres in 
all. There were, however, more than 125,000 
Indians, on 91 reservations, to whom lands had 


-not been allotted, and a reserve acreage of 35,- 


000,000. The economic status of the Indian in- 
dicated progress. There were 40,962 farmers, 
cultivating 890,700 acres of land. Their cattle 
were valued at $35,000,000; 366,000 acres of 
land were irrigated, with more than a million 
acres in reserve. The timber resources on In- 
dian lands were estimated at 35,000,000 board 
feet, valued at $100,000,000. The total value 
of property owned by Indians was estimated 
at $1,000,000,000. Tribal funds held in govern- 
ment trust were more than $25,000,000 and 
those of individual Indians approximated $35,- 
000,000. During the War $25,000,000 in Liberty 
Bonds were purchased by Indians, and 12,000 
served as soldiers. The oil lands are chiefly in- 
the hands of the Osage and the five civilized 
tribes of Oklahoma, the per capita return of 
the former amounting to about $12,000 per 
annum. To 1924 the total received by all these 
tribes reached the sum of $150,000,000. 

While most Indians live in houses built by 
themselves, there were still twenty tribes living 
in Arizona, three 


INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION 668 


in California and New Mexico, and one each in 
California and New Mexico, and one each in 
Colorado, Florida, and Nevada. Housing is 
closely correlated to health. The prevailing 
diseases are tuberculosis and trachoma; of the 
former there are 25,000 cases, of the latter 
30,000. The insanity rate is very low, about 
0.5 per thousand. One asylum is maintained 
where 106 were treated in 1922. About a dozen 
additional cases are scattered among State in- 
stitutions. The Indian Bureau has a staff of 
150 regular physicians on full duty at reserva- 
tions and schools and 50 contract physicians on 
part time; 80 nurses and 70 field matrons are 
employed. There are 78 hospitals with a com- 
bined capacity of 2400 beds. Twenty thousand 
Indians were treated in these hospitals in 1922. 

Edueation is provided in three classes of 
schools, boarding schools, government day 
schools, and the nearest public schools. Of 
government boarding schools on the reservations 
there were 51; off the reservations, 25. These 
had a combined attendance of about 18,000. In ad- 
addition there were 36 private or mission schools 
enrolling more than 5000 children. The day 
schools numbered 181. In the local public 
schools adjacent to reservations were enrolled 
34,301 Indian children for whom the government 
paid in tuition about $250,000 per year. In 
general, there were 91,968 Indian children, 6279 
of whom were ineligible for school attendance, 
but 20,746 children were without school facili- 
ties of any kind. The total appropriation for 
the education of the Indians was $5,000,000, but 
this did not include the amounts expended by 
missions. See also ETHNOGRAPHY. 

INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION AND 
CONCILIATION. See LAsor ARBITRATION. 

INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY. See CHEm- 
ISTRY, ORGANIC. 

INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY. The theory 
of industrial democracy and its partial ap- 
plication in a number of cases was almost 
entirely a development of the decade 1914-24, 
Although vague ideas of this sort had mani- 
fested themselves before the War, it was the 
War and the resulting industrial conditions 
which brought forth the fully developed theory. 
It derived its chief elements from socialism and 
syndicalism (q.v.) and found its best expres- 
sion in the philosophy of the British guild 
socialists. In its strict sense industrial democ- 
racy stands for the elimination of the capi- 
talist employer, the introduction of democratic 
principles in industry, and the control of the 
means of production by the producers. It aims 
at the substitution of the motive of service to 
society for that of private profit in production 
and claims that thus all productive activities 
would be placed on a higher ethical level. The 
producers in the shop and single industry would 
exercise full control over everything relating 
to production. The basis of organization would 
be the shop and the industrial union, and the 
ultimate form would be a system of modified 
syndicalism rather than of socialism. In this 
sense industrial democracy still remained a 
theory or a philosophy. Where its application 
had been attempted, as in Russia, it had been 
a failure, although this was perhaps not en- 
tirely due to defects inherent in its theory. In 
the wider sense, the term industrial democracy 
had come to stand for a number of schemes in- 
volving partial application of its principles and 
the sharing of the worker in the control of in- 


INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY 


dustry. These schemes ranged from plans for 
full control to profit-sharing arrangements. 
Foremost in this respect were the shop stewards, 
the Whitley councils, and the builders’ guilds:in 
Great Britain, the shop councils in Germany, 
and the Plumb Plan in the United States. 
Shop Stewards. This movement grew out of 
the hostility of the rank and file during the 
War to the trade union officials who under the 
Treasury Agreement of 1915 had abrogated the 
trade union rights and were therefore powerless 
to act as the spokesmen of the workers in 
serious labor disputes. It was, moreover, a re- 
volt against the division of British trade union 


organization into local branches based on res- . 


idence rather than on shop and industry. Be- 
cause of the inactivity of the regular trade union 
officials under these conditions, energetic and ag- 
gressive men among the workers in various shops 
began early in the War to assume the leadership 
in their particular shops and thus to set aside 
the regular union officials. These shop stewards, 
as they were called after an analogous system 
long established in the mining industry, repre- 
sented their fellow workers, though without offi- 
cial authority, in all disputes over hours, wages, 
and shop conditions. They soon became the 
accepted leaders. of the men in their shops. The 
shop steward system prevailed primarily in the 
engineering trades. Its underlying principles 
were industrial unionism and the control of the 
shop by the workers. It was essentially syndi- 
calist in nature. Aside from arbitrating or- 
dinary disputes, they, and especially the more 
revolutionary among them, led all the strikes 
in the munitions industries. With the disap- 
pearance of war conditions the essential prin- 
ciples of the system were taken over by the 
trades affected and the movement in its revolu- 
tionary aspect came to an end. The _ shop 
stewards did not proceed very far in gaining 
control over production, but the system con- 
tained potentially all the essential elements of 
workers’ control. 

Whitley Councils, or Joint Industrial 
Councils. These councils were also a develop- 
ment of war conditions. The Whitley Commit- 
tee, appointed in 1916, recommended joint, 
standing, and industrial councils as the means 
for adjusting relations between employers and 
workers. The councils were to represent em- 
ployers and workers alike, were to have per- 
manency to guarantee regular discussion, and 
were to be formed along industrial rather than 
craft lines. The system was to be provided with 
a decentralized machinery, comprising district 
councils and work committees as well as na- 
tional councils. The British government adopt- 
ed the report in October, 1917, and in Janu- 
ary, 1918, the first Whitley council was formed 
in the pottery industry. A second report by 
the Whitley Committee, October, 1918, recom- 
mending joint councils for trades where organi- 
zation was weak or nonexistent, was not wholly 
adopted by the government. The system spread 
rapidly till 1920, after which no outstanding 
developments occurred. There were in existence, 
in 1924, 72 councils and 11 interim reconstruc- 
tion committees. The great industries, however, 
had not adopted the system. The formation of 
the councils had been mostly along uniform 
lines. They were composed of equal numbers 
of manufacturers’ representatives and members 
of trade unions. They considered such ques- 
tions as wages, hours, working conditions, 


SE ——— Eee 


: 
. 


INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY 


health, and sanitation. The councils had not 
led to any joint control of industry but in 
many cases had established amicable relations 
between the employers and workers. They had 
one important though unintended result, in so 
far as they stimulated trade union organiza- 
tion in the industries where they were applied. 
For the builders’ guilds, see Guitp SocraLism. 

Shop Councils. The German shop councils 
system was an offshoot of the revolutionary 
Workers’ and Soldiers’ Councils of 1918 and 
1919. The Shop Councils Act of Aug. 18, 1919, 
was a compromise; yet it went further in es- 
tablishing workers’ control than almost any 
other system actually applied. It provided for 
the creation of councils representative of the 
employees of all industrial establishments em- 
ploying more than 20 workers. The functions 
of the councils were “to look after the interests 
of the workers in relation to the employers and 
to support the employer in fulfillment of the 
purpose of the works.” The councils had the 
right to appoint one or two members of the 
board of directors to represent the workers in re- 
gard to organization. They might also demand 
from the employers information on such mat- 
ters as affect the workers, as well as a quarterly 
report and an annual balance sheet. The coun- 
cils became an integral part of the German trade 
union organization, which exerted a moderating 
influence on them. After 1919, the employers’ 
organizations succeeded in curtailing materially 
their powers, but from the latter part of 1923, 
the shop councils had become more aggressive 
and of greater importance in the German labor 
movement. 

Plumb Plan. This plan, named after its 
author, Glenn E. Plumb, general counsel for 
the railway brotherhoods of the United States, 
was merely a proposal which had not been 
given realization. It is remarkable, however, 
for its features and for the support which it 
received. The plan proposed government pur- 
chase of the railways and ownership by a na- 
tional railways operating corporation, the board 
of directors of which was to consist of 15 mem- 
bers, five chosen by the workers, five by the 
officials of the railways, and five by the govern- 
ment. Rates would be fixed by the Interstate 
Commerce Commission and wages by a wages 
board appointed by the directors. Profits would 
be divided between the government and the cor- 
poration. Those of the latter would be paid 
out as dividends to the employees. When the 
net profits exceeded 10 per cent of the gross 
working capital, the rates would be correspond- 
ingly reduced. The plan, although sharply 
criticized by the English guild socialists for its 
tameness, would go far in establishing workers’ 
control. The railroad brotherhoods sponsored 
the plan, and the railroad bloc in the American 
Federation of Labor obtained the endorsement of 
that organization for the plan and for a pro- 
gramme of industrial democracy, in the conven- 
tions of the Federation in 1920 and 1921. 

Individual employers in the United States 
had established various systems whereby the 
workers were given some sort of share in the 
industry. These ranged from simple profit-shar- 
ing schemes like that of the United States 
Steel Corporation to actual participation in the 
control of the industry. Remarkable was the 
system set up in the clothing industry in Chi- 
cago, which provided for a trade board of five, 
of which two were representatives of the manu- 


669 


INFANTILE PARALYSIS 


facturers, two were members of the Amalgamat- 
ed Clothing Workers, and the fifth was an im- 
partial chairman. The board dealt with wages, 
hours, working conditions, health, sanitation, 
and similar matters. In reality, the impar- 
tial chairman decided practically all disputes. 

INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE 
WORLD. A labor organization founded in Chi- 
cago, in 1905, by a group of radicals who were 
discontented with the conservative policies of 
the trade unions. It is based on so-called ‘‘in- 
dustrial union principles,’ and on the theory of 
syndicalism. In the first years of the decade 
1914-24, the organization took a conspicuous 
part in strikes. 

In 1917 disorders were created in the copper 
mines in Bisbee, Ariz. The sheriff of the 
county deported over 1100 members over the 
line into New Mexico. There was much suffer- 
ing as a result of lack of food and the Federal 
government intervened and supplied them with 
necessaries until they were able to remove else- 
where. The headquarters of the organization 
were raided on Sept. 5, 1917, by Federal 
officers. The avowed purpose was to check an 
alleged country-wide conspiracy to hamper the 
government in the prosecution of the War. Wil- 
liam D. Haywood (q.v.), General Secretary, and 
167 associates, were arrested. Their trial was 
begun on Mar. 3, 1918. Ninety-five were found 
guilty. William D. Haywood and others were 
sentenced to serve twenty years in the Federal 
prison or to pay $20,000 fine each. During 1919 
the development of the so-called “one big union” 
movement gained considerable headway. In 
principle it signifies a strike in all industries in 
sympathy with strikes in any single industry. 
The movement met with great sympathy in the 
I.W.W. On November 11, 1919, during a parade 
of overseas veterans in Centralia, Wash., firing 
took place from an I. W. W. hall and six of the 
paraders were wounded, three of whom later died. 
The leaders of the organization in Centralia 
were at once arrested and a general round-up 
of members was made. The “one big union” 
movement continued to develop in 1920. The 
affiliation of the I. W. W. with the Communist 
political doctrines grew steadily closer in the 
years following the War, and by 1922 it had 
practically become identified with the Commun- 
ist party. Delegates were sent to the meeting 
of the Third International, and political action 
supplemented the industrial activities of the 
organization. The Communist element domin- 
ated the convention of the Farmer-Labor party 
in May, 1924, and succeeded in nominating 
Duncan MacDonald as candidate for president. 
The National committee, a few days later, with- 
drew these names and endorsed the Workers’ 
Party candidate. This party comprises the or- 
ganized communists of the country. William 
Z. Foster and Benjamin Gitlow were nominated 
as president and vice-president, respectively. 
Several of the States, notably California and 
Washington, passed measures against syndical- 
ism in an effort to suppress the aggressive ac- 
tivities of the organization. A number of mem- 
bers who were imprisoned on charges of treason 
and sedition, were released in 1924. See Syn- 
DICALISM, 

INFANTILE PARALYSIS. In 1921 a new 
serum treatment for this disease was announced 
by Dr. Rosenow of the Mayo Foundation. This 
was obtained by injecting horses with cultures 
of a bacterium known as streptococcus poly- 


INFANTRY 


morphus. The good effects of this serum had 
been ‘known as far back as 1917. During the 
interval it had been tested on 259 children be- 
tween the ages of five and seven years. In 60 
of the patients the injections could be made at 
the inception of the disease, before the super- 
vention of the paralysis, which means during the 
first 36 hours; and in this series not a single 
death or paralysis took place, showing 100 
per cent control of the disease. In 61 other 
cases, paralysis had already set in, and the in- 
jections could not be given until 48 hours of the 
disease had elapsed. Nevertheless the results 
were almost as good as in the first series, for 
no deaths and but one case of permanent paraly- 
sis resulted. In the third series of 125 cases, 
treatment could not be begun until the fifth or 
sixth day of the disease; and in this series eight 
deaths occurred and 30 children were left 
paralyzed, the balance making clean recoveries. 
In order to appreciate the value of this treat- 
ment it should be remembered that the average 
death rate is 4 per cent and that the num- 
ber of children left crippled varies from 29 to 
68 per cent of those attacked. The serum is 
injected into the muscles or veins; nothing is 
gained by injections into the spinal canal. 
INFANTRY. See ARMIES AND ARMY OR- 
GANIZATION; STRATEGY AND TACTICS. 
INFLATION. See FINANCE AND BANKING. 
INFLUENZA. The pandemic of 1918 wrote 
a new and significant chapter in the history 
of this contagious disease. Up to that period 
it had been regarded commonly as an air- 
borne affection, proof against isolation and 
quarantine; its spread by personal contact is 
now acknowledged by health authorities. Be- 
fore the pandemic, influenza had been generally 
viewed as a relatively harmless but very annoy- 
ing malady, dangerous chiefly to weaklings and 


through occasional complications. It is now 
known to be, potentially at least, the most 


pernicious of ali diseases which attain pandemic 
diffusion, deadlier even than the pneumonic 
plague, which in some ways it strikingly re- 
sembles. When influenza is deadly it is because 
of the complication of pneumonia, and so preva- 
lent was this complication in the pandemic that 
some clinicians came to regard the disease as 
essentially pneumonic, although under ordinary 
circumstances this feature is quite latent or 
suppressed. The custom of keeping the influ- 
enza patient in bed for a week, despite the in- 
significance of the symptoms, is due very large- 
ly to the belief that every case of influenza is a 
potential pneumonia and that the latter is apt 
to assert itself if the patient is up and about. 
Of great importance is the relationship between 
pandemic influenza and ordinary seasonal win- 
ter grippe. The latter in most localities has 
been regarded as a legacy of the older pandemic 
of 1890, although winter grippe is known to have 
existed in certain localities, Minnesota, for ex- 
ample, long before that year. There are notable 
differences in epidemicity, for while winter 
erippe, as the term implies, is an affection 
peculiar to cold weather, true influenza appears 
just as readily in the spring, summer, and 
autumn as in winter. Winter grippe is not 
highly contagious, although in the cold months 
there are better opportunities for the spread 
of a disease. In regard to the bacterial cause 
of winter grippe, four or five separate germs 
have been accused at different: times, notably 
Pfeiffer’s bacillus, the pneumococecus, strep- 


670 


INFLUENZA 


{ 
tococcus, micrococcus, catarrhalis, ete. That is, 
each of these organisms seems capable at times 
of setting up a relatively benign epidemic 
catarrh without any special ‘tendency to danger- 
ous complications. 

In pandemic influenza none of the above or- 
ganims can be associated with the contagion of 
the disease, although the deadliness was due to 
the special virulence of the pneumo- and strept- 
ococcus, responsible for the peculiar type of 
fatal pneumonia so often seen. To explain the 
pandemie we must invoke the existence of a 
highly diffusible contagious principle which in 
addition to smiting the great majority of those 
exposed further lowers the resistance to the or- 
dinary ubiquitous disease-bearing germs, so that 
under the circumstances these acquire unusual 
virulence. This statement at once provokes the 
question, “Why have so many pandemics and 
extensive epidemics of influenza in the past pur- 
sued so mild a course, with hardly any mor- 
tality?” The answer to this query is in part 
as follows. The pandemic of 1918 lasted from 
May of that year to May, 1919. During this 
period there were at least three distinct waves. 
The first, which occurred in late spring and 
early summer, was distinctly mild. The second 
wave, in late summer and early fall, was very 
severe, decidedly malignant. The third wave, in 
the winter of 1919, was also malignant, masking 
the ordinary seasonal erippe. Hence, judging 
from analogy, the virulence of the disease, at 
first mild, gathered force during the second 
and third outbreaks, as a result of continuous 
passage through human bodies. This law of in- 
creasing virulence is familiar in experimental 
and clinical pathology. To return to the sub- 
ject of the cause of pandemic influenza, this 
lies between Pfeiffer’s bacillus and the so-called 
bacillus pneumosintes, studied at the Rockefeller 
Institute. Since the pandemic entirely disap- 
peared, leaving us in the presence of only the 
ordinary seasonal grippe, we can only study the 
relationship of this organism to future pandem- 
ics and to respiratory catarrhal affections in gen- 
eral. 

An attempt may be made here to reply to a 
few pertinent questions which are often asked or 
which concern popular delusions. Did the pan- 
demic of 1918 originate in Spain? There is no 
evidence to support this belief. Influenza was 
common in fighting troops during 1917; in the 
United States Army alone, more than 40,000 
men were attacked, both at home and in France. 
Influenza of decidedly virulent type was seen 
again in March, 1918, in widely different parts 
of the world, America, France, and the Far 
Kast. The disease gradually gathered force and 
chanced to break out in Spain during May on 
a huge scale. No doubt this Spanish outbreak 
did much to spread the disease to Africa and 
South America, but it played no part in com- 
municating the disease to the North American 
continent; on the contrary, the weight of ev- 
idence favors the belief that the scattered 

episodes in the United States early in 1918 
played a major role in causing the European 
outbreak through the crossing of our soldiers at 
this period. We know that contagious dis- 
eases flourish when foreign troops are moved 
about. No doubt a part of our pandemic in the 
early fall could be traced to Europe, but by no 
means all, for the disease appeared among us 
in more than one focus. Another question con- 
cerns immunity. Is seasonal grippe a_ pre- 


INGE 


ventive of epidemic influenza? There is every 
reason to believe that there is no decided im- 
munity in influenza of whatever form. In fact, 
one attack often paves the way for another, 
Which suggests that different microérganisms 
may induce the same clinical behavior. <A 
third question refers to the apparent contradic- 
tion in mortalities. Influenza was often likened 
to the plague in deadliness, but this result is 
apparent only in nation-wide figures. Influenza 
may attack nearly every one, but the death rate 
does not usually exceed 2 per cent of those at- 
tacked. Plague pneumonia attacks relatively 
few, but its mortality is very high—almost or 
quite 100 per cent. See Busonic PLAGUE. 

INGE, WitriAM RarpH (1860- epee’ 
British prelate and man of letters (see Vou. 
XII). He has been dean of St. Paul’s (London) 
since 1911. In the front rank of contemporary 
British essayists, he is known, on account of his 
vigorous criticism of certain modern tendencies, 
as “the gloomy dean.” His later writings, 
which continued to appeal strongly to a dis- 
criminating public in the United States as well 
as his own country, were: Types of Christian 
Saintliness (1915); The Philosophy of Platinus 
(1918); Outspoken Essays (1919; 2d _ series, 
1922); The Idea of Progress (1920); The Vic- 
torian Age (1922); and Personal Religion and 
the Life of Devotion (1924). Of these, Out- 
spoken Essays were perhaps the most widely 
appreciated in the United States. 

INGERSOLL, Gerorce Pratr (1861-— If 
An American diplomat, born at New Haven, 
Conn., and educated at Trinity College and the 
Yale Law School. For several years he prac- 
ticed law in Stamford, Conn., and New York 
City. After serving on several official boards 
in Connecticut, he became minister to Siam 
(1917-18). On his return to the United States 
he engaged again in the practice of law. He 
was delegate to the International Peace Con- 
ference in Washington in 1910. His published 
addresses include The Measure of Success, Our 
Connecticut Heritage, and Diplomatic Life ‘in 
Siam. 

INGLIS, ALEXANDER JAMES (1879— iy 
An educator and author of educational books; 
born’ at Middletown, Conn., and educated at 
Wesleyan University (Conn.). He became as- 
sistant professor of education in 1914, and in 
1919, professor of education, at Harvard Uni- 
versity. During the War and later he was en- 
gaged as expert in important educational in- 
vestigations and surveys for both the Federal 
and State governments. Besides text books for 
Latin courses, he wrote Rise of the High School 
in Massachusetts (1911); Principles of Second- 


ary Education (1918); Virginia Public Schools , 


(1919); and _ IJntelligence Quotient Values 
(1921). He also edited a series of books on the 
theory and practice of education. 


INHERITANCE TAX. See TAaxATION IN 
THE UNITED STATES. 
INJUNCTION. When Congress in 1914 


passed the Clayton Act, greatly restricting the 
use of injunctions in labor disputes, its action 
was hailed by labor as an important victory in 
its long fight to curtail the use of injunctions. 
In the years immediately following, encourage- 
ment was also given to labor in State legisla- 
tion. In 1917 an interesting tendency was dis- 
closed in the Northwest to free strikes from 
injunctions and at the same time to punish 
violence severely. Minnesota forbade the issu- 


671 | 


INMAN 


ance of injunctions in trade disputes except to 
prevent irreparable injury to property and pro- 
hibit their issuance to prevent termination of 
employment. The act does not curtail the 
power of the courts if irreparable injury to 
business or property is threatened by violence 
or unlawful acts or acts involving criminal 
syndicalism. Utah passed a law similar to the 
Minnesota act, adding that injunctions must 
not interfere with “peaceful persuading.” In 
1919 legislation was passed in Iowa, North Da- 
kota, Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin to 
limit the use of injunctions. Nevertheless, the 
courts, both Federal and State, continued to 
issue injunctions in labor disputes in ever in- 
creasing numbers and in, terms more and more 
strict. While it is the bstablished law in the 
United States that laborers may under no cir- 
cumstances~be~ enjoined from quitting” work, 
still _in—sonre—injunctions—‘conspiring to” quit” 
was Sighted DTS Conte resorted generally to 
the conspiracy theory in issuing injunctions 
against acts not in themselves unlawful in labor 
disputes. In some notable injunctions union 
officers were prohibited from advising or order- 
ing workmen to go on strike or from paying 
strike benefits. A notable injunction of this 
type which aroused widespread interest was 
secured by the Federal government during the 
bituminous coal mine dispute of 1919. 

More injunctions were issued in connection 
with labor disputes in 1922 than in any pre- 
vious year. At least twice as many were issued 
by the Federal courts in this year as in the 
entire 10 years preceding. Included among the 
1922 injunctions was a judicial order which 
prevented the officers of the Brotherhood of 
Railway Station Employees from calling a 
strike sanctioned by a referendum vote. An- 
other was a judicial order, subsequently ma- 
terially modified by a higher court, which 
enjoined the United Mine Workers from at- 
tempting to unionize a West Virginia coal dis- 
trict. But overshadowing all others was the 
injunction which the Attorney General of the 
United States secured from a Federal judge in 
Chicago against the railway shop crafts. This 
injunction, which aroused a storm of public dis- 
cussion, was so broad that it practically forbade 
the strikers from doing anything, peaceful or 
otherwise, toward winning the strike. The use 
of injunctions in labor disputes which labor 
maintains is an abuse was increasing to such 
an extent that by 1924 it had become a political 
issue of considerable importance. 
ican labor movement endorsed the independent 
candidacy of Senator Robert M. LaFollette, 


whose platform declared vigorously in favor of — 


abolishing the use of injunctions in labor dis- 
putes. Both the Republican and Democratic 
party platforms ignored the injunction issue, an 


issue on which the American Federation of 
Labor had made a 30 years’ fight. See Prick- 
ETING. 

INMAN, Samurt Guy (187/- } ges 


clergyman and writer on South American top- 
ics, born at Trinity, Texas, and educated at Co- 
lumbia University. He engaged in educational 
and missionary work in Mexico in 1906, and 
after 1915 was secretary of the Committee on 
Codperation in Latin America. He wrote Chris- 
tian Codperation in Latin America (1917); In- 
tervention in Mexico (1919); Through Santo 
Domingo and Haiti (1919); South America To- 
day (1921); Problems wm Pan-Americanism 


The Amer- ~ 


INSANITY 


(1921), and other works on Latin America; and 
founded and directed the monthly magazine, 
La Nueva Democracia. 

INSANITY. Insanity, to judge from reports 
of various localities, during the period 1914-24, 
was increasing more rapidly in the United States 
than the population, and the housing shortage 
cannot explain the overcrowding of institutions 
and the use of property intended for other pur- 
poses to shelter the insane. As foretold by the 
late Dr. P. Bailey and others, prohibition has 
not produced any material lessening of the dis- 
ease as a whole. Bleuler, the eminent Swiss 
alienist, found that the socalled chronic alco- 
holic insane are all original victims of dementia 
precox, of which their alcoholism is merely a 
symptom or surface phenomenon. It is prob- 
able that the number of cases of transient al- 
coholic insanity has lessened, although not in 
some of the large centres of population, where 
the prohibition laws are flouted and commit- 
ments to the municipal institutions are numer- 
ous. The teaching of psychiatry is undergoing 
a constant shifting, and the two principal types 
of insanity which are of obscure origin, i.e. 
early dementia and manic-melancholic insanity, 
seem to be regarded more and more as symptoms 
rather than as independent affections. Their 
autonomy has never been admitted by alienists 
of the Latin races, and such diseases are not 
even described in their treatises on psychiatry. 
German authors seem to be receding from this 
standpoint, as orginally taught by Kriipelin and 
widely endorsed in the United States. Kret- 
schmer has written to show that the individual 
who develops precocious dementia and he who 
becomes a victim of manic-melancholic insan- 
ity have opposite types of mind, a duality 
which is shared by all mankind. All men, in 
other words, have schizoid or cycloid characters. 
Others have taken up this teaching with modi- 
fications, notably Bleuler and Jung. A large 
literature on temperament and character has 
sprung up. It is important that the two be not 
confused, for while temperament is of physical 
origin, character is much deeper. Tempera- 
ment is due to the rate of production of inter- 
nal secretions and to the rapidity of metabo- 
lism, while character is bound up with intro- 
spection and extrospection, or as they are tech- 
nically termed, extroversion and introversion. 
A man of temperament is usually extroverted, 
lives wholly in the external world, is eminently 
active and social, but has in him no tendency 
to advance. He is not a reflective man and 
never looks within himself. The introverted 
man divides his attention between the outer and 
inner worlds, reflects much, and is apt to dwell 
on past events; this brooding gives him certain 
character traits. 

This distinction agrees in a measure with the 
sanguine and bilious temperaments of the an- 
cients. Most of the evolutionary progress of 
the race of man is due to the introvert. Most 
of the disagreements between individuals and 
groups and the impossibility of compromise is 
based on fundamental differences in character. 
Neither side is capable of understanding the 
viewpoint of the other, and each is apt to re- 
gard the other as inhuman. In the young in- 
trovert the outer and inner life may become so 
dissociated that dementia is the consequence. 
Alienists agree that it is often impossible to 
draw a line between an ordinary unadjusted 
adolescent and a victim of beginning dementia 
precow, On the other hand, when the tempera- 


672 


INSTINCT 


ment which underlies: the extrovert is present 
in an extreme degree the subject develops ma- 
niacal tendencies or at the other extreme mel- 
ancholic tendencies. A general increase in in- 
sanity means an increase in these basic forms, 
and as we have no practical knowledge of caus- 
al factors which can be influenced by treatment, 
the outlook is discouraging. Bleuler states 
that a child may sometimes be seen to pass 
from extroverted to introverted and vice versa, 
and it should be possible to place a normally 
introverted child or youth in an environment in 
which extroversion is favored. It is also con- 
ceivable that an extroverted child could be 
placed in such a dull environment that it would 
become introverted. Thus an extroverted indi- 
vidual sometimes becomes introverted after a 
long illness or confinement in prison. The 
world needs plenty of individuals of both types. 

Of great significance is the work of Dr. Henry 
Cotton of the State Hospital for the Insane at 
Trenton, N. J., begun about 1918 and founded 
on the belief that much insanity is of toxic 
origin and due to absorption of pus from small 
dépots in the teeth and other foci. Those eligi- 
ble for treatment based on necessary surgical 
intervention belong to the socalled functional 
insanities. As a result of this pioneer work, an 
insane asylum for custodial care has for the 
first time been transformed into a hospital in 
which patients are treated and often cured. 
The percentage of cases of functional insanity 
which respond to treatment sufficiently to per- 
mit of discharge from the institution was at 
last accounts no less than 86. This means that 
from 1919 to 1924, the State was saved the 
sum of $400,000. In all the insane, the tonsils 
should be removed and all purulent foci in the 
teeth and jaws, as shown by X-ray diagnosis, 
should be removed. Next to the mouth the pel- 
vis is the chief source of mischief in these cases, 
especially in women. Thus far the Trenton 
Hospital appears to be the only institution in 
which this doctrine of surgical intervention has 
been carried out. Should these findings be cor- 
roborated, it is evident that surgery can be of 
still more importance in the prevention of func- 
tional insanity. 


INSECT CONTROL. See ENTOMOLOGY, 
Economic. 

INSECT PESTS. See ENTomoLocy, Eco- 
NOMIC. 


INSTINCT. As used in psychology, the term 
indicates an inherited psychophysical disposi- 
tion on the part of the human organism which 


‘serves as a determinant of future activity. As 


defined by McDougall, an instinct is purposive 
in character; that is, it goes out to accomplish 
a definite biological end. It is therefore dis- 
tinct from the motor mechanism, which serves 
simply as a means for the accomplishment of 
the biological purpose. Under such a defini- 
tion, there would naturally be as many instincts 
as there are specific hereditary purposes. In 
McDougall’s Outline of Psychology (1923) is 
given a list of 14 major instincts and a half 
dozen minor instinctive responses so mechanical 
in their nature that they are not accompanied 
by any display of emotion. In addition to 
these specific dispositions of the mind, McDou- 
gall postulates nonspecific tendencies and fac- 
ulties. Included among these are intelligence, 
defined as “the capacity to improve on native 
tendency in the light of past experience,” sym- 
pathy, ete. It is evident that the nonspecific 
dispositions serve as» the link to bind up the 


INSTINCT 


isolated instinctive responses into the unified 
activity of the organism, much as the general 
staff of an army directs the movements of the 
specific arms and branches. Indeed, Professor 
McDougall takes the analogy of the army com- 
mand rather seriously, as is evident from the 
monadology he exposed in his Presidential Ad- 
dress to the British Society for Psychical Re- 
search (1920). Here he frankly conceives of 
the human personality as organized on an im- 
perialistic basis, with superior monads control- 
ling the activities of the lower orders. 

Professor McDougall first formulated his gen- 
eral theory of instincts in 1908, in his classic 
Social Psychology. At that time the only rival 
conception was that of Thorndike, who in his 
Educational Psychology conceived the instinct 
as a chain of reflexes, a very complicated chain 
of reflexes, but withal a mechanical system. 
Professor McDougall says of an instinct that 
“when brought into play, it generates an im- 
pulse, an urge, or a desire for some change in 
the situation that evoked it, an impulse which 
keeps the organism uneasy, restless, striving in 
this way and that so long as it is not inhibited 
by a stronger impulse or satisfied by the attain- 
ment of its natural goal, the changed situation 
of a specific kind.”” To Professor Thorndike, on 
the other hand, such a view smacks of ‘“‘magic 
potency.”” He prefers to describe the operation 
of a particular instinct as a series of situations 
and responses. These responses, because they 
are determined, are predictable in the same way 
that the reactions of chemical elements are pre- 
dictable. No room is left for potentialities, for 
changes in fundamental reactions, or for profit- 
ing by experience in the way that Professor 
McDougall allows. Nevertheless the Thorndike 
cenception has for its advantage, or for what 
may be claimed as an advantage, its scientific 
disinterestedness from morality, purpose and 
value. The dichotomy between these two rival 
conceptions is the dichotomy that is presumed 
to separate disinterested science from practical 
morality and religion. As far as this dichoto- 
my applies to psychology, it may be dramatical- 
ly studied in Paul Bourget’s novel, The Disciple. 
The author makes the hero commit a revolting 
crime as a consequence of his adherence to a 
deterministic psychology, under which the study 
of moral values is taboo. The proponent of 
these psychological doctrines, who had had no 
notion of the immoral ends for which such prin- 
ciples might be used by his disciples, is made 
at the end of the book to see the folly of his 
scientific positivism, and to speculate on the 
mysteries of religion. 

Strange to say, the violent polemical discus- 
sions of the problem of instincts during the 
decade and a half following the publication of 
the Social Psychology were never able to get 
beyond the popular antithesis of mechanistic 
science and practical morality. On the mecha- 
nistie side positions have been put forward even 
more radical than those of Professor Thorndike. 
Among these might be cited as typical the point 
of view of Z. Y. Kuo. Refusing to accept even 
the Thorndike conception of instinct as an in- 
tegrated series of reflexes, he would explain all 
human activity on the basis of nonspecific 
“units of reaction.” “The reaction units are 
what we find in the child’s spontaneous activi- 
ties and random acts... . Such spontaneous 
and random acts are all that we can credit to 
the native endowment of man. These are non- 
specific instincts, for they are reflexes in char- 


673 


INSTINCT 


acter and involve few, if any, complex neural 
patterns.” In his emphasis on reflexes, Mr. 
Kuo was following the lead of Watson and the 
Behavioristic movement, but even Professor 
Watson assumed that beyond the mere random 
reflexes there exists a group of innate reactions 
or instincts. Those who have attacked McDou- 
gall’s conception of instinct have attempted to 
assimilate it to the notion of “innate ideas,” 
thereby hoping to bring on instinct the dis- 
credit that has fallen on the socalled Cartesian 
rationalism. ‘The value of such tactics is ques- 
tionable, inasmuch as the problem of “innate 
ideas” and the problem of instincts are at bot- 
tom one and the same. ‘The doctrine of “innate 
ideas” is, properly speaking, a caricature of 
Cartesianism prepared by its opponents, the 
British empiricists; but the general issue as de- 
fined by the opposing stands of Descartes and 
Locke is still one of the central questions of 
philosophy. 

Regardless, however, of the relation of in- 
stincts to the doctrine of innate ideas, the con- 
ception of McDougall is a difficult one to em- 
ploy in a scientific scheme modeled on a posi- 
tivistic or rather a materialistic interpretation 
of physics and chemistry. It is a conception 
that fits in better with a practical system of 
moral conduct, preferably of the conservative 
sort. 

Proof of the latter fact may be had in the 
embarrassment of Prof. John Dewey in his han- 
dling of the instinct problem. Addressing the 
American Psychological Association in Decem- 
ber, 1916, he hailed the work of McDougall and 
Thorndike, between whose theories he drew no 
distinction, as laying the basis of a new social 
science. ‘‘Henceforth,” he said, ‘our social psy- 
chology is placed on the sure ground of obser- 
vation of instinctive behavior.” Scarcely two 
years later in his Princeton lectures of 1918,” 
published in book form under the title of Hu- 
man Nature and Conduct (1921), he expressly 
repudiated McDougall’s theory in the interest 
of his own belief of social radicalism and did 
not see fit to adopt the Thorndike conception 
of reflexes. The view which he did elaborate, 
while admitting the probable existence of in- 
stinctive roots for human conduct, tried to ex- 
plain this conduct on the basis of a succession 
of impulses and habits. The instinctive part 
of our habits, he appeared to maintain, does 


not come into being until the habits are formed 


under the stress of environment. In this man- 
ner he avoided committing himself to McDou- 
gall’s fixed classification of instincts, which had 
been the subject of much attacking, without 
offering any other classification. The artifice 
of placing the chapter on instinct after the 
chapter on habit is open to criticism, inasmuch 
as in mechanistically determined systems poten- 
tialities are treated as fixed quantities long be- 
fore they pass into the active state. The beau- 
ty of physical science lies in the fact that po- 
tential energy may be measured just as accurate- 
ly as kinetic energy, or energy in motion. 

One of the unfortunate aspects of the list of 
instincts propounded by: McDougall is that 
while the units are presumed to function spe- 
cificially they are yet denominated by the 
vaguest terminology. The list, including their 
synonyms, is as follows: instinct of escape (of 
self-preservation, of avoidance; danger _ in- 


stinct); combat (aggression, pugnacity); Re- 
pulsion (repugnance); parental (protective) ; 
appeal; pairing (mating, reproduction, sex- 


INSTINCT 674 


ual); curiosity (inquiry, discovery, investiga- 


tion); submission (self-abasement); assertion 
(self-display); social or gregarious instinct; 
food-seeking (hunting); acquisition (hoarding 


instinct) ; construction; laughter. Around these 
major instincts are grouped the corresponding 
primary emotions (such as fear, anger, disgust, 
etc.), and in this way a certain air of system 
is given to the treatment of the affective life 
which is lacking in most other psychological 
textbooks. It is this air of system which is, 
however, responsible for a great deal if not most 
‘of the controversy. The notion that there ex- 
ists any fixed entity as an acquisitive instinct 
naturally irritated those who had hoped to find 
in social psychology a support for their radical 
views on social progress, and at the same time 
it seemed to lend “scientific”? color to the eter- 
nal necessity of a capitalistic order. The in- 
stinct of pugnacity, if taken with the same 
seriousness as the laws of mechanics, automati- 
cally condemns pacifism. Many similar diffi- 
culties arise in connection with the other in- 
stinctive concepts. For a long time sociologists 
and social psychologists were in turmoil over 
the question whether there really existed any 
such instinct as the instinct for imitation, 
around which the French psychologist, Gabriel 
Tarde, had built up by a tour de force the en- 
tire scheme of social movement. And great 
was the relief when both Thorndike and McDou- 
‘gall legislated this instinct out of existence, 
McDougall preferring to explain the phenomena 
of imitation by the concourse of intelligence 
with the specific instincts. 

Almost any philosophy of instincts tends to 
undermine the prestige of the intellect and in- 
telligence. A theory of mechanical reflexes 
tends of course to abolish intelligence altogeth- 
er, but under the conception of fixed instincts 
the intelligence is reduced to the role of a help- 
less mediator between the imperious inborn 
tendencies of human nature. The notion of the 
sublimation of instincts, which has been so ex- 
tensively used by the psycho-analysts and psy- 
chopathologists, consecrates anti-intellectualism 
into a dogma. It might be said that the meta- 
phor of sublimation was invented in order that 
it might be misinterpreted. At any rate it 
owes its popularity to the ease with which it 
lends itself to distortion. When the highest in- 
tellectual achievements of humanity are defined 
as mere sublimations of primitive instincts, it 
is only a short step in the popular mind to de- 
throning these achievements altogether and pre- 
ferring “self-expression” via the socalled in- 
stinctive urges. In this respect the genius of 
modern social psychology works directly oppo- 
site to the genius of dogmatic religion, which, 
while adopting an almost identical hierarchical 
division of human nature into instincts and 
faculties, regards the instincts as the domain 
of the devil and ‘“‘sublimations” as the striving 
for divine perfection. In this day and age it 
is not possible to write of human nature in the 
fashion of a sermon, but the question may well 
be asked whether the end of science is in any 
way served by pointing a moral in reverse. To 
sum up the present situation in the doctrine of 
instincts, we should say that there exist two 
dogmatic positions, the theory of specific in- 
stincts and the theory of mechanical reflexes. 
Of these two, the instinct is the more flexible 
and could be converted at will into a dogmatism 
for morality or into a dogmatism against good 
morals. Perhaps the larger number of present- 


INSTINCT 


day psychologists might be regarded as skeptics, 
vacillating between the acceptance of teleolog- 
ical instincts and the apparently more scientific 
concept of reflexes. If we are to find a way out 
of this dilemma, we must seek it in a philosoph- 
ic re-interpretation of scientific experience. 
The lines of this re-interpretation can be only 
briefly’ suggested here. To begin with, the ac- 
cepted notion of predeterminism in physical sci- 
ence must be subjected to analysis. And when 
this is done, it is found that the socalled pre- 
established laws of nature are discovered in 
the course of human history, or rather are or- 
ganized as an objective test of experience 
through the constructive mathematical genius 
of man. And it is also seen that the physical 
laws are presumed for reasons of convenience to 
have preéxisted their discovery by man. The 
late Henri Poincaré showed clearly that we 
cannot ask ourselves the question whether the 
laws of physical nature have ever undergone 
change, inasmuch as our notions of geology and 
astronomy, the history of the earth and of the 
heavens, are based on the assumption that the 
laws are constant. While we are able to pre- 
dict the revolutions of the stars on the basis 
of our present scientific laws, nobody can pre- 
tend to predict the revolutions in the science of 
astronomy, precisely because of the unpredicta- 
ble nature of the “human equation.” The so- 
ealled mechanism of physical science, invented 
by human intelligence, cannot be used as a club 
to prevent the progress of human intelligence. 
Indeed, the notion of intellectual progress or 
evolution was recognized long before man had 
the audacity to apply that very fruitful idea to 
biology. But the essence of evolution or prog- 
ress is the notion of genuine change or novelty 
occurring within time. As regards the physical 
world, we may say with the French proverb, plus 
ca change, plus cest la méme chose; the more 
things change, the more they remain the same. 
But while we often apply the same idea to hu- 
man affairs, we do so satirically, and as regards 
biological phenomena, we have definitely postu- 
lated the notion of growth in the unifying prin- 
ciple of evolution. There can be no mechanical 
theory of evolution for the reason that the 
formula is a logical contradiction. The general 
principle of mechanism undertakes to explain 
change in physical phenomena by attributing it 
to preéxistent conditions, while the principle of 
evolution undertakes to explain the variety of 
living species as a genuine development in time. 
The two principles contradict each other only 
when we attempt to apply them to the same set 
of phenomena, but in their formal nature they 
both reflect the mathematical idea of continuity. 
If we should admit, then, the contingence of 
the laws of physical science, their contingence, 
that is, on the state of our ever changing knowl- 
edge of nature, there need be no opposition in 
the spirit of scientific inquiry between natural 
science and the biological and social sciences. 
Phenomena in the latter domain are obviously 
not as predictable as purely physical phenom- 
ena are. The proper analogy for the biological 
series is geology, a science in which we attempt 
to predict the spatial configurations of the 
earth’s crust before we are able to see them. 
In the same empirical fashion we predict eco- 
nomic phenomena, but the accuracy of our pre- 
dictions is dependent on the nonintervention of 
new factors. Philosophically speaking, the the- 
ory of teleological instinets and the notion of 
reflexes can both be conciliated into the scheme 


INSTITUTE 


of science if we throw out on the one hand the 
prejudice of purpose and on the other the prej- 
udice of mechanical predeterminism. Neither 
of these has a place in a descriptive science. 
The instinct becomes the larger unit, and for 
that reason harder to measure; the reflex is the 
smaller unit and more accurately determined, 
but it is too small for social computation. It 
is as if we were to try to formulate the prinei- 
ple of the pulley in terms of electronic vibra- 
tions. While the notion of purpose and inner 
striving is thus exeluded from descriptive psy- 
chology, it need by no means be banished from 
the world of thought as a delusion and a fraud. 
It finds its place in those disciplines which aim 
to cultivate inner development: art; religion; 
the philosophy of religion. It is not necessary 
for the science of man to be religious in order 
to codperate with the religious striving, just as 
it is not necessary for the science of physiology 
to be healthy in order to further the interests 
of health. 

Bibliography. Consult: W. 
Outline of Psychology (1923) ; 
Educational Psychology, 3d ed. (1913); C. 
Josey, The Social Philosophy of Instinct 
(1922); John Dewey, Iiuman Nature and Con- 
duct (1921); W. H. Rivers, Instinct and the 
Unconscious (1920); James Drever, Instinct in 
Man (1917). Periodical discussions may be 
found in The Psychological Review, Journal of 
Philosophy, and The Journal of Abnormal Psy- 
chology and Social Psychology for the years 
1920-24. 

INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL EDU- 
CATION. See EpDUCATION IN THE UNITED 
STATES. 

INSTITUTE OF POLITICS. See Poritics, 
INSTITUTE OF. 


McDougall, 
E. Thorndike, 


INSULIN. See DIABETES; DIET; Foop AND 
NUTRITION. 
INSURANCE. Since insurance, although 


an independent business activity, is a financial 
tool for the furtherance of the more fundamen- 
tal economic processes, its development may be 
expected to follow closely the outstanding de- 
velopments in those processes. The history of 
the business during 1912-24 illustrates this 
tendency. Its volume increased with the rise 
in prices and the extension of general business 
activity. New forms of coverage were origi- 
nated and old forms adjusted to changes in 
the need for protection. Within the insurance 
business, there was considerable activity in the 
organization of new companies and in the com- 
bination of old companies, particularly in the 
property insurance field, where individual in- 
surance interests aimed to offer as wide a vari- 
ety of coverages as practicable. The feature of 
the period which was most far-reaching in its 
influence or insurance, was the War with its 
effects on prices of securities and _ property. 
Fortunately the insurance companies were able 
to adjust the valuation of their investments on 
the basis largely of intrinsic worth and thus 
avoided in some measure the unfortunate effects 
of market fluctuation. The increase in prices 
brought about a corresponding increase in the 
amount of insurance required to cover the risk 
of loss of property and of other values. The 
War also had a marked effect on the moral 
hazard; it tended, in general, to decrease the 
losses of insurance companies where property 
was covered whose loss would result in the ces- 
sation of large profits to business men. With 


675 


INSURANCE 


the close of the War, however, and the follow- 
ing period of adverse conditions in business, 
the preservation of property was less a matter 
of concern to its owners; consequently there 
was an increase in insurance losses, which must 
also be attributed, in large measure, to the 
moral hazard. Governmental regulation of in- 
surance steadily increased in scope and effec- 
tiveness. The National Convention of Insur- 
ance Commissioners, through its committees 
and general meetings, succeeded in offsetting in 
considerable degree the disadvantages of regu- 
lation by the individual States. It put State 
regulation on a higher plane and brought about. 
unofficially, a relatively high degree of uniform- 
ity of laws; but much remained to be accom- 
plished in this direction, for the companies 
were still embarrassed by diverse systems of 
regulation. 

ife Insurance. On Dec. 31, 1922, there were 
in foree 14,875,540 life insurance policies, as 
compared with 7,452,154 on Dec. 31, 1913, an 
increase of 100 per cent. These figures are for 
companies reporting to the Insurance Depart- 
ment of New York State. All figures in this 
statement are from the same source unless oth- 
erwise noted. Insurance in force amounted to 
$33,460,718,184 as compared with $14,304,638,- 
791, an increase of 134 per cent. In the same 
period, gross assets increased by 72 per cent 
and surplus by 79 per cent. A comparison of 
the new business written in 1922 with that 
written in 1913 shows an increase of 224 per 
eent, from $1,792,342,656 to $5,805,342,709. 
This increase is highly significant and is a bet- 
ter measure of the increasing importance of life 
insurance than are the other figures given, since 
these other figures are affected, in large meas- 
ure, by totals continued from previous years. 
Aside from the unexampled activity of insur- 
ance companies and their agents, the principal 
reasons for this increase in new business are 
found in the inflation of prices during the peri- 
od, necessitating the purchase of larger policies 
to insure a given standard of living to depend- 
ents; in increased ability of policy holders to 
pay premiums of considerable size; and in the 
discovery of many new uses for the applica- 
tion of life insurance both to personal and to 
business affairs. The rate of mortality of the 
general population as well as that among life 
insurance policyholders showed a tendency to 
decrease. This tendency was interrupted by 
the epidemic of Spanish influenza which was at 
its worst during 1918-19. Fortunately the life 
insurance companies were sufficiently well pre- 
pared financially to meet this catastrophe with- 
out impairing their solvency. ‘The only loss to 
policyholders was represented by a slightly in- 
creased cost of insurance for a brief period. 
War activities as such had little direct effect 
on the mortality among policyholders of life 
insurance companies. The short time during 
which the United States was active in the War 
and the relatively small amount of insurance 
in torce on the lives of actual combatants ex- 
plain this fact. The war mortality was largely 
borne by the war risk insurance scheme organ- 
ized by the United States government for the 
purpose of writing insurance on the lives of 
soldiers and sailors. 

It has lone been recognized that the Ameri- 
ean Experience Table of Mortality, on which 
the caleulations of life insurance companies are 
largely based, is not accurate. An _ investiga- 


‘ 


INSURANCE 


tion of 60 of the principal insurance companies 
of the United States and Canada showed that 
the mortality among insured lives was consider- 
ably below that indicated by the American Ex- 
perience table prior to the age of 50, although 
this table is approximately accurate beyond 
that age. The most important new develop- 
ment in the life insurance field was the insur- 
ance of employees of private business enter- 
prises under contracts of group insurance, the 
premium for which was usually paid in full by 
the employer and the proceeds payable to the 
designated beneficiaries of the workers. From 
a small beginning in 191] this business in- 
creased so rapidly that at the end of the year 
1922 there were in force nearly 7000 policies 
of insurance. The period was further marked 
by the general adoption and liberalization of 
the disability clause in all types of contract 
with individuals and in the somewhat less gen- 
eral adoption of clauses providing for double or 
even triple indemnity in the event of the occur- 
rence of accidental death. The unsound finan- 
cial condition of many fraternal life insurance 
organizations had long been a problem for the 
authorities of the various States. There were, 
however, in effect in 1924 regulations under 
whieh the fraternals were required, if they were 
not already in a sound financial condition, to 
improve gradually until they reached a condi- 
tion of solvency. Several important life insur- 
ance companies which were formerly operated 
as nonparticipating stock companies adopted 
the mutual principle. 

Fire Insurance. Increase in the amount of 
property insured and increase in property val- 
ues in terms of money resulted in an increase of 
137 per cent in the insurance in force in fire 
insurance organizations, from $51,202,402,351 
on Dee. 31, 1912, to $121,552,779,774 on Dec. 31, 
1922. Premiums increased by 147 per cent, 
from $454,943,419 in 1912 to $1,124,869,302 in 
1922; losses paid, by 119 per cent, from $157,- 
923,447 to $345,951,143. Total estimated fire 
losses in the United States increased by 113 per 
cent, from $206,438,900 to $440,000,000 (Insur- 
ance Year Book, 1923). The ratio of .fire in- 
surance losses to premiums as calculated by the 
National Board of Fire Underwriters was un- 
usually favorable during the decade and reached 
a point above the average for the years 1860- 
1923 in only two years, 1914 and 1921. In 1919, 
it reached the lowest point since 1863, when it 
touched approximately 40 per cent. In 1922, 
the ratio was approximately 56 per cent, the 
average ratio for the 63 years. In 1918, the 
New York Standard Policy, long the accepted 
standard in a large number of States, was re- 
vised to adjust it to modern conditions. An 
event of great importance in the regulation of 
fire insurance was the agreement between the 
National Board of Fire Underwriters and the 
National Convention of Insurance Commission- 
ers that 5 per cent of earned premiums repre- 
sented a reasonable profit for fire insurance car- 
riers. 

Marine Insurance. For the year 1918 the 
total net premiums received for marine insur- 
ance within the United States were estimated 
at slightly less than $110,000,000 by Dr. S. S. 
Huebner. The Insurance Year Book presented 
a figure of $63,040,443 for 1922, probably an 
underestimate. Ocean shipping during the War 
was subject to new hazards, partly due to ene- 
my activities. The extent and even the nature 


4 


676 INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES 


of these hazards were unpredictable, and they 
could be assumed by insurance companies only 
to a limited extent. Governmental bureaus 
were established in this country and in foreign 
countries to insure shippers against losses from 
war hazards. Without such aid shipping by 
private interests would have been, in large part, 
necessarily discontinued. Increased activity in 
foreign commerce during and after the War led 
to the organization of many new marine insur- 
ance companies and to the development of ma- 
rine insurance by older companies. The _ busi- 
ness was written, however, to a considerable ex- 
tent on an unsound basis, and after a period of 
feverish activity, most of the new organizations 
disappeared, and the business resumed its or- 
derly course. In 1919, Congress became con- 
cerned with the preponderance of alien interests 
in the marine insurance business. An investi- 
gation was made, as a result of which a model 
marine insurance law, designed for the encour- 
agement of American marine insurance, was 
adopted for the District of Columbia. With 
the codperation of the companies and of Con- 
eress, three syndicates were organized for the 
purpose of increasing marine insurance facili- 
ties, in the interest, largely, of American car- 
riers. 

Miscellaneous Insurance. Among other 
forms of insurance, tha@se covering the obliga- 
tion of employers under workmen’s compensa- 
tion acts and the hazards incident to the own- 
ership and use of automobiles became of great- 
est financial importance; each of these was re- 
sponsible for the collection of, roughly, $200,- 
000,000 in premiums during the year 1922. 
Many new varieties of coverage were developed, 
all directed to the end of more completely meet- 
ing the needs of individuals and business for 
the assumption of risk. See FIRE PROTECTION, 
OLp AGE PENSIONS, SocriAL INSURANCE, AND 
WoORKMEN’S COMPENSATION. 

INTELLIGENCE TESTS. See MENTAL 
MEASUREMENT; RACE PROBLEMS; UNIVERSITIES 
AND COLLEGES, ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS. 

INTERMEDIATE CREDIT BANKS. See 
AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. 

INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES. It 
has been stated, from investigations made by 
the United States Department of Agriculture, 
that 68 per cent of all tractor engine troubles 
occur in the accessories essential to the opera- 
tion of high-speed automobile power plants 
operating on the internal-combustion principle. 
These difficulties occur in magnetos, battery ig- 
nition parts such as the timer and _ induc- 
tion coil, spark plugs, wiring and carburetors. 
Troubles due to mechanical failure in parts 
such as bearings, cylinders, pistons, rings, 
valves and springs and lubricating systems ac- 
count for only 32 per cent of the stoppages. 
The fuel efficiency of engines using carburetors 
is considered satisfactory if they return in pow- 
er one-fifth of the fuel energy «present in the 
fuel supplied, and four-fifths of the fuel energy 
is wasted in automotive power plants used in 
small motor boats, motor vehicles, and _ air- 
planes. The fuel employed must be a particu- 
larly high grade liquid which must meet cer- 
tain requirements of volatility and viscosity. 
In all forms of motor vehicles, the weight of the 
fuel must be transported by engine power. In 
all aérial craft especially, high fuel consump- 
tion means a serious reduction in cruising abil- 
ity in cargo vessels and vehicles, a reduction in 


INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES 677 


available space that might produce revenue. 
For this reason, scientists are seeking to find 
means of utilizing fuels more efficiently, and 
considerable research work is being carried on 
to secure greater fuel economy in engines re- 
quiring high grade fuel as well as in the devel- 
opment of power plants that may utilize low 
grade and cheaper fuels economically. 

Considering first what may be done with com- 
bustion in confined spaces or in those forms of 
engines using the explosive process as intro- 
duced by Otto, we find that the usual form of 
automotive engine using special ignition de- 
vices is much less efficient, if we consider heat 
utilization other than types of eng ‘nes such as 
the Diesel, which have extremely high compres- 
sion ratios, compressing only air and then in- 
jecting the fuel in the heated air; in such en- 
gines, heat utilization as high as 36 per cent 
has been reached. The heat utilization of the 
usual form of automotive engine is from 20 to 
25 per cent. To increase the heat utilization of 
the present type of engine is a problem which 
was being attacked in two ways. The attempt 
was made to develop fuels allowing use of high- 
er compression pressures without pre-ignition. 
The addition of a small amount of tetraethyl 
lead to gasoline is said to permit of using twice 
the accepted compression pressure without pre- 
ignition and “knocking.” This means that for 
a given piston displacement, the power can be 
doubled without using any more fuel, because 
the higher compression pressure which is pos- 
sible doubles the force of the explosion. Again, 
some engineers were working on the problem of 
perfecting the combustion process. It was stat- 
ed that with the fuels available commercially 
and the engine speeds and carburetion and igni- 
tion systems used, the combustion in automobile 
engines continues during the entire duration of 
the expansion stroke, and from 20 to 30 per 
cent of the fuel passes out of the cylinder un- 
burned. 


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INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES 


permit of as heavy charges being inspired, be- 
cause of the throttling effect of the passages 
through which the gas must pass in reaching 
the cylinder interior on the suction stroke. 
Injection Engines. While it is generally 
believed that injection engines are best suited 
to applications where a heavy-duty constant- 
speed power plant is needed, which precludes 
their use in most forms of automotive vehicles, 
excluding boats, a very startling development 
in this form of engine is the adaptation of the 
German Junkers engine to aéronautic purposes. 
This is a two-cycle type using two pistons per 
evlinder, working in opposite directions and un- 
covering two sets of ports open at the end of 
the stroke. Air under pressure is admitted 
through one set of ports for scavenging pur- 
poses, and this air pushes the exhaust gases out 
of the other. The only valves in the engine are 
the fuel injection valves, but it is in the devel- 
opment of this part that the designer of injec- 
tion engines experiences the greatest difficulty. 
At high operating speeds and with engines of 
comparatively small dimensions, such as are 
needed in automotive vehicles, the injection 
valve becomes small and consequently is subject 
to mechanical troubles. Then again, in those 
forms of injection engines where the air is not 
compressed to high pressures, the shape of valve 
necessary to produce a good spray can be de- 
termined only by experimentation. It is also 
difficult to secure complete combustion of a fuel 
injected in the liquid state at high speeds; so 
the speed of injection engines and their flexibil- 
ity cannot be compared with those forms receiv- 
ing their fuel mixture from a carburetor. 
Explosion Turbine. Some engineers believe 
that the explosion turbine offers possibilities 
for future development, because one of the 
drawbacks of reciprocating piston engines, i.e. 
the inefficiency due to incomplete expansion aft- 
er ignition, is not inherently present. In some 
forms of explosion turbines, the mixture is 


LLL | fslsh? 
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FORMS OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINE COMBUSTION OHAMBERS AND TYPICAL 
; _ VALVE PLACING 
At left: Head with side valve head and combustion chamber to 


promote turbulence. At right: 
charging and exhaust of gases. 


One of the best methods of increasing or ac- 
celerating combustion in automotive engines is 
by designs of cylinder heads to produce combus- 
tion chambers that will promote turbulence. A 
violent turbulence means a more thorough mix- 
ing of the liquid particles and the air stream, 
and engines employing this principle give better 
combustion, though in some cases they do not 


Overhead valves to permit quick 


drawn or forced into a _ special combustion 
chamber where it is exploded, and the pressure 
thus produced causes the gas to escape through 
a nozzle and impinge upon a turbine wheel. A 
sectional view of an internal combustion tur- 
bine built and *operated in Germany by Holz- 
warth is shown. The design is ingenious, as 
the turbine is directly connected with a gener- 


© 


INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES 


ator. Owing to the possibility of expanding 
the gas to atmospheric pressure, this turbine 
would have a_ theoretical energy utilization 
about 67 per cent if the combustion and fuel 
supply processes were the same as in a recipro- 
cating piston engine. 

One of the weaknesses of turbine design is 
that the compression of the charge prior to ig- 
nition does not take place in the explosion 
chamber but must be furnished by an outside 
compressor. Owing to the inefficiency of the 


TURBINE 
ROTOR 
TURBINE 
EXHAUST 
COMBUSTION ©} \Q9 Jee ts COMBUSTION 
=) VN CHAMBER 


SECTIONAL ELEVATION OF THE HOLZWARTH VERTICAL 
EXPLOSION TURBINE 


compressors and the fact that a turbine rotor 
actuated by a gas with constantly falling pres- 
sure cannot be more than 60 per cent efficient, 
the theoretical thermal efficiency of a turbine 
drops from 67 per cent to a practically real- 
ized efficiency of but 13.8 per cent, or consider- 
ably less than that of the usual forms of recip- 
rocating piston engines. Several inventors have 
tried to do away with compressors in gas tur- 
bines, or, if a compressor was used, to drive it 
by steam raised by the exhaust of the turbine. 
One of the advantages of the reciprocating type 
of engine is that the piston serves as a pump 
to draw in the gas; then as a compressor to 
compact the charge before ignition; then as a 
power element when forced down by the pres- 
sure of the exploded, expanding gas; and lastly 
as a scavenging medium, when it pushes the 
inert or exhaust gas out of the working cylin- 


678 INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES 


der. An explosion turbine is not a true inter- 
nal combustion engine, and its low efficiency 
makes its commercial prospects not particularly 
bright. It requires a compressor, pump, or 
other device to supply the gas that is entirely 
distinct from the rotor element delivering the 
power and the combustion chamber where the 
charge is exploded. and it is more complex than 
a reciprocating engine. It is stated that an 
external combustion or steam power plant will 
deliver an efficiency as high as 20° per cent 
when running on coal: this is 5 per cent great- 
er than can be expected from the most efficient 
form of explosion turbine yet developed. 

Diesel Engine. Many designs of Diesel en- 
gine were built for ship propulsion and received 
practical application during and after the War. 
In a discussion before the Society of Automo- 
tive Engineers, Inc., an authority on motor 
ship power plants stated that more than 50 dif- 
ferent forms of engines for ship propulsion 
were on the market. These designs were stated 
to include: 


Two-cycle, with: 
Air injection. 
Airless injection. 
Scavenge valves. 
No scavenge valves. 
Combined scavenging and injection valves. 
Scavenging pumps driven by cranks at the end of 
the engine. 
Scavenging pumps operated by 
from the crossheads. 
Stepped scavenging pistons. 
Separate electrically driven scavenging blowers. 
Four-cycle, with: 
Air injection. 
Airless injection. 
Vertical inlet and exhaust valves. 
Horizontal valves, 


rocking levers 


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850 BRAKE HORSE POWER ENGINE 


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INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES 679 


Variations, inclusive of: 
Trunk piston. 
Crosshead. 
Low compression, with auxiliary combustion- 


starting system. 

Medium compression. with or without steam-heated 
cylinders. 

Medium compression with electric or red-hot point 
starting devices 

Diesel combustion on one side and steam pressure 
on the other side of the piston. 

Single acting. 

Double acting. 

Opposed piston, and variations of this particular 
design. 

Use of cylinder liners, 

Nonuse of cylinder liners. 

Detachable cylinder heads. 

Cylinder heads cast. integrally with the cylinders. 

Heavy cast-iron frames. 

Steel columns and no cast-iron frame. 

Both frames and columns of cast iron. 

Cylinders cast separately. 

Cylinders cast in block. 

V-type cylinders. 

Compound engines. 


All of these have variations in their reversing 
mechanisms. Some have fresh- or salt-water- 
cooled pistons, others have oil-cooled pistons, 
and some have no cooling medium other than 
the atmosphere. Finally, there are advocates 
of the Diesel electric drive and of the Diesel 
reduction-gear drive as opposed to direct drive. 


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double-acting two-cycle engine. This power 
plant has a cylinder bore of 172%49 inches and 
a stroke of 278145 inches and delivers 850 horse 
power at 120 revolutions per minute. The 
problem of packing the piston rod against the 
explosion pressure is met by a very ingenious 
and carefully worked-out stuffing-box which per- 
mits the piston rod to reciprocate through the 
head of the lower cylinder. The stuffing-box is 
very deep and contains 11 sections of metallic ° 
packing; grooved rings divide them, to facili- 
tate the distribution of lubricating oil. Each 
section consists of two rings split in halves 
which fit closely around the rod_ without 
springs, but they are kept close to the rod by 
a spring clip ring carried in a retaining ring 
clear of the rod. These 11 sections are entered 
into the stuffing-box and held in position by the 
gland ring. 

The Sperry compound oil engine, also illus- 
trated, shows a great difference from the usual 
forms. _ The sturdy construction necessary for 
an engine of its speed is indicated by the size 
of the crankshaft, which is considerably greater 
in diameter than that of any other combustion 
engine and approaches the bore of the combus- 
tion cylinders themselves. The large clearance 


a. eo Aa 


DIAGRAM (PARTLY IN SECTION) OF SPERRY COMPOUND ENGINB 


HIGH-PRESSURE 
CYLINDER 
EXPANSION 


HIGH-PRESSURE 
CYLINDER 


. TRANSFER 
GOMPRESSION : 


PRECOMPRESSOR 


LOW-PRESSURE 
CYLINDER 
EXPANSION 


GOMPOUND-ENGINE 
EXHAUST 


EXHAUST-SIMPLE ENGINE 


TYPICAL INDICATOR CARD OF SPERRY COMPOUND ENGINE 


The fuel consumption of motor ship engines 
ranges from a minimum of 0.29 pound per in- 
dicated horse power hour to 0.5 pound per horse 
power hour. The average is about 0.40 pound 
per horse power hour. 

As an example of novel designing, the accom- 
panying illustration gives a sectional elevation 
through one of the cylinders of a three-cylinder 


dome, which forms the combustion-chamber of 
the compound, stands out in marked contrast 
to standard Diesel practice. This dome is large 
and forms an upward extension of the combus- 
tion cylinder; it extends also to the right in 
a large sweep and surrounds the transfer valve 
that seals the transfer port. The sleeve-like 
induction valve is seated on top of the transfer 


INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES 


valve and is controlled by the cam-operated 
fork. The first-stage annular compression-pump, 
surrounding the trunk piston below the low- 
pressure piston proper, delivers its air to a 
small receiver which, in turn, discharges to the 
cored port surrounding the induction sleeve. 
The small balancing cylinder maintains a per- 
manent connection with the low-pressure cylin- 
der. The solid-injection fuel-valve and nozzle 
- are placed approximately over the centre of 
gravity of the large masses of air in the clear- 
ance dome. 

The compound principle as applied in this 
engine is an attempt to produce a light and 
compact internal-combustion engine using a 
wide range of fuels with ignition by the heat of 
the compression. The arrangement of the engine 
consists of two high-pressure four-cycle cylin- 
ders and a simple low-pressure cylinder. The 
high-pressure pistons are of plain trunk type. 
The low-pressure piston has an extension of 
smaller diameter than the main piston. The 
annular space between this extension and the 
main piston serves as an air pump. The pump 
compresses air from atmospheric to a moderate 
pressure into a small receiver. On the down or 
inlet stroke of the high-pressure pistons, air 
under pressure from the receiver passes through 
the inlet-valve sleeve and cools it, until the 
pistons are at the end of the stroke. The air 
is then compressed on the up-stroke to about 
500 pounds per square inch when fuel is inject- 
ed. The resulting combustion and expansion of 
the gases drive down the high-pressure piston 
to the end of its stroke, when the low-pressure 
piston, which is on the beginning of its working 
stroke, receives the gases from the high-pressure 
cylinder through the transfer: port that has 
been opened by lifting the transfer valve from 
its seat into a water-jacket cavity so that only 
its lower surface is washed by the passing 
gases. To prevent any serious drop in pressure 
between the high- and low-pressure cylinders 
when the transfer takes place, the exhaust-valve 
is closed somewhat before the low-pressure top 
centre and the gases are cushioned to a pressure 
equal to that being transferred from the high- 


STOP VALVE 
STEAM TO ENGINE 


(COMBUSTION 
CYLINDER 


SCAVENGE 
AIR 
Y 


4 


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STEAM 5 
JACKET 

STEAM 


350° F. 


STEAM & WATER 
————— 


COMBUSTION EXHAUST ‘ 
TEMPERATURE 900° F. 
| | 
" 


680 INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES 


pressure cylinder. The cranks of the two high- 
pressure cylinders are set together and 180° 
from the low-pressure crank. The _ high-pres- 
sure cylinders fire and transfer alternately into 
the low-pressure cylinder, so that every down- 
stroke of that cylinder is a working stroke. 

In internal-combustion engines of either the 
constant volume or constant pressure type, the 
combined heat losses in radiation, cooling wa- 
ter, and exhaust gases range between 65 and 75 
per cent. It will be evident that any practical 
attempt to utilize the waste heat will increase 
the thermal efficiency. Heat losses due to the 
cooling water or radiation cannot be reduced 
beyond a certain minimum value; so the point 
where the greatest gain can be made is in the 
fuller utilization of the exhaust gases. In the 
various forms of compound engines which have 
been evolved and described, with two high-pres- 
sure cylinders exhausted in one low pressure 
and further power derived from the exhaust 
gas, the reduced pressure is compensated for 
by the increased area of the low-pressure piston 
top. An attempt to utilize the waste heat of 
the exhaust gas is the Still engine, which com- 
bines steam and explosion power so advanta- 
geously that the brake thermal efficiency of 
such an engine may go as high as 44 per cent. 

Still Engine. The still engine is an engine 
capable of using, in its main working cylinder, 
any form of liquid or gaseous fuel hitherto em- 
ployed; it makes use of the recoverable heat 
which passes through the surfaces of the com- 
bustion cylinder as well as into the exhaust 
gases, for the evaporation of steam, which is 
expanded in the combustion cylinder itself on 
one side of the main piston, the combustion 
stroke acting on the other side. It increases 
the power of the engine and reduces the con- 
sumption of the fuel per horse power developed. 
Its primary object is not to use the waste heat 
for raising steam, but first to use it in improv- 
ing the thermal conditions of the working cylin- 
der and so to insure the maximum efficiency 
from the fuel burnt within it and to diminish, 
as a consequence, the heat lost in that opera- 
tion. Since the maximum efficiency is obtained 


BOILER 
120 LB. PER SQ. IN. 


BOILER UPTAKE 


CYLINDER pee 
EXHAUST wre. TD 380° F 
TO CONDENSER i) ‘ FEED WATER 100° F, 
1 FROM HOTWEILL 


FINAL COMBUSTION EXHAUST 
TEMP. 150° F, 


STILL COMBUSTION AND STEAM ENGINE AOTION 


a 


EE EE a 


MOTOR VESSELS—ENGINES 


MOTORSHIP ’’, NEW YORK 


COURTESY OF 


for Ameri- 


Ltd., 


’ 


Corporation 


CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE of 3000 horse power built by Bethlehem Steel 


can motor vessel. 
FOUR-CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE of 3000 horse power built by Burmeister & Wain, Copenhagen, Denmark. 


TWO- 


ib 
27 


TYPICAL MARINE DIESEL ENGINES 


THE LIBRARY 
OF THE 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLIMOIS 


INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES 681 


by combustion of the fuel in the cylinder, and 
the minimum by the evaporation of the water 
in the steam generator, it is evident that the 
larger the quantity of steam which can be gen- 
erated per horse power developed by the combus- 
tion cycle, the lower must be the heat efficiency 
of the whole machine. Internal-combustion en- 
gines are kept cool by the circulation of cold 
water around their cylinders; the heat thus 
absorbed causes a rise in temperature of the 
water as it travels through the jacket, so that 
the cylinder is subjected to temperature differ- 
ences and ‘heat stresses, which are an abiding 
source of trouble and difficulty to the designer. 

In the Still engine the jacket and cooling wa- 
ter form part of the circulating system of a 
steam generator, which may be an integral part 
of the engine or external to it. The cooling wa- 
ter therefore enters and leaves the jacket at a 
constant temperature, regulated by the pressure 
of the steam; the cooling is effected by convert- 
ing the water into steam without raising its 
temperature. Excluding the radiation losses, 
which are kept low by lagging, all the heat 
which passes through the walls is thus usefully 
recovered in the water as steam. The tempera- 
ture of the cylinder wall is uniform over the 
whole of its exterior surface, and the heat lost 
to the cooling water at each stage of the cycle, 
compression, combustion, and expansion, is di- 
minished. During compression, because of the 
walls’ being at steam temperature, the incom- 
ing charge picks up heat instead of losing it, 
during the greater part of the stroke. This is 
an advantage of the greatest value to the heavy- 
oil types of Still engine, where an air charge 
is taken in at the full out-stroke and is 
compressed to a pressure where its increased 
temperature insures the certain ignition and 
combustion of the fuel which is injected into ‘t. 
During combustion and expansion, the uniform 
and higher mean temperature of the wall re- 
duces the heat lost to the jacket water. Some 
of the heat thus economized adds to the useful 
work on the piston, the remainder passing out 
in the exhaust gases for recovery. The steam 
developed is directed to a special steam cylin- 
der, and as it has some pressure, this is exerted 
against the bottom portion of the main piston 
which extends into the steam cylinder. Power 
at normal loads is developed by combustion and 
steam from waste heat alone, with an efficiency 
from 20 to 25 per cent greater than any known 
combustion engine of the same size. It is be- 
lieved that there is a future for the combination 
of the steam and combustion cycles. 

High Speed Engines. Engineers who are 
working on the development of high speed en- 
gines such as are used for automobiles and 
aircraft are not concerned so much with combus- 
tion efficiency as with securing as much power 
as possible out of a given cylinder volume; one 
of the mechanical aids to secure this result is 
the supercharger. While this device had not 
in 1924 been generally applied to passenger 
cars, it had been used on racing automobile en- 
gines and on airplane motors. Its function is 
to force a charge of more density into the cylin- 
der than would be drawn in by the pumping ac- 
tion of the piston on the suction stroke. 

Superchargers. Superchargers are especial- 
ly valuable on aircraft operating at high alti- 
tudes. As the engine reaches altitudes where 
the air is lighter, the weight of the charge de- 
creases and the power is correspondingly re- 


INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES 


duced. This loss of power is stated to be very 
great in engines not equipped with supercharg- 
ers. A Liberty airplane engine that will devel- 
op 400 horse power at sea level will deliver but 
200 horse power at 15,000 feet and not quite 
90 horse power at 25,000 feet. While recipro- 


DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE OPERATION OF A TURBO- 
SUPERCHARGER 

The Exhaust Gas from the Engine Is Led through 

a Manifold, a, into the Nozzle Box b, containing a 

Series of Nozzles, c, through Which the Gas Ex- 

pands and Attains a High Velocity before Entering 

the Buckets of the Turbine Wheel d, Which It Drives 


at High Speed. Air Enters the Impeller e through 
the Inlet f at the Center and Is Thrown by Cen- 
trifugal Force to the Tips of the Blades where a 
Series of Vanes Convert the Velocity of the Air into 
Pressure and Guide It in a Spiral Path, as Shown 
at g, to the Supercharger Outlet and Finally to the 
Intake of the Carburetor h. 

cating, rotary, and centrifugal air-pumps have 
been suggested and experimented with, the cen- 
trifugal type is best adapted for aircraft mo- 
tors because of its simplicity, lightness, and 
freedom from pulsation. The supercharger may 
be gear-driven by the engine to which it is 
attached, or it may be driven by a gas turbine 
using exhaust gas which would otherwise be 
wasted by discharging it directly into the air. 
The gas turbine-driven supercharger had been 
most successful to date. 

The diagram herewith shows clearly the way 
such a supercharger operates. The exhaust gas 
from the engine is led through a manifold A 
into a nozzle box B containing a series of noz- 
zles C. Through these nozzles the gas expands 
and reaches a high velocity before entering the 
buckets of the turbine wheel D, which it drives 
at high speed. Air enters the impeller E 
through inlets F at the centre and is thrown 
by centrifugal force to the tips of the blades. 
At this point, a series of vanes surrounding 
the impeller converts the velocity of the air 
into pressure and guides it in a spiral path to 
the supercharger outlet and then through the 
air-cooler into the carburetor intake. 

Vehicle and Aircraft Engines. In 1924, ve- 
hicle and aircraft engine design principles 
were to a very great degree based on the experi- 
ence gained during the War in securing extreme 
care as to details. Airplane, car, truck, trac- 
tor, and tank were all developed by the severe 
tests of war. Engine speed is not limited by 
considerations of piston temperature, and im- 
provements in design enable the designer to 
adopt large-bore cylinders in aircraft engines 
if he so desires. A British six-cylinder engine 
with cylinders of 7 inches bore and 11 inches 
stroke develops 700 horse power at a speed of 
1200 revolutions per minute. Aluminum pis- 
tons had been used commercially for some time, 


INTERNAL WATERWAYS 


but the use of forged duralumin connecting- 
rods was comparatively recent. 

Motor Car Engines... The marked develop- 
ment of aéronautic engines focused the atten- 
tion of the public on light engines. In the case 
of such power plants, lightness is obtained 
mainly by machining out low-stressed portions 
of the various engine members and by making 
highly stressed parts of alloy steels carefully 
heat-treated so that less weight is required to 


682 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE 


RICULTURE. See 

TIONAL INSTITUTE OF. 
INTERNATIONAL LABOR OFFICE. See 

LABOR ORGANIZATION, INTERNATIONAL, 
INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZA- 


AGRICULTURE, INTERNA- 


TION. See LAsoR ORGANIZATION, INTERNA- 
TIONAL. 
INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE. The 


initiative in establishing a sort of clearing 
house for all questions connected with the prob- 


N\ Ai F \ 
NE 


ARRANGEMENT OF CYLINDERS IN 
IN MULTIPLE 


AVIATION 


attain the necessary structural strength. In 
order to secure the required power output in a 
compact and light engine, the usual tandem ar- 
rangement favored in automobile engines is re- 
placed by radial placing of cylinders in which 
they are mounted on all sides of the crank-case, 
some engines having 2 and even 3 banks of 9 
cylinders each. The V-cylinder placing is fa- 
vored for 8 and 12 cylinder engines, and in 
some cases, the angle between the inclined cylin- 
ders is large enough so that another set of ver- 
tical cylinders can be placed between them. By 
such arrangements of cylinders, engines devel- 
oping from 500 to 600 horse power have been 
built, weighing only 1.80 pounds per horse pow- 
er. Air-cooled aéronautic engines have been 
built, weighing but 1.5 pounds per horse power. 
Speeds of crankshaft rotation on airplane en- 
gines are not as high as in automobiles, since 
the propeller efficiency limits the speed when 
directly connected to the crankshaft to about 
1350 revolutions per minute, and with geared- 
down drive to 2000 revolutions per minute. 
Racing automobile and motorcycle engines have 
attained speeds in excess of 4000 revolutions 
per minute. See Motor VEHICLES and AéRo- 
NAUTICS. 

INTERNAL WATERWAYS. See CANALs. 

INTERNATIONAL. See Communism; So- 
CIALISM, 


INTERNATIONAL AERONAUTIC FED- 
ERATION. See AKRONAUTICS. 
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AG- 


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ENGINE TO SECURE COMPACTNESS OF DESIGN 
CYLINDER FORMS 


lem of a world language belongs to the Interna- 
tional Research Council. They created a Com- 
aittee on International Auxiliary Language, lo- 
eated in Washington, D. C., under the direction 
of Dr. Nichols and Dr. Cottrell, which under- 
took to send out information generously to any 
serious inquirer. In 1924 the two chief solu- 
tions were an arrangement that would favor liv- 
ing languages, and an artificial language. .The 
basis for discussion of an established living lan- 
guage to be used as an international language 
remained the “Projet Chappelier,” suggesting 
an agreement between English and French 
speaking countries, that the first require in all 
their schools the teaching of French, and the 
second the teaching of English. This would 
force other nations to teach at least one of the 
two, and: thus the goal would be reached. Fa- 
mous men gave their support to the idea, among 
them Wells, Richet, and the great linguist 
Bréal. The best explanation of the plan is 
found in Dauzat’s Le Francais et VAnglais, 
Langues Internationales (1910). It is unfortu: 
nate that Dauzat hurt his cause considerably 
by indulging in very unintelligent criticism of 
other solutions of the problem; nobody can see 
in him an impartial student. The plan was 
from 1915 endorsed by the well known critic, 
Ernest Charles, and by the American philoso- 
pher, Mark Baldwin. For some details and ref- 
erences see the various New International Year 
Books. 

There were, of course, many projects of arti- 


INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE 


ficial languages before the public, but three 
really counted: Esperanto (for information in 
America, address Esperanto Association, Bos- 
ton, Mass.); Ido (American headquarters in 
Pittsburgh); and Esperantido (Washington, 
D.C.). In 1922, the Institute of International 
Education launched a movement in favor of a 
modernized Latin, not so much, it seems, be- 
cause of belief in it, but rather out of fear 
that an auxiliary language might otherwise tri- 
umph. From the first weeks “of the War, Es- 
peranto rendered extremely valuable service 
both in the Red Cross divisions, and in the 
work of the prisoners’ camps. At the same 
time the Germans took advantage of Esperanto 
to spread much propaganda among neutrals, 
which naturally hurt the cause of Esperanto in 
the eyes of the Allies (who were slow at hit- 
ting back with the same arm). Im 1916 the 
“Chappelier plan” was seriously revived, and 
Dauzat suggested some interesting modifications 
to it. In some quarters the end of the War 
was expected for the end of 1916 or beginning 
of 1917; in view of this the Board of Trade of 
London favored the study of the question of an 
international language to help business to pick 
up rapidly. At the same time, the Germans, 
seeing things take a favorable turn for them, 
began to talk about German as an international 
language, and spoke of a “‘Welt-deutsch,” a nat- 
ural organ for Pan-Germanism. “But the War 
went on, and remarkable headway was made 
in 1917 and 1918 by artificial languages, espe- 
cially Esperanto, in the Far East. Then, as the 
War ended, a lively race began between the 
chief rivals, Esperanto and Ido. Esperanto 
seemed to see a chance for victory in winning 
to its cause the exploited classes and even the 
Russian Soviets, while the Idists seem to pre- 
fer to win the intellectuals. Lord Northcliffe, 
in England, and the philologist Meillet, in 
France, agreed that as a language Ido was su- 
perior to Esperanto. This discussion of actual 
linguistic superiority prompted Dr. René de 
Saussure, of Bern, Switzerland, to offer his sys- 
tem, combining, he maintained, the excellent 
points of both Esperanto and Ido, and which 
he called Esperantido. The plan of a simplified 
Latin, proposed that same year by Professor 
Peano of the University of Turin, had a mod- 
erate following. 

Together, these groups tried to bring the 


question before the Peace Council in Paris, and © 


having elicited a note of “interest” from Wilson, 
worked with more vigor than ever. After the 
Peace Council, the League of Nations was ap- 
proached several times. In 1921, the League 
delegated Dr. Nitobe to the Congress of Es- 
peranto that was to be held iff Prague, August 
29 to September 6. The report, made on Sep- 
tember 12, brought about the nomination of a 
committee to investigate the matter. The prob- 
lem was finally turned over to the Committee 
on Intellectual Coédperation, of which such per- 
sons as Bergson, Einstein, and Mme. Curie were 
members; and these finally decided, in a report 
of Aug. 1, 1923, not to recommend an artiffcial 
language. Meanwhile, the International | Re- 
search Council, which had met in Brussels in 
1919, appointed a committee to investigate :the 
matter of an artificial language “of the- type 
of Esperanto” and which would be “placed* un- 
der scientific control.” After that time the 
Committee on International Auxiliary Lan- 
guage, at Washington, became active. They 


683 


IOWA 


asked the Philological Association and _ the 
Modern Language Association to appoint com- 
mittees. Both made cool replies, but Washing- 
ton went on. The question was brought up and 
discussed at the meeting of the American As- 
sociation for Advancement of Science at Toron- 
to, in December, 1922, and again at their meet- 


ing at Cincinnati in December, 1923. The 
study of the problem was endorsed. Some 


meetings in New York, April, 1923, with a view 
to fostering the cause, and counting among 
their supporters several names famous in the 
scientific world, must also be recalled. The 
most interesting bibliographical material bear- 
ing at least partly on this problem are the very 
suggestive book of A. Meillet, of the Collége de 
France, Les Langues de VUEurope Nouvelle 
(1918), last chapter; and A. L. Guérard, Short 


‘History of the International Language Move- 


ment (London and New York, 1922). See 
PHILOLOGY, MODERN, 

INTERNATIONAL LAW. See BLOCKADE. 

INTERNATIONAL TRADE UNIONISM. 
See TRADE UNIONISM. 

INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMIS- 
SION. ‘See RAmways. 

IODINE. See CHEMISTRY; 
TRITION; and GOITRE. 

IONIZATION. See CHEMISTRY, PHYSICAL. 

IOWA. Iowa is the twenty-fourth State in 
size (56,147 square miles), and the sixteenth in 
population; capital, Des Moines. The popula- 
tion increased from 2,224,771 in 1910 to 2,404,- 
021 in 1920, a gain of 8.1 per cent. The white 
population rose from 2,209,191 to 2,384,181; 
Negro, from 14,973 to 19,005; native white, 
from 1,935,707 to 2,158,534. The foreign-born 
white population showed a decrease, from 273,- 
484 to 225,647. The urban population mounted 
from 680,054 to 875,495, while the rural fell 
from 1,544,717 to 1,528,526. The population of 
the principal cities increased, during the dec- 
ade, as follows: Des Moines (q.v.), 86,368 to 
126,468; Sioux City, 47,828 to 71,227; Daven- 
port, 43 028 to 56,727; Cedar Rapids, 32,811 to 
45,566. 

Agriculture. As Iowa is one of the chief 
agricultural States, conditions during the dec- 
ade 1910-20 were affected by the general fluctu- 
ations in production and values which resulted 
from conditions of the war and post-war period. 
See AGRICULTURE, CORN, and WHEAT. While 
the population of the State increased 8.1 per 
cent in the decade 1910-20, the number of 
farms decreased 1.7 per cent (from 217,044 to 
213,439); the acreage from 33,930,688 to 33,- 
474,896, or 1.3 per cent; and the improved land 
in farms from 29,491,199 acres to 28,606,951, or 
3 per cent. The total value of farm property 
showed an apparent increase, from $3,745,860,- 
544 in 1910 to $8,524,870,956 in 1920, or 127.6 
per cent; the average ‘value per farm from $17,- 
259 to $39,941. Prices of farm land increased 
greatly, stimulated by wartime prices of prod- 
ucts. In interpreting these values, however, and, 
indeed, any statement of comparative values in 
the decade 1914-24, the inflation of the currency 
in the latter part of that period is*to be taken 
into consideration. The index number of prices 
paid to producers of farm products in the United 
States was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 1920. The 
total percentage of land used for agricultural 
purposes decreased from 95.4 in 1910 to 94.1 in 
1920; and the percentage of improved land in 
farms from 82.9 to 80.4. Of the total of 213,- 


Foop AND Nv- 


IOWA 


439 farms in 1920, 121,888 were operated by 
owners, 2487 by managers, and 89,064 by ten- 
ants. The corresponding figures for 1910 were 
133,008, 1926, and 82,115. The white farmers 
in 1920 numbered 213,330, compared with 216,- 
843 in 1910; colored farmers 109, compared 
with 201. Farms free from mortgage in 1920 
numbered 45,807; those under mortgage, 66,096; 
while in 1910 the mortgaged farms numbered 
63,234, and those free from mortgage, 68,045. 
The total number of cattle in 1920 was 4,557,- 
708, compared with 4,448,006 in 1910; dairy 
eattle, 1,519,510, compared with 1,406,792; hogs, 
7,864,304, compared with 7,545,853; sheep, 1,- 
092,095, compared with 1,145,549. The estimat- 
ed production of the principal farm crops in 
1923 was as follows: corn, 422,241,000 bushels; 
spring wheat, 756,000; winter wheat, 13,708,- 


000; oats, 195,689,000; barley, 4,208,000; pota-' 


toes, 7,618,000; sweet potatoes, 378,000; and 
hay, 4,416,000 tons. Comparative figures for 
1913 are corn, 338,300,000 bushels; wheat, 16,- 


395,000; oats, 168,360,000; barley, 10,000,000; , 


potatoes, 7,200,000; and hay, 4,440,000 tons. 

Mining. The principal mineral products of 
Iowa are coal, cement, clay products, and gyp- 
sum. There is practically no metal mining in 
the State. The coal production during the dec- 
ade 1914-24 showed considerable fluctuation, as 
will be noted from the following comparative 
figures: 1914, 7,451,022 short tons, valued at 
$13,364,070; 1915, 7,614,143, $13,577,608; 1916, 
7,260,800, $13,530,383; 1917, 8,965,830, $21,096,- 
408; 1918, 8,192,195, $24,703,237; 1919, 5,624,- 
692, $17,352,620; 1920, 7,813,916, $30,794,000; 
1921, 4,531,392, $17,256,800; 1922, 4,335,161. 
The decrease in 1921 and 1922 was due largely 
to the protracted coal miners’ strike which af- 
fected all the Middle Western coal fields. Ship- 
ments of cement were practically constant dur- 
ing the decade. They ranged from 4,224,076 
barrels in 1914 to 3,188,669 in 1918 to 4,421,783 
in 1920 and 4,151,439 in 1921. The value, how- 
ever, practically doubled in the last three years 
of the decade because of the decreased purchas- 
ing power of money and the consequent higher 
prices. Clay products fluctuated from the val- 
ue of $6,401,745 in 1914 to $5,313,394 in 1918 
and $5,711,583 in 1921. Gypsum is one of the 
most important mineral products: there were 
produced in 1914, 480,404 short tons; 1918, 
327,927; 1920, 571,895; and 1921, 350,247. In 
addition to the minerals noted, the State pro- 
duces mineral waters, sand, and gravel. The 
total value of the mineral products in 1921 was 
$35,639,505, compared with $57,250,480 in 1920; 
$37,882,183 in 1919; $38,742;009 in 1918; and 
$26,287,115 in 1914. 

Manufactures. Although Iowa is not one 
of the most prominent of the manufacturing 
States, it, is of considerable industrial impor- 
tance. There are 18 cities having a population 
of more than 10,000. These form 25.1 per cent 
of the total population of the State, and in 
1919 they reported 78.4 per cent of the total 
value of its manufactured products. There 
were in the State, in 1909, 5528 manufacturing 
establishments; in 1914, 5614; and in 1919, 
5683. The persons engaged in manufacture 
numbered 78,360, 82,631, and 105,439; and the 
capital invested amounted to $171,218,604, 
$233,128,542, and $403,205,513, in those years. 
The value of the products in 1909 was $259,- 
237,637; in 1914, $310,749,974, and in 1919, 
$745,472,697. The chief industry in point of 


684 


IOWA 


value of product is that connected with slaugh- 
tering and meat packing, with a value of $59,- 
045,000 in 1909; $74,289,700 in 1914, and $226,- 
865,000 in 1919. The manufacture of butter, 
cheese, and condensed milk ranks second: in 
1919, $25,850,000; in 1914, $27,606,000, and in 
1919, $57,800,000. Car construction and _ re- 
pair, in third place, had products valued in 
1909 at $10,269,000; in 1914, $11,484,000, and 
in 1919, $33,099,000.. Flour and_ gristmill 
products were valued, in 1909, at $12,871,000; 
1914, $14,337,000, and 1919, $21,325,000. The 
large increase in value of products is due large- 
ly to changes in industrial conditions brought 
about by the War, and therefore cannot prop- 
erly be used to measure the growth of manufac- 
tures during the census period, 1914-19. The 
increase, however, in the number of wage earn- 
ers indicates a decided growth in the manufac- 
turing activities of the State. The chief man- 
ufacturing cities are Cedar Rapids and Des 
Moines. There were in Des Moines, in 1909, 
387 establishments, with a product valued at 
$23,585,000; 1914, 384, with $23,747,000; and 
1919, 379, with $59,831,000. In Cedar Rapids 
there were 153 establishments in 1909, with a 
product of $24,824,000; 170, in 1914, with $34,- 
989,000; and 208, in 1919, with $92,118,000 
Other important manufacturing cities are Coun- 
cil Bluffs, Dubuque, Fort Dodge, and Muscatine. 

Education.: No State has devoted more at- 
tention to education than has Iowa. The result 
of this is indicated by the fact that it is low- 
est in percentage of illiteracy and that although 
the enrollment in the publie schools decreased 
since 1900, the State losing in population dur- 
ing the two decades from 1900 to 1921, the av- 
erage daily attendance showed a large increase. 
Particular attention was given to rural school 


problems, and in the supervision of these 
schools great improvement was shown. The 
General Assembly established the Standard 


School as a means of taking care of children 
and teachers in the rural schools, the Evans- 
Smith Law making an appropriation of $100,- 
000 annually to help the one-room school. The 
consolidated school had been in operation in the 
State for about 15 years but only latterly had 
rapid development begun in it. From 1918 to 
1922 the number of consolidated schools prac- 
tically doubled. Vocational education was in- 
troduced as a part of the educational system, 
and work started in agriculture, trades and in- 
dustry, home economics, and teacher training; 
and in connection with this work civilian re- 
habilitation was carried on. In 1922 courses in 
vocational agriculture were given in 43 high 
schools. A law enacted by the 38th General 
Assembly requires that the subject of American 
citizenship shall be taught in all public and 
private schools in the State. In 1900 there 
were enrolled in the public schools 566,223, and 
in 1922, 543,430. However, with 22,793 fewer 
enrollments than in 1900, the average daily at- 
tendance in 1922 was 62,886 greater. The total 
attendance in all the schools in 1922 was 537,- 
886, of whom 72,681 were enrolled in the high 
schools. Total receipts for educational pur- 
poses in 1921-22 were $53,280,104. The per- 
centage of illiteracy decreased from 2.2 in 1910 
to 1.4 in 1920; among the foreign-born white 
from 10.3 per cent to 10.2; among the Negro 
from 15.9 to 11.2. 
Finance. See STATE FINANCES. 


Political and Other Events. The decade 


IOWA 


1914-24 was not lacking in events of political 
interest in Iowa. As the chief interest in the 
State is agriculture, which was greatly affected 
by conditions following the War, the radical 
wing of the party which demanded legislation 
for the benefit of the farmers developed great 
power. It succeeded in electing its candidates 
for United States Senator and other offices. In 
1914 there were elections for members of the 
House of Representatives, United States sena- 
tor and governor.. Henry Vollmer, a Democrat, 
was elected to the House, and George W. Clarke, 
the Republican candidate, was elected governor. 
Senator Albert B. Cummins was reélected. The 
Supreme Court in 1914 declared unconstitution- 
al a “blue sky” law, regulating investment com- 
panies, passed by the Legislature of 1913. The 
political campaign in 1916 was particularly bit- 
ter, and local interest, to a large extent, super- 
seded interest in the presidential election. W. 
L. Harding, the Republican candidate for gov- 
ernor, was elected, together with the entire 
State Republican ticket. For president, the 
vote was 280,499 for Hughes and 221,669 for 
President Wilson. In 1918, W. L. Harding was 
reélected governor. In 1920 elections were held 
for governor and other State officers and for 
United States senator. Albert B. Cummins was 
reélected to the Senate, and N. E. Kendall, Re- 
publican, was elected governor. In the presi- 
dential voting of this year, W. G. Harding re- 
ceived 634,674 votes and J. M. Cox 227,921. In 
1922, William S. Kenyon, United States sena- 
tor, resigned to become Federal judge, and 
Charles A. Rawson was appointed by Governor 
Kendall to succeed him. In the Republican 
primaries of June 5 of that year, Smith W. 
Brookhart, the candidate of the radical Repub- 
licans, won the nomination for senator against 
five opponents. In the election he was success- 
ful over the Democratic candidate, Clyde L. Her- 
ring. Governor Kendall was reélected for a 
second term. The people at this election voted 
in favor of the soldiers’ bonus. In 1923 a spe- 
cial election was held to fill a vacancy in the 
House of Representatives. Hiram K. Evans, 
Republican, was the successful candidate in this 
election. 

Legislation. The most important acts of the 
Legislature in the decade 1914-24 are noted be- 
low. The Legislature of 1915 passed several 
measures relating to liquor reform and liquor 
regulation. The so-called “mulet liquor law” 
was repealed. <A bili providing for the submis- 
sion of the question of prohibition to the people 
was passed, and also a measure providing for 
the submission of a woman suffrage amendment 
in 1917. The Legislature also enacted*a strin- 
gent child labor law and abolished the contract 
prison labor system. In 1916 the Legislature 
provided a moratorium for men in the military 
and naval service and referred to the next ses- 
sion a constitutional amendment providing for 
woman suffrage. The Federal prohibition 
amendment was adopted by the Legislature 
of 1919, on January 15, and on July 2, 
the legislators ratified the woman _ suffrage 
amendment. The Legislature of 1919 passed 
special provisions permitting women to vote for 
president; it also passed statutes defining and 
punishing criminal syndicalism and sabotage. 
The Legislature of 1921 enacted no measures of 
special importance. A mandate of the people 
for a constitutional convention was not carried 
out. In 1923 the Legislature passed a measure 


685 


IRELAND 


making a crime of the possession of drugs il- 
legally obtained. It also enacted a law as- 
sembling activities relating to crime into a 
single department and a measure making the 
sale of narcotics a felony and abolished distine- 
tions in voting between men and women. ‘The 
law against the sale of cigarettes was modified 
by permitting the sale of cigarettes to adults in 
the State. 

IOWA, UNIverRsITy oF. A_ coeducational 
State institution at Iowa City, Iowa, founded 
in 1847. The university expanded greatly dur- 
ing the decade 1914-24, with 7250 students en- 
rolled in the year 1923-24, nearly three times 
the enrollment of 1913-14; a faculty of 500, as 
compared with 275 in 1914, and library facili- 
ties of 322,400 volumes, as compared with 174,- 
000. Many buildings were put up during the 
period and new activities begun. The dentis- 
try building was erected in 1917; a men’s dorm- 
itory in 1919; the Children’s Hospital, the Psy- 
chopathie Hospital, and a nurses’ home were 
completed in 1921; a chemistry building was 
completed in 1923. In the latter year the res- 
toration of the first statehouse of Iowa, the uni- 
versity’s administration building, was nearing 
completion, and a large recitation hall of Bed- 
ford limestone was begun. Additions to the 
campus in this period increased its area from 
50 to nearly 300 acres. By gifts of the General 
Education Board and the Rockefeller Founda- 
tion, matched by equal amounts appropriated 
by the State Legislature, the sum of $4,500,000 
became available in 1922 for the extension and 
reconstruction of the plant of the medical 
school. With these funds, in the succeeding 
five years, a new medical laboratory was to 
be constructed, the floor space of the Chil- 
dren’s Hospital doubled, new nurses’ homes con- 
structed, and a large general hospital built, 
making a total hospital clinic of 1200 beds. In 
1917, the Iowa Child Welfare Research Station 
was established for the scientific study of nor- 
mal children, and in 1921 the School of Com- 
merce was reorganized as the College of Com- 
merce. Thomas H. Macbride, Ph.D., LL.D., re- 
tired from the presidency in 1916 and was suc- 
ceeded by Walter Albert Jessup, Ph.D., LL.D. 

IOWA STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICUL- 
TURE AND MECHANIC ARTS. A coeduca- 
tional State institution at Ames, Iowa, estab- 
lished in 1858. The total number in attend- 
ance, including short-course students, rose from 
3458 in 1914 to 7766 in 1923, and the faculty 
from 217 to 567; the library expanded from 45,- 
000 to 103,639 volumes. The total value of all 
college property increased from $3,000,000 to 
$6,500,000, and the annual income from $349,- 
407 to $3,250,000 (estimated). The following 
buildings were erected during the period: four 
women’s dormitories, plant propagation build- 
ing and greenhouse, science building, hospital, 
armory, animal husbandry laboratory, agricul- 
tural engineering building, poultry laboratory, 
dairy judging pavilion, and sheep, horse, hog, 
and dairy barns. A library of 250,000 volumes’ 
capacity, a home economics building, and 
a dormitory for women were under construc- 
tion in 1924. President, Raymond Allen 
Pearson. 

IRAK, or IRAQ. See MESOPOTAMIA. 

IRELAND. An island of the British Isles 
with an area of 32,586 square miles. The pop- 
ulation in 1911 was 4,390,219. -No census was 
taken in 1921. By the Government of Ireland 


IRELAND 


Act (1922), Jreland was divided politically in- 
to two parts, Northern Ireland and the Irish 
Free State. The former remains in the United 
Kingdom; the latter has constitutional status 
as a dominion. For discussion of matters per- 
taining to the population, agriculture, industry, 
commerce, finance, ete., of Ireland as a whole, 
see GREAT BRITAIN. 

History. On the eve of the War, which was 
destined to affect the fortunes of Ireland no 
less decisively than those of Europe, three-quar- 
ters of the Irish population were solidly back- 
ing Redmond’s Nationalist party in its agita- 
tion for Home Rule, while the rest, defiantly 
Unionist, were ready to take up arms against 
the British government, if need be, rather than 
permit that government to include Protestant 
Ulster in an autonomous Ireland. For loyal 
support of Asquith’s Liberal cabinet, the 84 
Irish Nationalists in the Commons had been re- 
warded with the introduction, by the Premier 
himself, of a Government of Ireland Bill (the 
famous “Home Rule Bill”), Apr. 11, 1912, 
which had been passed by the Commons twice, 
twice rejected by the peers, and passed a third 
time by the Commons in the spring of 1914. 
Under the terms of the Parliament Act, this 
bill could now be promulgated by the Crown as 
law, notwithstanding the Lords’ veto, but the 
Prime Minister, moved doubtless by either the 
threats or the entreaties of the Unionists, de- 
cided with characteristic indecision to compro- 
mise on a “middle course.” Accordingly, he in- 
troduced an Amending Bill, which would permit 
the Ulster counties, at their option, to exclude 
themselves provisionally, for six years, from the 
proposed Irish government. Feeling ran high, 
in Parliament and above all in Ireland. The 
Ulster Protestants had taken a solemn oath or 
“Covenant” to defend at all costs their cher- 
ished position of equal citizenship in the United 
Kingdom; they had set up a provisional gov- 
ernment with the firebrand, Sir Edward Carson, 
at its head; they had organized an army of 
100,000 Ulster Volunteers, for which guns and 
ammunition were smuggled in from Germany 
and elsewhere. The Nationalists had countered 
by drilling a force of National Volunteers, for 
which they also practiced “gun-running.” An 
attempt of British troops to interfere with the 
gun-running by the Nationalists at Dublin led 
on July 26, 1914, to the ‘Bachelors’ Walk Mas- 
sacre” of Irish civilians by a volley from Brit- 
ish soldiers. Ireland, obviously, was on the 
verge of civil war. Then came the internation- 
al crisis and the War, early in August. 

After the English declaration of war on 
Germany, the Nationalists vied with Ulster Un- 
ionists in protestations of loyalty. But when 
in September, 1914, Premier Asquith decided to 
put the Home Rule Bill on the statute books, 
and simultaneously to pass a Suspending Act 
to suspend it for 12 months, or until the ter- 
mination of the war, he at once angered Ulster 
and weakened Redmond’s control over the ex- 
tremists in his party. The organization, known 
as Sinn Fein (‘‘we ourselves’), led by Arthur 
Griffith and originally designed to promote a 
nationalist cultural risorgimento, but now re- 
publican in aim, organized a separate body of 
“Trish Volunteers,” captured the Gaelic League, 
spread its anti-British propaganda through 
hamlet and heath, and prepared for the day of 
independence. Sinn Fein, however, was. still 


686 
Act (1920), as amended by the Irish Free State » 


IRELAND 


but an active minority when in April, 1916, the 
Easter Rebellion occurred in Dublin. Members 
of Irish Volunteers and the “Citizen Army” 
seized the Post Office, the Four-Courts, and oth- 
er buildings in the heart of the city, and pro- 
claimed Ireland a republic. British machine 
guns and field artillery soon compelled the re- 
publicans to surrender. Swift and heavy was 
England’s vengeance. Some 3400 men and 79 
women were arrested as_ suspects; Padraic 
Pearse, Thomas Macdonagh, and 13 others were 
condemned by court-martial and summarily exe- 
cuted; and about 100 were sentenced to im- 
prisonment, while over 1800 were “interned.” 
Sir Roger Casement, who was landed on the 
Irish coast from a German submarine on the 
eve of the rising, was tried for high treason 
and hanged on August 3. The executions, far 
from settling the matter, aroused such a storm 
of indignation on both sides of the Irish Sea 
that Premier Asquith promised to investigate 
conditions in Ireland personally. A few days’ 
visit convinced him that the government there 
had completely broken down, and he according- 
ly delegated Lloyd George to arrange for the 
immediate application of the Home Rule Act 
of 1914. But the negotiations begun by Lloyd 
George met shipwreck when it became known 
that the government had promised Sir, Edward 
Carson the definite exclusion of the six Ulster 
counties from the act. 

When Lloyd George became Premier of Great 
Britain in December, 1916, he announced that 
he could not force home rule on any part of 
Ireland to which it was repugnant, but in May, 
1917, he offered either to grant immediate home 
rule excluding five Ulster counties for five years 
or to summon an Irish Convention to propose a 
solution. As the former alternative was un- 
popular, he proceeded with the second, al- 
though Sinn Fein repudiated it in advance. 
The Convention was composed partly of elected 
delegates and partly of Catholic and Protestant 
clergy, merchants, labor leaders, representatives 
of Irish parties, and two Irish peers, nominated 
by the British government; it was to be an in- 
clusive rather than a democratic body. During 
its protracted deliberations, from July 25, 1917, 
to April 5, 1918, the economic reasons for UI- 
ster’s intransigence figured even more promi- 
nently than religious or political factors; and 
the final report, recommending a united parlia- 
ment for Ireland, without control of excise and 
customs taxes, was passed only by 44 to 29 
votes, with Ulster and several Nationalists in 
the opposition. This report was of course dis- 
regarded. For its part, the British government 
in April, 1918, extended the conscription law 
to Ireland, heedless of warnings. Thereupon 
the Nationalists, led by John Dillon, successor 
of John Redmond, who died in March, walked 
out of the Westminster Parliament and joined 
Sinn Fein in a protest against the draft. Sinn 
Fein, by this time, had become a puissant or- 
ganization; at its convention in October, 1917, 
representing 12,000 Sinn Fein clubs with 250,- 
000 members, it had voted a republican consti- 
tution for Ireland and elected as president Ea- 
monn De Valera, the only surviving leader of 
the Easter rebellion. De Valera was impris- 
oned in May, 1918, escaped in February, 1919, 
and spent the years 1919-21 in America, where 
he won sympathy and raised funds for the “Tr- 
ish Republic.” In the general election of De- 
cember, 1918, Sinn Fein won 73 out of the 105 


IRELAND 


seats in the British House of Commons, while 


the almost defunct Nationalist party retained | 


only 6, and Unionists filled 26. Considering 
this victory as a plebiscite for Irish independ- 
ence, the Sinn Fein M. P.’s, instead of proceed- 
ing to Westminster, met at Dublin as the “Dail 
Eireann” (Irish Assembly), adopted a formal 
Declaration of Independence in January, 1919, 
and nominated delegates to the Paris Peace 
Conference. The refusal of the Peace Confer- 
ence to recognize these delegates, and Wil- 
son’s unwillingness to demand their admission, 
turned JIrish and [Irish-American sentiment 
against Wilson, the Peace, and the League, and 
led disappointed Sinn Feiners in Ireland to re- 
sort to violence as their one remaining weapon. 
With increasing frequency, attacks were made 
on the Royal Irish Constabulary, the Brit- 
ish troops, and British officials, while British 
troops began wrecking shops and burning vil- 
lages by way of “reprisal.” 

Under such disquieting circumstances, Pre- 
mier Lloyd George persuaded his Parliament to 
enact, in December, 1920, a new Home Rule 
Bill, creating separate parliaments and minis- 
tries for the six Ulster counties of Northern 
Ireland and the remainder, inaccurately styled 
Southern Ireland, with a joint Council of Ire- 
land to harmonize the two. Neither parliament 
was to have power to control customs and ex- 
cise duties, army and navy, treaties, titles, ex- 
ternal trade, cables, coinage, trademarks, or 
religion. Ulster accepted the law forthwith, 
elected its parliament in May, 1921, organized 
its cabinet under Sir James Craig, and 
was congratulated by King George in person. 
Southern Ireland likewise held elections in 
May, but the Sinn Feiners elected by all 
constituencies except Dublin University were 
pledged not to accept mere home rule. En- 
couraged, Sinn Fein intensified the irregular 
warfare it had been waging against the British 
and especially against the “blaek-and-tans,” ex- 
service men enrolled as auxiliary police and 
clad in khaki with black hats and black arm- 
bands. The shooting of British soldiers and 
constables and seizures of arms by Sinn Fein 
troops increased, and the burning and pillaging 
of Irish towns and villages by the British grew 
more frequent. Sinn Fein courts and police 
were organized, and “Castle” government, the 
British government, ceased to have any real 
functions of administration. 

At length Premier Lloyd George in despera- 
tion invited the Sinn Feiners, hitherto regarded 
as “rebels,” to negotiate with him. Through 
the mediation of General Smuts, a “truce” was 
signed, July 10, 1921. England’s offer of ““Dom- 
inion status,” at first rejected by De Valera 
and the Dail Eireann, was ultimately accepted 
in principle as the basis for a tripartite con- 
ference of Sinn Fein, Ulster, and British dele- 
gates, October to December, and incorporated in 
a definite treaty dated Dec. 6, 1921. Article 1 
conferred on the Irish Free State the same con- 
stitutional status as that of Canada and other 
dominions. Ireland was to have its own par- 
liament and an executive responsible to it (Ar- 
ticle 1), its own army (Article 8), and, in 
short, the almost complete independence of a 
dominion (see British EMPIRE), but with a 
strict proviso against religious discrimination 
(Article 16) and transitional fiscal and naval 
restrictions (Article 5-6 and 10). Ulster was 
permitted either to accept inclusion in the Free 


a3 


687 


‘zens nominated by the Irish Parliament. 
‘constitution was confirmed by the British Par- 


IRELAND 


State, with local autonomy, or to continue as a 
part of Great Britain with the Northern Ire- 
land Parliament retaining the rights granted 
by the Home Rule Act of 1920. Naturally Ul- 
ster chose the second alternative, and the gov- 
ernment of Northern Ireland remained precise- 
ly as established in 1921. The provisions of 
the 1920 Act regarding a joint Council for Ire- 
land also remained. in force, as a result of 
Ulster’s choice (Article 12). 

This treaty, liberal as it was, compared with 
earlier British offers, failed to placate Presi- 
dent De Valera and other Sinn Fein irreconcila- 
bies, who still cherished the ideal of a united 
independent republic, and bitterly assailed Ar- 
ticle 4 of the treaty, requiring members of the 
Free State Parliament to swear allegiance to 
King George. On the other hand, Arthur Grif- 


_ fith, Michael Collins, and other Sinn Fein lead- 


ers who had signed the treaty believed it to be 
as much as could practically be obtained, and 
persuaded the Dail Eireann to accept it by 64 to 
57 votes. De Valera indignantly resigned from 
the presidency, to which Griffith naturally fell 
heir, in January, 1922, and the southern Irish 
parliament formally ratified the treaty. As 
Great Britain had also ratified, the Free State 
came into being on January 16; its provisional 
government, with Michael Collins as premier, 
took over Dublin Castle from the British ad- 
ministration and joyfully watched 60,000 Brit- 


ish soldiers depart from Ireland. Soon, how- 
ever, De Valera’s uncompromising republican 
~adherents took up arms. against the Provisional 
‘ government, and Ireland was once more in the 


throes of guerilla warfare. The death of Pres- 
ident Griffith on August 12 and the killing of 
Premier Collins on August 22 by republicans 
might well have discouraged the Free State 
forces, but the latter event seemed to have 
the contrary effect of arousing indignation 
against the republicans. William T. Cosgrave 


‘succeeded Collins as head of the government. 


Meanwhile, a provisional parliament favorable 
to the treaty had been elected in June, and in 
the autumn this body adopted a constitution on 
October 11, making Gaelic the official language 
of the Free State, guaranteeing personal and 
religious liberty, and creating a bicameral Free 
State parliament (Oireachtas) with an Execu- 
tive Council or cabinet of ministers responsible 
to the lower house. The House of Representa- 
tives (Dail Eireann) of 153 members was to be 
elected, for four years, unless dissolved, by uni- 
versal suffrage of men and women over 21, 
with proportional representation. The Senate 
(Seanad Eireann) of 60 members was to be 
chosen, one-fourth every three years, by a vote 


of citizens aged 30 and over, with proportional 


representation, from a list of prominent citi- 
The 


liament early in December, 1922, and the new 


government was at once established; the pro- 


visional parliament now became the first House 
of Representatives, and the first Senate was 
chosen, half by the House and half by the pres- 
ident of the Executive Council. Cosgrave be- 
came president of the Executive Council, and 
Timothy Healy was appointed by the Crown as 
Governor-general, an almost purely honorary 
post. 

The republicans, meanwhile, had proclaimed 
a rival government, and though obviously in a 
minority, ‘refused to abandon their irregular 


IRELAND 688 


warfare against the Free State until thousands 
had been killed or wounded, 15,000 republicans 
imprisoned, and scores executed in reprisal for 
republican deeds of violence. In April, 1923, 
De Valera ordered a truce, in view of approach- 
ing elections; he was, however, arrested on Au- 
gust 14, to be, however, released in the July 
following. Though large numbers of republi- 
cans were released in course of time, several 
thousand were held in jail regardless of hunger 
strikes. By 1924 the country was fairly well 
pacified, and the Free State government was 
functioning in an orderly fashion. 
for the House held on Aug. 27, 1923, had given 
the Cosgrave government 63 seats; Republicans, 
44; Labor, 15; Farmers, 15; Independents, 16. 
As the 44 republicans absented themselves 
when the new Parliament met in September the 
government had a working majority and ad- 
dressed itself earnestly to the difficult tasks of 
extending peasant proprietorship and balancing 
an unbalanced budget. With the Northern 
government, the Free State made a futile effort 
in February, 1924, to agree on the disputed UI- 
ster boundary. On Sept. 10, 1923, the Irish 
Free State was admitted to the League of Na- 
tions, and the once despised Gaelic tongue was 
heard as a national language in the assembly 
of nations at Geneva. 

IRELAND, Joun (1879- ). An English 
composer, born at Inglewood, Bowdon, Chesh- 
ire. He was a pupil in composition of Stan- 
ford at the Royal College of Music. From 
1901 to 1909 he wrote several choral works with 
orchestra, orchestral works in the larger forms, 
and much chamber music, all of which he later 
discarded. His principal works, published aft- 
er 1909, include a prelude for orchestra, The 
Forgotten Rite, two piano trios, two violin- 
sonatas, pieces for piano, and songs. 

IRELAND, NortTHERN. The official name of 
that part of Ireland remaining in the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It is 
made up of the following counties and county 
boroughs: Antrim, Armagh, Belfast (County 
borough), Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry, Lon- 
donderry (County borough), Tyrone. Its area 
is 3,351,970 square miles; its population in 
1911, 1,250,531; on June 30, 1922 (estimated), 
1,284,000. See GREAT BRITAIN; IRELAND. 

IRISH FREE STATE. A dominion of the 
British Empire, with an area of 17,019,155 
square miles and a population, in 1911, of 3,139,- 
688. The estimated population of the Irish 
Free State on June 30, 1923, was 3,165,000. 
See GREAT BRITAIN; IRELAND. 

IRON AND STEEL. During the decade of 
1914-24, the iron and steel industry of the 
world furnished a notable illustration of the 
intimate relation of the development of natural 
resources and modern industrial activity to the 
maintenance of conditions of civilization even 
under the extensive dislocations effected by the 
War and the inevitable readjustment following 
it. Of course it was obvious that iron and 
steel manufactures were essential to twentieth 
century civilization and that they ranked high 
in commerce, but if any further proof was 
needed it was found in the demands made on 
these industries in the great struggle. The 
warring powers were compelled to mobilize 
their iron and steel industries and operate them 
on a war basis, and the possession of raw mate- 
rials for these industries was naturally an im- 
portant military asset. Accordingly, when the 


Elections ~° 


IRON AND STEEL 


Central Powers were defeated and Germany was 
deprived of a large portion of her mineral 
lands, it was indeed a serious blow, and the re- 
turn to France of Alsace-Lorraine carried with 
it mines whose acquisition in part compensated 
for the ruthless destruction of mines and steel 
plants by the Germans during their invasion. 

During the War, in all of the combatant na- 
tions the production of munitions and _ ship- 
building materials was pushed to the uttermost, 
and there was considerable codperation on the 
part of the Allies. After the Armistice, France 
secured the return of the valuable iron basin 
in Lorraine, and with it a certain amount of 
manufacturing facilities became available im- 
mediately. In the Briey region, while the Ger- 
mans had ruined the open hearth furnaces, they 
had left the blast furnaces intact, so that hav- 
ing acquired the ore deposits in the Longwy- 
Briey-Nancy fields of Alsace-Lorraine, France 
was put in a position to double her production 
of iron ore, and Germany suffered correspond- 
ingly. It was stated that before the War, Ger- 
many, exclusive of Luxemburg, had derived 74 
per cent of her iron ore from the annexed por- 
tion of Lorraine, or upward of 21,000,000 tons 
annually. As this ore had an iron content of 
about 33 per cent, there was roughly an an- 
nual loss of 7,000,000 tons of pig iron and a 
reduction of Germany’s annual steel output of 
from 6,000,000 to 7,000,000 tons. The result of 
these changed conditions was appreciated im- 
mediately in Germany, for with the scarcity of 
coal and iron ore inevitable to the readjust- 
ment there was a heavy demand for iron and 
steel products of which importations from 
Sweden, on a reduced scale, and a smaller 
amount received from France, were unable to 
take care. 

The industry in Germany was in some ways 
on a more promising basis than in Belgium and 
France, where there had been systematic and 
complete destruction by the Germans at many 
manufacturing centres. Accordingly, in 1919, 
both Belgium and France were endeavoring to 
readjust themselves to the new conditions and 
to put their plants in order by repairs or re- 
building, with new equipment to take care of 
the business destined to come their way. In 
Great Britain, on the other hand, during 1919 
there was a considerable demand for iron and 
steel products in excess of the supply, and high 
prices and large profits prevailed, though there 
was a marked decline in the exports of pig iron 
as well as of iron and steel. The supply was 
inadequate for the demands on account of lack 
of coal, ore, and cars and because of a shortened 
working day, together with the railway strike, 
all of which served to cut down the output, al- 
though the productive capacity certainly ex- 
isted. The state subsidy on pig iron and gov- 
ernment control of prices which had been im- 
posed during the War was terminated on Apr. 
30, 1919. There developed during this and the 
succeeding year a boom in the British iron and 
steel industry which reached a high-water mark 
in the early autumn of 1921 and recalled a sim- 
ilar condition following the War of 1870, aft- 
er which there was a recession of prices. In 
1920 the Belgian steel industry was being put 
in fairly efficient condition. The same was 
true in even greater measure for France, while 
in Germany there was marked activity for the 
iron and steel plants, most of which considered 
the year one of prosperity, notwithstanding 


IRON AND STEEL 


many adverse conditions. At this time were 
organized several big trusts by which it was 
hoped to establish economies of operation to 
compensate for the loss of the large efficient 
plants in Lorraine and Luxemburg, along 
with the ore fields. Germany was compelled to 
import ore and was active with export business. 
New steel works were under construction, and 
efforts were made at various metallurgical de- 
velopments which in part came in connection 
with the War. The German export business 
continued into 1921, and the profits of the in- 
dustry increased rather than diminished, though 
the finances of the country and the political 
situation did not make for the maximum of 
effort. 

In Great Britain during 1921 an acute de- 
pression prevailed which was compared to that 
of 1879, said to be the most disastrous period 
that British iron and steel interests had ever 
faced. Prices collapsed, and foreign customers 
were unable to take their normal proportion of 
British exports, while both foreign and home 
markets were being invaded by France, Belgium, 
and Germany. Exports sold more cheaply than 
British manufacturers could turn out the prod- 
uct. By 1922, however, there was a general 
improvement in conditions, and while the pig 
iron production of the world was only about 
67.7 per cent of what it was in 1913, yet the 
steel production was very close to that of the 
earlier year, and the five great producing na- 
tions of the world were increasing their exports, 
although those of the United States were less 
than in 1912 and 1913. The production capaci- 
ty of Germany had been reduced approximately 
40 per cent by the War, and in 1922 it had 
fallen to about 75 per cent. In France, on the 
other hand, there was in 1922 a greater output 
of pig iron than in any year since the War; it 
amounted to an estimated total of 4,878,000 
gross tons, as compared with 4,620,000 in 1913; 
but even at this time a number of the French 
steel mills had not been entirely restored. Bel- 
gium, as will appear from the accompanying 
table, was increasing its production as well as 
its exports, and its iron and steel industries 
were becoming well organized; in the following 
year it was able to export more steel than any 
other nation except Great Britain, while its in- 
crease of production of both pig iron and steel 
was remarkable. In 1923 Belgium was using 


689 


IRON AND STEEL 


with the occupation of the Ruhr by the French 
on Jan. 11, 1928, the industry in that region 
practically ceased, and financial and economic 
conditions were such as to prevent either do- 
mestic or export business on any considerable 
scale. Previously there had been considerable 
promise for German iron and steel, but in 1923 
political and industrial conditions were such 
that only a limited output could be made. In 
France the total production of iron and steel 
in 1922 and 1923 exceeded the pre-war output, 
but it must be recalled that the Peace Treaty 
gave France important German steel producing 
districts. France was able to have an increased 
coke supply, both from the North and from 
abroad, as well as from the Ruhr, and in 1923 
there was little unemployment and but few 
strikes. The French occupation of the Ruhr 
was an advantage to the British iron and steel 
industry as it cut down to a large degree the 
German output, and handicapped, at least in 
the early part of the year, the production of 
both France and Belgium. The iron and steel 
industry of Great Britain was able to show a 
considerable improvement in 1923 (see accom- 
panying table). 


- BRITISH IRON AND STEEL OUTPUT AND 
EXPORTS DURING PEACE YEARS 
(In Gross Tons) 


Pig Iron Steel Exports 
OT RE ct: «accom 8,748,000 6,792,000 4,807,200 
WOLSEU Sy orinye Aes 10,260,000 7,688,000 4,969,200 
TOLOR Ti) Kae 7,404,000 7,896,000 2,223,200 
TO 2 OMe ewes. setts: © 8,034,000 9,067,200 3,250,800 
OAR che at cietecyrs, © 2,611,200 3,625,200 1,706,400 
ODO 3. dee erets 4,899,600 5,880,600 3,400,800 
EO 2SD MO. . a ese 47,408,000 48,585,000 24,407,400 


@ December estimated. 


United States Iron and Steel Industry. In 
the United States the iron and steel industry 
so improved its organization in the decade 
1913-23 that it was able not only to meet the 
demands of the War but also to adjust itself 
to the conditions incident to deflation and the 
increased calls on it by various industries. 
This industry involved ore mining, the produc- 
tion of pig iron and steel ingots, the finishing 
of the crude metal into various products and 


UNITED STATES PRODUCTION OF PIG. IRON 
AND STEEL 1916-23 
Steel ingots 


coal and coke imported from Great Britain in py EO paca 
place of coal-and coke from the Ruhr, and Great 4916 .. 2.1... ses.es 39,432,797 42,773,680 
Britain also supplied large quantities of iron 1917 ............-... Bee ere eae |S 
a : : . Tous! 0G. . oo GV .. eh INS9054 644 4,462,432 
ore and pig iron which were handled in Belgian rss Alo sh Vpn ae Sa, 31015364 34°671.232 
plants. TOCUDE. os, Greek on 36,925,987 42,132,934 
9 ; : POR TOR BAe Sa, 16,688,126 19,783,797 
The end of the year 1922 marked a turning j99 27722) /2221121! 27'219.904 35,602,926 
point in the German iron and steel trade, for 1923 ...:...........- 40,019,129 44,943,696 
UNITED STATES PRODUCTION OF STEEL INGOTS AND CASTINGS 
(BY PROCESSES) 
Open-hearth Miscella- Total 
Years Basic Acid Total Bessemer Crucible Electric neous Gross Tons 
yee 2 eee 16,271,129 903,555 17,174,684 6,220,846 89,869 24,009 3,622 23,513,030 
1916 Gee es 22,308,725. 1,370,377, 23,679,102 8,287,213 °113,782 69,412 1,52%, 32,151,036 
F914 SR Ps 29,616,658 1,798,769 31,415,427 11,059,039 129,692 168,918 604 42,773,680 
1917 ..............32,087,507 2,061,286 34,148,898 10,479,960 126,716 304,543 495 45,060,607 
19.18) "iris Rs ees} 32,476,571 1,982,820 34,459,391 9,376,236 115,112 511,364 329 44,462,432 
TOLD: ¢ So eee ee or 25,719,312 1,229,382 26,948,694 7,271,562 63,572 384,452 2,952 34,671,232 
$9203. Oe Gil: 31,375,723 1,296,172 32,671,895 8,883,087 72,265 502,152 3,585 42,132,934 
199121. «std. REP.LeD . 15,082 564 507,238 15,589,802 4,015,938 7,613 169,499 945 19,783,797 
Oe ap he lie Oe 28,387,171 921,812 29,308,983 5,919,298 28,606 346,039 .... 35,602,926 
EBZG) serves otis pee eee 34,665,021 1,234,636 35,899,657 8,484,088 44,079 515,872 44,943,696 


IRON AND STEEL 


690 IRON AND STEEL 


UNITED STATES PRODUCTION OF STEEL INGOTS 


Open-hearth Miscella- Total 
Years Basic Acid Total Bessemer Crucible Electric neous Gross tons 
1D A avaee ets ote. her eet. 15,936,985 633,382 16,570,367 6,154,964 78,683 15,458 312 22,819,784 
MOD BSL. oe eae 21,975,622 968,148 22,943,770 8,194,737 99,026 46,348 3381 381,284,212 
VON Grieis- bic ~ Linch euades 29,011,146 1,227,832 30,238,978 10,916,248 120,341 126,048 802 41,401,917 
LOOT PEs in Raa ee ky 31,528,939 1,406,798 32,935,737 10,320,688 . 122,882 239,632 261 43,619,200 
JS) key | ipsa aI hap ck ah a 31,970,691 1,347,870 33,318,561 9,215,392 113,782 403,068 219 43,051,022 
91:9 Rathi. SE RoE kee ee 25,405,347 780,827 26,186,174 T1482 (43 62,5638 272,942 373 33,694,795 
LOZO™ Baseee’s.steacce: chek ais 30,926,393 759,102 31,685,495 8,778,107 70,536 346,956 298 40,881,392 
EOD bets ext ahr le arated de dhe nen 14,864,607 290,750 15,155,357 3,977;129 6,877 84,404 317 19,224,084 
VOD tems te ctie ces eee Sch 27,961,190 517,045 28,478,235 5,871,565 27,001 » 191,057 seqeeh foAaOoe4. Les 
PODS dus SPB ote stereo hee 34,093,711 653,337 34,747,048 8,416,576 42,127 279,914 43,485,665 
UNITED STATES PRODUOTION OF STEEL CASTINGS 
Open-hearth Miscella- Total 

Years Basic Acid Total Bessemer Crucible Electric neous Gross tons 
OSA. ee et se Ren Laas AE i 334,144 270,173 604,317 65,882 11,186 $8,051 6 13,310 693,246 
AOL eer re CRs iene: ere 330,103 402,229 735,3 32 92,476 14,756 23,064 1,196 866,824 
TOD Gee nea eae Cee cee ee 605,512 570,937 1,176,449 142,791 9,351 42,870 302 . 13743763 
Bo aa ( a anes Sl Seka al 3 i 558,568 654,588 1,213,156 159,272 3,834 64,911 234 1,441,407 
BOTS 5 aides ¢ toon Perio delete tC atu ee 505,880 634,950 1,140,830 160,844 1,330 108,296 110 1,411,410 
OOP ve a Stee ae etal sameiey oie 313,965 448,555 762,520 98,819 1,009 Le 0 228579 976,437 
BOL OR eae Aer AG tin Pa al delaras a ti 449,330 537,070 986,400 104,980 1,729 155,196" 3)2377 14251542 
TOBB Se Ct eee 217,957 216,488 434,445 38,809 736 85,095 628 Hoo fils 
LOD iets cnt wuchitake be icle eaters te 425,981 404,767 830,748 47,733 1,045 154,982 oe er 038 40508 
OSE OR Ces ioie aie wlatoetrciettens OTL SLO 581,299 1,152,609 67,512 1,952 235,958 1,458,03 


PRODUCTION OF ALLOY-STEEL INGOTS AND 


CASTINGS 

Years Ingots Castings Total 

TOM ANN ache ae, SS Te erie | 577,107 69,846 646,953 
AYO Sy, EMERY Sue, MEP. op ne) O15 923,251 97,896 1,021,147 
OMG AREA as clmene! cet. ire ire 1,306,157 56,458 1,362,615 
dS) WT tte arts ek i a ae ge 1,576,806 67,529. 1,644,335 
OS threes. ACER angels ieie 1,721,367 | 66,485. * 1,787,852 
OUD ih ees eR TEtES, Veloso’ *e 1,435,816 45,372 1,481,188 
O20 BA. Bare etches Liste 1,591,939 69,3853 1,660,298 
TUS HEAT I Se Sean F458 on! Pea 769,293 40,255 809,548 
SD Ds TREN oe ki ede Mee he hee 1,614,392 59,104 1,673,496 
LOS Heed. +cat eee eee 2,014,269 92,220 2,106,489 


PRODUCTION OF ALLOY-STEEL INGOTS AND 
CASTINGS BY PROCESSES, GROSS TONS, 1923 


Ingots Castings Total 
Open-hearth steel—basic.1,612,312 8,786 1,616,098 
Open-hearth steel—acid. 109,676 38,656 148,332 
Bessemer steel ...,.... 109,851 20,621 130,472 
Crucible isteel z...-c hi. 16,508 103 16,611 
Hilsetric. steel scwge eters 165,922 29,054 194,976 


Total, gross tons.2,014,269 92,220 2,106,489 


In 1923 there were 147 works in 24 States and the 
District of Columbia which made alloy-steel ingots or 
castings. 
their transportation and marketing; all of 
these operations were in some instances carried 
on by a single corporation. In the ordinary 
and commercial census classifications, the iron 
and steel industry embraces three primary 
classes of manufactured products: unfinished 
iron and steel, i.e. pig iron and steel ingots and 
castings; semi-finished iron and steel, i.e. bil- 
lets, blooms, slabs, sheet, bars, tin, brass, and 
skelp; and finished iron and steel, i.e. bars, 
plates, sheets, tin plate, structural shapes, fabri- 
cated and unfabricated, rails and rail connec- 
tions and accessories, cast iron pipe, welded and 
drawn. pipe and tubing, iron and iron products, 
including nails and forgings, and_ castings. 
These products, when fabricated, are considered 
as machinery, construction material, farm im- 
plements, ete. 

The period 1914-24 opened with a depression 
in the American iron and steel industry which 
was quite marked in 1914, but with the out- 
break of the War came improvement, and in 
1915 domestic business increased, and foreign 
markets required supplies which Europe was 


naturally unable to provide. Accordingly, pro- 
duction was on an extensive scale until 1917, 
when the United States entered the War, and 
it was realized that every effort must be made 
to provide munitions and ships essential to the 
American military and naval forces and neces- 
sary aid to the Allies. By 1918 American iron 
and steel products were mobilized for maximum 
production and coéperated with the govern- 
ment in the manufacture of munitions. In 
fact, the available capacity had been increased 
nearly 40 per cent, and at the same time the 
business had been conducted on a basis of fixed 
prices determined by official action. All of 
these sufficed admirably for the time of the 
War, but after the Armistice the steel pro- 
ducers realized that with their increased facil- 
ities a reduced volume of business was bound to 
come, so that the inevitable readjustments were 
involving many serious difficulties. 

An attempt was made to have prices fixed on 
an equitable basis, though somewhat reduced 
from the War rates, and such prices held dur- 
ing 1919, although many independent manufac- 
turers availed themselves of the great demand 
for iron and steel products and secured amounts 
considerably in excess. In 1919 also the United 
States steel industry faced a strike which be- 
gan in September, 1922, involving 268,710 em- 
ployees scattered throughout the United States, 


principally in the plants of the United States 


Steel Corporation. In this struggle were in- 
volved the questions of collective bargaining, 
wages, hours, conditions of labor, and sundry 
principles advanced by organized labor. Some 
damage was done and rioting took place through- 
out Pennsylvania before the strike gradually 
subsided, but at the end of the year, although 
it was not actually ended, the mills were in 
operation and the trouble overcome for the 
most part. In 1923 the annual pig iron ecapac- 
ity of the United States was more than 52,000,- 
000. tons, and the various furnaces produced 
steel ingots and castings to 58,500,000 tons. 
The manufacture of pig iron in 1922 involved 
the consumption of about 54,000,000 tons of ore. 
32,000,000 tons of coal and coke, 24,000,000 
bushels of charcoal, and 13,500,000 tons of lime- 


IRON AND STEEL 691 


IRON AND STEEL 


TOTAL UNITED STATES PRODUCTION OF ALL KINDS OF FINISHED ROLLED IRON AND STEEL 


191 4-23 
Tron and Plates and Nail Structural All other fin- Total, 
Years steel rails sheets plate Wire rods shapes ished rolled Gross tons 
1914 1,945,095 4,719,246 38,573 2,431,714 2,031,124 7,204,444 18,370,196 
1915 2,204,203 6.077,694 31,929 8,095,907 2,437,003 10,546,188 24,392,924 
1916 2,854,518 7,453,980 30,088 8,518,746 3,029,964 15,493,093 32,380,389 
1917 2,944,161 8,267,616 22,864 3,137,138 3,110,000 15,585,921 33,067,700 
1918 2,540,892 8,799,135 18,310 2,562,390 2,849,969 14,385,058 81,155,754 
1919 2,203,843 7,372,814 12,832 2,538,476 2,614,036 10,359,543 25,101,544 
1920 2,604,116 9,337,680 20,577 3,136,907 3,306,748 13,941,835 32,347,863 
1921 2,178,818 4,260,574 14,573 1,564,330 1,272,624 5,483,087 14,774,006 
1922 2,171,776 7,968,397 21,969 2,654,741 2,718,768 10,916,353 26,452,004 
1923 2,904,516 9,497,717 22,833 3,075,892 3,405,197 14,370,921 33,277,076 


UNITED STATES PRODUCTION OF FINISHED ROLLED IRON AND STEEL BY LEADING PROD- 
UCTS, GROSS TONS, 1923 


Products Tron Steel Total 
GER LUM Re tecWe 7 <q hick cae ef ee eae EMM ORES EL 6S oh coat ek tN cs MME OE SMS 51/0. 6, 0, seep pigs (e vegsn daase-ovestor chs 2,904,516 2,904,516 
Plateshand, sheetSirs a4 5.) ie Mad eae ke tee kere RE A eels shepdee lee se ees « 6,017 9,491,700 9,497,717 
Nall pandas spike, pintam seca de pee aie G ls Fo ela Ce ye act die uta eld idle oie gin vs 103 22,730 22,833 
WAT ORERO GLA” wz, «5. MERIC lercils Socata eh WS Mita hay «Lets! SAEs eutetasey els seecieievabesie: ofepey 6:0) 1.« 780 3,075,112 3,075,892 
Structurally Sa PCSmawa cclede « Relates deka tels » cy taetel tele: wile as, cerejere e cues 1,448 3,403,749 3,405,197 
NGrChH Or tas DATS mere aoes ie tied tehaticd Pate ys, oPePouctel sain! selec eke suoriaticueus oo, sjfevle. seis 404,730 5,148,066 5,552,796 
BRrsrcOt eLOIN TOLEGGra COMCLOLOL) WOLD Kaiser caste cicicisvaiteviaiedeiiclisise <af<taeka Sud s'sllel ols eves 368 680,499 680,867 
Skelp weil Gag an Geol pect Om OLmStCe luna id «cae setel cielo oc cbcie ts ts. cvereho is ovepote (elie te 216,846 3,517,490 3,734,336 
OF] GTi a We ea, UE ee Beh nk Be arch yp akhombhaks citteeials, sens ej'sisie «ee ve 220,835 220,835 
(ERaTA e O DEECOGRON tC Sia. Meng ee Mere er irre Cacia. age Rl fe. eRe ter shel e veh eee 2 Bild 345,667 348,480 
Longhanglessplice  barsantie- plate, DAES, BetGc iy. snypstepcle  <ushejeyes <1 ued) © eee * +6 40,495 709,329 749,824 
Ro Nea shecumDIINomenOu INCMLOIN Set aD TiCaAled iced lstedede ais reece ete folel My 9! Mallovelatteia '< 36,716 36,716 
Rinilrond Ma ireshee eel. MR es Sobel alee Sil EPS snore o's 0 + Phetde eo Pa lhe) oPolou tas felsic 6 20,167 20,167 
Rolled’ foreingy blooms forging, bulleis.. CtG.o) sjsiejell<ic are - + eheinin «hes «cl 3,181 445,689 448,870 
Blooms DULetSHRSHCObMDAES  OlC..u Olt OXPOLUMr cist ats + lage tiohe (© sys lo (eve deulegs eho lela ai s\ete ers 781 781 
All other finished hot-rolled products, including hot-rolled strips and 
FA ts LOWS ICOLG eTOLMLITE) Pots sucliel let ayelebey eh od tedouete Ciel Gh alededs 06 ovehatahslia cnts oisie}« 278,816 2,298,433 2,577,249 
Tella GLOSS GODS sete bon yh secmaie (amet eh a fale As oes: the ole geal aiiel's. «i si, een arab id 955,597 32,321,479 33,277,076 


stone, so that the production and transporta- 
tion of these items is very important and must 
grow in a normal and efficient way, free from 
such disturbances as strikes and railway re- 
strictions, in order for the industry to function 
properly. 


LS 
ESTIMATED CONSUMPTION OF STEEL BY IN- 


DUSTRIES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1923 
[Estimates by Iron Age, New York] 


Per cent 
of total Tons 
Automobile industry including 

Trucksymtractorsyi eter is” spares 3,470,000 
Railroads including cars and 

IGEGTHIOUING SM ae) cicle. sus aicteks chats. ¢) eke 27 _ 8,590,000 
MCTICULUILER rate t eel sketstens «se tents 4 .1,200,000 
Buildings (including bridges and 

other construction not R. R.) 15% 4,865,000 
BIDAR Et ds ECs lotcins sib sles sic: a 310,000 
Containers (principally food).... 3% 1,100,000 
Machinery (electrical, textile, ma- 

CHIN GBLOOIS TH ClCs ceed cease crete. «o's 3 940,000 
Oil, gas, water and mining..... 10% 3,330,000 
ES DOLLA ameteneveeen hele Sotcue cel ete. ch atctete’ os 6 1,945,000 
Miscellaneous hel tiet. lis! . tena «cheb snes 18% 5,830,000 

Mk 28 Os aber ete gis roars 31,580,000 


Iron Ore Produced in 1923. In 1923 the 
iron ore mined in the United States, exclusive 
of ore containing more than 5.5 per cent of 
manganese, was estimated by the United States 
Geological Survey at 70,018,000 gross tons, an 
increase of 49 per cent as compared with that 
mined in 1922. The ore shipped from the 
mines in 1923 was estimated at 70,433,000 gross 
tons, valued at $244,749,000, an increase of 39 
per cent in quantity and 55 per cent in value as 
compared with the figures for 1922. The aver- 
age value of the ore per gross ton at the mines 
in 1923 was estimated at $3.47; in 1922 it was 
$3.12. The production for 1923 appears to be 
the third highest in the history of iron mining; 
it was exceeded only by 75,288,851 tons in 
1917 and 75,167,672 tons in 1916. The accom- 


panying table shows the estimated quantity and 
value of the iron ore mined and shipped in the 
United States by the principal producing States 
in 1923. 


ESTIMATES OF IRON ORE MINED AND SHIPPED 
IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1923 


Ore shipped 
District Gross tons Value 
LAKE SUPERIOR 
IGA ESR by Monee & os Lee 14,219,000 $55,128,000 
MTINOSOLHED ce asc tenet cberenn tte 44,611,000 161,995,000 
Wisconsin 3,587,000 


ie Ae CIR 5) 1,179,000 
60,009,000 $220,710,000 


SOUTHEASTERN STATES 


IME We ee te eI Eon 6b PE 6,968,000 $14,451,000 
GREOPE Lake ait oi; >, 0) 3) ee LRTI 133,000 310,000 
INITSSOUTT pepe ss oso cae 60,000 292,000 
North! Carolina’ </i5 secceter « 60,000 152,000 
Mennesseetie iit. : eae ee 293,000 879,000 
WV ipsiinigs.: Aiea ois <ceattetels 202,000 694,000 
e 7,716,000 $16,778,000 

NORTHEASTERN STATES 
NIGSRS CHAISCUUSMES REE tac. <) chsl apices, LIN Niner eaten 
INOW?) CESGY! Where cee tteneicl seis 350,000 $1,435,000 
ING ws bYorlks 313.503 Sere. 2 a. 708,000 8,131,000 
IPennsylvanidie sete sasnena ‘ee 971,000 1,159,000 
2,029,000 $5,725,000 
WESTERN STATES ......... 679,000 1,536,000 


Grandi tOtate en ees so 70,433,000 $244,749,000 


About 85 per cent of the iron ore shipped in 
1923 came from the Lake Superior district, in 
which 59,976,000 gross tons were mined and 60,- 
009,000 tons shipped. The ore shipped in 1923 
was valued at $220,710,000. These totals in- 
clude the ore from the Mayville and Baraboo 
mines in Wisconsin and ore shipped by rail as 
well as by water from all mines, but exclude 
manganiferous ores containing more than 5.5 
per cent manganese. The ore is chiefly hema- 


IRON AND STEEL 


tite. The average value of the ore at the mines 
in the Lake Superior district in 1923 per gross 
ton was $3.68; in 1922, $3.33: The mines in 
Minnesota furnished 74 per cent of the total 
iron ore shipped from the Lake Superior dis- 
trict in 1923 and 63 per cent of the total of 
the United States. The mines in Michigan fur- 


692 


. IRON AND STEEL 


are then rehandled by the rolling mills, forges 
and presses by which various products, such as 
rails, sheets, pipe, ete., are derived. In fact the 
extent and variety of the iron and steel indus- 
try, as listed above, is reported in the Census 
of Manufactures for 1921 in the accompanying 
table. 


IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY, 19212 


Estab- Value added 
Classes lish- Wage Cost of by manu- Value of 
ments earners material facture products 
fron and. SteclublastutiieinaGes sa eisereis a ot csks crores 134 18,698 $361,049,521 $58,721,723 $419,771,244 
Steel works and rolling mills, including tin plate 498 235,967 1,010,290,351 477,787,027 1,488,077,378 
Gast-ITONe plpOs ceice siete Gaelic uct ie omicdetotee ener 70 12,496 23,897,020 20,424,528 44,321,548 
Steam fittings and steam and hot-water heating 
pe yey hg DAV HA Oho pEe Tr Sei SUAS Gis hn Seber a’g Gee 74 30,808 50,212,922 77,153,965 127,366,887 
WiTOu et pipe vecrccs bie chads ie ciel ckottte wine pie ceteere ane shane 57 8,728 37,093,041 19,569,237 56,662,278 
Wire and wirework (not included in wire depart- 
ments OL rolling mills) ile acs euegehe ciel useeneteceeerets 474 Zora) 99,744,248 66,585,873 166,330,121 
Forgings, including springs and horseshoes ..... 378 22,305 61,298,673 55,534,638 116,833,311 
Nails and spikes, wire, cut and wrought ........ 56 2,412 5,670,025 5,306,282 10,976,307 
Tankers barrels, Goons. and. jSHUtlers |. ne cus eieine se ios 76 3,795 13,556,018 13,435,693 26,991,711 
StBGeTe | IPOD WON: ssreanties sie ee cckeateettne sieieactc: cantons 1,021 32,897 2 Wisys bat oa IS BoP bss 99,074,231 250,085,446 
Bolts, nuts, screws, washers, and rivets .......: 293 18,801 28,586,981 32,970,204 6ljpo 7, Loo 
FE OGALL | Ye.) ctehcratemensl bi seamed eneties baer cau wriaegs cotanenaneit ta 3,331 413,224 1,842,410,015 926,563,401 2,768,973,416 


* Includes only those industries listed in the three primary classes of manufactured products mentioned above. 


nished 24 per cent of the Lake shipments and 
20 per cent of the grand total. The southeast- 
ern States, which constitute the second largest 
iron ore producing area, ineluding the Birming- 
ham and Chattanooga districts, mined 7,533,- 
000 gross tons in 1923. The shipments of ore 
from these States to blast furnaces in 1923 
amounted to 7,716,000 gross tons, valued at 
$16,778,000. The ore consists mainly of hema- 
tite, with brown ore and magnetite next in or- 
der. The average value of the ore produced in 
these States in 1923 per gross ton was $2.17; 
in 1922, $1.74. The northeastern States, which 
include the Adirondack district, New York, and 
the Cornwall district of Pennsylvania, in 1923 
mined 1,823,000 gross tons of iron ore and 
shipped 2,029,000 gross tons. The average val- 
ue of the ore in these States in 1923 per gross 
ton was $2.82; in 1922, $2.33. Most of this ore 
is magnetite. The western States which ordi- 
narily produced iron ore, named in the order of 
their importance, are Wyoming, New Mexico, 
Utah, Montana, California, and Colorado; occa- 
sionally Idaho and Nevada contribute small 
quantities. The ore from Wyoming, New Mex- 
ico, and Colorado is used for the manufacture 
of iron at Pueblo, Colo., but much of the re- 
mainder of the output is used as a flux in 
smelting copper and the precidus metals. It is 
estimated that the western States mined 677,- 
000 gross tons of iron ore and shipped 679,000 
gross tons, valued at $1,536,000, in 1923. The 
ore comprises hematite, magnetite, and brown 
ore. 

As is generally known, the ore after being 
mined is transported to blast furnaces where it 
is made into pig iron. The 1923 production of 
pig iron, excluding charcoal iron and including 
blast-furnace ferro-alloys, according to the Iron 
Trade Review, was 40,019,129 gross tons. This 
was the largest annual output yet made, exceed- 
ing the high record of 1916 by 1,000,000 tons. 
A part of the pig iron is utilized in the produc- 
tion of rolled and wrought iron products, and 
for the manufacture of castings in iron foun- 
dries. The greater part, however, is utilized in 
the making of steel by the open hearth Besse- 
mer electric and crucible processes which pro- 
duce ingots, blooms, billets, bars and slabs which 


Naturally these. industries do not embrace all 
of the various shipments of the industry of iron 
and steel and their products. Those in the ta- 
ble are estimated as one-fifth of the total num- 
ber of shipments. The aggregate employed a 
daily average of 1,030,248 persons, and the val- 
ue of their product was $5,592,204,380. In the 
United States the greatest amount of business 
was handled by the United States Steel Corpo- 
ration, but during the decade under considera- 
tion other consolidations were formed in the in- 
terest of greater efficiency and economy, and 
still further consolidations would doubtless have 
been effected except for the opposition of the 
Attorney General and the Federal Trade Com- 
mission. Nevertheless the Bethlehem Steel Cor- 
poration acquired in May, 1922, the Lackawan- 
na Steel Company; in November the Midvale 
Steel and Ordnance Company was also pur- 
chased, with the result that the enlarged Beth- 
lehem Company was given an annual capacity 
of 7,500,000 tons of steel ingots. Another im- 
portant consolidation was that of the Youngs- 
town Sheet and Tube Company with the Brier 
Hill Steel Company, a combination which later 
absorbed the Steel and Tube Company of 
America. 

United States Imports and Exports. The 
imports of iron ore for 1923 amounted to 2,768,- 
430 gross tons, valued at $11,308,503, or $4.08 
a ton. The imports for the year 1922 were 1,- 
135,156 gross tons, valued at $4,916,294, or 
$4.33 a ton. The exports of iron ore for 1923 
amounted to 1,116,932 gross tons, valued at $5,- 
305,365, or $4.75 a ton, as compared with ex- 
ports for the year 1922 of 602,194 gross tons, 
valued at $2,770,878, or $4.60 a ton. The for- 
eign trade of the United States is often quite 
uneven, as American manufacturers of iron and 
steel seek to satisfy domestic demands, and 
when there are large calls for iron and steel at 
home, the export trade suffers. The accom- 
panying table indicates the exports of iron and 
steel for significant years during the period un- 
der review. Likewise, the major iron and steel 
imports are also indicated in a table, though 
this business naturally depends on special con- 
ditions, as may be seen by the difference of im- 
ports in the years 1921 and 1922. 


IRON AND STEEL 
UNITED STATES EXPORTS OF IRON AND STEEL 


Articles 
1913 1921 1922 ¢ 
Tons Tons Tons 
Pig iron and ferro-alloys 287,022 28,307 33,021 
Steel ingots, blooms, 
Dillets# ‘ete! 6 Ui 230,728 Ok Ubrga 107,240 
Tron and steel bars and 
rods, other than wire. 254,050 200,802 185,283 
WAEEELOUS ot of. viet eee 74,823 18,953 40,424 
SOPAP ese et, ee 102,201 37,592 63,770 
Bolts, nuts, rivets, and 
washers, except track 21,633 24,231 ‘18,096 
Hoops, bands, and strip 
BUCS PRAM AN 18,312 20,274 34,511 
Horseshoes! . ae .:27.ke -- 1,158 615 987 
WHIREETISIION. cols button, hays as §4,526 28,109 55,020 
Nails, other than wire, 
including tacks ..... 9,015 5,785 8,406 
Pipes and fittings ..... 282,230 393,800 206,542 
BOBS bdr deversry:> aa sen Be he 452,545 321,822 279,865 
Galvanized sheets ..... 114,650 56,085 109,318 
Plates and_ sheets 428,259 541,713 327,604 
Structural iron and steel 366,654 306,592 184,515 
Tin plate, terneplate, etc. 73,376 107,715 76,608 
Barbed wife, <a stes -c7 87,528 29,976 70,800 
Other Wite, ow roas sass is Ara G5 69,336 112,551 
Totaly 47... 36 oe. 2,996,505 2,201,878 1,914,561 


“Figures for 1913 are for the fiscal year; for 1921 
and 1922, calendar years. For 1922 such articles as 
wire rope, woven-wire fencing, wire cloth and screen- 
ings and other wire manufactures, castings, forg- 
ings, machine screws, car wheels and axles, and 
track accessories have been omitted to afford a better 
comparison with 1913 and 1921, when these items 
were not included in the above classifications. 
Sheet bars and skelp are included under “Iron and 
steel bars and rods other than wire’ for 1913 and 
1921, and under “Steel ingots, blooms, billets, etc.” 
for 1922. 


RN ER AS ET EAA ER ARS ERS NEE SH 
UNITED STATES IMPORTS OF IRON AND STEEL 


Articles 1913 9 1921 1922 
Rn RN eB RS A SE SENN RSS 


Pig iron and ferro-alloys .155,169 44,842 455,456 
Sévap ies f20.a Fe ee 41,163 41,469 142,969 
Steel ingots, blooms, billets, 

Barer Cte nats cece ort ccoge .869 10,024 27,720 
Structural shapes ....... 8,005 Tal 7,823 
Barn ions ow. BOs? 30,168 1,913 8,091 
Reals oii Ji). ibe: s.dsiayse -, Se 5,024 22,048 26,629 
Tin plate, terneplate, etc, . 12.654 455 2,682 
WAT OUSTOOS.| toh) eke sche cles ott es 17,143 916 1,726 
Sheets and plates ....... 3,724 1,976 1,947 

UGCA ac sttevets cc oc ks 293,919 124,420 675,043 


@¥Figures for 1913 are for the fiscal year; for 1921 
and 1922, calendar years. From the 1922 statistics 
such commodities as wire rope, castings and forgings, 
strip steel, tubular products, nails, screws, bolts, nuts, 


etc., have been omitted in order to make the basis of 
comparison with the earlier years as uniform as 
possible. 


Electric Steel. The American electric steel 
industry from 1913 to 1923 increased more than 
twenty-fivefold. In 1913 electric steel castings 
constituted less than 1 per cent of the total out- 
put. In 1923, 235,958 gross tons of steel cast- 
ings came from electric furnaces; this was 53 
per cent above the best previous record, that of 
1920. The alloy steel castings made in electric 
furnaces in 1923 amounted to 29,054 tons, 
against 17,760 tons in 1922. This increase of 
64 per cent emphasized the tendency of heat- 
treated steel alloy castings to replace forgings. 
In 1923 the electric steel ingot production was 
279,914 tons, or 0.64 per cent of all steel in- 
gots, in comparison with 0.93 per cent in 1918. 
Taking the electric steel industry as a whole, 
the 1923 production of ingots and castings 
amounted to 515,872 tons, as compared with the 
wartime production of 511,364 tons in 1918. 

Working Conditions. The long hours which 
had prevailed in the iron and steel industry for 
certain classes of labor for some time had been 


693 


IRWIN 


the object of considerable criticism from social 
workers and others. They were defended by the 
management of the steel works as essential to 
the economical conduct of the industry. There- 
fore it was a somewhat radical step which was 
proposed in 1923 when there was abolished the 
12-hour day for certain classes of labor at plants 
producing about 80 per cent of the total amount 
of steel of the United States. This was so 
successful and so general that at the end of the 
year 1923 there were but few companies that 
had not adopted the change. On May 18, 1922, 
President Harding had called a conference at 
the White House to discuss the abolition of the 
12 hour day, in which some 46 members of the 
American Iron and Steel Institute participated. 
As a result, on May 26, 1922, Judge Elbert H. 
Gary, president of the Institute, appointed a 
committee of nine to make a “careful and sci- 
entific investigation and to report to the steel 
industry conclusions and recommendations re- 
garding the 12 hour day.” This committee 
took the subject under discussion, and ‘on May 
25, 1923, the American Iron and Steel Institute 
Committee reported that “if labor should be- 
come sufficient to permit, the members of this 
committee would favor entirely abolishing the 
12 hour day, providing the purchasing public 
would be satisfied with selling prices that justi- 
fied it.” President Harding’s interest in the 
matter was unflagging; on June 18, 1923, he 
wrote Judge Gary, earnestly urging the aboli- 
tion of the two-shift system. On June 27, the di- 
rectors of the American Iron and Steel Insti- 
tute assured President Harding that the 12 
hour shift would be abolished at the earliest 
moment practicable, and the first positive step 
was taken towards complete abolition on Aug. 
16, 1923, when the Carnegie Steel Company in- 
augurated the establishment of an 8 hour day, 
and other companies rapidly followed. By the 
end of the year all of the employees of the 
United States Steel Corporation and about 70 
per cent of the independent plants in the Pitts- 
burgh district were working less than 12 hours, 
while in the Chicago district the long day had 
almost entirely disappeared. It was estimated 
that the new work day added from $2 to $3 a 
ton to the cost of a ton of steel, this extra ex- 
pense being mainly in the steel works and roll- 
ing mills, as at the blast furnaces in many 
cases the cost of the change was surprisingly 
small. Both operators and employers believed 
that the shorter day was working out success- 
fully, and the many adjustments required were 
made with care and skill. The year, however, 
was favorable for making the change, as most 
of the plants were working reasonably full; and 
while there was a shortage of labor, it was not 
a& preponderating condition in the industry. 

IRRIGATION. See DAms; and RECLAMA- 
TION. 

IRWIN, WALLACE (1876—- ). An Ameri- 
can humorous writer, born at Oneida, N. Y., 
brother of William Henry Irwin (Will Irwin). 
He studied at Leland Stanford Junior Univer- 
sity, 1896-99, and became editor of the Over- 
land Monthly Magazine in 1902. As a writer 
of burlesques and topical verse he drew wide 
attention, especially by The Love Sonnets of a 
Hoodlum (1902). Other successes soon  fol- 
lowed, including Nautical Tales of a Landsman 
and At the Sign of the Dollar (1904) and Chi- 
natouwn Ballads (1905); but the most widely 
cited of his writings was the humorous series 


IRWIN 


of papers dealing with an imaginary Japanese 
youth called Togo and collected as Letters of 
a Japanese Schoolboy (1909) and Mr. Togo, 
Maid of All Work (1913). Among his later 
books may be mentioned: Pilgrims into Folly 
(1917); Venus in the East (1918); The Bloom- 
ing Angel (1919); Suffering Husband (1920) ; 
Seed of the Sun (1921); and More Letters of a 
Japanese Schoolboy (1923). 

IRWIN, Wittiam HENRY (WILL [RwIN) 
(1873- ). An author and war correspond- 
ent, born at Oneida, N. Y., brother of Wallace 
Irwin. He graduated at Leland Stanford Jun- 
ior University in 1899 and was on the staff 
of the San Francisco Chronicle in 1901-04, and 
of the New York Sun, 1904-06, and managing 
editor of McClure’s Magazine, 1906-07. After 
1908 he was mainly engaged in writing for the 
magazines. During the War he was with the 
Allied armies as correspondent for the various 
American periodicals, 1914-15, and for the Sat- 
urday Evening Post, 1916-18. Among his books 
may be mentioned: The Hamadryads (verse, 
1904) ; The City That Was (1907); Old China- 


town (1908); Confessions of a Con Man 
(1909); Warrior the Untamed (1909); The 
House of Mystery (1910); The Readjustment 


(1910); The. Red Button (1912); Where the 
Heart Is (1912); Men, Women and War 
(1915); Latins at War (1916); The Thirteenth 
Chair, a play, with Bayard Veiller (1916); A 


Reporter at Armageddon (1918); The Neat 
War (1921); Columbine Time (1921); and 
Christ or Mars? (1923). 

ISHERWOOD SYSTEM. See SHIPBUILD- 


ING. 

ISMET PASHA. See CALIPHATE, 

ISONZO RIVER. See War IN EUROPE, 
Italian Front. | 

ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL. See CHEMISTRY. 
ORGANIC. . 

ISOSTASY. See GEOLOGY. 

ISOTOPES. See CHEMISTRY; PHYSICS. 

ISTRIA. See FIUME-ADRIATIC CONTROVERSY. 

ITALIAN LITERATURE. If the first 15 
years of the twentieth century in Italian liter- 
ature were distinguished by the development of 
Crocean thought, we may say that the years 
1914 to 1924 were dominated by Benedetto 
Croce and by the men, such as Giovanni Gen- 
tile, who either continued and _ perfected ‘his 
philosophy or reacted against it. Croce’s most 
novel and influential ideas were in the field of 
esthetics, which, furthermore, he approached 
from the angle of literary criticism. By 
the close of the decade the Philosophy of the 
Spirit had had the effect of making virtually 
all educated Italians under 45 years of age ama- 


teur philosophers and professional literary crit- ’ 


ics. At any rate, the balance of literary pro- 
duction had been shifted in the later years in 
the direction of “thought” and away from what 
might be called “creation.” 

The typical Italian experience had been that 
of Giovanni Papini as portrayed in his auto- 
biographical confessions, Un Uomo finito (The 
Failure). This is a record of a strenuous phil- 
osophical life. The problem of the young man 
is to find his place in the universe, acquire a 


satisfactory solution of the questions that life. 
puts to him. The mood is one of passionate re- 
search, with ups and downs of exalted hope and | 


anguished disillusionment. What distinguishes 
the European mind in general and the Italian 
in particular from a common American: outlook 


€ 


694 | 


ITALIAN LITERATURE 


on life is the sense of individual impotence be- 
fore the weight of tradition, the feeling of be- 
ing caught in an unescapable fixity. The young 
Italians had made and were making a frontal 
attack on this situation. The yearning for 
freedom, in Papini among others, takes on vio- 
lent and almost incoherent forms; and it fur- 
nishes the motive for much of that thinking of 
a neo-idealistic character which, inspired by 
Croce and perfected by Gentile, is fashionably 
known as “activism.” 

This is one characteristic that tends to sep- 
arate the young from the old, the new from the 
old, in Italian literature; a gap, or rather a 
rift more or less perceptible, of which the War 
is made to serve as an unsatisfactory marker. 
The men who came forward in the decade pro- 
claimed their denial of the “three crowns” of 
the generation preceding: of Carducci, of Pas- 
coli, of D’Annunzio—we may even add Fogaz- 
zaro. It is a denial, one must understand, not 
so much of these masters themselves, as of their 
followers and imitators, and of the influence, 
tending to express itself in precept, which they 
exert on the future. 

The spirit of revolt is variously formulated. 
The young poets (conveniently presented in 
Olindo Giacobbe’s anthology Le piu belle pagine 
dei poeti d’oggi—The Poets of Today) raise the 
standard of “pure art”—an art that is pure 
impression, pure image, pure “intuition” (to 
use a Crocean phrase), as distinguished from 
the art of Carducci, which is thought of as 
“parasitically exploiting’ various practical emo- 
tions engendered by the liberal and national 
Risorgimento. Carducci, in fact, expresses in 
poetical form an ideal of Italian citizenship; 
and he glorifies the Italian past to sustain that 
ideal of citizenship. How much of his fame 
does the poet owe, therefore, to his morality and 
how much to his poetry? The indictment of 
Carducci was drawn, curiously enough, by a 
critic who had stood aloof from the Crocean 
tradition and had even been scorned by the 
young men for his fogyism: by Enrico Thovez, 
a Piedmontese writer, author of Mimi dei mod- 
erni (Mimes of the Moderns), Jl pastore, il 
gredde e la zampogna (The Shepherd, the Flock, 
and the Reed), Jl viandante e la sua orma (The 
Trail of the Wayfarer), L’arco d’Ulysse (The 
Bow and Quiver of Ulysses), and various vol- 
umes of verse. The poets who may be taken as 
objectifying this reaction are, among others, 
Sergio Corazzini (1887-1907), author of Lir- 
iche’ (Lyrics) ; Ettore Cozzani, author of Ora- 
zione ai giovani (An Address to Youth), La 
siepe di emeraldo (The Emerald Hedge), Le 
sette lampade accese (The Seven Lighted 
Lamps), and other things; Aldo Palazzeschi, 
author of J cavalli bianchi (The White Horses), 
Lanterna (The Lantern), L’incendiario (The 
Incendiary), and a famous whimsical romance, 
Il codice di Perela (The Code of Perela) ; Cor- 
rado Govoni, author of 11 volumes of verse, and 
in the later years of novels and short stories; 
Luciano Folgore, a futurist, and Guido Goz- 
zano (1883-1916), who, with Corazzini, was re- 
garded as among the greatest of these. No re- 
view of Italian poetry could, of course, omit 
Filippo Tomaso Marinetti, author of Mazurka, 
of a play, Il tamburo di fuoco (The Fiery 
Drum), and various manifestos of Italian fut- 
urism of which he was founder and publicity 
agent. 

‘In prose writing “activism” expressed itself 


ITALIAN LITERATURE 


as a kind of anti-D’Annunzianism—a_prefer- 
ence for “substance” as against “rhetoric,” for 
“things” as against “words,’’ D’Annunzio being 
taken as a symbol for “rhetoric” and “words.” 
A keen Neapolitan critie (in 1924 living in 
Rome), Adriano Tilgher, had pointed out that 
D’Annunzio’s sensual dilettantism, with its pas- 
sionate aflirmation of the autonomy of the in- 
dividual spirit, is really closer to the new moods 
of the Crocean era than had been supposed. In 
fact, D’Annunzio is the man who connects this 
later period with its roots in the old _ ro- 
manticism. However, both the kind of life 
that D’Annunzio seemed to exemplify, and his 
florid, splendorous, gold-dripping sentence no 
longer pleased. The young men set up the 
plain, solid, meaty novels of Giovanni Verga 
(1840-1922, author of the cycle called J vinti 
(The Vanquished) as a better expression of 
the Italian literary ideal; just as they leaped 
over Fogazzaro to go back to Manzoni, to find 
a congenial expression of a religious ideal. As 
significant of the changing trend as these “re- 
vivals,” are one or two rehabilitations of living 
men: of Alfredo Panzini (born 1863) who 
reached maturity in the Carduccian spirit, but 
won the favor of the young men (his best novel, 
Il padrone sono me!—The boss? That’s me!”’) ; 
and of Luigi Pirandello, whose Jl fu Mattia 
Pascal (Late Mattia Pascal) sold to 2000 cop- 
ies in 20 years, and to 100,000 in the last five 
years of the period 1914-24. 

Not that the young men produced much that 
is truly exceptional in the field of the novel. 
The closest approach to an artistic sensation in 
the 10 years was the Filippo Rubé (Rubé) of 
the critic-scholar-poet-journalist, G. A. Borgese, 
who reviewed the pre-Fascisti period of Italian 
reconstruction in the manner of Stendhal and 
with something of the sweep of imagination 
with which Stendhal, a century before, reviewed 
post-Napoleonic reconstruction. But the prom- 
ise of Rubé was hardly kept in Borgese’s subse- 
quent I vwi e i morti (Living and Dead). So 
a temporary excitement welcomed Gino Rocca’s 
L’Uragano (Hurricane). Much was expected 
from Rosso di San Secondo after the collection 
of tales called Ponentino (West Wind); but 
apart from a certain lubricious perversity in 
Le donne senza amore (Women without Love) 
and some pretty pages in La Fuga (Flight), his 
novels had proved in no sense as interesting as 
his plays (see below). Some faithful workers 
and accomplished technicians came forward in 
the latter years: Marino Moretti, in, for ex- 
ample, La voce di dio (The Voice of God), and 
I puri di cuore (The Pure of Heart); Mario 
Puccini, in Dov’é il peccato é dio (The Mira- 
cle) ; Salvatore Gotta, in Il figlio inquieto (The 
Restless Child); Corrado Govoni, more famous 
as a poet, in La terra contro il cielo (Earth 
Against Heaven); and Virgilio Brocchi, in JI 
posto nel mondo (His Place in the World). 
For the rest, the public that reads for amuse- 
ment continued to depend upon older writers 
of established reputation who had not indulged 
to any great extent in poses of novelty: Luci- 
ano Zuccoli, in two of his best things, L’A more 
di Loredana (The Love Affair of Loredana), and 
Le cose pit grandi di lui (Things Bigger Than 
He); Grazia Deledda, in Jl dio dei viventi (The 
God of the Living)—Deledda enjoying a real 
eminence in her declining years; Antonio Bel- 
tramelli, whose patient studies among the cus- 
toms of Romagna gained a certain actuality 


695 


ITALIAN LITERATURE 


from the triumph of Mussolini, a Romagnolo— 
see Gli uomini rossi (The Reds and_ the 
Blacks; Annie Vivanti, a woman of interna- 
tional culture—having lived in New York and 
Wyoming, as well as in Ireland, England and 
Germany—who continued her gaiety and humor 
in Zingaresca, and in Gioia (Joy). Guido da 
Verona, in spite of everything, has to be regard- 
ed (see La Vita Comincia Domani (Life Begins 
To-morrow) as one of the masters of the Euro- 
pean novel of large canvas and close worked 
detail, who, as Tilgher again has said, has ex- 
pressed certain European states of mind in en- 
during form and even created moods of life 
which hosts of people have imitated. Da Ver- 
ona’s vogue was waning, and perhaps his power 
too; though La mia vita in un raggio di sole 
(My Life in a Ray of Sunshine) is worth read- 
ing. ) 

The real discovery of the. 10 years in the field 
of the novel was Federico Tozzi (1890-1920) 


whose premature death did not prevent the 


revelation of a great genius in the style of 
Dostoievski in Tre Croct (Three Crosses), JI 
podere (The Farm), Ad ocehi chiusi (With 
Eyes Closed), and Amore (Love). 

In the world of the theatre the “old” and the 
“new” came into self-conscious conflict, with 
new authors, new styles, and a new criticism 
combating old authors, old styles, old concep- 
tions of the drama. The critic who emerged in 
this connection is Adriano Tilgher (Studies on 
the Contemporary Drama, trans., Dutton, New 
York), whose works are fundamental for a 
knowledge of the new tendencies (see also Ri- 
cognizioni—Reconnoissances). Tilgher connects 
the Italian movement with its romantic origins 
and with the French drama of Sarment, the 
Belgian drama of Crommelinck, the German 
“expressionistic” theatre, the Russian plays of 
Andréev, and the English work of Synge (The 
Playboy of the Western World). 

To strike the contrast: the “old” Italian 
drama, as represented by Roberto Bracco, Sa- 
batino Lopez, Dario Niccodemi, Marco Praga, 
Salvatore di Giscomo, etce., was more or less 
the “bourgeois” drama of Paris, reformed by 
Ibsen (see especially the works of E. A. Butti, 
who died in 1907). It accepted the social or- 
ganization of Europe as a fixed organism and 
pressed the dramatic emotion from the conflict 
of the individual with the unbreakable restric- 
tions that hemmed him in: he could evade them 
—the ever-recurring salacious comedy of the 
triangle; he could succumb to them—the ever- 
recurring “drama,” or tragedy, of sentimental 
motivation. The “new” drama, in keeping with 
the revival of Hegelian idealism (Croce-Gen- 
tile), but also influenced by Bergson (anti- 
intellectualism and the “dynamic spirit”), by 
American pragmatism (“the world is what we 
make it’’?) and by the forces of which Einstein 
is at once an interpreter and a creator (rela- 
tivism), is a philosophical approach to life: 
What is reality?, What is personality? What 
is morality? Where the “old” drama_ looked 
primarily at what is fixed and unchanging, the 
“new” centres its attention on life’s contradic- 
tions, incoherences, mutations: life is a flux— 
therefore reality is never fixed, even people are 
not to-day what they will be to-morrow and 
what they were yesterday. We are phantoms 
labeled with a name: we are, as Pirandello 
says, “one, no one, a hundred thousand.” 

The dramatists of the new tendencies are nu- 


ITALIAN LITERATURE 


merous: Luigi Chiarelli in La Maschera e il 
Volto (The Mask and the Face); Rosso di San 
Secondo in Marionette—che passione! (lLove’s 
Puppets) and La bella addormentata (The 
Sleeping Beauty); Fausto Maria Martini, in 
Ridi Pagliaccio (Laugh, Clown, Laugh); Pen- 
suti, L’uomo di legna e la donna di ceva (The 
Wooden Man and the Wax Woman); and Cav- 
acchioli, author of a host of plays; but over- 
topping them all for the power and variety of 
his production, for success at home and interna- 
tional fame, Luigi Pirandello: Six Characters 
in Search of an Author; Henry IV; The Pleas- 
ures of Honesty; Right You Are! Naked; Each 
in His Own Way; Think it Over, Gimmy ; which 
are known in every capital of the western 
world. 

“Fad or permanent contribution as the “new” 
theatre might be, it bore witness to an activity 
which had proved stimulating to all factions of 
the theatre. Nino Berrini and Giovacchino 
TForzano came forward in a type of poetic, post- 
romantic historical drama in which Sem Benelli 
was still a recognized master, though Benelli 
had never surpassed his old La Tignola (Book- 
worm), and Arzigogolo (The Hour Glass) is in- 
ferior to his sensational La cena delle beffe 
(The Jest). One real masterpiece, moreover, 
distinguished a new type of fantastic classical 
drama—the Glauco of Ercole Luigi Morselli 
(1881-1921), author also of Orione, of three 
one-act plays and the very readable Favole per 
i ré doggi (Fables for the Kings of Today). 
The epigons of Glauco are already numerous: 
let us mention only La tela di Penelope (The 
Return of Ulysses), of Raffaele Calzini. 

However, in the Italy of this period we are 
confronted with a fascinating insurgence of new 
forces of which the political manifestations as- 
tounded everybody in the triumph of Fascismo, 
and of which the literary manifestations con- 
stituted, as was said above, the most distinctive 
feature of the decade. Aristocracy as against 
democracy, nationalism as against liberalism 
and internationalism, discipline and obedience 
as against the “rights of man”; counter-Refor- 
mation as against Reformation, “spirit” as 
against “stomach,” Latinism as against Anglo- 
Saxon industrialism, materialism, and hygienic 
“civicism’—such ideas and slogans were being 
bandied about by young Italians with genius 
or without genius, in a language full of the 
strangest and wildest technicalities and in a 
style taut with straining cerebration. With 
these youngsters logic is in bad repute. What 
one must do is “experience.” Struggle is the 
law of life! Lottiamo! 

Tf the War helped to individuate these new 
tendencies and give them distinctness, they go 
back fully 20 years to self-conscious movements 
dating from the first lustrum of the century. 
_ The first corollary drawn from Crocean ideal- 
ism by Papini and Giuseppe Prezzolini (found- 
ers, in 1903, of the review called Leonardo) was 
that life must be lived or created and not ac- 
cepted or taken for granted: hence rebellion 
against passive politics, passive religion, pas- 
sive culture. Here are to be found the remote 
origins of Fascism, as indeed the immediate ori- 
gins of proletarian insurrectionism (the Mus- 
solini of that day), of anti-parliamentarianism 
(the Mussolini of the present), of Catholic 
“modernism” (Ernesto Bonaiuti). In this con- 
nection also there were “revivals” and rehabili- 
tations: if philosophical thought was influenced 


696 


ITALIAN LITERATURE 


by Croce, political thought found its Old Testa- 
ment in the Sociology of Wilfred Pareto (1844-— 
1923) and its New Testament in La rivolta 
ideale (The Ideal Revolt) of Alfredo Oriani, 
who lived in the last half of the nineteenth cen- 
tury and who was also the author of La lotta 
politica in Italia, a History of Italian Revolu- 
tions and of an influential novel, La disfatta 
(The Defeat). Over against a militant prole- 
tariat inspired by Karl Marx there thus devel- 
oped in Italy a militant middle class which ac- 
cepted the class struggle in socialistic terms 
and fought the Socialists on their own grounds 
with their own weapons. 

This mental unrest may be sensed most fully 
in Papini, as above suggested—read in addition 
to The Failure, Il crepuscolo della Filosofia 
(The Twilight of Philosophy); and Four and 
Twenty Minds, especially if Papini’s world- 
famous Life of Christ is to be appraised with 
any understanding. But hardly less important 
is the painter-poet Ardengo Soffici, author of 
Lemmonio Boreo (a novel that anticipates Fas- 
cism to the letter), of Arlecchino and many 
critical and political essays. Domenico Giuli- 
otti, author of a frantic and paradoxical Cath- 
olic diatribe—L’ora di Barabba (The Hour of 
Barabbas)—well styles himself the “wild man” 
in the Dictionary of a Wild Man which he 
wrote in collaboration with Papini. Giuliotti’s 
histrionic violence stands out in contrast with 
another Catholic writer of a'real mystic tem- 
perament, Giosué Borsi (1888-1915), author of 
Letters from the Front. Certain characteristic 
and influential states of mind may be found in 
Curzio Suckert, L’Jtalia vivente (The Living 
Italy). Though in this connection we must not 
forget the speeches and editorials of Mussolini 
himself now collected in volume forms, with 
his war diaries. 

But when the tumult and the shouting dies, 
a certain bulk of unquestionably sound and co- 
herent achievement will be left as the perma- 
nent record of this Italian period. Already the 
Letters and critical essays of Renato Serra 
(1881-1915) had acquired an almost classic 
prestige. Giuseppe Prezzolini (read La coltura 
italiana—‘Italian Civilization’) lived all this 
life of thought and passion and worked it into 
a literary product that has judgment and fair- 
ness and character as well as brilliancy. Mario 
Missiroli is a publicist who saves himself many 
palinodes by thinking before he writes. Gae- 
tano Salvemini entered political and _ social 
polemic with the sobriety of the historian and 
the courage of a warrior. In pure literature, 
we may mention the work of Massimo Bontem- 
pelli, I sette savi (The Seven Sages); La vita 
intensa and La vita laboriosa (The Strenuous 
Life and The Laborious Life); the tales of 
Ferdinando Paolieri (the real successor, per- 
haps, of Renato Fucini in the Tuscan spirit), 
the varied work of Enrico Pea, Spaventacchio 
(The Scarecrow) and a play—Judas, and the 
delicate humor of Giuseppe Zucca, Il morbo 
della virtu (The Disease of Virtue). A young 
critic from whom something was to be expected 
was Piero Gohetti (see La frusta teatrale ‘““Vhe 
Theatrical Whip”). 

And now, collecting some loose but important 
ends, we may add that Trilussa (Carlo Alberto 
Salustri) was still continuing, in his scream- 
ingly funny sonnets in Roman dialect, the more 
recent traditions of Pascarella (author of The 
Discovery of America and Villa Gloria), Augus- 


ITALIAN SOMALILAND 


to Sindici, and the immortal Oronzo Marginati 
(Luigi Lueatelli, a prose “eolumnist,” author, 
for instance, of Come ti erudisco er pupo 
‘Bringing up the Kid’; and Cosi parlarono due 
imbectli—Thus Spake Two Fools,’ translated 
by Maurice Bishop as ‘Theodore the Sage’). 
The great “dime novelists” still remained, 
Mario Mariani, Pittigrilli, and Carolina Inver- 
nizio (1857-1917). Authors of children’s books, 
since the classic Pinocchio of Collodi, were 
Vamba, Beltramelli and Barzini. One of the 
best works of historical scholarship is Corrado 
ticci’s Beatrice Cenci. The best cook book is 
that of Artusi. And last but not least among 
the loose ends is the Nottwrno (Nocturne) of 
D’Annunzio. 

ITALIAN SOMALILAND. See 
LAND. 

ITALY. A_ constitutional monarchy of 
southern Europe; area before the War, 110,632 
square miles; population (census of 1911), 34,- 
671,377; population for the same area by the 
eensus of 1921, 37,276,738; population per 
square mile (1921), 336.9. The annexed ter- 
ritories by the Treaty of St. Germain were: 
Venezia ‘Tridentina, area 4027 square miles, 
population (1921) 648,208; Gorizia and Gradis- 
ca and districts, area 1138 square miles, popu- 
lation (1921) 310,642; Trieste, area 37 square 
miles, population (1921) 238,655; Istria, area 
2035 square miles, population (1921) 342,979; 
Zara and islands annexed from Dalmatia, area 
113 square miles, population: (1921) 18,719. 
Total area in 1921, 117,982 square miles; total 
population, 38,835,941. Comparative vital sta- 
tistics for the period discussed were as follows 
(figures for 1912 and 1922, based on ratio per 
1000 of population and applying only to pre- 
war boundaries): marriages, 7.6 and 8.74; liv- 
ing births, 32.38 and 28.55; deaths, 18.15 and 
16.66. The influenza epidemic of 1918 raised 
the mortality to 32.97 per 1000 inhabitants 
(exclusive of war deaths). Emigration, which 
had reached its peak in 1913 with 872,598, fell 
off during the war years, dropping to its low- 
est level in 1918 with 28,311. But by 1921, 
emigration had once more mounted to 255,166, 
and in 1922, to 276,964. Whereas in 1913 al- 
most two-thirds of the emigrants had migrated 
overseas, in 1920 only a few more than one-half 
did so. In 1922, emigrants overseas totaled 
121,410; to Europe, etc., 155,554. This was oc- 
casioned by the fact that many Italians sought 
work in the devastated French areas, although 
the restriction imposed on immigration into the 
United States was a contributing cause. Be- 
fore the War the ratio of immigrants (i.e. re- 
turning Italians) to emigrants varied from one- 
third to one-half. In 1921, 92,212 Italians re- 
turned, 71,974 of these being from the United 
States. This was 36 per cent as large as the 
number of emigrants. The populations of the 
large cities in 1921 (1911 figure in parenthesis) 
were as follows: Naples, 780,220 (678,000) ; 
Milan, 718,304 (599,000); Rome, 691,314 (542,- 
000); Turin, 502,274 (427,000); Palermo, 400,- 
348 (341,000); Genoa, 300,784 (272,000); Ca- 
tania, 255,394 (211,000); Florence, 253,565 
(233,000); Bologna, 210,969 (173,000) ;° Mes- 
sina, 176,794 (127,000); Venice, 171,665 (161,- 
000); Bari, 131,143 (104,000); Leghorn, 114,- 
813 (105,000). Principal cities in the annexed 
territories were: ‘Trieste, 238,655 (1921); 
Pola, 49,960; Trento, 35,125; Gorizia, 25,576. 

Education. In the period surveyed, the State 


SoMALI- 


697 


ITALY 


applied itself seriously to the problem of illit- 
eracy and in 1919 set up a national institute 
for the instruction of illiterate adults. Many 
districts, notably in the provinces of Novara, 
Turin, Como, and Cuneo, could record the fact 
that all young people 20 years of age were able 
to read and write. Under Mussolini, education- 
al legislation, while frequent, took on a reac- 
tionary tinge. Compulsory religious education, 
conducted by teachers receiving the approval of 
the Church authorities, and the displaying of 
the crucifix in all schools, were ordered. Limi- 
tations were also placed on the number of free 
students and, to this end, severe competitive 
examinations were fixed. In all elementary 
schools, public and private, there were 4,523,183 
pupils in attendance in 1915-16. The increase 
was slight over the previous recorded year, 
1907-08, as is indicated by the fact that there 


were 3,002,168 attending public elementary 
schools in 1907-08, and 3,167,245 in 1915-16. 
In all government and _ private secondary 


schools the enrollment in 1919-20 was 346,218. 
The increase in technical schools was particu- 
larly noteworthy, attendance in government 
schools in 1919-20 being 173,296 as compared 
with 103,118 in 1910-11. The eagerness for 
higher education was even more marked in the 
universities, for the attendance increased from 
21,615 students in 1911-12 to 41,176 in 1919— 
20. In 1913-14, the state expended 137,634,000 
lire on instruction; in 1922-23, it expended 
658,871,000 lire. This, however, cannot be re- 
garded as an increase, for the lira (par 19.3 
cents) was quoted at 4.75 cents in 1922. If 
we consider that the index figure for prices and 
wages for January, 1923, was 575. (based on 
1913 as 100), it is evident that in real money 
the expenditure was considerably less in 1922- 
23 than in 1913-14. 

Agriculture. Recovery in the field of agri- 
culture was rapid after the War, though gov- 
ernment requisitions of crops in 1919 and 1920 
made resumption somewhat tardy. The table 
furnishes a basis for comparison; acreages are 
given in thousands of acres. 


1914 1923 
Thou- Thou- 
sand Short tons sand 
Crop Acres Acres Short tons 
Wheat.) csyaies 11,785 5,072,650 11,554 6,745,175 
COTTER. cine 3,793 2,860,000 3,618 2,351,900 
ORS etarennt eas te B La di 428,340 LOT 484,960 
Potatoes. S55): her Taret ae 4. oe, 778 1,416,800 
Sugar beets 101 1,540,000 148 1,904,000 
NWATTGS Hrs par teeraas 10,6738 1,214,400 * 12,108 726,000 @ 
Olives Tino: NGiiiena wee et) 8 7,042 528,000¢ 


*Thousands of gallons of wine and oil. 


Orchards, yielding large crops of oranges, lem- 
ons, chestnuts, pomegranates, quinces, apples, 
and pears, as well as walnuts and almonds, 
continued to flourish, though by 1922 the crops 
had not yet reached pre-war levels. Silk cul- 
ture, after a period of decline, assumed its pre- 
war importance in 1923. In the three-year pe- 
riod 1910-12, the silk cocoon crop averaged 41,- 
200 metric tons. In 1922, it was 31,000 tons; 
but in 1923, 42,580 tons. The decline prior to, 
1923 was due to the destruction of the mulberry, 
trees in Piedmont, Lombardy, and Venetia—the 
chief centres. After the War the factory ca-: 
pacity of the silk mills similarly declined, as 
many plants were sold during the War for their 
metal. Live stock figures for 1918 revealed 


ITALY 


(1908 figure in parentheses): horses, 989,786 
(955,878); asses, 949,162 (1,238,060); mules, 
496,743 (1,230,060); cattle, 6,239,741 (6,198,- 
861); pigs, 2,338,926 (2,507,928); sheep, 11,- 
753,910 (11,162,926); goats, 3,082,558 (2,714,- 
878). The wool yield maintained an average of 
33,000 tons and had to be supplemented by im- 
portations. 

Mining and Manufacturing. After the 
War, mining was prosecuted with a renewed 
intensity. The lack of coal and iron ore neces- 
sitated the dependence upon foreign sources, but 
in sulphur and mercury the output was of great 
importance. The following figures for 1922 and 
1923 indicate how steady the progress was (fig- 
ures in metric tons): iron ore, 311,214 and 295,- 
450 (603,116 in 1913); iron and cupriferous 
pyrites, 486,000 and 493,412 (317,334 in 1913) ; 
coal,. 195,352 and 168,922; lignite, 745,402 and 
938,229 (total mineral fuel in 1913, 701,081) ; 
metallic mercury 1541 and 1605 (1004 in 1913). 
The Sicilian sulphur industry, one of the most 
important in the world, had not recovered by 
1923 from the War’s effects. The forging ahead 
of the American industry during 1914-18 had 
much to do with the general stagnation. In 
1911, the preduction was 2,682,766 metric tons 
of sulphur ore and 414,161 tons of raw sulphur; 
in 1922, it was only 167,339 tons of raw sulphur 
and in 1923, 248,916 tons. In 1923, to aid the 
Sicilian Sulphur Consortium in carrying its ac- 
cumulated stocks for a more favorable market, 
the Italian government guaranteed a bond issue 
of 100,000,000 lire. By the acquisition of the 
mercury mines of Idria as a result of the War, 
Italy became the world’s largest producer of 
mercury. In 1922, the output was 1541 tons of 
mercurial ore out of about 4000 tons for the 
whole world. Imports of coal were always 
heavy. In 1913, imports of coal reached 9,000,- 
000 tons; during the War this fell off consid- 
erably; after the War, imports did not average 
more than 4,000,000 tons annually, but in 1923 
they rose to 9,167,269 tons. This, with other 
conditions, kept the output of metallurgical 
plants at a low level until 1923 when an im- 
provement occurred. In 1922, 157,498 tons of 
pig iron were turned out, and in 1923, 247,160 
tons; in 1913, the output was 427,000 tons. In 
1922, 981,419 tons and in 1923, 1,121,912 tons 
of steel were’ produced as compared with 933,- 
000 tons in 1913 and 1,331,000 tons: in 1917. 
In 1923 only 506,000 tons of iron and steel 
scrap, iron ore, bars, plates, and sheets were im- 
ported as compared with 933,000 tons in 1913. 
The lack of mineral fuel made the development 
of hydroelectric resources of paramount impor- 
tance. It was estimated that 5,000,000 horse 
power were available for exploitation. At the 
end of 1922, hydroelectric companies represent- 
ed a total capacity of 2,170,000 horse power, 
which was an increase of 650,000 horse power 
since 1915. Consumption figures indicated: 2,- 
312,000 kilowatt hours used in 1913-14; 4,000,- 
000,000 kilowatt hours used in 1920-21. Eight- 
tenths of this was utilized for industrial pur- 
poses, one-tenth for traction, and one-tenth for 
illumination. 

Commerce. Imports in 1913 were valued at 
$707,664,101; in 1923, at $775,026,883. Ex- 
‘ports in 1923 were $497,649,999 as against 
. $500,241,667. (The 1923 figures are converted 
from the average exchange rate for the year.) 
In 1913, countries of origin of Italian imports 
ranged in order: Germany, Great Britain, 


698 


‘fruits, vegetables, tomato conserve. 


ITALY 


United States, France. In 1923 the order was: 
United States, Great Britain, France, Germany. 
Countries taking Italian exports in 1913, in or- 
der, were: Germany, Switzerland, United States, 
France, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain. In 
1923 the order was, France, United States, 
Switzerland, Great Britain, Argentina, Ger- 
many. The trade with the United States re- 
vealed something of the character of the general 
commercial status. (See table.) The index 
figures in the table are based on the value of the 
average imports and exports for 1910-14. 


EXPORTS TO THE IMPORTS FROM THE 
UNITED STATES UNITED STATES 


Millions of Index Millionsof Index 

Average dollars No. dollars No. 
LOT0=—14) ee eee byl 100 66 100 
LODO Nea perenne vas) 148 372 563 
LOD Rs,. eseaetenets 62 122 215 327 
POQDIN Sch dee ee 46 90 198 800 
1923 oT RAE ieee 68 30333) 208 oD 


Italian imports continued to be such basic raw 
materials as wheat, raw cotton, metals and min- 
erals, mineral oils, hides, tobacco, lard and ba- 
con. This dependence on foreign countries for 
wheat and scrap iron, particularly, continually 
operated to Italy’s disadvantage. The tendency 
after the War for nations to restrict their ex- 
ports of important articles or to charge higher 
prices abroad than those asked at home, ac- 
counted for a bitterness of feeling that often 
was publicly voiced. Leading exports were, in 
order of value (1920), cotton manufactures, 
raw silk, silk manufactures, hemp, spun cotton, 
automobiles, wines, hats, ete. Leading food- 
stuffs exported were lemons, olive oil, cheese, 
In 1914, 
the Italian merchant marine consisted of 644 
steamers of 1,534,738 gross tons and 523 sailing 
vessels of 237,821 net tons; in 1922, the marine 
consisted of 868 steamers of 2,539,833 gross 
tens and 397 sailing vessels of 167,613 gross 
tons. During the War, Italy’s shipping losses 
were the severest, proportionately, of all the 
combatant nations. Thus, 677,207 tons were 
lost by sinkings alone, while in all, 1,076,171 
tons were lost, made up of sinkings, sale to for- 
eigners, those broken up for material, ete. 
However, Italy was compensated by the accre- 
tions of Austro-Hungarian ships as well as the 
active building carried on over the whole of 
1915-22. Specifically, 842,529 tons of enemy 
shipping were seized; 529,214 tons were built 
in home shipyards; 555,388 tons were built 
abroad. In 1911, 173,437 vessels of 56,056,306 
tons had entered Italian ports; 173,353 vessels 
of 56,082,448 tons had cleared. Nothing indi- 
cates better the tardy commercial recovery than 
the fact that in 1919 only 98,189 vessels of 24,- 
093,639 tons entered and 98,144 vessels of 24,- 
143,487 tons cleared Italian ports. Recovery 
was progressing rapidly by 1923; in the first 
nine months of 1923, 114,744 vessels with a 
tonnage of 32,314,780 entered and 114,980 with 
a tonnage of 32,045,878 cleared Italian ports. 
Communications. In 1913, there were 11,- 
015 miles of railway; in 1920, 12,900 miles. In 
1913, 8540 miles were under government man- 
agement; in 1920, 10,290 miles. A serious con- 
cern after the War was the sad state of dis- 
repair into which the railways had fallen. The 
loss and depreciation of railway stocks, the 
overmanning of the entire system (employees 
had increased 46.6 per cent between 1914 and 


THE LIBRARY 
OF THE 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 


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2 


THE LIBRARY 


OF THE 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 


ITALY 


1920), the eight-hour day and the lowered effi- 
ciency of the workers, all contributed to a gen- 
eral deplorable condition. The deficit of the 
fiscal year 1920-21 was 1,034,000,000 lire, and of 
1921-22 was 966,000,000 lire; this in spite of 
the continually rising tariffs. (Freight rates 
from 1915 to 1922 increased 400 per cent.) 
Electrification of railways was a theme of con- 
tinual discussion, though the unfavorable finan- 
cial situation militated against any extensive 
immediate projects. As a way out, the Mus- 
solini government expressed itself as favoring 
the resurrection of private management, but, 
while extensive reforms and reductions of per- 
sonnel were carried out, no definite move, by 
1924, was made toward private operation. 
Finance. For 1912-13, revenues were 2,698,- 
620,000 lire and expenditures 2,615,208,000 lire. 
The revised budget of 1923-24 carried 15,566,- 
000,000 lire for effective revenues (about 5,000,- 
000,000 lire being classified as extraordinary) 
and 18,182,000,000 lire for effective expendi- 
tures (of which half constituted extraordinary 
expenses). After 1914, the problem of balanc- 
ing the budget was of utmost importance and 
the failure of successive governments todo so 
awakened a real alarm. In 1919-20, the deficit 
was 9534 millions of lire; in 1920-21, it was 
5922 millions; in 1921-22, 5529 millions; in 
1922-23, 3100 millions. For 1923-24, even aft- 
er radical economies were effected, the deficit 
still showed 2616 millions. However, with the 
wide powers of the new government, its policy 
of reducing expenses and increasing revenues 
through a broadening of the basis of taxation, 
it was perceptible in 1924 that much was being 
done to hasten a return to sound conditions. 
Increases in revenue and economies in expendi- 
ture during the fiscal year 1923-24 were so 
great as to make it likely (as the situation ap- 
peared in May, 1924) that the deficit would 
fall as low as 300,000,000 lire. Under the new 
government (1923) revenues were increased by 
the following methods: The direct taxes were 
concentrated under three large heads, viz., land, 
buildings, and incomes. Beginning with 1923, 
a new sales tax became effective. Other changes 
were higher excise taxes, increased postal rates, 
abolition of the match monopoly. Italy’s pre- 
war debt was 13,312,000,000 lire. By Mar. 31, 
1923, the public debt was 116,975,000,000. War 
loans totaled 36,042,000,000; floating debt, 34,- 
848,000,000; notes in circulation, 10,272,000,- 
000; foreign debt, 22,081,000,000 gold lire or 
88,000,000,000 paper lire at the 1923 exchange. 
Allowing for this conversion the debt really was 
183,000,000,000 lire. The following was the dis- 
tribution of the foreign debt in 1922 (the fig- 
ure increases from year to year because of ac- 
crued interest charges): to Great Britain, 12,- 
687,173,200 lire; to United States, 8,586,816,383 
lire; to United States for dollar bonds sold in 
the United States, 51,694,069; dollar indebted- 
ness to the Brazilian government, 35,722,000. 
In 1921 and in 1923, the Italian government 
gave official assurances that the debt to the 
United States would be met. However, it was 
requested that the terms granted to Great 
Britain be also accorded to Italy. That a gen- 
eral skepticism prevailed in American circles 
on this point, nevertheless, was indicated by the 
statements of Senators Borah and Owen in Jan- 
uary, 1924, that this debt never would be re- 
paid. Up to 1924, Italy was still leaving the 
question of interest payments on these obliga- 


699 


ITALY 


tions out of its calculations. The internal debt 
of Italy was, in 1924, being reduced while no 
increases were being made in the foreign debt 
except those due to interest accruals. At the 
end of 1922 there were 19,674,700,000 lire in 
paper notes in circulation as compared with 2,- 
782,000,000 lire in 1913. Reserves represented 
70 per cent of these in 1913 and only 9 per cent 
in 1923. 

Economic Conditions. The lira exchange, 
at the par of 19.3 cents in 1914, dropped to 
11.37 in 1919, 4.97 in 1920, 4.29 in 1921, and 
recovered only slightly to 4.75 in 1922, with a 
further slight decline to 4.60 in 1923. The cost 
of living based on the 1913 wholesale prices as 
100, was at 642 in January, 1921, 577 in Janu- 
ary, 1922, 575 in January, 1923 and 571 in Jan- 
uary, 1924. Wages rose too, though not to an 
equal proportion. The wage index numbers, on 
the basis of 100 for 1914, for subsequent years 
were: 102.4 in 1915; 111.6 in 1916; 146.6 in 
19173917907 Cin’, 1918); /279.5e'in, ‘1919 :) 408.4 vin 
1920; 571.7 in 1921. Wage levels did not 
change greatly after 1921. The return of the 
soldiers and the increasing intransigency mani- 
fested by the laboring population, as the coming 
of peace brought renewed hardships, made the 
period 1919-22 one of the most turbulent in 
Italy’s recent history. The government, sens- 
ing the unrest, hastily enacted a series of social 
measures in 1918 and 1919. These included 
machinery for the payment of unemployment 
subsidies, a system of unemployment insurance, 
the eight-hour day in many industries, for ag- 
ricultural workers, and for state railway em- 
ployees, compulsory old age and sickness insur- 
ance, etc. But nothing could stem the rising 
tide. The lack of raw materials, high prices 
for food, unemployment, all those conditions 
that indicate a population bearing too many op- 
pressive burdens, ushered in a period of revolu- 
tionary strikes; that in 1920 threatened a com- 
plete upheaval of the existing society. In 1919, 
strikes were frequent; the red flag was hoisted 
in Tuscany and Romagna; a general strike was 
declared in Naples; strikes were called to check 
the supply trains destined for the Kolchak 
forces in Siberia. In 1920, ‘disorders broke out 
with a renewed intensity. Throughout the 
spring the country was in a continual turmoil 
as postal employees were followed out by rail- 
way workers, to be in turn succeeded by the 
metal workers. In the summer, city transport 
workers struck and were accompanied by the 
electricians. In the fall these movements be- 
gan to take on all the characteristics of an or- 
ganized opposition. The slowing up of the im- 
portant metal works in northern Italy and the 
attempt to cut wages accounted for a truculent 
mood that vented itself in frequent displays of 
sabotage. This, and the lack of raw materials, 
caused many plants to close their doors to the 
workers. The result was a wholesale seizure of 
factories throughout Lombardy and Piedmont 
and the installation of workers’ committees of 
control. Materials were confiscated and an at- 
tempt made to coerce the management to re- 
main at their posts. The General Confedera- 
tion of Labor gave the movement its official 
sanction and took over a general supervision of 
the workers’ activities. Only a tardy interven- 
tion on the part of the government succeeded 
in restoring order. On Sept. 19, 1920, repre- 
sentatives of workers and employers patched up 
a truce whereby a measure of control in opera- 


ITALY 700 


tions and salaries was granted to the men, and 
a bill embodying this syndicalist principle was 
promised by the government. Meanwhile the 
same temper was exhibited by the agrarian 
workers. Landed estates were seized by peas- 
ants throughout the summer and fall, Sicily be- 
ing the seat of most of the trouble. Associa- 
tions were formed for the administration of the 
sequestered areas, and under the codperatives, 
collective farming and purchasing were carried 
on. Many farmers extricated themselves by 
leasing their lands to these associations. While 
the outbreaks did not assume general propor- 
tions, cases of rioting and bloodshed were fre- 
quent. The unrest subsided only slowly. Strikes 
continued throughout 1921. There was a gen- 
eral strike in Rome in July, a railway strike in 
November, rioting and bloodshed as a result of 
ill-feeling between Fascisti and Communists 
throughout the fall. Unemployment in the 
metal, textile, and building industries was high. 
By Dee. 1, 1921, there were 512,000 men out of 
work. In all, 1045 strikes, affecting 644,564 
workmen, accounted for the loss of 7,772,870 
working days during 1921 (and these figures 
were less than half those for 1920). Not until 
late in 1922 did a return to something like 
normal conditions begin to manifest itself. Re- 
vivals were evident in the metallurgical and 
mechanical industries and investments in in- 
dustrial enterprises increased. By September, 
1923, unemployment had dropped to 179,000 
workers, and labor disputes throughout the 
whole of 1923 had involved the loss of only 250,- 
000 working days. By the beginning of 1924, 
observers could report that of all the Continen- 
tal European countries involved in the War, 
Italy had made the greatest progress toward 
regaining its economic and financial stability. 

The spread of codperative societies was par- 
ticularly noteworthy; 15,000 societies were re- 
ported in 1921 as compared with 7500 in 1915. 
Of the former, 7430 were united in the Nation- 
al League of Codperative Societies, with a to- 
tal membership of 1,857,500 and a. collective 
share capital of more than 250,000,000 lire. 
After 1913, the National Institute of Credit co- 
ordinated the activities of most of the codpera- 
tive savings banks and credit organizations. In 
1920, the capital of the Institute was 20,840,000 
lire, and its turnover of ordinary current ac- 
counts (deposits and withdrawals), 1,592,000,- 
000 lire. After the advent of the Fascisti gov- 
ernment, codperative societies did not receive 
government support, with the result that many 
collapsed. The more important, however, con- 
tinued to thrive; notably the Federation of Ag- 
ricultural Consortia, which was one of the 
strongest of its kind in the world. 

History. Although Italy had been linked 
with Germany and Austria-Hungary in the 
Triple Alliance since 1882, the Italian govern- 
ment, on Aug. 3, 1914, declared its neutrality 
in the War, on the grounds, first, that since 
the War had been caused by the aggression of 
the Central Powers, the casus federis provided 
for in the strictly defensive Triple Alliance had 
not arisen; and, second, that by failing to ac- 
quaint Italy, in advance, with the terms of the 
note to Serbia, Austria-Hungary had disregard- 
ed the terms of the Alliance. As a matter of 
fact, by secret agreements with France (1902) 
and Russia (1909), Italy had pledged herself 
not to aid Germany and Austria-Hungary in 
an aggressive war. That Italians saw no rea- 


ITALY 


son for taking their place at Austria’s side was 
plain; and the entrance of Great Britain into 
the struggle removed all thought of participa- 
tion against the Entente. The neutralist atti- 
tude at first was strongly championed. The low 
state of the finances and the fact that Italy had 
not fully recovered from the Libyan war (see 
LipyA) together with a belief that hostilities 
against her erstwhile allies must be contemptu- 
ously regarded, were the more important fac- 
tors contributing to this view. Some measures 
were taken to relieve the stringency that war 
conditions brought in their train. Exports of 
cereals were prohibited; a moratorium was de- 
clared; and steps were taken to further a ready 
importation of raw materials. Meanwhile the 
war establishment—five classes had been mohi- 
lized—necessitated great outlays of money, and 
a cabinet crisis precipitated over the need for 
tapping new sources of revenue resulted in the 
formation of something like a coalition govern- 
ment with Baron Sonnino at the Foreign Office. 
As the War, however, took on ever-increasing 
proportions and as the intrigues about the Ital- 
ian Foreign Office became more numerous, it 
began to appear that a change had taken place 
in Italian public opinion, or at any rate, in of- 
ficial opinion. The character of the sentiment, 
with 1915, took on a-more bellicose hue; Italy 
meant to join the Entente, every one saw, at a 
price. The recovery of the northern provinces 
had of course always had a certain appeal to 
popular sentiment, but that Italy’s entry into 
the War was to be purely a matter of diplo- 
matic arrangements was not to be concealed. 
Germany, sensing this, sent the astute Prince 
von Biilow to Rome in order to keep Italy neu- 
tral if possible. Austria was urged to satisfy 
Italian demands for territory as far as she was 
able. Protracted negotiations were carried on 
between Austria and Italy but neither of Aus- 
tria’s offers came up to the minimum of Italy’s 
demands. (See Trrot, SouTH GERMAN.) The 
result was, Sonnino terminated the conversa- 
tions and turned to the Entente. On April 26, 
the secret Treaty of London was signed. By it, 
for full participation in the War, Italy was to 
receive the Trentino and South Tirol to the 
Brenner Pass, the city of Trieste, Gorizia, Is- 
tria, Dalmatia as far as Cape Planka, Valona 
(which had already been occupied on Oct. 30, 
1914), the Adriatic islands, and the Dodecanese 
including Rhodes. Other promises of territory 
included a sphere of influence in Asia Minor, 
and grants in Africa. That the anti-war party 
was still strong was shown when Premier Sal- 
andra resigned because of the failure of Giolitti 
and his followers to approve of his policy. 
But war demonstrations and the agitations of 
D’Annunzio had touched the popular temper 
with the result that Signor Salandra, perceiv- 
ing in what direction the wind was blowing, 
once more assumed the reins of office, and bold- 
ly asked the Parliament for a war declaration. 
On May 20, 1915, the Chamber invested the gov- 
ernment with complete powers; on May 23, the 
army was ordered mobilized; and on May 24, 
war was declared against Austria. Later in 
the year, Italy declared war on Turkey and Bul- 
garia, but it was not until August, 1916, that 
she broke relations with Germany. Loans were 
floated in July, 1915, for 1100 million lire and 
in February, 1916, for 3000 million lire. On 
the outbreak of the War, the railways passed 
under military control and through 1915 and 


ITALY 


1916 other measures were taken to facilitate an 
undivided war effort. These included: prohibi- 
tions on the importation of articles of luxury, 
the sequestration of property belonging to citi- 
zens of the Central Powers, cessation of trade 
with Germany, ete. 

The failure of the Italian armies to make any 
appreciable advances on the northern frontier, 
the rising prices, and the delay of the govern- 
ment in declaring war on Germany, served to 
create an opposition whose operations became 
increasingly embarrassing to the government. 
The great suecess which met the Austrian offen- 
sive in the Trentino in May, 1916, turned the 
scales against the ministry with the result that 
a defeat in the Chamber on June 10 forced its 
resignation. Not until June 19 was Signor 
Boselli able to form a cabinet. On it, Sonnino 
and Orlando were retained and Signor Bissolati, 
leader of the Interventionists, was given a 
place. Up to 1917, the conduct of the war re- 
ceived undivided attention and met with no or- 
ganized opposition. The occupation of Gorizia 
on Aug. 15, 1916, and the decision to partici- 
pate with the Allied troops in the Macedonia 
offensive, as well as to extend the Albanian op- 
erations, together with the early victories re- 
ported from these fronts, united in distracting 
attention from affairs in the Trentino. But 
the terrible loss of life on the Carso-Isonzo 
front, the discomforts the soldiers were suffer- 
ing, the failure to provide the simple amenities 
that might have made their position more tol- 
erable, and, with the collapse of Russia, the 
realization that Austria was now free to turn 
her undivided attention to Italy. all served to 
give strength to a defeatist agitation that took 
on volume as the year 1917 progressed. The op- 
position in the Parliament continually gained 
new accretions. In 1917, internal disagreements 
caused a cabinet crisis and Signor Boselli was 
compelled to reconstruct his cabinet. This 
merely presaged the larger events of the fall 
of the year. The disasters that met the Italian 
armies beginning with October at Caporetto, on 
the Asiago plateau, and in the Udine and Bel- 
luno provinces, and the loss of 300,000 men as 
prisoners, together with great army stores, 
threw the Italian people into a fright that bor- 
dered on frenzy. It seemed that only a miracle 
could save Italy from being completely crushed. 
But the army resistance strengthened, and the 
people, in the face of danger, took new heart, 
so that, after a change of ministries, the war 
was carried on. Signor Orlando headed the 
new cabinet and General Cadorna was removed 
to be supplanted by General Diaz. The French 
and British sent contingents to the Italian 
front, and with the reorganization of the mili- 
tary machine and a greater industrial effort, it 
was possible for the government to prosecute 
its activities with a renewed vigor. The year 
1918, however, tried the Italian people most se- 
verely. The lack of bread and coal and the 
very small rations of foodstuffs doled out added 
to the privations of the population. The peace 
discussions of the year, too, contributed to the 
general uneasiness; President Wilson’s “Four- 
teen Points” which seemed to indicate opposi- 
tion to the ambitious territorial desires of Ital- 
ian nationalists, and the propaganda of the 
Jugo-Slavs for a recognition of their racial 
boundaries, which had the adhesion of Signor 
Bissolati and other reformist Socialists, were 
contributing factors. The successful defense of 


701 


ITALY 


the Piave and the checking of the Austrian of- 
fensive, in the spring of the year, on the Asiago 
plateau, relieved the situation somewhat, but 
it was not until the great victories that marked 
the battle of Vittorio Veneto (October 24—No- 
vember 3) and ended in the crushing defeat of 
the Austrian army, that Italians could breathe 
easily once more. An armistice immediately 
followed by which Austrian troops evacuated 
not only Italian territories but the lands also 
promised to Italy by the secret Treaty of Lon- 
don. Italian forces were sent into the Tren- 
tino, and Dalmatia, as well as ‘Trieste and 
Fiume, so that by the time hostilities were con- 
cluded, Italy was in complete possession of all 
the territories to which she had laid claim. 
The end of the War saw Italian forces engaged 
on six fronts, viz., Italy, Albania, Macedonia, 
Palestine, Libya, France. In all, 5,615,000 men 
had been called out, of whom 496,920 pte been 
killed and 949,000 wounded, 220,000 of these 
being permanently incapacitated. 

In the discussions of the peace, Italian public 
opinion centred not only in the necessity for 
the rectification of the northern frontier line 
(in spite of a preponderance of alien popula- 
tions in some sections) but also in the need 
for retaining Fiume. On this matter the hos- 
tility of the Jugo-Slavs was encountered so that 
the settlement of the question continued to ab- 
sorb Italian attention for the next three years. 
Italy’s representatives at the Peace Conference 
were Orlando, Sonnino, Salandra, Barzilai, and 
Salvago-Raggi. These readily acquiesced to the 
partition of the German Africa colonies between 
France and Great Britain, accepting, by way of 
compensation for Italy only promises of slight 
additions to Libya and the Italian Somaliland, 
but on the questions of Dalmatia and Fiume 
they stood firm. Jugo-Slavia, however, had 
gained a friend in President Wilson. On Apr. 
23, 1919, after protracted conversations among 
the Big Four had yielded no results, President 
Wilson issued a public statement to the Italian 
people in which he counseled renunciation of 
Fiume and Dalmatia. Instead of having the 
desired result, President Wilson’s action only 
served to solidify all branches of opinion. The 
matter immediately became a cause célebre. 
Orlando, having withdrawn from the Peace 
Conference, received an overwhelming vote of 
confidence in the Chamber, even the “Socialists 
and the Laborites giving him their support. 
The failure, however, of the delegates to gain 
any concessions on this point resulted in a neg- 
ative vote of confidence in the ministry with 
the result that Orlando was compelled to re- 
sign on June 19, 1919. Signor Nitti accepted 
the premiership. The increasing difficulties at 
home because of the lack of raw materials and 
the ever-recurring labor disturbances only add- 
ed to the trials of th: government. But inter- 
est, in large part, was diverted by the Adriatic 
question. The failure of the Peace Conference 
to bring out a settlement that could be accept- 
able to Italian opinion strengthened the hand 
of the irreconcilables, with the result that 
D’Annunzio, on September 12, entered Fiume at 
the head of a small force and confronted the 
peacemakers with a fait accompli. Public sup- 
port rallied to him at once. In spite of Nitti’s 
official disavowal, the heated protests of the 
Peace Conference, and the frequent clashes be- 
tween Jugo-Slavs and Italians, D’Annunzio 
stayed on. Even the very favorable treaty with 


. 


ITALY 


Austria, signed at St. Germain on September 
10, by which Italy gained her northern frontier, 
elicited no real enthusiasm. Fiume was the 
question of the day. 

On Nov. 16, 1919, the new elections were held. 
The results marked the entry of a new force 
into Italy’s political life, for 103 members were 
elected who belonged to the (Catholic) Popular. 
party. For the first time since 1870, therefore, 
the Catholics as an official body took their place 
in the country’s political activities. Their pro- 
gramme resembled in large part the typical 
proposals of the Centrist and Christian Social- 
ist parties with which Continental Europe al- 
ready was familiar. The Socialists were the 
only other well-integrated force, and succeeded 
in electing 160 members. Their stand was 
frankly revolutionary: they looked to Russia for 
inspiration, and the economic chaos of the mo- 
ment gave them strength. The opening session 
of the Parliament was a noisy one, and the 


King’s speech from the throne was greeted with 


derision. But in spite of the weaknesses of the 
constitutional parties, Nitti, by maintaining a 
precarious balance of power, continued in of- 
fice. The year 1920 was characterized by an 
intensification of the same problems. The ques- 
tion of the Fiume settlement was no nearer 
a solution. The hard feeling engendered by 
President Wilson’s insistence upon his scheme 
of a Fiume Free State and the fact that Italy’s 
counter-proposal, though acceptable to the Su- 
preme Council, was wholly rejected by Jugo- 


Slavia, were elements that made the tangle 


more and more snarled. Also, the revolution- 
ary disorders of the year, accompanied’ by riot- 
ing and anarchistic outbreaks, and the mount- 
ing cost of living, indicated that Italy was’ liy- 
ing on a volcanic crater. These uncertainties 
were reflected in the political life. A cabinet 
crisis in the spring forced a reconstruction of 
the Nitti government; on May 12, the premier 
was compelled to resign, and after several un- 
successful manceuvres, was supplanted by Si- 
gnor Gjiolitti. The entrance of the Albanian 
question into the limelight involved Italy in 
another international controversy. In 1917, 
Italy had proclaimed Albania her protectorate 
but the status had been refused recognition by 
her allies. Up to 1920, an army had been main- 
tained in the country to the general dissatisfac- 
tion of the populace, with the result that fight- 


ing broke out between Albanians and Italians. 


in the summer. The universal attention given 


to the controversy, together with the support the’ 


Albanian cause found among the Italian Social- 
ists, forced Giolitti to open negotiations with 
the Albanians. The result was the evacuation 
of the country; Valona, which had been held 
since 1914, being given up on Sept. 2, 1920. It 
was not until late in the year that the settle- 
ment of the Adriatic dispute appeared a possi- 
‘bility. The disappearance of President Wilson’ 
from the scene, and the realization by both 
Italy and Jugo-Slavia that an understanding 
could more easily be reached by agreement be- 
tween themselves, led to the signing of the 
Treaty of Rapallo (Nov. 12, 1920). By it, Italy 
gave up Dalmatia and restored to Jugo-Slavia 
two small] territories lying to the southeast of 
Istria; but received the town of Zara. On 
their part, the Jugo-Slavs agreed to an Italian 
frontier enclosing all of Istria and extending 
as far as Monte Nevoso.: Fiume was made a 
Free State and-was connected with Italy on the 


702 


ITALY 


west by a territorial corridor along the sea. 
It was also stipulated that the city of Susak 
(together with the small Baros Basin) was to 
be joined to Jugo-Slavia. Ratification immedi- 
ately followed. It was necessary to apply force 
before D’Annunzio could be dislodged. In Sep- 
tember, he had established at Fiume the “Ital- 
ian Regency of Quarnero” and had promulgated 
a constitution which contained some rather lu- 
dicrous provisions. His refusal to accept the 
treaty compelled the Italian government to or- 
der a blockade against him, and this failing of 
any results, the ships in the harbor were given 
the order to open fire. From December 3 to 29, 
a virtual state of war existed, but on the 30th 
the local officials capitulated. A provisional 
government was set up and on Jan. 18, 1921, 
D’Annunzio left Fiume. In June, 1921, Italy 
and Jugo-Slavia signed an agreement for the 
creation of a port board to regulate the com- 
merce of Fiume and other harbors in the terri- 
tory. (For the ultimate solution of this dispute 
see FIrUME-ADRIATICGC CONTROVERSY.) There were 
other foreign problems which oceupied the at- 
tention of the government in 1920 and 1921. 
Italy in August, 1920, signed the later discred- 
ited Treaty of Sévres with Turkey by which 
Italy received important concessions in Anatolia 
and the right to exploit the Heraclea coal mines. 
In turn, Italy, by a separate understanding, 
agreed to relinquish the Dodecanese to Greece, 
except that Rhodes and two others were to be 
held for 15 years. <A plebiscite was to deter- 
mine their disposition later. In 1921, a com- 
mercial agreement was signed with Soviet Rus- 
sia and the Ukraine and treaties were also con- 
cluded with Germany, Czecho-Slovakia, and 
Poland. Between Italy and France an _ ever- 
widening breach, not surprising in the light of 
the old hostility, was becoming perceptible. A 
French decree which denied Italian citizenship 
to the. many Italians residing in Tunis was 
bitterly resented, the ill feeling manifesting it- 
self in the attacks on the French military mis- 
sion which visited Italy in October, 1921. 
These matters, naturally, were overshadowed by 
the grave internal situation in 1920. (See su- 
pra, Economic Conditions). Throughout the 
whole of the year, Italy was in the grip of dis- 
putes that took on the character of civil war: 
the seizure of the factories, the agrarian up- 
risings, the street fighting and the local dis- 
turbances, that,,in Bologna in particular, took 
on all the familiar forms of a people torn by in- 
ternal dissension, contributed to the general 
feeling of uncertainty. In the light of these 
happenings it was inevitable that a violent form 
of dissidence should manifest itself. Armed 
bands, strongly nationalistic in spirit, and bear- 
ing the name Fascisti, appeared in the indus- 
trial centres of the centre and north and openly 
attacked Socialist and Labor halls and assem- 
blies. In Bologna, where Socialists controlled 
the local government, hostile attacks destroyed 
the labor exchange and forced into flight the 
Socialist officials. The same events took place 
at Modena, Ferrara, and elsewhere. Fascisti 
were meeting Socialists on their own ground, 
with the result that blood was frequently 
spilled. The reaction made itself felt in the in- 
ternal policies of the Socialist party. In Jan- 
uary, 1921, the reformist Socialists and the 
Communists parted company, the points of dis- 
agréement being adherence to Russia and the 
espousal’ of violent means. The Communists 


ITALY 


and the Fascisti now came into conflict at Flor- 
ence, Palermo, and Spezia. There was fighting 
in Rome in July and again in November, but 
everywhere it began to appear that Fascisti and 
not Communists were gaining the upper hand. 
The events of the next year were being fore- 
shadowed with remarkable clearness. 
Meanwhile the government was in difficulties. 
The price of bread, still fixed by the govern- 
ment, which was compelled to make purchases 
abroad at great losses, was the greatest cause 
for dissension. This, and the feeling that Par- 
liament no longer represented the country, has- 
tened Giolitti’s decision to dissolve the Cham- 
ber. The new election, held on May 15, 1921, 
did not produce any startling results. Of the 
535 members, 107 returned were Catholics, 122 
were Socialists, 16 Communists, and 275 Con- 
stitutionalists of various shades. In the new 
Parliament the government’s foreign policy met 
with the sharpest criticism, with the result that 
Giolitti resigned. Signor Bonomi now consti- 
tuted a cabinet that represented all parties ex- 
cept the Socialist. His stay was not long, for 
criticisms appeared from all quarters. The fail- 
ure to secure participation in the Four Power 
Treaty, the inability to cope with the economic 
problems and the ever-present lawlessness of 
Communists and Fascisti, and the antagonism 
that greeted what seemed a too friendly atti- 
tude toward Catholicism, precipitated a crisis. 
On Feb. 2, 1922, Bonomi resigned and only 
with difficulty could a new ministry be formed. 
Signor Facta eventually constituted a cabinet 
which fell on July 10 but was compelled to re- 
turn because no other group could gain the con- 
fidence of the Chamber. The menace to the 
state was not Communism now, but Fascism. 
The strength of the Fascisti waxed greater as 
the year progressed. Fascisti and Communists 
continued their warfare openly amid a general 
helplessness. There was fighting in Rome, Bol- 
ogna, Genoa, Trieste, Alessandria, and Parma, 
and a Fascisti force took Fiume and drove out 
the provisional government (March 3). New 
recruits were continually filling out the ranks. 
On Aug. 21, 1922, the syndicate of railway men 
went over to the Fascisti; in the same month, 
with the connivance of the transport workers, 
Fascisti seized the ports of Genoa and Naples. 
On September 1, a body of 4000 moved on the 
town of Terni and captured it. In October, the 
Fascisti took it upon themselves to Italian- 
ize the German populations of the Trentino 
which had been accorded racial autonomy. The 
schools were closed and the local councils dis- 
missed while the military was unable to inter- 
vene. It was thus evident that Fascism was 
exerting a force far superior’ to that of the 
constituted authorities. Signor Mussolini, the 
leader of the movement, demanded for his party 
the cabinet portfolios of Foreign Affairs, War, 
Navy, Labor, and Public works. An offer of 
several minor cabinet posts was tartly refused, 
and at the annual convention of the Fascisti at 
Naples Signor Mussolini declared, “either the 
government of the country must be given peace- 
fully to the Fascisti, or we will take it by 
force.” As the cohorts of black-shirted Fascis- 
ti began to mobilize against the capital, Pre- 
mier Facta bowed before the impending storm 
and resigned office, October 26. Thereupon 
Mussolini, summoned by the compliant King, 
entered Rome in triumph, formed a cabinet on 
October 30, and declared, “To-day Italy has not 


793 


ITALY 


only a cabinet, but a government.” His suc- 
cessful intimidation of the Chambers gained 
him a vote of complete authority. In the en- 
suing years the career of Mussolini was, in 
large part, the history of Italy. The concilia- 
tory tone of the new government surprised 
many, and the strong measures for the economic 
reconstruction of the country gave a new im- 
petus to manufacturing and trade. Opposition 
was stilled, the fear of the swift arm of the 
black-shirted Fascisti succeeding in overawing 
dissident groups. On December 16, Mussolini, 
not as head of the state, but as leader of the 
Fascisti, moved against all armed organizations 
through the creation of a newly nationalized 
militia of 80,000 men. Fascisti organs frankly 
advocated the suppression of the freedom of the 
press and the death penalty for the opponents 
of Fascism. Throughout the year 1923, Mus- 
solini’s hold tightened. The parade of reforms 
executed made a brave show. The desperate 
financial situation was manfully tackled and the 
budget for 1923-24 showed a smaller deficit 
than any previous post-war year; the middle 
classes were conciliated by the abolition of 9 
out of the 13 sources of direct taxation; the 
inheritance tax was dropped; many onerous du- 
ties on necessities were removed; expenditures 
were cut down through the elimination of use- 
less functionaries and the dismissal of extra 
employees, on the railways in particular. In 
the field of public works, sums were allotted for 
the rebuilding of Messina, the construction of 
aqueducts in Sardinia, the rebuilding of the 
harbor at Naples, and for constructing new rail- 
ways in Sicily. Railways, something unheard 
of before, ran on schedule time, notable reforms 
were achieved in the Department of Justice, as 
many as 500 local courts and four of the five 
courts of cassation being suppressed. In edu- 
cational matters, the changes were far reaching. 
Religious education was made compulsory; vo- 
cational guidance was stressed; and, as a move 
against too zealous an application of the dem- 
ocratic dogma, a limit was placed on the num- 
ber of free students in state institutions. The 
state, too, proceeded to relinquish its partici- 
pation in industry. Several state monopolies, 
notably the match industry, some _ telephone 
services, and concessions for building railways, 
were surrendered. In administration, the proc- 
ess of centralization went on speedily: five 
ministries concerned with internal affairs were 
consolidated into one as were also the minis- 
tries of finance and the treasury; the former 
practice of ministerial reports to Parliament 
was replaced by a single message for all the 
departments from Mussolini himself; the rule 
of merit was applied to promotions; working 
conditions for state employees were improved. 
Never were relations between Italy and the Va- 
tican more cordial. In short, in every field of 
activity the new administration could point 
with pride to some just change or some allevia- 
tion of old distresses., Whether, however, re- 
forms of this character had any claims to per- 
manency or whether they had the whole-hearted 
approval of the Italian population it was im- 
possible to say, at least, in 1923, for the free 
exercise of opinion and the give and take 
through which a democracy functions were al- 
most wholly lacking. 

The Communists were moved against with 
severity. On February 10, leaders of the party 
were seized and arrests in all parts of the coun- 


ITALY 


try followed. On January 25, on a charge of 
interfering in polities, the General Workers’ 
Union of Turin was dissolved; and in March, 
the editor of the radical Socialist Avanti was 
arrested by order of the prime minister. At 
Venice, Rome, and Florence, Communist disor- 
ders were put down with a high hand. A gen- 
eral order prohibited the publication by news- 
papers of false or biased reports, or reports 
tending to excite class hatred, or subvert the 
respect due to national institutions, the Pope, 
and the state. By the passage of an electoral 
reform measure in July, 1923, Fascism’s hold 
was strengthened, for the act gave the party 
polling a plurality of the votes in an election 
two-thirds of the seats in the Chamber. On 
December 10, a decree was promulgated dis- 
solving the Chamber and ordering a new elec- 
tion. Mussolini made it plain on that occasion 
that he would request a renewal of his dictator- 
ial powers from the new Parliament. 

In the domain of foreign affairs the same 
resoluteness of purpose was marked. It be- 
came increasingly evident that Mussolini’s for- 
eign policy was aimed at a speedy intimidation 
of Jugo-Slavia and the establishment of Italy 
in a commanding position not only in the Adri- 
atic but in the Mediterranean as well. Several 
events pointed to this end. The murder on 
Greek soil, in August, 1923, of Italian officers 
on their way to participate in the delimitation 
of the Greco-Albanian frontier was immediately 
followed by a drastic ultimatum to Greece 
which demanded full apologies and an indem- 
nity of 50,000,000 lire. Greece’s desire to dis- 
cuss the matter first, before yielding up, as she 
believed, her national honor, was sternly re- 
jected, with the result that an Italian fleet was 
sent to Corfu and ordered to open fire. In the 
bombardment of the island 20 refugees were 
slain and 30 others wounded. Mussolini’s re- 
fusal to consider the matter as lying within the 
jurisdiction of the League of Nations and his 
defiance of Great Britain even in the face of a 
threat to cut off his coal supply, for the mo- 
ment seemed to threaten an international crisis. 
For a week uncertainty prevailed, when Mus- 
solini was induced to accept the Council of Am- 
bassadors as arbiter. On September 7, the 
Council decided in favor of practically all of 
the Italian claims: apologies were to be ren- 
dered to the Allied representatives as well as 
naval salutes to the flags of the Allied ships; 
official mass for the dead was to be celebrated 
at Athens; and military honors bestowed on 
the Italian victims. Inasmuch as the search 
for the murderers had been carried on _half- 
heartedly, Greece was ordered, on September 26, 
to pay the 50,000,000 lire demanded as an in- 
demnity. On the other hand, Italy agreed to 
evacuate Corfu before October 1. Toward Jugo- 
Slavia Mussolini applied something of the same 
methods. The execution of the Treaty of Ra- 
pallo he regarded as a surrender of Italy’s just 
claims and upon Jugo-Slavia’s insistence that 
the matter be brought to a close, Mussolini on 
August 30 dispatched a peremptory note to Bel- 
grade in which he declared that the only settle- 
ment acceptable to Italy would be the inclusion 
of Susak (including the Baros Basin) in the 
Fiume Free Port area. Jugo-Slavia refused to 
be intimidated. The result was the dispatching 
of an Italian force into Fiume on September 16 
and the establishment of a military protector- 


ate. It is true that this did not change mat-_ 


794 


ITALY 


ters any, for it merely gave official approval to 
what had been a virtual Italian occupation by 
the Fascisti over the previous 18 months. In 
the face of so trying an incident the Jugo-Slav 
government remainel cool, contenting itself 
with the statement that the matter was to be 
submitted to the League of Nations which had, 
only shortly before, registered the Treaty of 
Rapallo. The crisis, however, was settled with- 
out recourse to the League. Direct negotia- 
tions led to the signature at Rome in January, 
1924, of a treaty whereby Fiume was yielded to 
Italy and the River Eneo fixed as a boundary. 
Porto Barros, however, was included in Jugo- 
Slavia, and arrangements were made to facili- 
tate Jugo-Slay commercial access to the sea 
through Fiume and Porto Barros. Further- 
more, each nation pledged neutrality in case the 
other should be attacked by a third power; and 
both agreed to maintain the peace settlement. 
(See FIuUME-ADRIATIC CONTROVERSY.) In _ the 
eastern Mediterranean the same_ success at- 
tended Italy’s efforts. In the fall of 1922, as 
Turkish success over Greece seemed assured, the 
Italian government repudiated the Treaty of 
Sévres by which it had consented to the evacu- 
ation of the Dodecanese (q.v.) and indicated 
that it meant to prolong its occupation of the 
islands. The Treaty of Lausanne of 1923 put 
the stamp of approval on this act. By it the 
13 islands in question, including Rhodes, were 
yielded up to Italy and not to Greece, in spite 
of the prevailingly Greek population. Other 
incidents of the year pointed to the fact that 
Italy meant to assume a more important posi- 
tion in world affairs. In November the Span- 
ish royal family, accompanied by Rivera, was 
received at Rome and the conversations carried 
on pointed to the fact that both nations meant 
to adopt a common Mediterranean and South 
American policy. This was indicated by the in- 
sistence of Italy on representation at the Tan- 
gier Conference, and later, in January, 1924, 
by the sending of a mission to South America 
for the creation of a more cordial attitude to- 
ward both Italy and Spain. That Italy was 
drawing away from France and once more as- 
suming her traditional hostility was evident. 
On November 16, Mussolini declared that his 
government was opposed to further occupations 
of German territory; on November 30, he indi- 
cated that he was sympathetically disposed to- 
ward granting Russia de jure recognition. . By 
the adoption throughout 1923 of commercial 
treaties with Spain, Albania, the Baltic 
States, Russia, Switzerland, Austria, Canada, 
and Czecho-Slovakia, it was seen that attempts 
were being made to shake off the old economic 
dependences and turn to new sources for raw 
materials. The year 1924 opened auspiciously 
for Fascism. Italy, by the Treaty of Rome, had 
gained Fiume and was firmly established in the 
Adriatic. Mussolini’s foreign policy continued 
to meet with triumph after triumph. First 
Jugo-Slavia, then Russia (which was granted 
de jure recognition, February 7), then Poland 
(which was promised, in April, a loan of 400,- 
000,000 lire), then Czecho-Slovakia (as a re- 
sult of the treaty of friendship of May 17), 
were drawn into the Italian European system 
and the hold of France on Central and Eastern 
Europe greatly weakened. Too, Mussolini, in 
June, had come to an amicable understanding 
with Great Britain over the Jubaland question 


(see AFRICA) and negotiations were under way 


ITALY 705 


with Rumania for the settlement of the long- 
outstanding dispute over the net of the 
Italian loan. As never before, Italy was at 
peace with the whole of Europe. In internal 
affairs, Fascism seemed firmly entrenched, and 
every indication showed it had become an in- 
tegral part of the Italian national life. In the 
election of April 6, the Fascisti polled 65 per 
cent of the vote cast and returned 375 seats to 
the new Chamber. The Opposition was _ hope- 
lessly divided, being made up of 40 Popular 
party, 25 Socialists, 22 Maximalists, 17 Liber- 
als, 17 Communists, 12 Constitutional Opposi- 
tion, 11 Social Democrats, 7 Republicans, 3 
Peasant party, 2 Slavs, 2 Germans, 2 Sardinian 
autonomists. The new Parliament was opened 
with the old pomp, May 24, and King, Court, 
and Mussolini basked in the approbation of the 
Roman populace. It was the calm preceding a 
storm. The kidnapping and murder of the So- 
cialist deputy Matteotti, in June, the implica- 
tion of members of the Mussolini Cabinet in 
this and other outrages, the evidences that del- 
uged the press of the continued high-handed 
character of Fascisti methods, rocked Italy. 
The demand for constitutional liberty, for the 
first time in two years, once more seriously 
raised its head. All parties of the Opposition, 
except the Communists, met to present the fol- 
lowing demands to the government: that the 
government restore order; that the Fascista 


IVANOV 


Militia be abolished; that all illegality be 
moved against. Mussolini accepted the first 
and third demands, temporized about the sec- 
ond for a time, and then completely yielded by 
consenting to the incorporation of the Fascista 
Militia into the Army. In July a reconstruc- 
tion of the ministry followed and concessions 
were made to the Opposition by the incorpora- 
tion of non-Fascisti in the Cabinet. Mussolini, 
by yielding to Parliament, had become like oth- 
er European premiers, merely the head of a par- 
liamentary government. See ITALIAN LITERA- 


TURE; NAVIES OF THE WoRLD; SOMALILAND; 
TANGIER CONTROVERSY; WAR DIPLOMACY. 
IVANOV, VyatcHeEstAy I. (1866- ) a A 


Russian poet, one of the most learned of the 
moderns. He has also distinguished himself 
as historian, philologist, and philosopher. He 
joined the Decadents first as a critic and essay- 
ist. His first volume of poems, Guiding Stars, 
was published in 1903. He published three lat- 
er volumes, the last one in 1917. After Push- 
kin, he is perhaps the greatest molder of the 
Russian language. In his earlier poems he used 
Greek words and syntax to a point of incoher- 
ence, but his later works, the majority lyrical, 
show no trace of this pedantry. His models 
were Pushkin, Dante, Petrarch, and especially 
Goethe. The sonnet is his favorite poetic form 
pete verse and essays he wrote some trag- 
edies. 


J 


ACKSON, ABRAHAM VALENTINE WIL- 
LIAMS (1862- ). An American Ori- 
entalist (see Vou. XII), professor of 
Indo-Iranian languages at Columbia Uni- 
versity since 1895. He traveled in India, 
Persia and Central Asia between 1901 
and 1918. He is editor of a History of Persia 
and, among other works, of Early Persian 


Poetry (1920). 

JACKSON, CHEVALIER (1865- )y eAn 
American laryngologist, born at Pittsburgh. 
He obtained his medical degree at Jefferson 
Medical College in 1887 and was appointed pro- 
fessor of otolaryngology in the University of 
Pittsburgh, resigning in 1916 to accept the 
chair of laryngology at his Alma Mater. Dr. 
Jackson is one of the pioneers in the new de- 
velopment of laryngology known as_ tracheo- 
bronchoscopy, having studied under Professor 
Kilian of Germany, the inventor of the broncho- 
scope, an instrument which is of great value 
not only in diagnosis but in the location and 
removal of foreign bodies in the deep air-pas- 
sages. He has been a prolific contributor to 
periodical literature in various subjects which 
pertain to laryngology, bronchoscopy, rhinology, 
otology, ete. His first textbook, Tracheobron- 
choscopy, appeared in 1907, and his monograph 
Bronchoscopy and Esophagoscopy was issued in 
1922. In 1923, there appeared in French the 
volume Endoscopie et chirurgie du larynx. Up 
to the first of the year 1924, Professor Jackson 
had preserved over 1300 foreign bodies suc- 
cessfully removed by him from the bronchi as 
the nucleus of a museum collection. 

JACKSON, FREDERICK JOHN FOAKES 
(1855-— ). An American theologian, born 
at Ipswich, England. He graduated from Trin- 
ity College, Cambridge, in 1879, and was fel- 
low of Jesus College from 1886, and dean and 
assistant tutor at the same college from 1895 
to 1916. In the latter year he was appointed 
Briggs graduate professor of Christian institu- 
tions at the Union Theological Seminary. In 
1916, he was also Lowell lecturer in Boston. 
He was a member of several learned societies 
and was the author of The Christian Church 
(1891); Biblical History of the Hebrews 
(1903) ; St. Luke and a Modern Writer (1916) ; 
Introductions to Church History (1920). He 
also edited several theological works. 

JACKSON, Henry EZEKIEL (1869- iE 
An American clergyman and author, born in 
Chester County, Pa., and educated at Princeton 
Theological Seminary. He was ordained to the 
Presbyterian ministry in 1896, and after hold- 
ing several pastorates, the Community Organ- 
ization of the United States Bureau of Educa- 
tion at Washington, D. C., secured his services 
as special agent, which post he held from 1916 
to 1920. Later he became president of the Na- 
tional Community Board at Washington, D. C. 
His writings include: Benjamin West, his 
Life and Work (1900); Great Pictures as Mor- 


al Teachers (1910); The Legend of the Christ- 
mas Rose (1914); The New Chivalry (1915) ; 
A Community Center, What It is and How to 
Organize It (1918); he League of Nations 
(1919); A Community Church (1919); What 
America Means to Me (1920); Robinson Cru- 
soe, Social Engineer (1922); The Thomas Jef- 
ferson Bible (1923). 

JACKSONVILLE. A city of Florida. The 
population increased 58.6 per cent in ten years, 
from 57,699 in 1910 to 91,558 in 1920 and to 
100,046 by estimate of the Bureau of the Cen- 
sus for 1923. A new charter was passed by the 
State Legislature in 1917 providing for an 
elected council of 21 members and a commis- 
sion of five members. The Mayor is elected for 
two years. A bridge 3800 feet long with a 
vertical lift draw was built in 1921 across 
the St. Johns River at a cost of $1,250,000. 
Bank clearings rose from $124,657,071 in 1910 
to 571,389,000 in 1923, and total deposits from 
$18,102,000 to $58,647,897, building permits in- 
creased from $3,184,940 to $5,831,078. 

JACOBS, THORNWELL (1877- geste 
American educator, born at Clinton, S. C. He 
graduated from the Presbyterian College, S. C., 
in 1894, and from the Princeton Theological 
Seminary in 1899. In the same year he was 
ordained to the Presbyterian ministry and was 
pastor in North Carolina for several years fol- 
lowing. In 1915, he founded, at Atlanta, Ga., 
Oglethorpe University, and was its president 
from that date. He is the author of The Law 
of the White Circle (1908) ; Midnight Mummer, 
poems (1911); The Oglethorpe Story (1916) ; 
Life of Plumer Jacobs (1918). 

JACOBSEN, SIEcFRIED (188]— ). A Ger- 
man writer. He was born in Berlin and stud- 
ied at the university. He became dramatic 
critic of Die Welt am Montag and in 1905 
founded his own magazine devoted to the 
drama, Die Schaubiihne, through which he ex- 
ercised considerable influence over the theatrical 
life of Germany. He was also dramatic corre- 
spondent for Die Zeit and other Viennese papers. 
He is the author of: Das Theater der Reichs- 
hauptstadt (1904); Maa Reinhardt (1910)3 
ie Sate Jacobsen (19138); and Die ersten Tage 

O17); 

JACOBY, HENRY SYLVESTER (1857— vhs 
An American educator, born at Springtown, 
Pa. He was graduated from Lehigh Universi- 
ty in 1877 and during the season of 1878 was 
connected with the topographical corps of the 
Pennsylvania Geological Survey. During 1879- 
85, he was chief draftsman in the United States 
Engineer’s Office in Memphis, Tenn. In 1886, 
he returned to Lehigh, where until 1890 he was 
instructor of civil engineering; he then accepted 
a call to Cornell, where in 1897 he became pro- 
fessor of bridge engineering. Professor Jacoby 
has long been a fellow of the American Asgso- 
ciation for the Advancement of Science and in 
1901 presided over the Section on Engineering, 


706 


JAENSCH 


with the rank of vice-president, and was presi- 
dent of the Society for the Promotion of En- 
gineering Education in 1915-16. Besides nu- 
merous papers on his specialty of bridge en- 
gineering, he is the author of: Notes and Prob- 
lems in Descriptive Geometry (1892); Outlines 
of Descriptive Geometry (Part 1, 1895; 2, 
1896; 8, 1897); Text Book in Plain Lettering 
(1897); with Mansfield Merriman, Text Book 
on Roofs and Bridges (1890-8); with R. P. 
Davis, Foundations of Bridges and Buildings 
(1914); and Structural Details, or Elements of 
Design in Timber Framing (1919). 

JAENSCH, Erich R. F. (1883- )ParA 
German philosopher and director of the psycho- 
logical institute and philosophical seminary at 
Marburg. He strives for a closer relation be- 
tween philosophy and psychology and has writ- 
ten among other works Hinige allgemeine Fra- 
gen der Psychologie und Biologie des Denkens 
(1920). 

JAGGAR, Tuomas AvucustTus (1871- \. 
An American geologist, born in Philadelphia, 
Pa. He was graduated at Harvard in 1874, 
and received his Ph.D. in 1897; he also studied 
at Heidelberg and at Munich. In 1895, he be- 
came an instructor of geology at Harvard, 
where he remained until 1906, attaining in 
1903 an assistant professorship. Then he ac- 
cepted a call to the Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology, where he was professor of geology 
and head of the Department. During 1898— 
1904 he also served the United States Geologi- 
eal Survey as an assistant geologist. He was 
director of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory 
(1912-19) and in 1919 became voleanologist to 
the United States Weather Bureau, stationed in 
Hawaii. Volcanology has been his specialty 
and he has studied chiefly the volcanoes of the 
Aleutian Islands, Hawaii, Japan, Italy, New 
Zealand, and Central America, to most of which 
he has made expeditions, and descriptions Of 


which he has published in papers or reports, 


notably those of the Hawaiian Observatory. 
Dr. Jaggar also delivered popular lectures on 
the phenomena of volcanoes, illustrated by pho- 
tographs of his own making. 

JAGIC, VATROSLAV (1838-1923). 
trian philologist, (see Vor. XII). His recent 
works are Beitrag zur Erforschung der altkirch- 
enslavischen Evangelientexte: Evangelium Bu- 
coviniense (1916) and Zum altkirchenslavischen 
Apostolus (1919-21). He also edited Johannes 
Paprek’s Slawische Brautwerbungs- und Hoch- 
zgeitsgebriuche (1914). 

JAGOW, GOTTLIEB von (1863- ener 
German diplomat (see Vou. XII). He was 
state secretary for foreign affairs from 1913 to 
1914, and was retired in 1916. He added to the 
literature of the War with his Ursachen und 
Ausbruch des Weltkrieges (1919). 

JAHN, Grorce MAx (1885- ). A pro- 
fessor at the technical high school of Braun- 
schweig. He was born in Leipzig and studied 
history, philosophy and political science at the 
universities of Leipzig and Jena. He was di- 
rector of the municipal high school for girls 
in Jena and lecturer on political economy at 
Leipzig. He is the author of: Die Gewerbe- 
politik der deutschen Fiirsten vom 16. bis zum 
18. Jahrhundert (1909); Verstaatlichung und 
Vergesellschaftigung (1919); Grundziige der 
Volkswirtschaftslehre (1920). He also edited 
several economic magazines. 


JALOUX, Epmonp (1878— ). A French 


7097 


An Aus- 


JAMES 
novelist. His works include: L’Agonie de 
VAmour (1899); Les Sangsues (1904); Le 


Jeune Homme au Masque (1905); L’EHcole des 
Mariages (1907); Le Démon de la Vie (1908); 
Le Reste est Silence (1909); Le Boudoir de 
Proserpine; L’Eventail de Crépe (1911); Fum- 
ées dans la Campagne (1915); L’Incertaine 
(1918); Les Amours Perdues (1919); Aw des- 
sus de la Ville; Vous Qui Faites VEndormie 
(1920); L’Ennemi des Femmes (1921); L’Es- 
calier @Or; Les Profondeurs de la Mer; Les 
Barricades Mystérieuses; Le Roi Cophétua 
(1922) 

JAMAICA. An island of the British West 
Indies; area, 4207 square miles; population in 
1911, 831,383 and in 1922, 885,692. According 
to the census of 1921, the East Indian popula- 
tion was 18,610 as compared with 17,380 in 
1911, and the Chinese 3696 as compared with 
2111. Kingston, the capital, had 62,707 inhab- 
itants in 1921 and 57,379 in 1911. The leading 
activity of the population continued to be agri- 
culture. Sugar cane once more advanced to a 
place of importance, the acreage under the cane 
being 55,431 in 1921-22 (31,753 in 1912-18). 
Other crops with their acreages in 1921-22 were 
(1912-13 figure in parentheses): bananas, 58,- 
282 °(81,071)';' coffee, 19,918" (22275); | ‘coco- 
nuts, 38,183 (17,3877); cocoa, 14,673 (11,236); 
ground provisions, 69,159 (99,632). The year 
1922, from the planters’ point of view, was one 
of deficient rainfall, and in some sections of the 
Island acute conditions of drought prevailed so 
as to cause serious loss and suffering to the 
community. The reflex consequences of the 
rainfall of 1922 were, however, shown in the 
cases of some crops, such as sugar. The sugar 
industry achieved the high record of 50,655 tons 
of sugar, or more than double the quantity ex- 
ported in 1921. Exports in 1922, in the order 
of importance, were bananas, sugar, logwood ex- 
tract, coffee, coconuts, cacao, logwood, and 
rum. The values of imports in 1912, 1920, 1921, 
and 1922 were, respectively, £3,040,500, £10,- 
313,282, £5,473,800, and £4,581,000. Exports 
for the same years were valued at £2,709,283, 
£7,146,010, £3,357,700, and £4,623,700. The ex- 
port figures reveal the fact that the declining 
prices of 1921 recovered their stability during 
1922 and may be said to have been more or less 
normal. Imports and exports from and to the 
United Kingdom in 1922 were (1912 figure in 
parentheses): £1,301,562 (£1,333,352) and £1,- 
120,593 (£358,516). For the United States: 
£2,091,591 (£1,273,389) and £2,284,838 (£1,618,- 
614). There was no change in administration. 
Women were enfranchised in 1919. Government 
accounts follow for 1922-23 (1912-13 figures in 
parentheses): revenue, £2,057,412 (£1,432,400) ; 


expenditure, £1,949,034 (£1,549,667); public 
debt, £3,662,000 (£3,843,974). 
JAMES, HERMAN GERLACH (1887— ). An 


American lawyer and author, born at Philadel- 
phia, Pa. He was graduated from the Univer- 
sity of Illinois in 1906 and studied law at the 
Harvard Law School. In 1909, he was ad- 
mitted to the bar and after official service in 
Santiago, Chile, was lecturer at the University 
of Leipzig in 1911. In 1912 he became a mem- 
ber of the faculty of the University of Texas 
as professor of government. During the War he 
served as organizer and representative of the 
War Camp Community Service. He was a 
member of many economic and learned societies 
and was the author of several books on legal 


JAMIESON 


and municipal subjects, including A Handbook 
of Civic Improvement (1915), Municipal Func- 


tions (1917), and Local Government in the 
United States (1921). 
JAMIESON, CHARLES CLARK (1866- ‘A 


An American engineer, born at Glover, Vt. He 
was graduated at the United States Military 
Academy in 1892, became a second lieutenant 
in the 15th Infantry, and continued in the 
United States army until 1906, when on ac- 
count of disability in line of duty he was re- 
tired with the rank of major. In 1910, he was 
recalled to the service but was again retired in 
1918, having in the meanwhile attained the pro- 
visional rank of brigadier-general in the Na- 
tional Army. He later became connected “with 
various engineering undertakings, notably with 
George W. Goethals and Company. During the 
War he was on duty in Washington as as- 
sistant to the chief of production division, then 
its chief, and later as special assistant to the 
chief of ordnance until 1918, when he was made 
director of sales of property acquired by the 
War Department after Apr. 6, 1917. 

JANET, PIERRE (1859- ). One of the 
foremost French psychologists, born in Paris. 
Nephew of the philosopher Paul Janet, he com- 
bined in his education a deep philosophical cul- 
ture and a thorough mastery of the medical 
sciences. Like Freud, he was the pupil of the 
great French alienist, Chareot, but he developed 
the latter’s theories along lines much more s0- 
ber than those of his Viennese colleague. After 
teaching philosophy in a lycée at Le Havre, he 
began to devote himself to a clinical observa- 
tion of psychopathic cases. His first work, 
L’Automatisme Psychologique (1889), singled 
him out as a leader in this field. Then followed 
in succession researches on hysteria, L’Htat 
Mental des Hystériques (2 vols., 1893) and on 
neuroses, Névroses et Idées Fixes (2 vols., 
1898). In 1903, he founded the Journal de 
Psychologie, and on the death of Ribot he suc- 
ceeded to the latter’s chair at the Collége de 
Vrance. He was elected in 1918 to the Acad- 
émie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. Pro- 
fessor Janet made two visits to this country as 


the representative of French psychology. On . 


his first visit, he delivered a course of lectures 
on The Major Symptoms of Hysteria (published 
1908). 

Without building a system, M. Janet oriented 
his psychology around the notion of a hierarchy 
of states of consciousness, ranging from con- 
scious reflection to a biological automatism that 
is almost indistinguishable from the mechanism 
of a machine. No attempt is made to “con- 
struct” consciousness, but all analyses are made 
from within conscious experience. 

Besides the works mentioned above, M. Janet 
is the author of Obsessions et la Psychasténie 
(2 vols., 1903), Les Médications Psychologiques 
(3 vols., 1919-21), and La Médicine Psycho- 
logique (1923). See PsycHoLocy, ABNORMAL. 

JANEWAY, THEODORE CALDWELL (1872- 
1917). An American physician, son of the late 
Dr. E. G. Janeway. He was born in New York 
City, took his bachelor’s degree at Yale and re- 
ceived his medical degree from Columbia (Col- 
lege of Physicians and Surgeons) in 1895. He 
followed in the footsteps of his father as diag- 
nostician and consultant, was visiting physician 
to St. Luke’s Hospital and in 1907 became pro- 
fessor of the practice of medicine at his alma 
mater, resigning in 1914 to oceupy the chair of 


708 


JAPAN 


medicine at Johns Hopkins, where he was also 
physician in chief of the University Hospital. 
He was very active during the War and his 
labors are believed to have caused his pre- 
mature decease at the age of 45. Dr. Janeway 
did much to promote the study of blood pres- 
sure and his only publication in book form is 
Clinical Study of the Bloodpressure (1904). 

JANIS, ELsie (?- ). An American 
actress born in Columbus, Ohio. She first ap- 
peared on the stage as Cain in The Charity 
Ball (1897) ; played in vaudeville (1898-1903) ; 
then starred in The Belle of New York (1904). 
She appeared later in The Fortune Teller and 
The Duchess, and starred in The Vanderbilt 
Cup (1906-08). Under the management of 
Charles B. Dillingham she took the leading rdle 
in The Hoyden, Fair Co-ed, The Slim Princess, 
and also in Elsie Janis and Her Gang (1920), 
of which she is the author. 

JAN MAYEN. This Arctic island, in about 
71° north latitude, 8° west longitude, is equi- 
distant from Greenland and Spitzbergen. Dis- 
covered by Hudson in 1607, it later became eco- 
nomically important through its occupation by 
the Dutch whalers. With the decadence of that 
profitable fishery, Jan Mayen was abandoned 
and became a no-man’s land. Fog-beshrouded, 
it has been rarely visited. From 1920 it was 
occupied by Norway. The meteorological sta- 
tion established there was sending to Christi- 
ania daily wireless reports, which were proving 
valuable in forecasting the advance of the 
uolent and destructive gales of the North 
ea. 

JANSON, KristoreER NAGEL (1841-1917). 

A Norwegian author (see Vor. XII). Among 
his last works are: Aspasia, novel (1914); 
Norske Eventyr som taletikster (1915); Man- 
geslags kjaerlighed, published posthumously in 
1923. 
- JANTZEN, HERMANN (1874— ). A Ger- 
man writer. He was born at Breslau and stud- 
ied at the university of that city. He was di- 
rector of the Victoria Institut of Breslau 
(1900-05), then went in the same capacity to 
the Kénigin Luise Institut at Kénigsberg. His 
works include: Geschichte des deutschen 
Streitgedichts im Mittelalter (1896); Go- 
tische Sprachdenkmiler (1898); Saxo Gram- 
maticus (1901); Deutsche Literaturgeschichte 
(1904); Kénigin Lwise (1910); Ostpreussische 
Sagen (1912); Von deutscher Schule und Erzie- 
hung (1915); Ueber Erziehung und Unterricht 
'((1918). He also edited: Literaturdenkmdler 
des 14. und 15. Jahrhunderts (1903); Goethe’s 
Egmont (1914); Hebbel’s Nibelungen and Ag- 
nes Bernauer (1919); and Grillparzer’s Sappho 
(1903). 

JAPAN. An empire of the Far East. It 
consists of Japan proper, made up of the islands 
of Hondo, Shikoku, Kyushu, Hokkaido, and of 
Chosen (Korea), Taiwan (Formosa), Karafuto 
(Sakhalin), as well as 600 smaller islands, 
including the four archipelagoes the Pescadores, 


Agasawara (or Bonin group), Okinawa (or 
Linchu group), Chishima (or Kuriles). The 
total area is 268,330 square miles. The 


total population of Japan, according to the 
census of 1920, was 77,005,510, distributed as 
follows: Japan proper, 55,961,140; Formosa, 
3,654,398; Karafuto, 105,765; Korea, 17,284,- 
207. The density of population was 286 to the 
square mile. One-sixth of the land was under 
cultivation, and the population was predomi- 


JAPAN 


nantly rural, 41 per cent of the people living in 
villages of between 2000 and 5000 inhabitants, 
19 per cent in towns of between 5000 and 10,- 
000 inhabitants, and 9 per cent in towns of be- 
tween 10,000 and 20,000 inhabitants. Only 12 
per cent of the population were in cities of over 
100,000 inhabitants. In 1920, there were 581,- 
431 Japanese residing abroad: 274,565 in Asia; 
2944 in Europe; 135,667 in North America; 47,- 
571 in South America, and 120,612 in Oceania, 
principally in the Hawaiian Islands, where 112,- 
221 Japanese resided. There were 115,533 Jap- 
anese in the United States proper, 77,230 in 
California alone. Principal cities, 1920: To- 
kyo, 2,173,162; Osaka, 1,252,972; Kobe, 608,- 
628; Nagoya, 429,990; Yokohama, 422,942; Ky- 
oto, 299,689. 

Foodstuff Production. The principal food- 
stuff and agricultural product was rice, the 
1922 crop amounting to 309,570,000 bushels. 
It was still necessary to import, principally 
from Siam, China, Indo-China, and the United 
States, 3,006,688 bushels during 1922 in order 
to feed the population. In 1913, Japan _ pro- 
duced 249,264,000 bushels of rice and imported 
1,212,300 bushels, so even with increased pro- 
duction of 25 per cent imports tripled showing 
the tendency of population to outstrip food sup- 
ply. During 1922 about 29,265,000 bushels of 
wheat were produced and 18,000,000 bushels im- 
ported. This was an 8 per cent increase in pro- 
duction and a 300 per cent increase in imports 
of wheat over 1913, indicating the growing use 
of wheat in the form of vermicelli as a substi- 
tute for rice. In 1921, about 44,252,000 bushels 
of barley were produced, nearly a 20 per cent 
decline since 1913, when 52,784,000 bushels were 
produced. This was due to the greater profit 
in wheat growing. In 1921, Japan raised 36,- 
126,000 bushels of rye, and in 1920, 11,305,000 
bushels of millet, the latter showing quite a de- 
celine from the 19,537,000 bushels produced in 
1913. These latter grains furnished a valuable 
food for the poorer farmers who had to sell 
rather than consume their own rice. In 1920, 
Japan produced 4,437,430 bushels of white po- 
tatoes, almost double the 2,845,500 bushels pro- 
duced in 1913, and 1,081,440 bushels of sweet 
potatoes, considerably more than the 829,767 
bushels produced in 1913, the latter being a pop- 
ular article of diet for the poor classes. Japan 
also produced in 1920, 21,180,000 bushels of soya 
beans. This was 50 per cent greater than the 
1913 production of 14,845,000 bushels, the beans 
being used for making bean curd, to replace 
butter, and soya sauce. Also there were grown 
5,297,000 bushels of red beans (almost double 
the 2,976,000 bushels of 1913) used as a sup- 
plement to the rice diet; 2,613,000 bushels of 
horse beans (slightly more than the 2,425,000 
bushels of 1913), and 1,500,000 bushels of peas 
(a decline from the 1,847,000 bushels of 1913, 
other food crops being found more nutritious 
and profitable). 

In 1921, Japan produced 143,000,000 pounds 
of leaf tobacco, the manufacture of which was 
a government monopoly. This was a substan- 
tial increase over 1913 production of 111,000,000 
pounds. Other products included rape seed, in- 
digo, hemp, sugar cane and crops of vegetables, 
including radishes, turnips, cabbages, flax, pep- 
permint, and ginger, all in small quantities. 

Raw Material Production. Raw silk was 
the most important money crop and was a sub- 
sidiary household occupation of the rice farmer. 


799 


JAPAN 


It was produced throughout Japan, the prin- 
cipal districts being to the north and west of 
Tokyo in the centre of the main island. In 
1921, production of raw silk amounted to 51,- 
577,813 pounds, as against 30,900,000 pounds 
in 1913, and waste silk (produced by combing 
cocoons which have been pierced by the silk 
moth) to 19,650,659 pounds as against 9,086,- 
000 pounds in 1913. Constant experimentation 
for the elimination of diseased eggs brought 
about this increase. This was approximately 
two-thirds of the world’s silk production. In 
1921, Japan exported 34,849,724 pounds of raw 
silk, and in 1922, 45,777,536 pounds, valued at 
$335,023,771, 90 per cent of which went to the 
United States in each year. In 1921, Japan 
produced 96,350,000 pounds of tea, as against 
72,520,000 pounds in 1913, . one-fourth being 
produced in Formosa. Because of cheaper la- 
bor in India and Ceylon, Japan’s tea produc- 
tion did not increase in proportion to world 
consumption in recent years. Practically all of 
Japan’s tea, of which 28,478,133 pounds was ex- 
ported in 1922, went to the United States. 
Forestry. In 1920, Japan had a total of 
54,842,000 acres in forests, 40 per cent of which 
was held by private individuals and corpora- 
tions, 35 per cent by the state, 5 per cent by the 
Imperial household, and 20 per cent by commu- 
nities. Due to a consistent reforestation policy 
this showed substantial increase over the 46,- 
305,000 acres in 1913. Principal types of for- 
est growth were pines, spruce, fur, cryptomeria, 
chestnut, oak, ash, beach, maple, cherry, mag- 
nolia and bamboo. Due to this policy of con- 
servation of timber resources, Japan’s imports 
of lumber increased from 8,734,356 cubic feet 
in 1920 to 33,593,670 cubic feet in 1921, mostly 
from the United States for construction pur- 
poses. In 1922, about 326,000 tons of wood 
pulp were produced from forests in Japan prop- 
er, Karafuto, and Korea. Considerable wood is 
used in the toy and match industries. Japan 
had almost a complete monopoly of the camphor 
supply of the world. The camphor tree grew 
most profusely in Formosa and had to be com- 
pletely destroyed to obtain the product, which 
was distilled from the water in which the wood 
was boiled. The production declined as the 
trees became more _ inaccessible; 2,006,000 
pounds were produced in 1921, only about one- 
third the 1913 production. In 1922, camphor 
exports totaled about $3,600,000 in value, two- 
thirds of which went to the United States. 
Minerals. In 1922, Japan proper produced 
26,221,000 metric tons of coal, as against 21,- 
315,000 tons in 1913, principally in the north- 
ern part of Formosa, in Kuyushu, Korea and 
Hokkaido. Coal exports in 1922 were 1,691,000 
tons, only about two-thirds of the 1921 figures. 
Imports increased one-third to 1,169,000 tons 
in 1922. Japan produced 52,354 tons of cop- 
per in 1922, a steady decline from 1913 pro- 
duction of 73,940 tons and from peak figures 
of 79,128 tons in 1917, due to relatively high 
production costs. For the same reason, exports 
practically stopped in 1922 as Japanese copper 
prices were higher than world prices. Other 
mineral production in 1922 was: pig iron (in- 
cluding Korea) 77,262 metric tons, compared 
with 71,273 in 1913, and 514,361 tons at the 
war peak of 1918; iron sulphide ore, 113,015 
metric tons; petroleum, 85,639,969 gallons in 
1922 (amounting to half the annual consump- 
tion), compared with 81,179,000 gallons in 


JAPAN 


1913; silver, 3,940,874 ounces; and gold, 240,- 
866 ounces produced in 1922 (mostly from 
Korea) compared with 4,680,000 ounces of sil- 
ver and 177,000 ounces of gold produced in 
1913. 

Fisheries. The annual catch of Japan was 
about $230,000,000 in value. In 1921, 1,755,965 
long tons of fish were caught, 1,124,977 long 
tons for food, and the remainder for oil and 
fertilizer. Annual exports about $8,000,000. 

Pastoral Activities. In 1920, there were 
only 1,469,000 horses in Japan, a decline from 
the 1,579,000 in 1914, most of the draught work 
being done by human beings. There were l,- 
376,000 cattle in the same year, 133,232 goats, 
and 528,112 swine, as against 1,387,000 cattle, 
45,000 goats and 332,000 swine in 1914. The 
area available for grazing in Japan proper was 
very limited, owing to the large amount of level 
land needed for rice cultivation and the very 
mountainous nature of the remaining terrain. 
Especial efforts on the part of the government 
were made during this period to increase the 
number of goats and swine. The number of 
sheep also increased from 2771 in 1914 to 8519 
in 1920 through special encouragement to foster 
wool production. 

Industries. The industrial population of 
Japan was slightly over 5 per cent of the total 
adult labor power of 31,000,000, amounting in 
1921 to 1,686,353 people and 916,252 in 1912. 
Of this 1921 total, 945,788 were engaged, as 
against 609,638 in 1916, in textile factories; 
249,102 in machine and tool factories, compared 
with 146,477 in 1916; 171,249 in chemical works 
and 195,139 in 1916; 143,554 in breweries, tea- 
drying establishments, flour and rice mills, com- 
pared with 44,908 in 1916; and 154,908 in 
printing, woodenware, gas and electric works, 
and foundries, compared with 79,188 in 1916. 
Government works employed 15,752 in 1921, a 
tremendous reduction from 157,902 in 1916, 
most of whom were in military factories. 
Wages paid laborers ranged in 1921 from 40 
cents per day paid female silk spinners to $1.50 
per day for bricklayers. In 1913, the former 
were paid 14 cents per day and the latter 55 
cents. In most trades, however, the yearly 
bonus and the separation bonus, received by an 
employee on his discharge, brought these figures 
up to 10 per cent more. Japanese labor was 
relatively inefficient compared with European 
and American labor, four or five persons being 
required as a rule to do the work of one skilled 
western workman. 

Electricity. About 90 per cent of Japan’s 
electric power was hydroelectric, 1,526,718 kilo- 
watts being produced in 1921. This was nearly 
three times the kilowatt production of 1913, 
which was 596,856 kilowatts. Japan manufac- 
tured its own electric lamps, telephone and 
telegraph apparatus, and many of the motors 
and other apparatus used. There were 174,000 
motors in use in 1921, 18,144,000 electric lamps 
supplying 6,986,000 households, 26 per cent of 
the supply being located in the six principal 
cities. $381,000,000 was invested in the elec- 
trical industry in 1919, compared with only 
$93,000,000 in 1916., Japan has available water 
power to supply approximately 2,330,000 kilo- 
watts and this capacity was rapidly being filled. 
$38,000,000 was the value of the output in the 
electrochemical industry in 1921, compared 
with $59,000,000 in 1916, mainly in the manu- 
facture of galvanized copper, calcium carbide, 


710 JAPAN 


nitrogen fertilizers, caustic soda, iron and steel 
alloy, cement and bleaching powders. This val- 
ue of output had declined from $88,000,000 in 
1918, in which year large amounts of the prod- 
uct were for export. This fall was due to re- 
turn to normal conditions, when it was found 
that domestic products could no longer compete 
on the world markets due to high production 
costs in Japan. 

Cotton Spinning. $143,399,000 was _ in- 
vested in cotton-spinning companies in 1921, 
operating 3,838,000 spindles, compared with 
$42,910,000 in 1914 and 2,606,004 spindles in 
1914. By April, 1923, the spindleage had in- 
creased to 4,172,384. This was just double the 
number operating in 1911. These _ spindles 
worked an average of 21 hours a day in 1922, 
producing in that year 2,228,307 bales of cotton 
yarn (compared with 1,666,184 in 1914), the 
largest amount in the history of the industry. 
Despite the destruction or temporary disloca- 
tion of 776,748 spindles in the earthquake of 
Sept. 1, 1923, the production for that year was 
2,155,954 bales. A little over 15 per cent of 
this production was exported (394,062 bales) 
in 1922, the principal market being China. In 
1914 when the production was 30 per cent less 
than 1922, Japan exported 569,999 bales of cotton 
yarn. The growth of the cotton industry in 
China, Japan’s principal market, accounted for 
this decline. 

Cotton Weaving. In 1921, 4556 cotton 
textile mills (employing five operatives or 
over), with 54,994 looms and employing 137,- 
381 operatives produced $332,000,000 worth of 
cotton textiles, consisting principally of 115,- 
199,000 pieces of narrow and 834,503,000 yards 
of wide white cloth, 46,026,000 pieces of striped 
stuff, 203,865,000 yards of flannel, 5,879,000 
pieces of crepe and 7,447,000 dozen towels, 
about two-thirds of which was consumed at 
home and the remainder of which went to 
China, India, and the Dutch East Indies. In 
1913, 2087 mills with 85,565 operatives pro- 
duced $82,500,000 worth of cotton textiles con- 
sisting of 90,578,000 pieces of narrow white 
cloth, 23,588,000 pieces of striped stuff, 3,102,- 
000 yards of flannel, 5,702,000 pieces of crépe, 
and 5,277,000 dozen towels. About 10 per cent 
of the looms were put out of commission in the 
earthquake. 

Woolen and Worsted Weaving. 
932 factories and 17,868 looms, employing 32,- 
534 operatives, produced $81,000,000 worth of 
woolen fabrics, including 53,265,000 yards of 
muslin, valued at $35,000,000. Other products 
included woolen cloth, $11,000,000; flannel, $1,- 
900,000; serges, $1,350,000; blankets, $1,350,- 


* 000; and all other, $21,000,000. Muslin output 


in 1913 had been 69,585,000 yards of which 
only 760,000 yards were exported. During the 
War most of the mills concentrated on produc- 
tion of serges and woolen cloth for uniforms, 
principally for Russia, leaving the stable mus- 
lin industry unorganized to combat post-war 
competition. 

Chemicals. 21,920,000 pounds of caustic 
soda were produced in 1921 compared with 16,- 
088,000 pounds in 1915, as well as 7,500,000 
pounds of bleaching powder and 93,300 tons of 
superphosphate; while 64,570 tons of sulphuric 
acid were produced by 12 leading companies in 
the same year. Japan also produced 480,208,- 
000 dozen matches in 1921, quite a decline from 
the 620,772,000 dozen in 1913 when Japanese 


In 1921, - 


JAPAN 711 


labor was relatively cheap. In 1920, 4,684,000 
pounds of celluloid from domestic camphor, a 
great increase over the 1912 production of 412,- 
000 pounds, due to growing demands for Japa- 
nese toys and other celluloid products produced 
under a systematic preference to camphor al- 
lotment for domestic manufacture at the ex- 
pense of foreign celluloid producers. 

Pottery, Glassware, Lacquerware, Brick 
and Cement. In 1921, Japan produced 
$27,000,000 worth of porcelain and pottery ($8,- 
500,000 in 1913), $5,000,000 worth of ordinary 
brick ($2,400,000 in 1913), $24,000,000 of tiles 
($5,900,000 in 1913), $2,000,000 of pipes (neg- 
ligible in 1913) and $1,900,000 of fire brick 
($700,000 in 1913). In the same year, $28,- 
000,000 worth of glass and glassware were pro- 
duced ($3,500,000 in 1913), including plate 
glass, window glass, bottles, beads, and mirrors. 
The 1920 lacquerware production of dishes, 
vases, etc., was $10,595,000, compared with $4,- 
350,000 in 1913; also, 7,686,000 barrels of Port- 
land cement were produced in 1921, a consider- 
able increase from the 1914 production of 2,207,- 
500 barrels. The need for concrete construction 
to resist earthquake shock raised the produc- 
tive capacity to 17,000,000 barrels in 1924. 

Sugar Production and Refining. Sugar 
was produced in the Okinawa group (Loochu 
Islands) and in Formosa. There were in all 
56 mills with a daily capacity of 38,600 ‘tons in 
these islands, and 13 mills with 16,300 tons 
daily capacity in Japan proper. In 1921, Japan 
proper actually refined 335,000 tons of sugar, 
and Formosa produced 2,080,000 tons of cane, 
234,000 tons of coarse, 38,000 tons of raw sugar, 
and refined 38,000 tons of sugar, shipping 244,- 
000 tons in all of all three grades to Japan 
proper and exporting abroad 14,000 tons. In 
1913, only 73,190 tons of sugar were refined in 
Japan proper, from 70,186 tons of crude mate- 
rial imported from Formosa. In 1913, 362,534 
tons of sugar were imported from foreign coun- 
tries, principally from Java. In 1920, this had 
fallen to 126,285 tons, showing the tendency in 
the development of the Formosan industry. 

Sake, Beer, and Soy Brewing. In 1920, 
Japan produced 552,000,000 gallons of sake, the 
national liquor brewed from rice, 26,370,000 gal- 
lons of beer, and 134,068,000 gallons of soy 
sauce, brewed from wheat, salt, and soya beans 
and used like Worcestershire sauce in the na- 
tive dietary. This was more than double the 
sake production of 1913, which was 214,048,000 
gallons, and much of Japan’s rice shortage was 
attributable to this fact. It was three times 
the beer production of 9,398,000 gallons in 1913. 
The soy production shows only a relatively 
slight increase over the 112,730,000 gallons pro- 
duction of 1913. 

Iron and Steel. In 1921, 566,531 tons of 
pig iron and 557,286 tons of steel were pro- 
duced, about half the estimated consumption. 
This shows small progress over the 345,600 ton 
production of pig iron and 405,100 ton produc- 
tion of steel in 1915. Japanese iron works had 
a capacity of 1,412,000 tons of pig iron (400,- 
000 government owned and 1,012,000 private 
owned) and 1,033,000 tons of steel (750,000 
government and 283,000 private). It was dif- 
ficult to increase production to capacity be- 
cause of competition from the United States 
and India. Only 87,000 tons of this production 
represented ores in Japan proper, the balance 
of 765,000 tons of iron ore coming from China 


JAPAN 


(70 per cent), and from Korea and Formosa 
(30 per cent). 

Shipbuilding. Shipyards, which had _in- 
creased from six in 1913 to 51 in 1918, fell to 
27 in June, 1921. Only 59,000 tons were 
launched in 1922 compared with 619,064 tons 
in 1919. Amalgamation of small companies 
into larger units kept capital invested in this 
industry steady at $72,000,000. 

Communications. In 1921, Japan had 
135,293 miles of telegraph, and 864,114 miles of 
telephone wire in operation, all under govern- 
ment ownership, compared with 121,677 miles 
of telegraph and 503,302 miles of telephone in 
1914. Japanese-owned cables connected Japan 
with China, Siberia, the Philippines, Guam, and 
the outlying possessions in the Pacific. Danish 
and American-owned cables entered Japan, but 
the government operated, the radio stations. 
Japan had 300,000 miles of roads, but only one 
or two were highways wide enough to permit 
use of automobiles, most of them being built 
for narrow-tread native carts and rickshaws. 
The 346,000 bridges, except those on the 1500- 
mile Tokkaido highway, extending from Naga- 
saki to Tokyo, and a few other wide roads, were 
mostly too narrow and too light for motor ve- 
hicles. There were 8475 miles of railway in 
Japan in 1921, 23 per cent, mostly short lines, 
being privately owned, and the balance, mostly 
trunk lines, being government owned. Only a 
few miles were as yet electrified. In 1913, there 
were 5987 miles of railroad. Canals were im- 
portant only in the areas around Tokyo and 
Osaka, which are located on plains near shal- 
low bays. Canal systems in these cities were 
important transportation factors. 

Shipping. In 1921, Japanese steamer ton- 
nage amounted to 3,206,125 compared with 1l,- 
513,000 tons in 1913 and sail tonnage to 1,259,- 
934 compared with 487,000 tons in 1913. After 
1920, Japanese shipping was ereatly affected by 
decrease in tonnage which had fallen to Japa- 
nese ships as a result of withdrawals of Euro- 
pean ships during the War. In 1922, 13,451 
steamers and 447 sailing vessels entered Japa- 
nese ports, representing 35,795,276 and 65,037 
tons respectively. During the same year, 13,- 
421 steamers and 489 sailing vessels cleared, 
representing 35,556,897 and 69,561 tons respec- 
tively. The principal ports of entrance were, 
in order of importance, Kobe, Yokohama, Osaka, 
Moji, Yokkaichi, Nagoya, Wakamatsu, Naga- 
saki, Tsketoyo, Shimija, Otahu (in Hokkaido), 
Tsuruja, Miike, Naha and Hakata. Those of 
clearance were Yokohama, Osaka, Koke, Moji, 
Nagoya, Shimija, Nagasaki, Otaru, Wakamatsu, 
Miike, Hokodate (in Hokkaido), Shimonoseki, 
Yokkaichi, Karatsu and Tsuruga. 

Foreign Trade. In 1922 the total exports 
were $818,725,908, of which raw silk was 41 per 
cent, cotton yarn 7 per cent, cotton shirting and 
sheeting 5 per cent, cotton tissue 5 per cent, 
habutai (woven silk) 3 per cent, pongee 2 per 
cent, coal 2 per cent, potteries 1 per cent, re- 
fined sugar 1 per cent, tea 1 per cent, knitted 
goods 1 per cent, paper 1 per cent, matches 1 
per cent, machinery 1 per cent, lumber 1 per 
cent, waste silk 1 per cent, cotton crépe 1 per 
cent, hardwatre 1 per cent, glassware 1 per cent, 
and all others 23 per cent. The United States 
took 45 per cent of Japan’s exports, including 
90 per cent of the raw silk, 25 per cent of the 
silk goods, 33 per cent of the pottery, 90 per 
cent of the tea, and 3 per cent of the paper. 


JAPAN 


China took 24 per cent of Japan’s exports, in- 
cluding most of the cotton yarn, shirting, sheet- 
ing, paper tissues, and machinery. India took 
6 per cent, including most of the silk goods, 
matches and glassware. France took 5 per cent, 
including the balance of the raw silk. Great 
Britain took 3 per cent. 

In 1913 when exports were $316,230,107, raw 
silk was 30 per cent, cotton yarn 11 per cent, 
cotton shirting and sheeting 2 per cent, cotton 
tissue 2 per cent, habutai 5 per cent, coal 3 per 
cent, potteries 1 per cent, refined sugar 2 per 
cent, tea 2 per cent, knitted goods 1 per cent, 
paper 14 of 1 per cent, matches 2 per cent, ma- 
chinery 14 of 1 per cent, lumber 2 per cent, 
waste silk 2 per cent, glass 14 of 1 per cent, and 
alk others, 3314 per cent. 

In 1922, total imports were $945,154,116, of 
which 23 per cent was raw cotton, 6 per cent 
machinery and parts, 5 per cent oil cake, 5 per 
cent lumber, 4 per cent iron plate, 4 per cent 
sugar, 4 per cent rice, 3 per cent. wheat, 3 per 
cent wool, 3 per cent woolen tissues, 3 per cent 
woolen yarns, 2 per cent beans and peas, 2 per 
cent iron bars and rods, 1 per cent ingots and 
slabs, 1 per cent paper, 1 per cent kerosene, 1 
per cent fresh eggs, 1 per cent flax hemp, jute 
and China grass, 1 per cent coal, 1 per cent 
mineral oils, and 26 per cent all others. The 
United States supplied Japan with 31 per cent 
of her imports, including 40 per cent of the 
raw cotton, 41 per cent of the machinery, 70 
per cent of the lumber, 60 per cent of the iron 
bars, rods and plates, 80 per cent of the kero- 
sene, 18 per cent of the paper. India supplied 
Japan with 14 per cent of her imports, includ- 
ing 49 per cent of the raw cotton and 28 per 
cent of the ingots and slabs. Great Britain 
supplied Japan with 13 per cent of her imports, 
including 37 per cent of the machinery, 15 per 
cent of the iron bars, ete., and most of her 
woolen tissues. China supplied Japan with 10 
per cent of her imports, including 10 per cent 
of her raw cotton, 40 per cent of her ingots and 
slabs, and most of the eggs, China grass, and 
coal. Kwantung Leased Territory (in South 
Manchuria) supplied Japan with 8 per cent of 
her imports, including most of the wheat, beans, 
and peas. Germany supplied 6 per cent of Ja- 
pan’s imports, including chemicals and dye- 
stuffs, and Australia supplied 4 per cent of 
Japan’s imports, including most of the wool. 
- In 19138, when imports were $364,715,822 raw 
cotton accounted for 32 per cent, machinery 
and parts 5 per cent, oil cake 5 per cent, lumber 
14 of 1 per cent, iron plate 1 per cent, sugar 5 
per cent, rice 7 per cent, wheat 2 per cent, wool 
2 per cent, woolen tissues 2 per cent, woolen 
yarns 2 per cent, beans and peas 2 per cent, 
iron bars and rods 2 per cent, iron ingots and 
slabs 2 per cent, paper nil, kerosene oil 2 per 
cent, fresh eggs 14 of 1 per cent, flax, hemp, jute 
and china grass 1 per cent, coal 34 of 1 per cent 
and mineral oil negligible, with all others 28 
per cent. 

Finances. The total national debt increased 
from $1,265,000,000 at the end of 1914 to $1,- 
861,000,000 at the end of 1922, the internal 
debt increasing from $518,000,000 in 1914 to 
$1,184,000,000 in 1922, while the foreign debt 
increased from $647,000,000 in 1914 to $677,- 
000,000 in 1922. This increase during the War 
was necessitated by Japan’s participation in the 
capture of Shantung from Germany in 1915 and 
the Siberian expedition with the Allies in 1917. 


712 JAPAN 


After the Armistice, $55,500,000 of the foreign 
indebtedness was converted into internal debt. 
To offset her foreign indebtedness, Japan held 
$307,500,000 in specie abroad in December, 1922, 
and held foreign government bonds of approxi- 
mately $222,500,000 as well as other invest- 
ments abroad of $400,000,000. In 1922, Japan 
imported about $127,000,000 more in merchan- 
dise than she exported. To offset this, Japan’s 
invisible balance of international payments was 
in her favor to the extent of $121,000,000, leay- 
ing a net “unfavorable” balance of internation- 
al payments against Japan for 1922 of $6,000,- 
000. These invisible items included the follow- 
ing to the credit of Japan, totaling $298,- 
500,000: government transactions, $30,000,000 ; 
freight and charter income, $95,000,000;  ex- 
penditures of foreign shipping interests in Ja- 
pan, $10,000,000; expenditures of foreign tour- 


ists in Japan, $16,000,000; remitted by Japa- 


nese business men and residents abroad, $39,- 
500,000; income from foreign investments, $23,- 
000,000; insurance and other premiums, $30,- 
000,000; French and British bonds payable, 
$25,000,000; and other income, $30,000,000. 
Offsetting these were the following to the debit 
of Japan, totaling $178,000,000: interest on for- 
eign bonds, $49,000,000; payments by Foreign 
Office for consulates and embassies abroad, $26,- 
000,000; expenses of Japanese shipping com- 
panies ‘abroad, $32,500,000; expenditures of 
Japanese abroad, $19,000,000; income of for- 
eigners in Japan remitted abroad, $6,500,000; 
insurance and other premiums, $37,500,000; ex- 
penditures by Japanese business houses abroad, 
$1,500,000; other expenditure, $6,000,000. 

Budget and National Wealth. In 1914-15, 
the annua] budget showed a revenue of $369,- 
000,000 and expenditures of $324,000,000, or a 
surplus of $43,000,000. The budget for 1921- 
22 balanced at $846,000,000, and that for 1922- 
23 at $673,000,000, a reduction of $173,000,000, 
chiefly due to decreased expenditures on the 
army and navy. The outstanding note issue of 
Japan on Aug. 1, 1923, amounted to $736,376,- 
500 with gold holdings of the government and 
Bank of Japan on the same date of $890,000,000. 
National wealth of Japan was estimated at 
from $32,000,000,000 to $49,000,000,000, or $575 
per capita. Per capita taxation had increased 
from $2.55 in 1903-04 to $4.30 in 1913-14 and 
to $7.10 in 1919. After that, it dropped about 
25 per cent (1923). The per capita national 
debt in 1903-04 was $5.65, but in 1913-14, it 
totaled $17.88, and in 1922, $27.80. 

Effects of the Earthquake. On Sept. 1, 
1923, Japan was visited by one of the greatest 
catastrophes in history. An area 50 miles 
square was completely devastated by an earth- 
quake and a much larger area severely affected ; 
most of the buildings were injured or destroyed, 
and many were burned, while the rails on the 
railway were twisted and telephone and tele- 
graph wires were thrown down. The total 
losses were officially estimated at from $3,500,- 
000,000 to $5,000,000,000. They included the 
total destruction by fire of the City of Yoko- 
hama and the destruction of 70 per cent of 
Tokyo. Property in these cities insured to the 
extent of $950,000,000 was a total loss to its 
owners because of the so-called “earthquake 
clause” in insurance contracts protecting the in- 
surance company against “fire resulting from 
earthquake.” It was estimated that 150,000 
persons were killed by the quake and at least 


JAPAN 


half a million houses were burned and a like 
number wrecked. The chief economic result of 
the disaster was the necessity for Japan to find 
immediately large supplies of lumber, iron and 
steel, hardware and other construction mate- 
rials abroad. In the four months after Sep- 
tember, 1923, import statistics indicated a pur- 
chase of nearly $150,000,000 of these materials. 
Early in 1924, Japan floated two new foreign 
loans, one for $150,000,000 in the United States, 
with a share subscribed in dollars in Europe 
and one for £25,000,000 in England. All of the 
£25,000,000 loan and about $60,000,000 of the 
dollar loan were to be set aside to take up two 
outstanding issues of 414 per cent municipal 
bonds of the City of Tokyo coming due early in 
1925. The gold holdings abroad of the govern- 
ment and the Bank of Japan on Jan. 15, 1924, 
were $227,500,000, and this, together with about 
$90,000,000 of the dollar loan, was to be used 
to finance purchases of raw materials for recon- 
struction. A reconstruction programme was 
adopted by the Japanese Diet in December, 1923, 
calling for expenditures for widening streets in 
Tokyo, providing for fire prevention zones, re- 
building walls, and paving streets. This was 
to cost $350,000,000 covering a period of five 
years, or $70,000,000 a year. A further expen- 
diture of $300,000,000 was decided upon by the 
cabinet in January, 1924, but was not voted by 
the Diet. This covered amounts to be spent for 
rebuilding government buildings, including ar- 
senals. The earthquake also profoundly affect- 
ed Japan’s foreign policy, both economic and 
diplomatic. Money for the exploitation of 
Manchuria would not be available for some years, 
and the markets in China for Japanese cotton 
goods and in the United States for raw silk be- 
came such important factors in maintaining a 
volume of exports to counterbalance huge 
imports of reconstruction materials, that the 
good will of these markets had to be assiduous- 
ly cultivated. The result was apparent, in 
1924, in the studious forbearance from any ac- 
tion that might tend to affect good will toward 
Japan in either China or the United States. 
The fact that 65 per cent of Japan’s exports 
were marketed in China and the United States 
and that in neither case were the commodities 
making up most of this amount of such a na- 
ture as to prove essential, or incapable of sub- 
stitution in time of war or boycott, was a tre- 
mendous factor leading Japan, dominated by 
military clans, along the path of peaceful set- 
tlements. 

Emigration Problem and Food Supply. 
On the other hand, Japan’s population was in- 
creasing at the rate of about 400,000 per annum 
while industrialization was not progressing suf- 
ficiently to take care of this surplus. The gov- 
ernment was, therefore, faced with constant 
pressure in order to find sufficient food to take 
care of this increasing population. In 1924, 
Japan was already 10 per cent deficient in her 
production of the most important foodstuff, i.e. 
rice. The normal net excess of Japanese im- 
ports, visible and invisible, was represented by 
just about this necessary import of rice. If the 
population, which consumed this imported rice, 
could be allowed to emigrate each year, and the 
remaining population, by improved methods, 
could maintain the same production of rice, 
most of Japan’s problems would be solved. 
However, most parts of the world to which 
Japanese cared to emigrate were shut off from 


713 


JAPAN 


them. The Japanese is not a successful emi- 
grant in countries of lower living standards 
than his own. In the 13 years that Japan held 
Korea and in the 20 years that it dominated 
South Manchuria, Japanese emigration to these 
regions was not successful, although fostered by 
every artificial inducement, including land 
grants, financial assistance in agriculture, ete. 
According to the Japan Year Book for 1923, 
Japanese formed less than 2 per cent of the 
population of Korea, or 367,618 inhabitants in 
1921. In the same year there were only 82,145 
Japanese in the Leased Territory of Liaotung, 
South Manchuria, as against 683,173 Chinese. 
See Britisu COLUMBIA; IMMIGRATION. 
Results of Disarmament Conference. As 
a result of the series of treaties and conventions 
concluded at Washington in 1922, Japan defi- 
nitely agreed to a 5-5-3 ratio of capital ships 
with Great Britain and the United States. The 
result was a considerable curtailment in naval 
expenditure, without which Japan’s financial 
position after the earthquake would have been 
much less strong than it was. The Four Power 
treaty, replacing the Anglo-Japanese Alliance 
(q.v.), jointly guaranteed Japan in her insular 
possessions in the Pacific Ocean and further 
reduced her need for expensive fortifications of 
these possessions, including Karafuto, Formosa, 
the Pescadores, and the mandated islands of the 
Pacific. The Nine Power treaty guaranteeing 
and reaffirming the open door principle in 
China lessened Japan’s fear of western aggres- 
sion in that country. Previously the open door 
principle had rested only upon an exchange of 
notes and the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. The 
Nine Power China Customs Treaty, when effec- 
tively carried out, should help to abolish trou- 
blesome interior taxes in China which tend to 
impede Japanese commerce in that country. It 
also provided China with increased revenue 
through which large sums owing to Japanese 
banks on which neither interest nor principal 
had been paid for five years might be refunded. 
Other resolutions regarding China and the Chi- 
nese Eastern Railway all affected Japan indi- 
rectly by working toward a minimizing of in- 
ternational friction in China and the necessity 
of Japan’s maintaining large standing armies in 
her neighboring territories. Japan was, there- 
fore, able to reduce her military expenditure 
proportionately with her naval expenditure, 
and per capita taxation was decreased. The 
military and naval appropriation for 1922-23 
totaled $343,331,000 or $57,549,890 less than 
1921-22. See NAVIES OF THE WORLD. 
Conclusion. Japan made remarkable prog- 
ress in adapting herself to Western conditions. 
In the short space of 56 years after the restora- 
tion of the Emperor to the power which had 
been usurped by the military leaders, Japan 
evolved from medieval to modern civilization 
with wonderful celerity and no grave economic 
or social disturbances. With industrialization, 
however, came a certain amount of social un- 
rest, which was emphasized during the War by 
the creation of many new millionaires (Nari- 
kin) and a great influx of Russian refugees. 
The Japanese Army in Siberia also brought 
back the germ of communism and its influence 
spread with the difficult living conditions creat- 
ed by the earthquake. A number of Korean rev- 
olutionists, difficult to distinguish from Japa- 
nese, were believed to be fomenting unrest. The 
ever-present food shortage, the long hours, and 


JAPAN 


comparatively hard conditions in the factories 
to a people of agricultural traditions were all 
“leaven which leaveneth the whole.” The most 
difficult years in the history of the empire were 
to be faced, in all likelihood, during the coming 
decade. 


HISTORY 


Domestic Affairs. Social unrest and the 
demand for constitutional government and dem- 
ocratic reform grew apace in Japan with the 
increasing modernization and industrialization 
of the country. This tendency became strongly 
manifest in the beginning of 1914, when there 
was widespread opposition to the proposed naval 
increases in the budget. Fuel was added to 
this dissatisfaction by the naval scandals of 
the spring of the same year which exposed the 
existence of wide corruption among high naval 
officials in connection with the award of con- 
tracts to English and German firms. In the 
face of the crisis resulting from these happen- 
ings, the Yamamoto government resigned on 
March 24. After prolonged difficulties a new 
cabinet, headed by Count Okuma, was formed 
on April 16, with a programme calling for eco- 
nomic reform, the elimination of corruption, 
and the establishment of true constitutionalism. 
A new crisis developed in December, 1914, when 
the Lower House by a majority of 65 rejected 
the army increases which under the influence of 
the events of the War had been incorporated in 
the budget for 1915. By Imperial Decree, the 
Lower House was dissolved and new elections 
were called for March of the following year. 
In the elections the ministerial party won a com- 
plete victory and the obvious consequence of this 
was the adoption of the previously rejected 
budget for national defense by a handsome ma- 
jority. Thereupon the opposition resorted to 
different tactics and attempted to break the 
government by a vigorous attack upon its Chi- 
nese policy. On the failure of this move, re- 
course was had to charges of corruption. ‘Sub- 
sequent revelations which substantiated some of 
these charges and in particular brought to light 
the bribing of deputies by a member of the 
cabinet, forced, on July 30, 1924, the resigna- 
tion of the Okuma government, but on the in- 
sistence of the Mikado, Count Okuma resumed 
office with a reconstructed cabinet. The opposi- 
tion, however, did not let up in its assaults on 
the government until Count Okuma resigned 
definitely in the summer of 1916, ostensibly for 
reasons of health. The retiring premier des- 
ignated as his successor Viscount Kato, the 
leader of the newly formed Kenseikai or Consti- 
tutional party which had a majority in the 
Diet. In opposition to this parliamentary pro- 
cedure, the Genro or Elder Statesmen who 
wielded the real power in the Japanese Em- 
pire, brought about on Oct. 9, 1916, the ap- 
pointment “of Marshal Terauchi, Governor-Gen- 
eral of Korea, who had the reputation of being 
an arch-militarist. This disregard of constitu- 
tional rule highly incensed the Diet, and the 
Kenseikai in particular, and a sharp opposi- 
tion developed against the Terauchi government 
in consequence of which the Diet was dissolved 
early in 1917. The following elections, held on 
April 20, resulted in a victory for Marshal 
Terauchi and the military party. 

The Terauchi government remained in undis- 
puted power till the fall of the following year, 


714 


JAPAN 


when, as a direct result of temporary economic 
distress, an explosion occurred which in many 
ways signified the evolution of a new Japan ir- 
reconcilably opposed to Terauchi and the party 
and spirit which he represented. Japan had 
enjoyed an era of great prosperity during the 
War. Manufacture of war materials for the 
belligerent nations had given a tremendous im- 
petus to Japanese industry which in conse- 
quence had undergone a great expansion; but 
with increased industrial power there had also 
arrived more complicated social and industrial 
problems and an increased demand for dem- 
ocratic reform. When, therefore, the shortage 
and high price of rice, the chief food of the 
Japanese, caused great suffering among the com- 
mon people, the forces which had been accumu- 
lating broke loose in a storm of serious in- 
ternal disorders in the early fall of 1918. ‘The 
famous “Rice Riots,’ in conjunction with wide- 
spread strikes and other manifestations of so- 
cial and industrial unrest, brought about the 
fall of the Terauchi cabinet on Sept. 29, 1918. 
The appointment of Takashi Hara as prime 
minister was a concession to this new spirit. 
Hara was the first commoner to become chief 
of the cabinet and he was, moreover, the leader 
of the Seiyukai, the party which had for a 
long time opposed the war policy and the Si- 
berian policy of the Japanese government. 
The same year, 1918, had seen already in March, 
as a result of the wide popular demand for 
democratic reform, an extension of the franchise 
whereby the property qualifications for voting 
were lowered and the number of voters was in- 
creased from 1,500,000 to 3,000,000. Since this 
latter figure represented, however, only one- 
twentieth of the total population of Japan, this 
measure failed to satisfy the people, who in 
the early part of the following year renewed 
their loud demands for universal suffrage. 
Members of the educated classes actively agi- 
tated. toward this end. Contrary to the usage 
of previous Japanese governments, the Hara 
ministry showed remarkable clemency in deal- 
ing with mass meetings and other demonstra- 
tions. In 1919, the Hara government expressed 
its willingness to take steps for the extension 
of the suffrage, but when the opposition at the 
beginning of 1920 introduced bills aiming at 
the adoption of universal suffrage the govern- 
ment opposed these on the ground that the time 
for such action had not yet arrived. On Feb- 
ruary 26, when the bills were up for final con- 
sideration, the Prime Minister declared that it 
was doubtful whether the majority of the peo- 
ple desired universal suffrage and thereupon an- 
nounced the dissolution of the Diet by Im- 
perial Decree. In the elections of May, 1920, 
the Seiyukai, the government party, was victo- 
rious and obtained 280 seats against 199, 39, 
and 29 for the three opposition parties. Not- 
withstanding the government’s victory, however, 
and the vote of confidence given to the goVern- 
ment on the question of national defense in Feb- 
ruary, 1921, active agitation for universal suf- 
frage continued throughout the country. 

On Nov. 24, 1921, the Crown Prince Hirohito 
was appointed regent, the Emperor Yoshihito 
having been long incapacitated by illness. The 
Regent was born in April, 1901, had been pro- 
claimed Heir Apparent in 1912 on the accession 
of his father to the throne, and had been con- 
secrated Crown Prince in 1916. Already, in 
May, 1920, his father had handed over to him 


JAPAN 


certain functions and had sent him on a mission 
to Europe. 

After holding office for three years, Prime 
Minister Hara was assassinated on Nov. 4, 1921, 
at a time when the Washington Conference was 
about to begin and problems of the utmost im- 
portance for Japan were pending. A new min- 
istry was formed by Baron Takahashi, who 
had been minister of finance in the Hara cab- 
inet and who continued in substance the policy 
of his predecessor. Lack of harmony among 
the ministers brought about the early fall of 
the Takahashi cabinet in June, 1922. There- 
upon Admiral Tomosaburo Kato, a member of 
the Liberal party and an opponent of the mil- 
itarists, agreed to head a new government, con- 
stituted on a non-partisan basis, on the condi- 
tion that the army leaders submit to a reduc- 
tion of the army budget by 40,000,000 yen. 
After some minor reductions before that time, 
the government took final steps on Nov. 25, 
1922, for the retirement of 60,000 men and an 
annual saving of the before-mentioned sum. At 
the same time, Japan, having ratified the Wash- 
ington Treaties on July 6 of the same year, re- 
duced its naval budget on assurance from the 
United States government that its own naval 
budget would be framed in accordance with the 
treaties of the Washington Conference. In 
pursuance of this policy of retrenchment, further 
substantial economies in connection with mil- 
itary and naval expenditures were made in the 
budget for 1923-24. An important forward 
step in juridical reform was a measure for the 
introduction of the jury system. The bill was 
laid before the Lower House on Feb. 10, 1923, 
and passed the Upper House on March 10. Its 
provisions were to go into effect in 1928. On 
August 28, Admiral Baron Kato died and it 
devolved upon Foreign Minister Count Uchida 
to conduct the government as prime minister, 
ad interim. Count Yamamoto undertook imme- 
diately the formation of a new cabinet and he 
was still engaged upon this task when Tokyo 
and surroundings were visited, on Sept. 1, 1923, 
by one of the most disastrous earthquakes in 
the history of the country. 

The earthquake affected an area measuring 
some 80 miles deep by 120 miles wide. The de- 
struction in life and property was terrific. 
Yokohama was practically wiped out by the 
disaster and Tokyo was partially destroyed. 
The toll in killed and missing amounted to 
nearly 150,000 lives. The government which 
at the time was in process of formation, and 
which held its first meeting in the open air 
amid smoking ruins, faced now the vast prob- 
lem of reconstruction. But people and officials 
alike put themselves to the task and in a sur- 
prisingly short time reconstruction was begun. 
The whole nation, from the Imperial Family 
down to the last laborer, rallied heroically to 
the assistance of the government and by gen- 
erous contributions helped in allaying misery 
and repairing the losses. Relief poured in from 
all parts of the world, especially from the United 
States. The Capital Restoration Council and 
the Restoration Board, etablished by an im- 
perial edict, took under consideration immedi- 
ately plans for the rebuilding of the destroyed 
cities on a greater and more modern scale. The 
supplementary estimates, amounting to 468,438,- 
849 yen, for the preliminary work of reconstruc- 
tion for the period 1923-29, were passed by the 
Diet, as was also a bill concerning the organiza- 


715 JAPAN 


tion and procedure for town planning in Tokyo 
and Yokohama. The plans for rebuilding these 
cities were drawn up with the assistance of the 
American expert, Dr. Charles A. Beard, who 
came to Japan for this special purpose by in- 
vitation of Minister Baron Goto. In a state- 
ment to the Diet, the Minister of Finance es- 
timated the damage caused by the earthquake at 
between seven and ten billion yen. 

On Dec. 27, 1923, an unsuccessful attempt 
was made on the life of the Prince Regent as 
he was on his way to the Diet to deliver the 
speech from the throne. Since no such attack, 
on the Imperial House had occurred in modern 
times the entire ministry felt compelled in con- 
sequence to hand in its resignation. The Prince 
Regent refused to accept it, “but the cabinet per- 
sisted and its resignation was finally accepted 
on Dec. 29, 1923. The position of the Yama- 
moto government had been precarious for some 
time, due to the opposition of the Seiyukai. 
A new cabinet, formed by Viscount Kiyoura of 
a non- -partisan. basis, came into office on Jan. 1, 
1924. It received little support in the Diet 
and its early fall would have been certain, had 
not a split occurred in the Seiyukai and had 
not the seceding group, which adopted the name 
of Seiyu-honto or Original Constitutional party, 
and mustered 148 votes in the Lower House, 
thrown its support to the Kiyoura cabinet. 
As a result of the attempted wrecking of a rail- 
road train which had three opposition leaders 
aboard, a storm broke loose in the Diet which 
led to the dissolution of the Diet on Jan. 31, 
1924. 

The first loan placed by Japan on the Amer- 
ican market since the Russo-Japanese War was 
offered on February 11. The American share of 
this loan was to be $150,000,000 and another 
section offered to the English public amounted 
to £25,000,000. Both issues were greatly over- 
subscribed. The proceeds of the American and 
English shares of this loan were intended to be 
used for the retirement of the remainder of 
sterling 4% per cent bonds and the balance was 
to be applied to the financing of reconstruction 
measures growing out of the earthquake disaster, 
the total cost of which was placed at approxi- 
mately $700,000,000. 

Elections for the Lower House were held on 
May 10 and resulted in the defeat of the Seiyu- 
honto, the newly-formed party supporting Pre- 
mier Kiyoura. The returns were reported as 
follows: Kenseikai 146, Seiyu-honto 120, Seiyu- 
kai 101, Kakushin Club 30, Businessmen’s party 
8, Independents 57. An outstanding feature of 
the election was the defeat of many members of 
the previous Parliament and the return of 250 
deputies without parliamentary experience. The 
resignation of the Kiyoura cabinet, necessitated 
by the adverse vote, was postponed until after 
the celebration of the wedding of the Prince 
Regent on June 5. Since no party commanded a 
majority in the Diet, Viscount Kato formed 
subsequently a coalition cabinet which repre- 
sented the Kenseikai, the Seiyukai and the 
Kakushin Club. 

The new American immigration policy and 
the discrimination against Japanese resulting 
therefrom aroused a storm of indignation in 
Japan. Protest meetings were held, five Japa- 
nese patriots committed ‘hara- kiri in protest, and 
the anti-exclusion organization, called the “Ko- 
kumin Taibeikai,’”’ was formed. <A _ boycott of 
American moving picture films, which had been 


JAPAN 


instituted in retaliation, had to be subsequently 
abandoned as a failure. On the whole, the 
American measures had the effect of creating 
a wave of anti-American feeling in Japan which 
the government strove earnestly to keep within 
bounds so as to prevent any untoward _inci- 
dents which might further strain Japanese- 
American relations. Japanese indignation was 
not so much aroused by the general exclusion 
policy of the United States as by the special 
discrimination between Japanese and_ other 
aliens and by the placing of members of the 
proud Japanese nation on the same level with 
other Asiatics whose governments did not sit 
at the council table of the great powers of the 
world. The feeling of friendship and gratitude 
generated by American generosity on occasion 
of the earthquake was seriously impaired by 
the policy of the United States. While the Im- 
migration Bill was under consideration the 
Japanese government took steps to bring about, 
and actually effected in July, 1924, a change in 
the laws of citizenship whereby the “dual citizen- 
ship” was abolished and Japanese nationals 
would henceforth lose their Japanese citizenship 
upon naturalization in another country. 
Foreign Policy. In 1914, before the out- 
break of the War, Japan was confronted with 
two great international problems, the effects of 
the unsettled conditions in China on _ Sino- 
Japanese relations and the difficulties with the 
United States arising from the treatment of 
Japanese citizens on the American Pacific Coast. 
The outbreak of the War pushed these issues 
temporarily into the background and supplied 
the astute statesmen of Japan with a great op- 
portunity for which they had been patiently 
waiting for a long time. Within a fortnight 
after the commencement of hostilities between 
Great Britain and Germany, Japan delivered an 
ultimatum to the latter demanding the immedi- 
ate withdrawal of all German warships from 
Chinese and Japanese waters and the surrender 
of Kiaochow to Japan, with a view to the 
eventual return of this territory to China. A 
week later, Japan declared war on Germany and 
on Nov. 7, 1914, the German force at Tsingtao 
capitulated to the Japanese Expeditionary Force. 
Already, during the previous month, Japan had 
occupied the Marianne, Caroline, and Marshall 
Islands in the Pacific. The rapidity of this 
move came rather as a surprise to the Germans, 
and even to other nations, in view of the well- 
known German sympathies in certain influential 
Japanese circles. As its reason for entering the 
War, the Japanese government cited its treaty 
obligations with Great Britain. (See ANGLO- 
JAPANESE ALLIANCE.) A more convincing rea- 
son, however, was the Japanese desire to dislodge 
a western power from a position that was dan- 
gerous to Japanese hegemony in the Far East. 
Ever since 1895, when the combined action of 
Russia, Germany, and France compelled Japan 
to forego part of the spoils of the war with 
China, guaranteed to her by the Treaty of 
Shimonoseki, she had been biding her time. In 
the case of Russia, the opportunity had come 
with the Russo-Japanese War, and the outbreak 
of the European conflagration presented now 
the occasion to hold a reckoning with Germany. 
Behind the screen of the Anglo-Japanese Alli- 
ance, Japan used the preoccupation of the West- 
ern Powers in Europe to establish herself in a 
practically impregnable position in the Far 
East. No doubt Japan fulfilled faithfully the 


716 


JAPAN 


obligations arising out of the Anglo-Japanese 
Alliance, helped in removing all vestiges of Ger- 
man power from the Pacific, and even sent a 
naval squadron to the Mediterranean for con- 
voy duty; but with much more faithfulness did 
she apply herself to the task of emerging from: 
the War as the Power in the Far East, and of 
using her position of economic vantage as best 
she could, with the result that the close of 
the War found her financially in excellent con- 
dition and industrially greatly developed. See 
Wak, DIPLOMACY OF THE. 

Ostensibly, Japan had seized Kiaochow to re- 
store it eventually to China. This pious in- 
tention harmonized ill with the fact that before 
the dispatch of the Japanese ultimatum to Ger- 
many negotiations had been going on between 
Germany and China looking toward the volun- 
tary return by the former to the latter of the 
Kiaochow Leased Territory. When therefore, 
on Jan. 18, 1915, Japan retaliated to the Chinese 
demand for the restoration of the territory by 
presenting to the Chinese government in a per- 
emptory manner the well-known Twenty-one De- 
mands, this move came rather as a surprise and 
aroused the suspicion even of Japan’s .allies. 
After some resistance, the Chinese government, 
in the face of a Japanese Note with a time 
limit, signed the Japano-Chinese Treaties and 
Agreements of May 25, 1915, which embodied 
15 of the original Twenty-one Demands. In the 
meantime, Japan increased constantly her mili- 
tary forces in Chinese territory. These flagrant 
encroachments of Japan on Chinese territory 
and sovereignty could hardly be reconciled with 
her previous declarations of concern for China’s 
welfare and the absence of any aggressive in- 
tentions. 

Following the Treaty of Portsmouth, there 
had been a rapprochement between Japan and 
Russia, in the course of which four secret 
treaties, the last one in 1916, had been concluded 
between the two powers (see SIBERIA and the 
Far Eastern Repusriic). The last of these 
secret treaties, which practically amounted to 
an alliance in Far Eastern affairs between the 
former enemies, stated that the “vital inter- 
ests” of the contracting parties required the 
“safeguarding of China from the political domi- 
nation of any third power whatever having hos- 
tile designs against Russia and Japan.” This 
potentially significant Russo-Japanese policy 
was ill-fated, however, for the Russian Revolu- 
tion annulled all treaties and agreements en- 
tered into by Imperial Russia, and left Japan 
with new problems on her hands, but at the 
same time delivered her also from her most 
formidable rival. 

A Special Japanese Mission to the United 
States concluded; in the autumn of 1917, a con- 
vention with the American government, com- 
monly known as the Lansing-Ishii Agreement. 
By this document, the liberty of action of 
Japan in China was further extended, inasmuch 
as the United States, the only power that was 
free to interfere with Japanese plans in the 
Far East, recognized the special interests of 
Japan in China arising out of territorial pro- 
pinquity. The Japanese further consolidated 
their position in China by the secret military 
Sino-Japanese Agreement of May, 1918, which 
provided for common defense of mutual inter- 
ests in China against Soviet Russia for the 
duration of the War, and by the secret agree- 
ments of Sept. 24, 1918, which granted Japan 


JAPAN 


far-reaching railroad concessions in China. 
These agreements, which were not disclosed of- 
ficially to the other Allied Powers until after 
the opening of the Peace Conference, caused 
great resentment in China when they became 
public and proved also injurious to the Chinese 
claims at the Peace Conference. Of far great- 
er significance, however, were the secret agree- 
ments concluded between Japan and the Allies 
early in 1917, whereby the British, French, 
Russian, and Italian governments, which were 
at that time greatly in need of Japanese naval 
assistance, pledged themselves more or less 
unconditionally to support at the Peace Con- 
ference the Japanese claims with regard to the 
disposal of the former German rights in Shan- 
tung and the Pacifie islands north of the Equa- 
tor (see SHANTUNG). 

The military collapse of Russia and the Rus- 
sian Revolution not only delivered Japan from 
her greatest rival in the Far East, but also 
gave her an opportunity to pursue a policy of 
her own with regard to Siberia. Already early 
in 1918, Japan had landed troops in Vladivostok 
for the protection of Japanese nationals and 
interests. In the subsequent Allied Interven- 
tion in Siberia during the fall of 1918, Japan 
was an active participant, but at no time did 
she manifest any genuine concern for the es- 
tablishment of a strong and stable anti-Bolshevik 
government. In fact, she refused to extend her 
intervention to the region east of Lake Baikal 
where she had no special interest. At the same 
time, there was strong evidence of Japanese 
underhand dealings with such semi-independent 
Cossack leaders and notorious brigands as Se- 
menov and Kalmikov who were far more of a 
liability than an asset to the White Russian 
movement and served to further materially the 
designs of Japan in Siberia. Thus Japan, by 
her policy of obstruction, seems to have con- 
tributed materially to the final collapse of the 
anti-Bolshevik government and to the failure of 
Allied Intervention in Siberia (see SIBERIA and 
the FAR EASTERN REPUBLIC). 

At the Peace Conference, Japan was repre- 
sented by a strong delegation headed by Mar- 
quis Saionji. The Japanese representatives 
took part in all the important sessions on a 
footing of equality with those of Great Britain, 
France, Italy, and the United States; and Japan 
was one of the powers which formed the all- 
powerful Council of Ten. The Japanese dele- 
gates presented two separate claims. Of these, 
the demand for the recognition of racial equal- 
ity met with strong opposition, primarily on the 
part of the United States, and hence was eventu- 
ally rejected (see PEACE CONFERENCE). Japan 
was more successful in her claims with regard 
to Shantung and the former German islands 
in the Pacific north of the Equator. The ar- 
guments advanced by the head of the Japanese 
delegation in favor of retention of these terri- 
tories were in substance as follows: Japan had 
taken these places from Germany during the 
War in fulfillment of her treaty obligations; 
she held them in occupation at the time; they 
should form Japan’s just compensation for 
her contribution to the Allied victory. After 
much delay and discussion, the former German 
rights in Shantung were finally awarded to Japan 
on Apr. 30, 1919. The withdrawal of Italy 
from the Conference had given Japan an op- 
portunity to threaten with a refusal to sign 
the Peace Treaty unless her claims with regard 


717 


JAPAN 


to Shantung were favorably considered. It 
was then that Messrs. Clemenceau and Lloyd 
George voted in accordance with the pledges 
given to Japan in the secret agreements of 
February and March, 1917, and thus overrode the 
opposition of President Wilson, who claimed to 
be ignorant of these understandings (see PREACE 
CoNFERENCE; also SHANTUNG). On May 7, 
1919, the Council awarded to Japan the islands 
in the Pacifie north of the Equator to be ad- 
ministered under the mandatory system. ‘The 
Japanese sovereignty over the Island of Yap, 
contained within this group, was disputed by 
the United States, which based its objection on 
the ground that it had never ratified the Peace 
Treaty of Versailles. A final adjustment of the 
matter took place at the Washington Conference 
at the end of 1921, in the form of an agreement 
whereby the United States recognized Japanese 
sovereignty over Yap and was accorded in re- 
turn full rights and facilities in connection 
with the cables and other matters (see YAp and 
also WASHINGTON CONFERENCE). 

The allocation of German rights in Shantung 
to Japan caused a storm of protest in China and 
general indignation throughout the world. 
There was universal apprehension at the way 
in which Japan within recent years had surged 
to the fore as a first-class power. The close 
of the War found Japan, as a result of astute 
statesmanship during the conflict, to have ob- 
tained a more or less firm grip on a vast ter- 
ritory in the Far East, comprising Eastern 
Siberia, Sakhalin, Kamchatka, Manchuria, Inner 
Mongolia, and Shantung. Post-war history 
marks the gradual retreat of Japan from some 
of these territories, partly as a result of interna- 
tional public opinion and of pressure from the 
other powers, which were free now to devote 
more attention to Far Eastern affairs, and partly 
as a result of re-orientation of Japanese foreign 
policy due to the exigencies of world affairs. 
On May 7, 1920, Japan announced her readi- 
ness to withdraw her reservations in Man- 
churia and Mongolia. By this concession the 
territories in question came under the author- 
ity of the Chinese Loan Consortium, consisting 
of American, British, French, and Japanese 
banking groups. Far greater difficulties were 
encountered in the settlement of the Shantung 
problem. Repeated attempts of Japan to ne- 
gotiate with Peking over the Shantung issue 
were blocked by the steadfast refusal of China, 
which insisted that any agreement must be 
preceded by the restoration to China of the 
territory and the rights connected therewith. 
Japanese proposals on Sept. 7, 1921, before the 
meeting of the Disarmament Conference in Wash- 
ington, involved the restoration to China of the 
Leased Territory of Kiaochow, in return for 
which the territory ‘was to be opened to foreign 
trade and Japan was to receive certain railway 
and mining concessions. These rather moderate 
proposals were rejected by China. A final agree- 
ment was reached at the Washington Confer- 
ence in the form of a treaty signed between 
Japan and China on Feb 7, 1922, which pro- 
vided for the immediate transfer of the for- 
mer German port and concessions to China and 
for the payment of a monetary compensation 
and the grant of certain rights to Japan (see 
SHantuna; also WASHINGTON CONFERENCE). 
At the same time Japan, by affixing her signa- 
ture to the Treaty of the Open Door in China, 
relinquished other reservations in China,. but 


JAPAN 


refused to abandon her hold on Manchuria and 
Mongolia (see WASHINGTON CONFERENCE). On 
May 10, 1923, the Chinese government addressed 
a Note to Tokyo in which the desire was ex- 
pressed to open negotiations relative to the 
abrogation of the Sino-Japanese Treaties and 
Agreements of May 25, 1915. The Japanese re- 
ply bluntly rejected this request and made clear 
at the same time that Japan did not regard 
these treaties as susceptible of modification. 
In spite of solemn declarations and promises, 
Japan did not participate in the withdrawal of 
the Allied Expeditionary Force in Siberia after 
the Kolchak débacle early in 1920. Instead she 
consolidated her position in the region east of 
Lake Baikal, testifying thereby that her policy 
in the Russian Far East was dictated by special 
interests arising out of geographical propin- 
quity. The Japanese Siberian policy aroused 
the suspicion of the other powers and caused 
representations to be made by the United States 
to the Tokyo government. Partly in conse- 
quence thereof, but chiefly as a result of the 
progress of Soviet power in Siberia and the 
stabilization of eastern Siberian affairs under 
the Far Eastern Republic, which had been es- 
tablished in Chita after the collapse of the 
White Russian movement, the Japanese slowly 
retraced their steps in the following years and 
withdrew their troops to the Maritime Province 
and to Vladivostok where an anti-Bolshevik 
government held sway as a powerless instrument 
of Japanese policy. At the same time, however, 
Japan extended her occupation to Northern or 
Russian Sakhalin in retaliation for the Nicolai- 
evsk Massacre early in 1920. In the face 
of the steadily growing power of the Soviets in 
Siberia, Japan began subsequently to prepare for 
total evacuation. A conference between the 
Japanese and representatives of the Far East- 
ern Republic at Dairen, which lasted from fall, 
1921, to spring, 1922, ended in failure. Shortly 
afterwards Japan announced her intention to 
withdraw all troops from the mainland of Si- 
beria by the end of October, 1922. The reasons 
for this move must be sought in the results 
of the Washington Conference and in the 
strengthening of Soviet rule. While the evacu- 
ation was in progress, another conference took 
place in September, 1922, at Changchun in Man- 
churia between representatives of Japan and the 
Far Eastern Republic, in which also emissaries 
from Moscow participated. This conference 
broke up because of Japan’s refusal to evacu- 
ate Northern Sakhalin and to recognize the 
Soviet government. The Japanese Russian policy 
underwent some modification, however, with the 
absorption of the Chita government by the 
Soviets immediately after the Japanese evacua- 
tion and with Soviet possession of the entire 
mainland of Siberia. At the same time, the 
Soviet government began to adopt various 
aspects of the Czarist Far Eastern policy and 
above all came to evolve a definite Chinese 
policy, especially with regard to Mongolia. 
Thereafter signs began to appear that Moscow 
and Tokyo were seeking a modus vivendi. Thus 
the year 1923 was taken up with private and 
semi-official conferences between high Russian 
and Japanese officials looking toward the con- 
clusion of a Russo-Japanese commercial treaty, 
the recognition of the Soviet government by 
Japan, and the evacuation of Northern Sakha- 
lin. Negotiations progressed only very slowly, 
the chief stumbling block being the Sakhalin 


718 


JAPAN 


issue. On July 24, 1924, the Japanese cabinet 
adopted a plan submitted by Foreign Minister 
Shidehara which would form the basis for an un- 
derstanding with Soviet Russia, as worked out in 
protracted negotiations between the Japanese and 
Russian envoys in Peking. The chief points were 
reported to be as follows: (1) Cession by Russia 
to Japan of mining and oil concessions in North- 
ern Sakhalin; (2) a Russian apology to Japan 
for the Nicolaievsk Massacre; (3) withdrawal 
of Japanese troops from Northern Sakhalin; (4) 
recognition by Russia of the Portsmouth 
Treaty; resumption of Russian-Japanese diplo- 
matic relations. Finally persistent rumors were 
current in the summer of 1924 that Russia and 
Japan had reached a secret agreement providing 
for codperation of the two countries in Far 
Eastern affairs to the exclusion of the interests 
of any third power. If substantiated this would 
mean the final adoption by Soviet Russia of 
the Far Eastern policy of the Czar and would 
be, in connection with the recent American 
immigration policy, of tremendous significance 
in future Japanese foreign policy, particularly 
with relation to the United States. For Japan’s 
Siberian policy, see SrBERIA and the Far EAst- 
ERN REPUBLIC. 

Japan was one of the chief participants in 
the Washington Conference, Nov. 12, 1921—Feb. 
6, 1922, in which agreements of outstanding im- 
portance to Japan were arrived at. The treat- 
ies and agreements affecting Japan, aside from 
those specifically relating to China—such as 
the Shantung agreement, the Nine Power Treaty 
of the Open Door in China, the treaty pertain- 
ing to the Chinese tariff, the agreement rela- 
tive to the withdrawal of foreign control of 
post offices in .China—were the Four Power 
Treaty, dealing with the problems of the Pa- 
cific; the Five Power Naval Treaty, and the 
agreement between the United States and Japan 
relating to the status of the island of Yap. 
The Four Power Treaty aimed at the settlement 
of problems arising out of Japan’s need for ex- 
pansion in the Pacific by an agreement between 
the contracting powers for the mutual protec- 
tion of island possessions and dominions in the 
Pacific. The Five Power Treaty provided for 
naval limitation on the basis of the 5-5-3 naval 
ratio, Japan limiting herself thereby to the 
maximum of 10 capital ships of 312,700 tons 
as against 20 of 582,540 tons for Great Britain 
and 18 of 525,850 tons for the United States. 
On the part of Japan, these treaties represent 
a sincere effort at an amicable understanding 
with the view to preventing questions arising 
out of Japan’s astonishing growth as a power 
within the last 10 years from developing into 
armed conflict. A further manifestation of this 
spirit was the faithful carrying out of the 
Washington agreements and the adoption by the 
Japanese government of a policy of military 
and naval retrenchment. A _ direct result of 
the Washington Conference was the cancellation 
of the Lansing-Ishii Agreement in March, 1922, 
because in view of the Nine Power Treaty a 
new understanding had become possible. By 
the Four Power Treaty the Anglo-Japanese Al- 
liance was definitely superseded. (See ANGLO- 
JAPANESE ALLIANCE.) Subsequently there oc- 
curred in Great Britain much criticism of 
Japan and apprehension at the growing power 
of that country in the Far East. Concentra- 
tion of British naval units in the Pacifie and 
the drafting of a plan for a naval base at Singa- 


JAPANESE BEETLE 


pore caused increased watchfulness on the part 
of Japan. 

Perhaps the most serious factor in Japanese 
foreign relations was the status of Japanese 
in the United States and especially their treat- 
ment in the Pacific States. Difficulties arising 
therefrom had been to some extent regulated by 
the gentlemen’s agreement concluded between 
Japan and the United States. After a com- 
parative lull in the situation due to the exigen- 
cies of the War, new friction arose in 1920 with 
the passage by California on November 2 of an 
act by which “ineligible aliens” forfeited all 
rights of holding land in that State. This was 
followed by anti-alien land legislation in other 
Western States, with the Washington Confer- 
ence, the generous extension of aid to Japan 
by the United States on the occasion of the great 
earthquake, in 1923, and the manifestation of 
sincere gratitude on the part of the Japanese 
government and people, an era of better un- 
derstanding between the two countries seemed 
to be approaching. But whatever ground for 
hope in that direction might have existed was 
hopelessly blighted by decisions of the United 
States Supreme Court on Noy. 12 and 19, 1923, 
sustaining in full the alien land laws of Cali- 
fornia and Washington. Much more serious, 
however, was the effect of the new American im- 
migration law, effective July 1, 1924, which car- 
ried a Japanese exclusion clause and amounted 
to an abrogation of the “gentlemen’s agreement.” 
This measure caused a storm of indignation in 
Japan. The Japanese government, however, 
proceeded with caution and did everything in 
its power to avoid cause for conflict. It pre- 
vented too extreme expression of public indig- 
nation and took steps to abolish “dual nation- 
ality.’ On April 10, Masanao Hanihara (q.v.), 
Japanese Ambassador in Washington, wrote a 
letter to Mr. Hughes in which he referred to 
the “grave consequences which the enactment of 
the measure” would inevitably bring upon the 
otherwise happy and mutually advantageous re- 
lations between the two countries. This state- 
ment provoked hostile criticism in the United 
States. On May 31 the Japanese Ambassador 
presented a lengthy note of protest of his gov- 
ernment to the American government. Secre- 
tary Hughes’s reply was well received in Japan 
but failed to satisfy public opinion. The de- 
parture of the Japanese Ambassador to Japan 
on June 11 was interpreted in many circles as 
a direct result of the Immigration Bill. What- 
ever right the United States might possess to 
pursue such a policy and whatever merits the 
bill has from the standpoint of American do- 
mestic policy, there can be no doubt that the 
new policy has seriously impaired the beneficial 
results of the Disarmament Conference, in spite 
of the fact that the Japanese government pre- 
serves a very calm front. It is significant that 
the Japanese Minister of the Navy declared on 
July 7 in the Diet that a decided expansion of 
the Japanese naval air forces, “necessitated by 
recent developments at home and abroad,” was 
contemplated. Japan also resumed, in July, 
1924, negotiations with Soviet Russia toward 
a closer understanding. 


JAPANESE BEETLE. See ENTOMOLOGY, 
Economic. 
JARDINE, Wir11am M. (1879- ya An 


American agronomist, born in Oneida County, 
Idaho. He graduated from the Agricultural 
College of Utah in 1904 and took postgraduate 


24 


719 


JAZZ 


studies at the University of Illinois. In 1904, 
he was appointed assistant in agronomy at 
the Agricultural College of Utah, and became 
professor in 1905-06. He was agronomist at the 
Kansas State Agricultural College and Experi- 
ment Station in 1910, and in 1913 was acting 
director of the Experiment Station and dean 
of agriculture at the Kansas State Agricultural 
College. Professor Jardine was director and 
dean of agriculture at this university from 
1913 to 1918, and in the latter year was chosen 
its president. He was a member of many agri- 
cultural societies and wrote numerous papers 
and bulletins on dry farming and crop produc- 
tion. 

JASTROW, IcGnaz (1856- ). A profes- 
sor of the science of government at the Uni- 
versity of Berlin (see Vor. XII). His works 
after the War deal mainly with economic prob- 
lems. They include: Kriegszustand (1914); 
Mitteleuropdische Zollanniherung und Meistbe- 
giinstigung (1915); Geld und Kredit im Kriege 
(1915); Die Handelspolitische Zukunft Deutsch- 
lands (1917); Vélkerreichtum und Wirtschafts- 
krise (1917) ; Volksvermégen im Kriege (1920) ; 


Reform der staatswissenschaftlichen Studien 
(1924). 

JASTROW, JOSEPH (1863-— ). An 
American psychologist (see Von. XII). His 


later work comprises analytic studies of the 
sentiments and higher mental complexes. His 
published works include Character and Temper- 
ament (1915) and The Psychology of Convic- 
tion (1918). 

JASTROW, Morris, JR. (1861-1921). An 
American philologist and Orientalist, (see 
Vor. XII). His last published works are: The 
Civil Law of Babylonia and Assyria (1915) ; 
The War and the Bagdad Railroad (1917); The 
War and the Coming Peace (1918); A Gentle 
Cynic, an abbreviated translation of the Book 
of Koholeth or Ecclesiastes (1919); and The 
Eastern Question and its Solution (1920). 

JAVA. See DutTcu East INDIES. 

JAY, PETER Avcustus (1877— er An 
American diplomat, boru in Newport, R. I. He 
was graduated from Harvard College in 1900 
and in 1902 entered the diplomatic service as 
third secretary of the American Embassy in 


Paris. He served as secretary at several em- 
bassies, including Constantinople and Tokyo. 


From 1909 to 1913, he was diplomatic agent 
and consul-general at Cairo. He served as secre- 
tary of the American Embassy in Italy in 
1913, and at the same time was counselor at 
that embassy. He was minister at Salvador in 
1920, and in 1921 was minister to Rumania. 
JAZZ. Immediately after the close of the 
War, a new kind of popular music made its 
appearance in the United States and at once at- 
tained enormous vogue, taking complete pos- 
session of the dance halls, the theatres, the 
movies and the hotels. Jazz is a natural de- 
velopment of the older rag-time, which finally 
became transformed through the amalgamation 
of various elements. During the War the sol- 
diers amused themselves by doing “stunts” on 
their musical instruments. Some one discovered 
that very funny effects could be produced by 
laughing, catealling, wailing or uttering short 
exclamations through brass instruments. After 
their return to civilian life, these ex-soldiers 
introduced these stunts into the dance orches- 
tras. The circus bands contributed their weird 
imitations of oriental music. Real oriental ef- 


JAZZ 


fects were contributed by musicians who had 
played in orchestras in San Francisco and other 
Western cities. The influence of the Negro melo- 
dies of the South also is very noticeable. Even 
Futurism is responsible for some queer har- 
monic combinations, although this influence is 
rather casual and slight, for jazz still respects 
the fundamental laws of harmony and moves 
within the limitations of a fixed tonality. 
Some attempts have been made to trace the 
origin of jazz to African tunes. Compari- 
son, however, at once establishes the fact that 
the aboriginal African melodies are character- 
ized by the absence of any regular periodic 
structure and the presence of several cross- 
rhythms, whereas jazz clings to regular four 
or eight bar periods supported upon one pre- 
dominating rhythm. The first jazz composi- 
tions, which appeared in 1919, were crude 
enough; in fact, little more than degenerate rag- 
time. This is not surprising, when one con- 
siders that these pioneers were men who elabo- 
rated their tunes by ear on the piano and re- 
quired the aid of some musician to fix them 
in musical notation. As these tunes quickly 
superseded, and even drove out the older dances, 
the dance orchestras naturally became the prin- 
cipal factor in the development of jazz.. To 
remedy to some extent the crudities of the 
printed score, embellishments of various kinds 
were introduced ad libitum (vulgarly called 
“libbin’”?) during actual performance. The 
conductors soon began to realize the necessity of 
reducing to a system this free improvisation 
by a number of players, if the performance was 
not to degenerate into chaotic noise. Thus 
there sprang up a group of regular arrangers, 
skilled musicians, able to recognize the pos- 
sibilities of certain jazz tunes and capable of 
altering, harmonizing and embellishing them so 
as to render them acceptable to the popular 
ear. From this point on it was the arranger, 
rather than the composer, who became the im- 
portant factor in the development of jazz. Ef- 
fective orchestral coloring became a prime con- 
sideration, and this brought about a radical 
revolution in the constitution of the former 
monotonous dance orchestra, so that the jazz 
band is. capable of a considerable variety of 
tonal effects. The average combination of in- 
struments for a small band is a piano, two or 
three saxophones (the typical jazz instrument), 
a violin, two trumpets, a trombone, a tuba, a 
banjo and drums. Finally large symphonic 
jazz orchestras were formed which consisted of 
the almost complete classical symphony or- 
chestra with the addition of the indispensable 
saxophones. Paul Whiteman with his jazz or- 
chestra made a most successful tour of Europe, 
and in 1924 gave at Carnegie Hall, in New York, 
a concert that was attended by many serious 
musicians. Briefly, jazz may be described as 
light music with melodious themes elaborately 
embellished and adapted to some popular dance 
rhythm. <A very common practice is to give the 
principal theme to the violin, against which the 
saxophone executes a melodious counterpoint 
which often attains the importance of a counter- 
theme. Several arrangers have not hesitated to 
jazz themes of famous composers (Beethoven, 
Wagner, Schubert, Saint-Saéns, etc.). A _ spe- 
cial form of jazz, which had its origin in 
Memphis, is the “Blues,” so-called from the 
fact that the music illustrates a text describing 
some melancholy tale of disappointed love. On 


420 JENKS 


the musical side this form derives directly 
from the Negro spirituals, and its special char- 
acteristic is a triplet appoggiatura before the 
bass note of the principal accent in each meas- 
ure. As to the origin of the word “jazz,” the 
following story is current: In Memphis, a 
dusky trio consisting of a singer, a banjo player 
and a performer on a tin can became locally 
known as the Jackass Band, which was jocular- 
ly transposed to Jassack’s or Jazzack’s Band; 
whence the abbreviation Jazz. 

JEBEL SHAMMAR. See ARABIA, 

JELLICOEH, Joun RvsHwortn, first VIs- 
COUNT OF Scapa (1859-  ). An English naval 
officer (see Vot. XII). Shortly after the out- 
break of the War he was placed in com- 
mand of the Grand Fleet, and in‘ 1915 
he was created a full admiral. In this 
capacity he was in supreme command of the 
British Fleet at the Battle of Jutland. In 
November, 1916, he was succeeded as com- 
mander of the fleet by Admiral Beatty, and was 
appointed first sea lord of the admiralty. He 
established the antisubmarine division of fhe 
Navy Staff. In May, 1917, he was appointed 
chief of the Naval Staff, and retired in Decem- 
ber, 1917. He was raised to the peerage. He 
wrote The Grand Fleet, 1914-16; its Creation, 
Development, and Work, and The Crisis of the 
Naval War. 

JELLIFFE, Smirnu Ey (1866- ). (See 
VoL. XII). In addition to editorial supervision 
of the New York Medical Journal, Journal of 
Nervous and Mental Diseases and Psychoanalytic 
Review, and of translations and new editions of 
books on psychiatry, etec., Dr. Jelliffe collaborated 
with Dr. W. A. White in the preparation of a 
very successful textbook, Diseases of the Nervous 
System (1915). 

JELLINEK, Kari W. K. (1882- ) ong 
Austrian professor of chemistry, professor of 
analytical chemistry at Danzig. He is the 
author of textbooks on analytical chemistry, of 
Weltengeheimniss, a work on the harmonious 
union of philosophy, art and religion (1920) 
and Weltdther uwnd Relativtheorie (1922). 

JENKINS, Burris AtTKiIns (1869- a 
An American clergyman and educator, born in 
Kansas City, Mo. He was graduated from 
Bethany College in 1891 and took postgraduate 
courses at Harvard. He was ordained to the 
Christian (Disciples) ministry and was pastor 
in Indianapolis from 1896 to 1900. From 1898 
to 1900, he was professor of New Testament 
literature and exegesis at the University of 
Minneapolis, and was president of that institu- 
tion from 1899 to 1900. He was president of 
Kentucky University from 1901 to 1907, and 
from the latter date was pastor in Kansas City. 
From 1919, he was editor and publisher of the 
Kansas City Post. He wrote The Man in the 
Street and Religion (1917); It Happened Over 
There (1918); The Brace-Girdle (1922). 

JENKS, ALBerT EDWARD (1869 yey An 
American anthropologist. He was born in Io- 
nia, Mich, and studied at the University of 
Michigan. He is a valued contributor to an- 
thropological and ethnological magazines and 
has published, among other works, Indian-White 


Amalgamation: an Anthropometric Study 
(1916). 
JENKS, JEREMIAH WHIPPLE (1856—- +m 


An American economist and educator (see VOL. 
XIT). In 1916, he served as one of two neutral 
arbitrators on the board of six, between the 


a 


JEPSON 721 


Switchmen’s Union of North America and cer- 
tain railways. He was director of the Far East- 
ern Bureau from 1913 to 1921. During the War 
he acted as a member of the Advisory Commis- 
sion of the Council of National Defense, and in 
several other important capacities. His later 
books include Business and Government (1917) ; 
Jesus’ Principles of Living, with C. F. Kent 
(1920) ; Great American Issues, with John Hays 
Hammond. He was a frequent contributor to 
periodicals on literary, economic and_ political 
questions. 

JEPSON, Wiis LINN (?- ). An Amer- 
ican botanist. He graduated from the Uni- 
versity of California in 1589 and took post- 
graduate studies at Cornell and Harvard uni- 
versities, and in England and Germany. He 
was appointed assistant in botany at the Uni- 
versity of California in 1891, and was _ succes- 
sively assistant professor, associate professor 
and professor, assuming the last office in 1919. 
He explored the remote mountain and desert re- 
gions of California and conducted botanic ex- 
peditions in Alaska and the Bering Sea. He 
was a member of many scientific societies and 
the author of: Flora of Western Middle Cali- 
fornia (1901); The Trees of California (1909) ; 
The Silva of California (1910). 

JERITZA, Marta (1893— ). An Austrian 
dramatic soprano, born at Briinn. She attended 
the Musikschule there and studied singing pri- 
vately with Professor Krejci, then continued 
her lessons with Professor Auspitzer for three 
years. After her début as Elsa in Lohengrin 
at Olmiitz, in 1910, she sang there for five 
months, when she was engaged for the Volks- 
oper in Vienna, where she rapidly rose _ to 
prominence, so that Strauss chose her to create 
Ariadne in the world premiére of his Ariadne 
auf Naxos at Stuttgart (1912). In the same 
year, while still in her teens, she was engaged 
for leading réles at the Vienna Hofoper, at 
first as guest, but from 1913 as regular mem- 
ber, after the Hofoper had paid the forfeit for 
her unexpired contract with the Volksoper. In 
1917, she was made Kammersiingerin, being the 
last artist on whom that title was bestowed. 
She created the principal roles in most of the 
novelties produced at the Hofoper, which in 
1919 became the Staatsoper. On Nov. 19, 1921, 
she made her American début, with sensational 
success, at the Metropolitan Opera House as 
Marietta in the American premiére of Korn- 
gold’s Die tote Stadt, establishing herself im- 
mediately as a prime favorite. While her voice 
is one of rare beauty and power, she fascinates 
her audience primarily through her uiusual 
talent as an actress. Her repertory comprises 
more than 50 rédles—Consult W. von Wymetal, 
Maria Jeritza (Vienna, 1922) and her autobi- 
ography, Sunlight and Song: A _ Singer’s Life 
(New York, 1924). 

JERSEY CITY. The second city of New 
Jersey in population and the chief seaport of 
the State. The population increased from 267,- 
779 in 1910 to 298,113 in 1920. The estimated 
population in 1923 was 309,034. Jersey City 
is one of the most important manufacturing cit- 
ies on the Atlantic coast. It forms part of New 
York harbor, and the improvements projected 
by the Port Authority in 1922-23 would, when 
carried out, result in much-needed improvements 
in dock and harbor facilities. During the War, 
the city was a shipping point of great impor- 
tance, and its need of larger capacity in docks 


JEWS AND JUDAISM 


was greatly emphasized in this period. During 
the decade 1914-24 many important municipal 
improvements were made. A large mileage of 
streets was repaved, and many miles of sewers 
were laid. One of the chief improvements was 
the construction and opening of Pershing Field, 
a great park and recreation centre embracing a 
large area of what was previously waste land. 
This was dedicated in 1920. The Health De- 
partment was especially active during the dec- 
ade. Eight centres for the care of children were 
established, and the City Hospital was enlarged 
and made a Community Health Centre. Jersey 
City is an important industrial city. The num- 
ber of establishments increased from 770 in 1909 
to 896 in 1919, while the value of products in- 
creased from $164,529,000 in 1914 to $374,183,- 
000 in 1919. The four leading products with 
their comparative values in 1914 and 1919 are 
as follows: slaughtering and meat packing, $25,- 
235,000 and $78,226,000; foundry and machine 
shop products, $4,650,000 and $13,989,000; 
bread and bakery products, $2,583,000 and $12,- 
201,000; cars and shop construction, $1,560,000 
and $7,729,000. 

JERUSALEM. See War IN Evropr, Turk- 
ish Front. 

JEWETT, FRANK BALDWIN (1879- ). 
An American electrical engineer, born at Pasa- 
dena, Cal. He was graduated from Throop 
Polytechnic Institute in 1898, and’ then became 
a research assistant at the University of Chi- 
cago, receiving his Ph.D. there in 1902. Dur- 
ing 1902-04 he was instructor of physics at 
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, then 
entered the service of the American Telegraph 
and Telephone Company as transmission and 
protection engineer. In 1912, he joined the 
Western Electric Company of which he became 
chief engineer in 1914. During the War he 
was a lieutenant-colonel in the United States 
Signal Corps and also a member of various 
committees connected with the National Re- 
search Council, receiving in 1919 a Distinguished 
Service Medal. 

JEWISH NATIONAL HOME. See PAtes- 
TINE.» 

JEWS AND JUDAISM. The _ decade 
1914-24 brought a radical transformation in the 
position of Jewry throughout the world. The 
two chief gains resulting from the War were 
the recognition of the.Jews as citizens in coun- 
tries such as Russia, Poland, and Rumania, 
where they had hitherto been legally oppressed, 
and the creation of a national Jewish homeland 
in Palestine. On the other hand the distress 
and turmoil incidental to the War wrought great 
havoc among the communities of eastern ‘Eu- 
rope which had always contained a majority of 
the race and caused the destruction of much life 
and property. The situation of the Jews in the 
war areas of eastern Europe during the actual 
military operations was, from an economic and 
political standpoint, little less than desperate. 
The suffering in Galicia and Russian Poland in 
1915 worked especial hardships on the Jewish 
populations of those regions. In the German 
capture of Warsaw alone, over 300,000 Jews 
were directly concerned, and the open country 
of Poland was almost entirely denuded of its 
Jewish population. The economic misery and 
commercial ruin continued in 1916 and was em- 
phasized by the entrance of Rumania into the 
War and by the invasion of Bukowina and a 
greater part of Galicia by the Russians. In 


JEWS AND JUDAISM 


Poland, under the new German régime, the Jews 
were given full civil rights, and educational and 
social conditions were greatly improved. In 
Russia also, they enjoyed a freedom which they 
had not hitherto known. In that country nu- 
merous schools were established for the children 
of refugees in interior cities. Further promise 
of better conditions in Russia accompanied the 
Russian Revolution, which emancipated 5,000,- 
000 Jews within the boundaries of the Empire. 
The revolutionary government abolished all 
restrictions on Jews and granted them full 
liberty and equality. The Jews began at once 
to take an active part in the social and politi- 
cal activities of the new democracy, and new 
schools and colleges were established for the 
exclusive use of Jewish students. 

The accession of the Bolshevists to power mod- 
ified in important ways the life of the Russian 
Jews. The programme of Communism as _ in- 
stituted by the more extreme leaders was ruth- 


less toward private enterprise, and as the Jews . 


were among the most active of the merchants 
and traders they suffered intensely under the 
new régime. The Bolshevist government made 
efforts to give land to the unemployed, but as 
the financing of such an agrarian programme 
necessitated large funds, little progress was 
made. The teaching of the tenets of the Jewish 
religion to children was forbidden, synagogues 
were confiscated and turned into Communist 
clubs, and Zionists were arrested and sent into 
exile. Jews who espoused the cause of Com- 
munism were given full freedom by the govern- 
ment to regulate the life of Russian Jewry, and 
all who dissented from. their views found them- 
selves limited in their activity and liberty. 

In Poland and Lithuania after the War the 
Jews formed a distinct national unit on a par 
with the other national groups, such as the Ger- 
mans, the Ruthenians, ete. Theoretically pro- 
tected by the Racial Minorities Treaties, in 
actual life racial antagonism proved an _ ef- 
fective barrier to their free economic, political, 
and cultural development. They found them- 
selves discriminated against in the schools, and 
their right to free entrance into the universities 
was in many instances questioned. In Latvia, 
Rumania, Hungary, and the other countries of 
central and eastern Europe, with the notable 
exception of Czecho-Slovakia, the same condition 
prevailed. In Poland the anti-Semitic organiza- 
tion known as the Rozvoi instituted an economic 
boycott which brought ruin to many Jewish mer- 
chants. See POLAND; UKRAINE. 

In the United States the patriotism of the 
American Jews was shown in 1917-18 by their 
undertaking of military service and liberal sup- 
port of the various war loans. Henry Ford, in 
the Dearborn Independent, brought against the 
Jews charges of attempting to dominate the 
world financially and otherwise. These charges 
were based on the so-called “Protocols of the 
Elders of Zion,’ which were later proven to be 
forgeries brought to America by former agents 
of the Czar’s secret police. Shortly after the 
exposure of the fraud, the Dearborn Independent 
ceased its systematic attacks. 

In October, 1923, the second session of the 
American Jewish Congress was held. Plans 
were formulated for the close organization of 
American Jews and the continuation of the 
struggle against racial discrimination in the 
United States and abroad. The Congress urged 
Great Britain to enforce the conditions of the 


922 


JEWS AND JUDAISM 


Palestine mandate, declared in favor of a world 
congress of Jews, and protested against the 
further restriction of immigration to the United 
States. 

Relief Work. The chief efforts of the Jews 
in the neutral countries during the War was 
directed toward relief. In the United States 
were established several great organizations, 
including the American Jewish Relief Commit- 
tee, the Central Relief Committee, and the Peo- 
ple’s Relief Committee. Millions of dollars 
were raised and pledged for relief. Over $6,- 
500,000 was collected in the United States dur’ 
ing the first two years and a half of the War; 
Jan. 27, 1916, was named by the President as 
Jewish Relief Day. Relief funds were also es- 
tablished in 1915-16 in Great Britain for the 
relief of suffering Jews throughout the world. 
The Federation of Rumanian Jews in the United 
States, at a conference in New York City in 
1916, made plans for raising $1,000,000 for the 
relief and emancipation of the Rumanian Jews. 
At a conference of relief workers early in 1917, 
plans were made for raising $10,000,000. By 
the end of November, about half this sum had 
been raised. Jacob H. Schiff, with the assistance 
of leading Jews in the United States, initiated 
a drive for $5,000,000, $1,000,000 of which was 
to go to the Jewish Army Welfare Board. This 
sum and more was raised by December 16. 

Relief activity slackened in the early part of 
1918 on account- of the chaotic conditions in 
Russia, but the work revived as the year went 
on. Special consideration was given to the dis- 
tribution of relief funds in Palestine and else- 
where. Great activity was displayed by the 
Jewish Welfare Board in work for the army 
and navy. The great suffering of the Jews of 
eastern Europe during 1919 stimulated intense 
relief activity among the Jews of the United 
States. Over $10,000,000 was raised for the re- 
lief fund by various committees. Due to the 
fact that with the conclusion of the Armistice 
the channels of communication with Poland, 
Rumania, and Austria were opened, distribution 
was able to proceed in an orderly way. The 
Joint Distribution Committee sent, in addition 
to money, large quantities of food and clothing 
to Poland, Rumania, and Austria. Large sums 
of money and enormous contributions of food 
and clothing continued to be sent to the suffer- 
ing Jews of Europe in 1920. In 1921 conditions 
gradually improved in Europe, although thou- 
sands of Jews remained in want and homeless. 
At the close of the year a report issued by the 
Relief Committee of the Ukraine indicated that 
there were in Bessarabia about 30,000 Jewish 
refugees without homes; in Poland nearly 30,- 
000 Jewish orphans were cared for by the War- 
saw bureau of the committee. In Poland as a 
whole, there were about 50,000 refugees, and in 
Rumania 60,000 to 70,000. The Jewish popula- 
tion of the Ukraine continued to suffer in- 
credible hardships during the year. According 
to the president of the Jewish Relief Committee, 
50 per cent of all «the houses belonging to Jews 
in eastern Europe had been destroyed by the 
end of 1921, and about 90 per cent in the re- 
gions where they had especially suffered: east- 
ern Poland, Galicia, Poland, Lithuania, and 
southern Russia. See PALESTINE; ZIONISM. 

Statistics. The most authoritative statistics 
for Jewish populations are contained in the 
American Jewish Year Book. These, however, 
are little better than estimates. In 1914-15 the 


JOFFRE 


Jews of the world were estimated at 13,277,- 
542; in 1923, 15,500,000. In Europe the figure 
is practically the same, 10,000,000 for the two 
periods. In America the Jews increased from 
2,500,000 in 1915 to 3,700,000 in 1924. Since 
the Jewish occupation, it is reported that 40,- 
000 Jews have gone to Palestine. The countries 
of Europe in the order of Jewish populations 
are Poland, the Ukraine, Germany, France, 
Great Britain, and Turkey. 

JOFFRE, JOSEPH JACQUES CESAIRE 
(1852— ). A French general (see Vout. XII). 
On Dec. 13, 1916, General Joffre was called to 
Paris as “technical adviser to the government” 
and on December 16 he was made a Marshal of 
France, the first to receive that title since 
1870. In the spring of 1917 he was sent on a 
mission to the United States. He was elected 
a member of the Académie Francaise in 1918. 
The evidence which he gave before the Briey 
Commission was published under the title, La 
Préparation de la Guerre et la Conduite des 
Opérations, and the story of the political side 
of his tenure of command is given in Mermeix’s 
Les Crises du Commandement, Part I. 

JOHN, Avueustus Epwin (1879- yas A 
British painter (see Vou. XII). With. his 
vivid manner of portraiture and his ability to 
catch unerringly some striking and usually un- 
familiar aspect of his subject, he superseded 
Sargent as  England’s_ fashionable portrait 
painter. He was commissioned by Canada dur- 
ing the War to paint Canadian soldiers on the 
western front. In 1921 he was made a mem- 
ber of the Royal Academy. Among his later 
works may be mentioned “Symphonie Espag- 
nole,” “Madame Suggia,” “Robin,” “The Mump- 
ers” and “The Tinkers.” 

JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY. This 
nonsectarian institution for men and women 
(excluding women from some undergraduate 
courses) at Baltimore, Md., was founded in 1876. 
The student enrollment increased from 1374 for 
the summer and fall sessions of 1914-15 to 3891 
for the year 1923-24 (753 in the summer of 
1923) and the number of members in the faculty 
increased from 268 to 475 professors, associates, 
instructors and lecturers. During the same 
decade the library was increased from 174,777 
to 257,365 volumes, the productive funds from 
$6,226,287 to $18,818,400, and the income from 
$521,205 to 1,430,033. The School of Hygiene 
and Public Health was established by the 
Rockefeller Foundation in 1916 and opened in 
1918; and in 1922, the Foundation gave $6,000,- 
000 to the School for endowment and building 
funds. Fire destroyed the pathological labora- 
tory in 1919 and a larger building was com- 
pleted in 1923 through a gift of $400,000 for 
this purpose from the General Education Board. 
An alumni memorial dormitory and a women’s 
clinic were also built in 1923. Many gifts 
were received for special purposes, as well as 
for the general ends of the university. Joseph 
De Lamar, who died in 1919, bequeathed $2,500,- 
000 for instruction and research in medicine, 
and the General Education Board added $100,- 
000 to the William H. Welch Endowment for 
Clinical Education and Research in 1917, in 
order to make possible more work in the de- 
partment of pediatrics, and also gave $250,000 
to strengthen the work in the laboratory de- 
partments of the Medical School. The William 
H. Collins Vickers Chair in Archeology was 
founded in 1920, $200,000 was received from 


723 


JOHNSON 


the estate of Eugene Mergenthaler for scien- 
tific research, and $20,000 from the estate of 
Mrs. J. A. J. Creswell for instruction and re- 
search in international law. In the summer 
of 1923 construction work on the new chemical 
laboratory, which was to cost approximately 
$500,000, was begun. President, Frank Johnson 
Goodnow. 

JOHNSON, ALLEN (1870- ). An Amer- 
ican educator, born at Lowell, Mass. He gradu- 
ated from Amherst College in 1892 and took 
postgraduate courses in Germany and in France 
and at Columbia University. He was appointed 
professor of history at Iowa (now Grinnell Col- 
lege) in 1898, serving until 1905, and from that 
year to 1910 was professor of history and polit- 
ical science at Bowdoin College. In the latter 
year, he became Larned professor of American 
History at Yale. His published writings in- 
clude: The Intendant Under Louis XIV (1899) ; 
Stephen A. Douglas (1908); Readings in Amer- 
ican Constitutional History (1912); Union and 
Democracy (1915); Jefferson and His Col- 
leagues (1921). From 1918 to 1921, he was 
editor of Chronicles of America. 

JOHNSON, Atvin SAunperRS (1874- ) 
An American economist (see Vor. XII). From 
1912 to 1916, he was professor of economics 
at Cornell University, and from 1916 to 1918 
was professor of political science at Leland 
Stanford Junior University. From 1917, he was 
also editor of the New Republic, New York City. 
His later books include The Professor and the 
Petticoat, a novel (1914); John Stuyvesant, 
Ancestor (1919). 

JOHNSON, Dovucitas WItson (1878- st 
An American geologist, born at Parkersburg, W. 
Va. He was graduated at the University of 
New Mexico in 1901 and received his Ph.D. at 
Columbia University (1903). After teaching 
in public schools, he entered the United States 
Geological Survey as a field assistant (1899), 
and was later an assistant professor of geology at 
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology until 
1907. He was also lecturer in physiography at 
Harvard University during 1906-12. Return- 
ing to Columbia in 1912, he became associate 
professor of physiography and after 1919 was 
professor. During the War he was connected 
with the intelligence work of the American Ex- 
peditionary Forces with the rank of major; and 
also served with the American Commission to 
Negotiate Peace. In addition to many scien- 
tific papers and bulletins, he is the author of 
Lettre @un Américain a@ un Allemand (1916) ; 
Topography and Strategy im the War (1917); 
Perils of Prussianism (1917); My German Cor- 
respondence (1917); Shore Processes and Shore- 
line Development (1919); Dattlefields of the 
World War (1921). 

JOHNSON, Emory RIcHarD (1864- }; 
‘An American educator (see Vou. XII). He was 
assistant director of the Bureau of Transporta- 
tion of the War Trade Board in 1917 and also 
acted as expert and adviser to several other im- 
portant government boards during the War. 
He was president of the Association of Col- 
legiate Schools of Business in 1920-21. His 
later books include History of Domestic and 
Foreign Commerce in the United States (1915) ; 
The Panama Canal and Commerce (1916); 
Principles of Ratlroad Transportation (1916) ; 


Principles of Ocean Transportation (1917). 
JOHNSON, Hiram WILLIAM (1866- lh 
An American lawyer and legislator (see VOL. 


JOHNSON 


XII). He served as governor of California for 
the term 1911-15 and was reélected for the 
term 1915-19, but resigned in 1917 following 
his election as United States Senator from 
California for the term 1917-23. He was re- 
elected in 1922 for the term 1923-29. Senator 
Johnson was leader of the Progressive element 
of the Republican party in the Senate and in 
1920 was one of the leading candidates for the 
Republican nomination for the Presidency. He 
was also a candidate in 1924 for the nomina- 
tion, but practically abandoned his efforts in 
April of that year. 

JOHNSON, JAMES WELDON (1871- )e 
An American editor and author, born at Jack- 
sonville, Fla. He graduated from Atlanta Uni- 
versity in 1894 and took postgraduate courses 
at Columbia University. After acting as prin- 
cipal of a high school for colored pupils in Jack- 
sonville, he was admitted to the Florida bar in 
1897. In 1901, he began practice in New York. 
He served as United States Consul in Venezuela 
and in Nicaragua from 1906 to 1912, and be- 
came secretary of the National Association for 
the Advancement of Colored People. With his 
brother, J. Rosamond Johnson, he wrote for the 
light opera stage. His publications include 
The Autobiography of an KEza-Colored Man 
(1912); Fifty Years and Other Poems (1917) ; 
and The Book of American Negro Poetry (1921). 

JOHNSON, Rospert UNDERWoopD (1853-— de 
An American poet and editor (see Vou. XII). 
In 1917, he organized and was chairman of the 
American Poets’ Ambulance in Italy. This or- 
ganization presented 112 ambulances to the 
Italian army in four months. In 1918-19, he 
was president of the New York Committee of 
the Italian War Relief Fund of America. He 
served as ambassador to Italy from April, 1920, 
to July, 1921, and represented the United 
States as observer at the San Remo Conference 
of the Supreme Council of the League of Na- 
tions, in April, 1920. He was awarded decora- 
tions by the Italian government in recognition 
of his work in behalf of good relations between 
Italy and the United States. His later books 
include Poems of War and Peace (1916); J/tal- 
ian Rhapsody and Other Poems of Italy (1917) ; 
Collected Poems (1919). He published a vol- 
ume of reminiscences in 1924. 

JOHNSON, Treat BALpDwin (1875- ); 
An American chemist, born at Bethany, Conn. 
He was graduated in 1898 at Yale, where he 
also received his Ph.D. in 1901. He became an 
instructor of chemistry at the Sheffield Scientific 
School of Yale and in 1908 was advanced to the 
assistant professorship of organic chemistry of 
which branch he became full professor in 1915. 
Organic chemistry is his specialty and he has 
published papers on organic synthesis as ap- 
plied to therapeutic substances, on phrenanthrene 
and its relation to morphine, an account of new 
local anesthetics, histamin, tyramin and cyclic 
polypetids. In 1915, he received the Nichols 
medal of the American Chemical Society. 

JOHNSON, WALTER (1888— ). Profes- 
sional baseball player, born at Humboldt, Kan. 
He is recognized as one of the most effective 
pitchers the American National game has ever 
known. After a brief sojourn in an obscure 
Rocky Mountain League he joined the Wash- 
ington Club of the American League in 1907 
and has been the mainstay in the box for that 
club ever since. 


JOHNSON, WILLIAM EUGENE (1862- ys 


724 


JONES 


An American publicist, born in Coventry, N. Y. 
He was educated at the University of Nebraska 
and for several years was engaged in newspaper 
work. He was prominently connected with pro- 
hibition and was in the government employ, for 
the enforcement of the liquor law, for several 
years. He edited several prohibitionist papers 
and was European representative of the Anti- 
Saloon League of America from 1919. He wrote 
much on subjects connected with temperance. 
He carried on campaigns in England, Scotland 
and elsewhere, for the advancement of prohibi- 
tion. “ 

JOHNSON, WILLIs FLETCHER (1857— 3 
An American editor, born in New York City. 
He graduated from New York University in 
1879 and for several years taught school He 
was on the editorial staff of the New York 
Tribune for many years, and was its literary 
editor (1917-20). In 1914, he was also on the 
editorial staff of the North American Review. 
From 1914, he was honorary professor of the 
history of American foreign relations at New 
York University. He was a member of many 
societies and was the author of Four Centuries 
of the Panama Canal (1906); America’s Foreign 
Relations (1916); America and the Great War 
for Humanity .and Freedom (1917); Political 
and Governmental History of the State of New 
York. 

JOHNSTON, SIR 
(1858— ). ‘An. English public official and 
author (see Von. XII). His later books in- 
clude A Gallery of Heroes and Heroines (1915) ; 
The Truth About the War (1916); The Black 
Man’s Part m the War (1917); The Gay-Dom- 
beys (1919); Mrs. Warren’s Daughter (1920) ; 
The Veneerings (1922). In 1923, he published 
a volume of reminiscences. 

JOHNSTON, Joun (1881- ). A chem- 
ist, born at Perth, Scotland. He was a Car- 
negie scholar at St. Andrews, Scotland, and also 
studied at Breslau during 1905-07. Coming to 
the United States, he was a research associate 
in physical chemistry at Massachusetts Insti- 
tute of Technology in 1907-08, and during 
1908-16, chemist at the geophysical laboratory 
of the Carnegie Institution in Washington. He 
had charge of the research department of the 
American Zinc, Lead, and Smelting Company 
during 1916-17 and was chemist to the United 
States Bureau of Mines in 1917-18. In 1919, 
he became professor and chairman of the de- 
partment of chemistry at Yale. During the War 
he served as secretary to the National Research 
Council. His original investigations have had 
to do with topics in geochemistry and physical 
chemistry on which he has published the results 
of his studies, notably in the Journal of the 
American Chemical Society. In 1914, he be- 
came a member of the editorial board of the 
Society 


HARRY HAMILTON 


JOHNSTON, Mary (1870- ). An Amer- 
ican novelist (see Vor. XII). Her later books 
include: The Fortunes of Carin (1915); The 


Wanderers (1917); Foes (1918); Michael Forth 
(1919); Sweet Rocket (1920); Silver Cross 
(TN22)-s 14925 (1922), 

JOHORE. See MALAy 
FEDERATED. 

JONES, Epcar DewitT (1876- ). An 
American clergyman and author, born at 
Hearne, Texas, and educated at the University 
of Missouri and [Illinois Wesleyan University. 
He became a minister of the Disciples of Christ 


States, Non- 


JONES 


denomination in 1901 and held pastorates in 
Kentucky, Ohio, Illinois, and Michigan. During 
1915-16 he was president of the Illinois Con- 
vention of the Disciples, and from 1917 to 1919 
of the International Convention of the Disciples. 
In 1922 he joined the staff of the Detroit News. 
His writings include: The Inner Circle (1914) ; 
The Wisdom of God’s Fools (1916); Fairhope, 
the Annals of a Country Church (1917); The 
Tender Pilgrims (1917); Ornamented Orthodoxy 
(1918); When Jesus Wrote on the Ground 
(1924); The Wisdom of Washington and the 
Learning of Lincoln (1924). “ 

JONES, GRINNELL (1884— ). An Ameri- 
can chemist, born at Des Moines, Iowa. He 
was graduated at Vanderbilt University and 
in 1908 received his Ph.D. at Harvard. In 
1916, he returned to Harvard as assistant pro- 
fessor. In 1917-19, he was also chief chemist 
to the United States Tariff Commission to which 
in 1919 he assumed a consulting relation. Dr. 
Jones has determined the atomic weights of 
sulphur and phosphorus and has studied the 
electrochemistry of silver iodide, and the fixa- 
tion of atmospheric nitrogen, on which he has 
published papers in chemical journals. He is 
also the author of numerous reports issued by 
the Tariff Commission 

JONES, Hitary PoLtarp (1863- }e,. Aad 
American naval officer, born in Virginia. He 
graduated from the United States Naval Acad- 
emy in 1884. He served in the Spanish-Amer- 
ican War, and was in command of the Navy 
Yard in Washington from 1906 to 1909. He 
served on shore and afloat in many important 
capacities, and in 1917 was made commander 
of Squadron One, Patrol Force, Atlantic Fleet. 
In the same year he was appointed commander 
of Division One, Cruiser Force, Raider Guard, 
of the Atlantic Fleet, and was director of the 
Naval Overseas Division from January to July, 
1919. He was appointed to be vice-admiral of 
the 2d Battleship Squadron of the Atlantic 
Fleet, from 1919 to 1921, and from the latter 
date was promoted to be commander-in-chief of 
the Atlantic Fleet. 

JONES, Lauper WILLIAM (1869-— ya An 
American chemist, born at New Richmond, 
Ohio. He was graduated at Williams College 
in 1892, and received his Ph.D. from the Uni- 
versity of Chicago in 1897. In the same year, 
he became an assistant in chemistry at Chi- 
cago, where he remained until 1907. From 
1907 to 1918, he was professor of chemistry at 
the University of Cincinnati, and from 1918 to 
1920, he was dean of the School of Chemistry 
at the University of Minnesota, after which he 
accepted a call to the chair of chemistry at 
Princeton. He has devoted his attention chiefly 
to organic chemistry and has published papers 
on nitro-paraffin salts, alkyl derivatives of 
hydro-oxylamin, preparation of hydroxamic 
acids from hydroxylamin of organic acids, elec- 
tron conception of valence, and preparation of 
electromeres. During the War he served with 
the Chemical War Service as its chief of the 
research section of offense. Dr. Jones is the 
author of A Laboratory Outline of Organic 
Chemistry (1911). 

JONES, Rospert EpmMonp (1887- ep epeye Wa 
American artist born in Milton, N. H., and edu- 
eated at Harvard University. He started his 
career of designing for the theatre in New York 
City in 1911, and among his notable works are 
his designs for The Man Who Married a Dumb 


725 


JUGO-SLAVIA 


Wife; The Jest; Richard III; The Birthday of 
the Infanta; Macbeth; and Redemption. He 
has conceived of the theatre as an art by itself 
and he knits together the various scenes of the 
play by his design effects There is a simple 
and unpretentious symbolism in all of his 
works; in his Richard JI], the Tower of London 
looms up behind every scene as it does in the 
minds of his characters. 

JONES LAW (MercHant Marine ACT or 
1920). See SuHIprina. 

JONNART, C&LESTIN AUGUSTIN CHARLES 
(1857— ). A French diplomat. He was 
born at Flechin, Pas de Calais, and was educated 
in the law. In 1882, he entered upon his polit- 
ical and diplomatic career by becoming a mem- 
ber of the private cabinet of the Governor- 
General of Algeria. He subsequently was elec- 
ted deputy from the Pas de Calais and became 
president of the regional council. Before the 
War he was Governor-General of Algeria and 
Senator from his district. During the War he 
was the Inter-Allied High Commissioner in 
charge of Grecian Affairs, and was instrumental 
in effecting the entrance of Greece into the War 
on the side of the Allies. In 1921, when the 
French government resumed relations with the 
Vatican, he was made professor at the Holy See. 

JONNESCO, Tuomas (1861- ). sAvvcele- 
brated Rumanian surgeon for many years profes- 
sor of surgery in the University of Bucharest. 
He has been distinguished especially for his at- 
tempts to cure certain diseases by dividing some 
part of the cervicothoracic sympathetic nerve 
and has recently reported cures of angina 
pectoris—usually regarded as purely a degen- 
erative affection—by this resource. His major 
writings comprise La Rachianesthésie Générale 
(1919) and Le Sympathique Cervico-Thoracic 
(1923). The division of the sympathetic by his 
technique is known as Jonnesco’s operation. 

JOWETT, JouHnN HENRY (1864-1923). A 
British-American clergyman (see Vou. XIII). 
In 1918 he returned to England and became a 
pastor of Westminster Chapel. His last appear- 
ance in public was at the conference in Copen- 
hagen of the World’s Alliance for Promoting In- 
ternational Friendship through Churches. 

JOYCE, JAMES (1882-— ). An Irish au- 
thor. He was educated at Dublin, but spent his 
manhood in Europe, largely in Paris. His works 
were few: A Portrait of the Artist as a 
Young Man (1914); Chamber Music, a book of 
lyrics; Exiles, a play; Dubliners, a collection of 
short stories; Ulysses (1922). His first novel, 
A Portrait, had been highly received: it con- 
tained lyrical powers and a dignity and honesty 
that marked it off; but it was his Ulysses that 
gave him almost a universal attention and made 
him the storm-centre of a bitter literary con- 
troversy. The novel has almost 500,000 words, 
little plot in the accepted sense, and marks a 
violent break with the current technique. It 
was attacked for its crudities and its formless- 
ness; and it was extolled for its frankness and 
the epic quality of its portraiture. Whether 
or not it marked a milestone in the intellectual 
history of the twentieth century remained to be 
seen, but that it contained elements of great 
courage, understanding, and a depth of feeling 
cou'd not be denied. 

JUGO-SLAVIA. Jugo-Slavia, or as it is 
officially known, “The Kingdom of the Serbs, 
Croats, and Slovenes,” comprises the old king- 
doms of Serbia and Montenegro, combined with 


JUGO-SLAVIA 


certain provinces originally belonging to the 
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The country is 
situated in southern Europe, bordering on the 
Adriatic Sea; area, 96,134 square miles; popu- 
lation, census of 1920, 12,017,323. Jugo-Slavia 
is primarily an agricultural state, the great bulk 
of its population being agrarian, and most of its 
income is derived from farming and stock rais- 
ing. Racially the population is divided into 
Jugo-Slavs, 10,900,000; Germans, 560,000; Mag- 
yars, 450,000; Albanians and Turks, 550,000; Ru- 
manes and Vlachs, 200,000; the remainder con- 
sisting of Italians and other nationalities There 
is no dominant religion in the country, and free- 
dom of worship is guaranteed. The majority 
of the people, however, are either Orthodox or 
Roman Catholic. The population is distributed 
by religions as follows: orthodox, 5,843,000; 
Catholic, 4,923,000; Moslem, 1,363,000; Protes- 
tant, 235,000; and Jewish, 79,000. Cities of 
over 20,000 are: Belgrade, 120,000; Zagreb, 80,- 
000; Ljubliana, 60,000; Sarajevo, Novi Sad, 
Spalato and Nish. 

Agriculture. The total agricultural and 
forest area in 1922 was 47,434,000 acres, includ- 
ing cultivated land, 15,954,000; meadows, 4,093,- 
000; pastures, 6,895,000; vineyards, 458,000; 
orchards, 634,000; forests, 18,988,000; and 
marshes, 413,000. While there were many small 
land owners, there were still many large estates, 
particularly in the provinces of Slovenia, Voi- 
vodina, and Slavonia. The problem of the break- 
ing up of these large holdings was, during the 
period, the chief problem of the agrarian reform. 
Pre-war grain yields in bushels were: wheat, 63,- 
666,000; rye, 10,142,000; barley, 20,280,000; 
oats, 33,500,000; and corn, 111,892,000. The 
crops of all these cereals declined, as was shown 
by the 1923 production, wheat being then 61,- 
876,500 bushels; rye, 5,911,000 bushels; barley, 
14,327,000 bushels; oats, 19,354,000 bushels; 
and. corn, 88,554,000 bushels. This decline in 
yield may be accounted for through the con- 
version of the land to other uses, principally 
fruit growing and stock raising. Besides the 
principal cereals enumerated, Jugo-Slavia also 
cultivated, in lesser quantities, buckwheat, mil- 
let, rice, lentils, beans, and peas. There were 
also increasingly large crops of tobacco and 
sugar beets, tobacco production having grown 
from 3,000,000 pounds, pre-war, to 44,995,000 
pounds in 1923. Production of sugar beets in 
1923 was 331,000 short tons. 

Mining. Mining was little developed in 
Jugo-Slavia in 1924, although a great diversity 
of minerals was known to exist. The industry 
only began to assume any real importance within 
the last century, with the exception of the prov- 
inces of Slovenia and Croatia (formerly parts 
of the Austro-Hungarian Empire). There were, 
however, many traces of old workings for gold 
and copper dating back to the days of the Roman 
Empire, and also to the Middle Ages. The prin- 
cipal minerals found in the country were brown 
coal, anthracite, bauxite (used in the manufac- 
ture of aluminium), lead, iron, copper, sulphur, 
antimony, silver, and gold. Petroleum and as- 
phalt also occurred in various parts of Jugo- 
Slavia, but not in large quantities. The large 
coal deposits were of great advantage to the in- 
dustries of Jugo-Slavia, the principal mines be- 
ing located in the provinces of Slovenia, the 
only drawback being that they consisted almost 
entirely of brown coal and lignite, which was in- 
ferior to the British, Belgian, and Silesian black 


726 


JUGO-SLAVIA 


coal, and in many cases was unsuitable for in- 
dustrial consumption. All coal so far mined in 
Slovenia, Croatia-Slavonia, or Bosnia was of this 
inferior quality, the only anthracite being found 
in Serbia. Coal production for 1922 was 3,719,- 
938 metric tons; for 1921, it was 2,949,103 
metric tons. No statistics for pre-war produc- 
tion are available 

Forest. The forests of Jugo-Slavia covered 
about 32 per cent of her entire area, lumbering 
being one of the principal industries of the coun- 
try. The forests were particularly valuable as- 
sets to the country because of their close prox- 
imity to the Mediterranean, whereas most of 
the other countries bordering on it had been 
more or less deforested, and the demand for 
Jugo-Slav timber was constantly increasing. 
The principal varieties of trees found were birch 
and oak, and in lesser quantities, fir, pines, and 
spruce. The provinces of Bosnia and Slovenia 
were the principal timber sections of the coun- 
try. 

nausea The manufacturing industry of 
Jugo-Slavia was still in the early stages of its 
development, and consisted principally of flour 
milling, weaving, tanning, boot making, pottery 
manufacturing, and iron foundries. In view of 
the immense water power resources of the coun- 
try, a great development in this phase of the 
industrial life was hoped for. One of the great- 
est difficulties in the development of manufactur- 
ing was the lack of proper railway facilities, 
and when the railways projected in 1924 are com- 
pleted this handicap will be, to a great extent, 
removed. In 1922, there were 5696 miles of 
railroads all owned by the state with the excep- 
tion of 974 miles. Locomotives numbered 1809; 
freight cars, 38,065 (14,000 in need of repairs) ; 
passenger cars, 2866. In 1920, telegraphs, 11.,- 
430 miles of line; and telephones, 16,030 miles 
of line. 

Commerce. The foreign trade of old Serbia 
in 1911 was: imports $22,277,000, and exports 
$22,564,000. These figures, however, do not af- 
ford a proper basis of comparison with statistics 
on foreign trade for post-war years, in view of 
the much greater present area of the country. 
Imports for 1921 were $97,694,000; for 1922, 
$85,676,000; and for the first six months of 
1923, $38,800,000. Exports for 1921 were $58,- 
320,000; 1922, $49,092,000; and for the entire 
year of 1923, $86,244,000. The principal coun- 
tries of origin of imports for the first six months 
of 1923, in order of value, were Austria, Czecho- 
Slovakia, Italy, Germany, England, and the 
United States. The principal countries of des- 
tination of exports for the entire year of 1923, 
in order of value, were Austria, Italy, Czecho- 
Slovakia, Switzerland, and the United States. 
The principal items of import were textiles, 
metals and metal products, machinery and 
vehicles, chemical and pharmaceutical products. 
The principal items of export were lumber, 
grain, cattle, meat products, eggs, and dried 
prunes. 

Finance. Bank note circulation at the end 
of 1923 was 5,790,241,000 dinars; gold reserve, 
68,838,000 dinars. Average exchange rate of 
the dinar, 1913, $0.193 (par) ;° 1921, $0.0237; 
1922, $0.0133; 1923, $0.10715. The dinar ex- 
change was practically stabilized at the latter 
figure in 1923-24. The foreign pre-war debt, 
converted at par, was $169,999,000, in 1924, 
but would be much less if discharged in paper 
currency of the several countries, due to their 


JUGO-SLAVIA 


depreciated currencies. War debts to the Brit- 
ish, French, and American governments, at par, 
were $451,950,000; pre-war debts of Austria 
and Hungary (assumed), converted at agreed 
exchange rates, $4,452,000. In addition there 
were several foreign loans negotiated after the 
War. The total foreign debt was approximate- 
ly $650,000,000 in 1924. 

Education. Elementary education was com- 
pulsory and in the schools under the Ministry 
of Education was free. In 1920, there were 
5974 elementary schools with 12,758 teachers 
and 800,868 pupils; number of secondary sehools 
was 139, with 2794 teachers and 55,636 pupils; 
there were three universities located at Bel- 
grade, Zagreb, and Ljubliana, with a total of 
333 professors and accommodating about 12,000 
students. 

Government. Jugo-Slavia is a constitution- 
al monarchy, whose ruler in 1924 was Alex- 
ander I, former King of Serbia. The present 
constitution was adopted on Jan. 1, 1921 and 
provides for a single chamber called Narodna 
SkupStina, consisting of 313 representatives 
elected for four years on the basis of one mem- 
ber for every 40,000 inhabitants. The mili- 
tary defense of the country was provided for 
by a peace-time army of 7000 officers and 120,- 
000 men recruited on the basis of universal 
service. Compulsory service was enforced for 
men between the ages of 21 and 45 in the first 
line, and for men between 18 and 21 years and 
45 and 50 years for the second line defense. The 
navy consisted of 12 torpedo boats and four 
monitors. 

History. While the new kingdom of the 
Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes did not become a 
reality until December, 1918, the idea of a 
unified Jugo-Slavia was by no means new. Here 
and there, throughout the nineteenth century 
sporadic movements made their appearance 
whose purpose was the union of the southern 
Slav peoples under a single head. The creation 
of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary gave 
the notion of Jugo-Slav unity a serious setback 
and for a time, at the beginning of the twentieth 
century, the idea was completely submerged. 
The Dual Monarchy played off Serbs against 
Croats while the Serbian kingdom was to all 
practical purposes treated as a fief of the 
Austrian-Hungarian throne. But from 1905 on 
Serbs and Croats became more conscious of kin- 
dred interests and, as dissatisfaction with Mag- 
yar supremacy grew, the more real became the 
belief in a Jugo-Slav nation. Not without rea- 
son Austrian officials suspected that the south- 
ern Slav agitation in the Dual Monarchy was 
being fostered by Serbia; it can be seen, there- 
fore, why Austrian animosity toward Serbia 
was so keen. Serbian victories in the Balkan 
War only succeeded in increasing the Slav ardor 
for freedom, and the hot-headed proposals of 
the students’ organizations, to which belonged 


the assassins Princip and Cabrinovitch, brought. 


on unnecessary excesses. Throughout the War, 
Slavs in Austria-Hungary suspected of any sym- 
pathy with the patriotic propaganda were 
treated with the utmost cruelty. Thousands 
died in the internment camps; all literary and 
intellectual communications were cut; the police 
courts had no mercy on any, even school boys, 
with whom the idea of Pan-Slavism might be 
linked. In all the provinces except Croatia, 
every semblance of government disappeared to 
the accompaniment of wholesale confiscations 


727 


JUGO-SLAVIA 


and the terrorization of the civilian population. 
Abroad the claims of these peoples, i.e. for the 
dissolution of the Dual Monarchy and the libera- 
tion of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, were con- 
stantly kept before the eyes of the Allied popu- 
lations by the Jugo-Slav Committee headed by 
Dr. Trumbitch and Mr. Supilo. The secret 
Treaty of London of April, 1915, by which the 
Allies gained the adhesion of Italy by promising 
away large sections of Gorizia, Istria, Car- 
niola, and Dalmatia, was in effect a betrayal 
of the Jugo-Slav cause, and though the Jugo- 
Slav Committee became immediately acquainted 
with the terms of the treaty its loyalty to the 
Allies and its own aspirations suffered only 
slightly. For the spoliation of Serbia by enemy 
invaders came soon after and served to strength- 
en the common resolve. *To the Jugo-Slav Com- 
mittee support was added in 1917 by the Jugo- 
Slav Club, made up of sympathizers in the 
Austrian Reichsrat, as well as by the exiled 
Serbian government under Mr. Pashitch. By 
Mr. Pashitch for the Serbian government and 
Dr. Trumbitch for the Jugo-Slav Committee 
was signed the “Corfu Declaration” (July 20, 
1917) which set forth the principles of southern 
Slav unity under the Karageorgevitch dynasty 
together with the democratic tenets of uni- 
versal suffrage and freedom of religion. A 
further step in the direction of Jugo-Slav inde- 
pendence was realized when Jugo-Slavs and 
Italians came together in 1918 and decided to 
work for their common purpose, i.e. the de- 
feat of the Dual Monarchy and the freeing of 
the Adriatic. This meeting and a similar one 
at Prague had the desired effect with the result 
that defections from the Austro-Hungarian ranks 
became increasingly numerous. Thenceforth it 
was merely a question of months to the creation 
of the Jugo-Slav kingdom. There were difficul- 
ties, of course, even after the collapse of Austria- 
Hungary. The Serbian government sought to 
found a kingdom with itself as a nucleus; to 
the Jugo-Slavs under Dr. Trumbitch nothing 
less than the entire Jugo-Slav programme would 
do. Again Italian disapproval served serious- 
ly to retard the formation of the new state. 
Finally, however, on Nov. 23, 1918, an act of 
union was promulgated at Zagreb, the capital 
of the ex-Austrian Slav provinces, and Prince 
Alexander was invited to take the tlrone of 
a united Jugo-Slavia. At the same time King 
Nicholas of Montenegro was deposed and Monte- 
negro (q.v.) joined the union. See SERBIA, 
History. 

The path of the new state was to be a thorny 
one in the beginning. Italy consistently refused 
its recognition of the accomplished fact of the 
Jugo-Slav state and at the Peace Conference 
unalterably insisted not only on the Treaty of 
London line but, in addition, Fiume. To the 
Jugo-Slavs mediation by President Wilson of 
the whole Adriatic question was perfectly accep- 
table; to the Italians, aware of President Wil- 
son’s doctrines of self-determination and also 
understanding that on such a basis not all their 
claims could be substantiated, there was no way 
out but the Treaty of London. Wilson’s pro- 
posals they hotly rejected and Wilson’s sensa- 
tional declaration of Apr. 23, 1919 over the heads 
of the Italian government, infuriated the Italian 
people. The Adriatic question continued inter- 
mittently to trouble the progress of southern 
Europe affairs for the next four years. For the 
D’Annunzio escapade, the succeeding conversa- 


JUGO-SLAVIA 


tions with the Supreme Council, the patched-up 
Treaty of Rapallo of Nov. 12, 1920, and finally 
the threatening gesture of Mussolini and the 
Peace of Rome of January, 1924, see the article 
FIUME-ADRIATIC CONTROVERSY. Jugo-Slavia was, 
in a sense, the victor, for, excepting the cession 
of Fiume to Italy, the new line followed sub- 
stantially Wilson’s proposals of 1919. There 
were other questions that served to distract at- 
tention from domestic concerns and to prevent 
that reconstruction that was so sorely needed. 
The division of the Banat of Temesvar (q.v.), 
which both Jugo-Slavia and Rumania claimed 
on ethnographic grounds, was not consummated 
until 1920, when, by’ the Treaty of the Trianon 
Jugo-Slavia finally gained the western county 
(Torontél) as well as the Batka district con- 
taining the large city of Szabadka. To the 
southwest, the Pan-Serbs agitated for the an- 
nexation of the Scutari region (northern A\l- 
bania). Not until 1921 did Jugo-Slavia agree 
to relinquish her claims to this rich district, 
which included the valleys and outlets of the 
Drin and Boyana Rivers. Again the settlement 
of the Austrian boundary line presented diffi- 
culties. By the treaty, a plebiscite had to be 
held in the Klagenfurt (q.v.) area before its 
disposition could be finally determined. In 
October, 1920, one of the two zones voted to 
remain in Austria, with the result that the 
whole area was restored. By the Treaty of 
Neuilly (November, 1919) Bulgaria was forced 
to give up to Jugo-Slavia, on the east, the 
Strumitsa district as well as the Tsaribrod and 
Bosilegrad districts. 

Thus, not until 1921 was Jugo-Slavia ready 
to turn to the business of setting her house in 
order. In November, 1920, elections were held 
for members of a Constituent Assembly, and 
the meeting of that body, the first to revre- 
sent the opinion of the new state, indicated 
something of the new loyalties. Cleavages were 
largely on racial and then on economic lines, 
although religious animosities were also ap- 
parent. Decentralization was particularly fav- 
ored by the Catholic Croats and Slovenes, who 
feared the supremacy of the Orthodox Serbs. 
The Communists gathered about them the dis- 
sident spirits from the late enemy provinces, 
especially the Baéka, as well as the Mohamme- 
dans of Bosnia. The character of the new 
groupings may be adduced from the parties 
represented in the Constituent Assembly. There 
were 102 Radicals, 94 Democrats, 42 Commun- 
ists, 51 Croatian-Agrarians, 33 Serb Agrarians, 
25 Mohammedans, 21 Catholic People’s party. 
As a result of these fundamental differences the 
establishment of the new state proceeded slow- 
ly. Government by bloc was the only way out 
and could be carried on only as a result of 
the alliance of the Radicals and the Democrats, 
strengthened by the adherence of the Bosnian 
Mohammedans and the Slovene Agrarians. It 
was only on June 28, 1921, that the constitu- 
tion, embodying the notion of a _ centralized 
Serb state, finally passed through the Assembly. 
Even then this result could hardly have been 
achieved had not the entire Croat delegation 
of 161 members quit the body. Throughout 
1922, however, the new constitution was not 
promulgated, the rump Assembly remaining in 
control and the government under Mr. Pashitch 
continuing in office despite the well-authenticated 
charges of disregard for ministerial responsibil- 
ity. Communist outbreaks in 1921 added, to the 


728 


JUNG 


general uncertainty and were followed by harsh 
measures of reprisal in which the Communist 
members were expelled and the constitutional 
guarantees annulled. However, the increasing 
growth of the Peasant party inditvated the true 
temper of the country. Jugo-Slavia is essen- 
tially agricultural and its problems centre in 
the development of its natural resources and 
the spread of its means of communication. To 
these the country was increasingly devoting it- 
self and making as rapid headway as the vexa- 
tious administrative questions would permit. 
In the field of foreign affairs the prevailing 
policy was conciliatory. By a series of con- 
ventions with Czecho-Slovakia and Rumania in 
1920 and 1921, the Little Entente (q.v.) was 
constituted to check the Habsburg pretensions; 
in October, 1923, Jugo-Slavs gained Greek per- 
mission for their use of the port of Saloniki; 
in 1924, an understanding was effected with 
Italy (q.v.) for the amicable settlement of the 
Adriatic problem. The friendliness of France 
contributed much toward strengthening the 
financial structure of the new state and the se- 
curity of its national integrity. Jugo-Slavia 
was assured of a respectable place among Cen- 
tral European nations. The first general elec- 
tion, March, 1923, gave the same groups that had 
controlled the Constituent Assembly, ascendancy 
in the national Parliament. Mr. Pashitch re- 
mained at the head of affairs, his party and 
that of the Democrats backing vigorously his 
resolute attitude toward the separatist Croats. 
Though in February, 1924, 96 Croats once more 
appeared to take their seats in the Parliament 
after an absence of four years, their policy 
continued hostile, as was shown by their op- 
position to the Fiume treaty and their continual 
demands for Croatian independence. In March, 
and again in April, 1924, by combining with 
the other Opposition groups, the Croats suc- 
ceeded in compelling Premier Pachitch to re- 
sign. Thanks to the King’s continued confi- 
dence in him, the veteran leader returned to 
power, each time, with a reconstructed cabinet. 
But the significance of Croatian opposition 
was larger than mere cabinet jugglery would 
indicate. The important fact revealed by~more 
than four years of Croatian obstruction was 
that the Croats, though willing to unite with 
their kinsmen in a decentralized Jugo-Slav na- 
tion, were irreconcilably opposed to the con- 
tinued dominance of the Serbs in the new and 
enlarged nation. Territorial consolidation had 
proved to be but the first step toward genuine 
national unification, and the other steps re- 
mained to be made. The head of the Croat 
movement was Stephen Raditch, whose whole- 
hearted devotion to the cause of the Croat 
peasant earned him the regard of all the Balkan 
peoples. By 1924 he was a leader of the first 
importance in southeastern Europe and _ his 
leaning toward Russia, together with his 
strength in Macedonia, encouraged the belief, 
expressed widely in the summer of 1924, that 
Soviet Russia would have little difficulty in 
gaining over the Balkan peoples, once such an 
offensive was launched. 

JUNG, Cart Gustav (2? ). A cele- 
brated Swiss psychologist and psychoanalyst. 
Jung, who was the earliest convert to the new 
doctrines of Freud was at that time assistant 
to Professor Bleuler (q.v.) the psychiatrist of 
the Zurich University, who also was favorably 
disposed to the new departure. All of his works 


JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 


are in English translations: Psychology of 
Dementia Precox (1909); Theory of Psycho- 
analysis (1915); Analytical Psychology (1916) ; 
Psychology of the Unconscious (1916); Studies 
in Word Association (1918) and Psychological 
Types (1923). Jung has divided all mankind 
into extraverts and introverts with many sub- 
divisions. See PsycnoLoay, ABNORMAL, AND 
PSYCHOANALYSIS; ASSOCIATION TESTS, 

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS. See Epuca- 
TION IN THE UNITED STATES. 

JUSSERAND, JEAN ADRIEN ANTOINE JULES 
(1855- ). A French diplomat and scholar 
(see Vou. XIII). During the War his services 
were of the greatest value, both in France and 
the United States. He had profound knowledge 
of English literature and life. Two of his later 
works were: A Literary History of the English 
People (1913) and With Americans of Past 
and Present Days (1916). 

JUTLAND, BATTLE OF. 
ROPE, Naval Operations. 

JUVENILE COURTS. Although the first 
juvenile courts were established about 1900, 
during the last decade marked progress has 
been made in the formulation of principles and 
the development of methods of administration. 
In 1914, a report of a special committee of the 
National Probation Association appointed to 
consider juvenile courts and their administra- 
tion was published in book form under the title 
of Juvenile Courts and Probation, by Bernard 
Flexner and Roger N. Baldwin, This statement 
of the aims of the juvenile court and detailed 
discussion of the means by which its purposes 
may be realized, together with the educational 
work of the National Probation Association, of 
State organizations supervising juvenile court 
work, and of individual judges and probation 
officers, have brought increased recognition of 
the importance of the movement and the ad- 
ministrative standards that must be maintained. 
In 1923, following a series of studies made by 
the Children’s Bureau of the United States De- 
partment of Labor and conferences held under 
the joint auspices of that Bureau and the Na- 
tional Probation Association, a detailed state- 
ment of Juvenile-Court Standards was _ pub- 
lished by the Children’s Bureau and widely dis- 
tributed. 

Since it aims to save, rather than to punish, 
the delinquent child and to protect the neglected 
and dependent child, the primary function of 
the juvenile court is not to determine whether 
or not a child has committed a specific offense, 
but through social investigations and physical 
and mental examinations, to ascertain the needs 
of each child and determine the treatment to be 
given. Children are to be kept in their own 
homes if possible, and if institutional care 
is needed, it must be educational and not pu- 
nitive. To attain these ends, the procedure in 
children’s cases must not be criminal in nature, 
and the court hearings must be entirely sepa- 


See WAR IN EVU- 


rate from the trials of adult offenders. The 
hearings must be private and informal (see 
CotorApo, Political and Other Events), and 


must be held before a judge or referee who un- 
derstands problem children and is able to use in- 
telligently the resources which the community 
and the State provide; and skilled probation 
service and facilities for expert study of the 
child’s physical and mental condition must be 
available. Children are to be kept in their own 
homes if possible pending the hearing and de- 


729 


JUVENILE COURTS 


termination of their cases, and if detention is 
required for their own welfare or the public 
safety, it must not be in jails or police sta- 
tions, but in family boarding homes or special 
detention homes adequately equipped for con- 
structive service. 

These are the ideals of the juvenile court, but 
their realization even in the larger cities is far 
from complete, and in many small towns and 
rural districts throughout the country children 
are still subjected to publicity, criminal pro- 
cedure, jail detention, and treatment that can 
not be effective because of the absence of facil- 
ities for the study of the child and for skilled 
probation service. Nevertheless, real progress 
has been made in the last 15 years (up to 1924) 
in the extension of juvenile court principles 
and practice. In 1910, legislation authorizing 
probation in children’s cases was on the statute 
books of 38 States and the District of Columbia, 
but the application of this legislation was 
mainly confined to the larger cities. Eight years 
later, juvenile court laws having been passed 
in every State except two, and laws authoriz- 
ing probation in children’s cases in every State 
except one, a survey was made by the Children’s 
Bureau of the United States Department of 
Labor, covering 2034 juvenile courts and other 
courts hearing children’s cases. This study 
showed that of an estimated 175,000 children’s 
cases in 1918, 125,000 were heard by courts 
with some degree of special organization, and 
that such service existed in all the large cities 
and in 71 per cent of the e’ties having popula- 
tions of from 25,000 to 100,000. The minimum 
degree of specialization used as a_ basis of 
comparison in this survey was separate hear- 
ings for children, officially authorized probation 
service, and the recording of social information. 
Only 321 courts, or 16 per cent of those report- 
ing, had even this minimum; and almost half 
of these courts were in five States. It was found 
that many States were not fully carrying out 
their laws. From at least one court in every 
State came reports of detaining children in jails, 
and in 37 courts in 18 States no effort was made 
to separate children detained in jails from adult 
offenders; more than one-fourth of the courts 
with probation service reported that no pro- 
vision whatever was made for physical examina- 
tions, and relatively few courts had facilities 
for mental examinations. Although authorized 
in every State but one, probation service was 
known to have been used during the year in only 
45 per cent of these courts with jurisdiction 
over children. 

Cons'derable progress has been made _ since 
1918 in the extension of juvenile court service 
to rural communities, chiefly as a result of ac- 
tivities of State departments and the new move- 
ment for the organization of county child wel- 
fare or public welfare boards, working in co- 
operation with State departments. State assist- 
ance rendered juvenile courts includes the pre- 
paring of forms, the developing of community co- 
operation, securing appointment of probation 
officers, training probation officers, publishing 
educational literature, and advising and assist- 
ing in difficult cases. Among the States in 
which county organization has been in progress 
are: Minnesota, North Carolina, Missouri, and 
Virginia. Alabama, Georgia, Indiana, Pennsyl- 
vania, North Dakota and a few others have 
been added to the older list of States, includ- 
ing Massachusetts and New York, in which 


JUVENILE COURTS 


State supervision or stimulation of juvenile 
court work has been carried on. 

In addition to its extension, the juvenile court 
movement during the last decade has _ been 
marked by the broadening of jurisdiction, in- 
creased specialization, the development of higher 
standards of probation service, and closer super- 
vision of its scientific study of the child, and 
the growth.of the practice of dealing informally 
with eases which do not require official court 
action or prolonged treatment. 

The original age limits have been raised so 
that in 1922, the limit was 18 years or higher 
in approximately one-third of the States. More 
classes of cases have been included, such as aid- 
to-mothers cases and in a few States adoption 
cases and cases involving feeble-minded chil- 
dren. In order to increase the effectiveness of 
the work of the children’s courts, by 1922 juris- 
diction over adults contributing to delinquency 
or dependency of children had been granted in 
the majority of the 40 States that had enacted 
laws on the subject, this jurisdiction usually 
being concurrent with that of the criminal 
courts; jurisdiction over desertion and _ non- 
support cases had been given in 12 States; and 
in some States jurisdiction over cases. of offenses 
against minors not under the “contributing to 
delinquency or dependency” laws, and of viola- 
tions of child-labor laws. There has been a 
definite tendency to give to a juvenile court or to 
a court of domestic relations general jurisdic- 
tion over all cases involving children or the 
relationship of adults to children. At the same 
time, there has been noticeable a movement to 
free the juvenile courts from certain types of 
administrative work such as child-placing, and 
from responsibility for cases which can easily 
be handled by such organizations as_ school- 
attendance departments. 

Certain standards for probation work have 
been evolved—that it should be a regular, paid 
service by trained persons, and should when 
necessary extend to the reconstruction of the 
child’s family, school, vocational, and _ recrea- 
tional relationships. Definite training courses 
for probation officers have been established in 
universities and in schools of social work. Pro- 


730 


JUVENILE COURTS | 


bation staffs have been increased, and more ade- 
quate salaries for workers have been secured. 

Since 1910 more specialized judicial service 
has been gained, the earlier system under which 
judges served in rotation for only a short period 
having been replaced to a large extent by longer 
assignments. In many of the larger cities spe- 
cial judges give full time to juvenile court 
work, and woman referees have been authorized 
to hear the cases of girls, as in San Francisco, 
or to hear the cases of girls and of younger boys, 
as in Los Angeles, and to make recommendations 
as to the disposition of the cases. Referee 
power has been given to woman probation offi- 
cers in Detroit, Cincinnati, and also in other 
cities. 

Because the fundamental concept of the juve- 
nile court is to supply corrective treatment ac- 
cording to the individual needs, the principle of 
scientific diagnosis has been developing certain- 
ly, if slowly. In addition to providing means 
of investigating the social history of the child 
and his family, of giving physical examinations 
and treatment and routine mental tests, there 
has been a growing movement to provid: psychi- 
atric clinics for the study of all the associated 
factors of conduct. Scientific diagnostic study 
as a regular service for delinquents and for a 
court began in Chicago in 1909. Since 1922, 
to demonstrate the value of such service to juve- 
nile courts and other agencies dealing with 
children, the Commonwealth Fund of New York, 
through the National Committee for Mental 
Hygiene, has been financing the assignment of 
psychiatric clinics to selected communities for 
limited periods, and has also been supporting 
training courses for psychiatric social workers 
and probation officers given by the New York 
School of Social Work. 

Juvenile courts, in one form or another, closely 
modeled after those in the United States, were 
established after 1899 in England, France, Rus- 
sia, and, in fact, all the principal European 
countries. The movement had also appeared in 
Japan. Its extension in the decade was rapid 
and far-reaching; in 1923, there was hardly a 
civilized country in which it had not manifested 
itself at least in spirit. 


K 


AHN, GusTaveE (1859- ages. 
French symbolist poet, born at 
Metz, and educated in Paris at 
the Ecole des Chartes, and the 
Ecole des Langues Orientales Vi- 
vantes. He founded with John 

Moreas and Paul Adam the periodical, Le 

Symbolisme, the organ of the young poets of 

the 1880’s and 1890’s and was reputed to have 

been the first to employ free verse. His early 
verse showed the influence of Beaudelaire and 
expressionism. In later years, when the sym- 
bolist group gradually broke up, Kahn turned to 
essays and to the esthetics of fine art. His 
works include: Les Palais Nomades (1887) ; 

Chansons @Amants; Domaine des fées (1895) ; 

La Pluie et le Beau Temps; Le Roi Fou (1895) ; 

Limbes de Lumiére; Premiers Poemes; Le Livre 

@Images (1897); Le Conte de VOr et du Si- 

lence (1898) ; Les Petites Ames Pressées (1898) ; 

Le Cirque Solaire (1899); Les Fleurs de la 

Passion (1900); L’Esthétique de la Rue; Adul- 

tére Sentimental; Odes de la Raison; Etude sur 

Boucher; Symbolistes et Décadents; De Tartuffe 

a ces Messieurs; Le Polichinelle du Guignol; 
Contes Hollandais; La Femme dans la Carica- 
ture Francaise. 

KAHR, Atcust RICHARD von (1862- ‘ie 
A German public official, born at Weisserling. 
He was active in the establishment of the Ba- 
varian Republic, and in March, 1920, was made 
Minister-President. He came into conflict with 
the Reich government over questions of author- 
ity and resigned his post in September, 1921, 
largely as a result of the opposition of General 
Ludendorff and other reactionaries. In 1923 
he was appointed general comiaissioner of state 
in full charge of the government and held this 
position during the attempt of Adolf Hitler and 
General Ludendorff to overthrow the govern- 
ment. The failure of this attempt resulted in 
the arrest of Hitler and Ludendorff. See Ba- 
VARIA. 

KAISER, Grora FR, G. (1878- Pee 
German playwright of the expressionist school. 
He was born at Magdeburg, attended college 
and engaged in commerce at Buenos Aires. 
After 1901 he devoted himself to the drama. He 


is the author of Rektor Kleist (1910); Die 
Jiidische Wittwe (1911); Konig Hahnrei 
(1913); Die Birger von Calais (1914); Lo- 


rina (1917); Die Versuchung (1917); Claudia, 
Friedrich, Anna, Juana, a one-act cycle (1918) ; 
Von Morgen bis Mitternacht, produced in the 


United States in English translation (1919) ; 
Gas (1920); Die Koralle (1920); and Das 
Frauenopfer (1920). 

KAISER, ISABELLE (1866- ). A Swiss 


novelist writing in German and French (see 
Vor. XIII). In the period 1914-24 she pub- 
lished: Von Ewiger Liebe (1914); Le Vent 
des Cimes (1916); Rahels Licht (1921); Hilda, 
die Hexe (1921); and Die Nichte der Kénigin 
(1924). 

KALEDIN, Arexer (1861-1918). A Russian 
general, of Cossack birth. During the great 


731 


offensive of Brussilov in 1916, he commanded 
one of the Russian armies. He succeeded Brus- 
siloy as commander of the 8th Russian Army. 
His masterly conduct of the campaign of Vol- 
hania and the capture of Lutsk gained for him 
the title of “Hero of the Lutsk.” Following 
the outbreak of the Russian Revolution, in 
1916, he became leader of the Cossacks, who 
elected him hetman, or commander-in-chief. On 
hearing of the defeat of General Alexeievy on the 
Don River, in 1918, he committed suicide. 

KALLEN, Horace MEYER (1882- kopan 
American philosophical writer (see Vor. XIII). 
He was born in Silesia, Germany, May 11, 1882, 
and was brought to this country at the age of 
four. He was educated at Harvard University 
and also studied at the Sorbonne and at Oxford. 
He was named by James as editor of his un- 
finished book, Some Problems in Philosophy 
(1910). After teaching at Harvard (1908-11), 
he went to the University of Wisconsin (1911- 
19). When the New School of Social Research 
was organized in New York City, he was called 
in as lecturer in philosophy. He is the author 
of the following works: William James and 
Henri Bergson (1909); Creative Intelligence, 
with John Dewey and others (1916); The Struc- 
ture of a Lasting Peace (1918); Zionism and 
World Politics (1921); The League of Nations, 
To-day and To-morrow (1921); and Culture and 
Democracy in the United States (1924). 

KAMERUN. Formerly a German protecto- 
rate on the west coast of Central Africa, but 
since its capture by British and French troops 
in 1916, part of the British and French Em- 
pires under the names of British Cameroon and 
French Cameroon (qq.v.). It had an area of 
305,000 square miles and a population of 3,650,- 
000 of whom whites numbered 1871 on Jan. 1, 
1913. Of these, 1643 were Germans. German 
penetration had been confined only to the coastal 
region, while the natives of the interior still 
recognized the sovereignty of the local Emir of 
Yola. Cocoa culture was the leading activity 
of the whites. Exports, made up of rubber, 
palm products, ivory, cocoa, and tobacco, totaled 
$5,500,000 in 1912, and imports, $8,100,000. 
Shipping in 1912 amounted to 1,733,000 tons, 
over half of which was carried in German ves- 
sels. For administration, $3,700,000 was annu- 
ally derived from customs, and $1,500,000 was 
received as an imperial grant. Kamerun was 
captured by Allied armies in 1916 (see WAR IN 
EvuroprE, Oolonies), and in May, 1919, it was 
conferred as a mandate territory on Great Brit- 
ain and France. The strip bordering on Nigeria, 
about 30,000 square miles, fell to Great Britain, 
while the area of 107,200 square miles in the 
East and South which Germany had received 
in 1911 from France was once more incorpo- 
rated in French Equatorial Africa. The re- 
maining districts in the centre, about 167,000 
square miles, became a French mandate terri- 
tory. See CAMEROON, BRITISH; and CAMEROON, 
FRENCH. 


KANDEL, Isaac Leon (1881-  ). An 


KANSAS 


American educator, born in Rumania. He stud- 
ied in Manchester, England, and at Columbia 
and the University of Jena. For several years 
he taught in universities in Ireland and from 
1908 to 1910 was scholar and teaching profes- 
sor at Columbia University. In 1915 he was 
associate professor of education at Teachers’ Col- 
lege, Columbia University, and in 1914 became 
specialist of the Carnegie Foundation for the 
Advancement of Teaching. He was a contributor 
to several encyclopedias and was the author of 
Elementary Education in England (1914) ; Fed- 
eral Aid for Vocational Education (1917) ;, 
Education in Germany (1918); and Reports on 
Education in Great Britain, Ireland, Germany 
and France (1919). 

KANSAS. Kansas is the thirteenth state in 
size (82,158 square miles) and the twenty-fourth 
in population; capital, Topeka. The population 
increased from 1,690,949 in 1910 to 1,769,257 
in 1920, a gain of 4.6 per cent. The white popu- 
lation rose from 1,634,352 to 1,708,906; Negro, 
from 54,030 to 57,925. The number of foreign- 
born whites decreased from 135,190 to 110,578. 
The urban population mounted from 493,790 to 
617,964, while the rural fell from 1,197,159 
to 1,151,293. The growth of the principal cities 
was as follows: Kansas City (q.v.), 82,331 to 


101,177; Wichita, 52,450 to 72,217; Topeka, 
43,684 to 50,022. 
Agriculture. Kansas is one of the most im- 


portant of the agricultural States. Conditions, 
during the decade 1910-20, especially in the 
latter. part of that period, were greatly affected 
by the general agricultural situation in regard 
to wheat and other grain products, for an ac- 
count of which see AGRICULTURE, CORN, WHEAT, 
ete. While the population of the State in- 
creased 4.6 per cent in the decade 1910-20, the 
number of farms decreased 7.1 per cent (from 
177,841 to 165,286). In 1910 the total acreage 
in farms was 43,384,799, compared with 45,- 
425,179 in 1920, an increase of 4.7 per cent; 
and the improved land in farms also increased, 
from 29,904,067 to 30,600,760 acres. The total 
percentage of land in farms increased from 
82.9 in 1910 to 86.8 in 1920, but the percentage 
of improved land in farms decreased from 68.9 
to 67.4. The total value of farm property 
showed an apparent increase from $2,039,389,910 
to $3,.302,806,187; the average value per farm, 
from $11,467 to $19,982. In interpreting these 
values, however, as indeed all comparative val- 
ues in the decade 1914—24, the inflation of the 
currency in the latter part of the period is to be 
taken into consideration; the index number of 
prices paid to producers of farm products in 
the United States was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 
1920. Of the total of 165,286 farms in 1920, 
97,090 were operated by owners, 1495 by man- 
agers, and 66,701 by tenants. The compara- 
tive figures for 1910 were 111,108, 1335, and 
65,398. White farmers in 1920 numbered 164,- 
048, compared with 176,150 in 1910; native- 
born, 146,859, compared with 150,346; foreign- 
born, 17,189 compared with 25,804; colored, 1238 
compared with 1691. In 1920 the number of 
dairy cows was 681,267, as. compared with 736,- 
107 in 1910; “beef cows,” 912,892, compared 
with 558,153; mules, 243,332, compared with 
196,078; sheep, 361,102, compared with 204,023. 
The number of hogs decreased greatly during 
the decade (from 3,037,000 in 1910 to 1,816 000 
in 1920), the war- -time prices of wheat having 
caused the supplanting of much corn. The esti- 


732 


KANSAS 


mated production of the chief farm crops for 
1923 was as follows: corn, 126,905,000 bushels; 
spring wheat, 115,000; winter wheat, 83,678,000 ; 
oats, 33,343,000 ; barley, 23,366,000; potatoes, 
4,918,000; and hay, 3,060,000 tons. Compara- 
tive figures for 1913 are: corn, 23,424,000 
bushels; wheat, 86,983,000; oats, 34,320 000; 
barley, 1,994,000; potatoes, 2,920,000; and hay, 
1,350,000 tons. 

Mining. The principal mineral products of 
the State are petroleum, coal, natural gas, and 
cement. There is practically no metal mining. 
The progress of the petroleum industry during 
the decade 1914-24 is indicated by these figures: 
production in 1914, 3,103,585 barrels; 1915, 2,- 
823,487; 1916, 8,738,077; 1917, 36,536,125; 1918, 
45,451,017; 1920, 39,005,000; 1921, 36,456.000; 
and 1922, 31,766,000. The greatly increased pro- 
duction in the latter years indicates a _ re- 
markable development in the new petroleum 
fields throughout the State. The coal produc- 
tion in 1914 was 6,860,988 short tons, valued 
at $11,238,253; 1916, 6,881,455, $12,252,723; 
1917, 7,184,975, $16,618,277; 1918, 7,561,947, 
$22,028,142; 1920, 5,926,408, $22,923,000; 1921, 
3,466,641, $13,333,300. The value of clay prod- 
ucts varied during the decade from $1,905,961 
in 1914 to $2,064,520 in 1918; $4,921,740 in 
1920; and $3,739,594 in 1921; the increased 
value in the latter part of the period was due 
largely to the decreased purchasing power of 
money and the consequent higher prices. Ship- 
ments of cement, exclusive of natural cement, 
varied from 3,237,906 barrels in 1914 to 2,586,- 
834 in 1918; 4,158,399 in 1920; and 3,643,582 
in 1921. In addition to products mentioned 
above, the State produces a considerable quantity 
of gypsum, lead, natural gas, and sand and 
gravel. The total value of the mineral prod- 
ucts in 1921 was $113,098,346, compared with 
$198,097,758 in 1920, $120,759,783 in 1919, $149,- 
902,091 in 1918, and $25,866,351 in 1914. In 
the value of its mineral products, Kansas ranked 
ninth among the States in 1921. 

Manufactures. While Kansas is chiefly an 
agricultural State, it is also important in- 
dustrially. There are 17 cities which have a 
population of more than 10,000, the combined 
population of which forms 236 per cent of the 
total for the State. In 1919 72.1 per cent of 
the total value of the State’s manufactures 
were reported from these cities. There were in 
the State, in 1909, 3435 manufacturing estab- 
lishments; in 1914, 31386; and in 1919, 3474. 
Persons engaged in manufacture numbered 54,- 
649, 52,032, and 77,009, in those years; and 
capital invested amounted to $156,090,067, $163,- 
789,752, and $357,534,129. The value of prod- 
ucts in 1909 amounted to $325,104,002; 1914, 
$323,234,194, and 1919, $913,667,094. While the 
increase in the value of the product in 1914-19 
is in great measure due to changes in industrial 
conditions brought about by the War, the in- 
crease in the average number of wage earn- 
ers clearly indicates a decided growth in manu- 
facturing activities in the State. The most im- 
portant industry in point of value of products 
is that connected with slaughtering and meat 
packing, the value of the product in 1909 being 
$165,361,000; in 1914, $151,647,000, and in 1919, 
$427 663,000. Flour-mill and eristmill prod- 
ucts rank second; in 1909, they were valued 
at $68,476,000; in 1914, $72,895,000; and in 
1919, $206.881,000. Petroleum refining, in third 
place, in 1909 amounted to $4,077,000; in 1914, 


KANSAS 


to $8,923,000, and in 1919, to $63,786,000. Car 
and general shop construction and_ repairs 
amounted, in 1909, to $11,193,000; 1914, $12,- 
889,000; and 1919, $28,231,000. The chief manu- 
facturing cities in the State are Kansas City, 
Topeka and Wichita. There were in Kansas 
City, in 1909, 165 establishments, with a product 
valued at $164,081,000; 1914, 201 with $159,- 
700,000, and in 1919, 196 with $468,686,000. In 
Topeka, in 1909, there were 202 with $17,821,- 
000; 1914, 161 with $20,685,000; and 1919, 169 
with $45,708,000. Wichita had 223, in 1909, 
with $10,267,000; 199, in 1914, with $11,668,000; 
and 238, in 1919, with $38,580,000. 

Education. Kansas has been one of the most 
progressive of the States in educational mat- 
ters. Its progress continued during the decade 
1913-23. The Legislature passed during that pe- 
riod many measures designed to improve the 
educational system. One of the most important 
was the rural high school measure of 1915. 
This law permitted legal electors residing in ter- 
ritory containing not less than 16 square miles 
and comprising one or more townships or parts 
thereof to establish rural high school districts 
and to establish and maintain therein a rural 
high school. Under this law, over 240 rural 


high schools were organized. The Legislature 


of 1923 passed an important educational act 
reorganizing the county high school system, 
abolishing normal county high schools, and cre- 
ating and establishing community high schools 
and providing for the payment of tuition in con- 
nection therewith; and by the end of 1923, 26 
such high schools had been established. The 
same Legislature passed a measure for carry- 
ing out the provisions of the law of 1917 re- 
lating to vocational education; and useful legis- 
lation relating to the blind and deaf and dumb. 
The name of the normal schools of the State was 
changed to teachers’ colleges. A Board of Ad- 
ministration was authorized to make a survey 
of the southwestern part of the State, and to 
determine the advisability of establishing State 
normal and teachers’ colleges, and was to present 
its report to the Legislature of 1925. The 
school population of the State increased from 
510,273 in 1913 to 539,248 in 1923. The school 
enrollment in 1914 was 392,662; in 1923 it was 
427,310. Kansas has always been among the 
States with the lowest percentages of illiterates. 
Its percentage decreased from 2.8 in 1910 to 
2 in 1920: among the native-born from 1.1 to 
0.7 per cent; among the foreign-born, from 10.3 
to 10.2; among the Negro, from 15.9 to 11.2. 

Finance. See STATE FINANCES. 

Political and Other Events. The period 
1914-24 was filled with events of political and 
economic interest in the State. In 1914 there 
were elections for United States senator and 
governor and other State officers. Senator Bris- 
tow, whose term expired on Mar. 3, 1915, was 
a candidate for renomination on the Republican 
ticket. He was opposed by Charles Curtis and 
by Victor Murdock, Progressive leader of the 
House of Representatives. Mr. Curtis received 
the Republican nomination and was elected in 
November. Arthur Capper, Republican candi- 
date, was elected governor. At this election a 
constitutional amendment providing for the re- 
eall of public officials, was adopted. In 1916 
Governor Capper was reélected, and the Repub- 
licans elected all the other State officers and 
the majority of the Legislature. In spite of 
this fact, President Wilson carried the State, 


733 


KANSAS 


receiving 314,588 votes, compared with 277,658 
for Charles E. Hughes. In 1918 Governor Cap- 
per was elected United States Senator on the 
Republican ticket, and Henry J. Allen, Repub- 
lican, was elected governor. In 1919 a general 
strike in the coal fields of the State resulted in 
the taking over of the mines by the State au- 
thorities under the direction of Governor Allen 
and their operation by volunteers. The Legis- 
lature in this year created an Industrial Court, 
before which should be brought all matters in 
dispute between employers and employees in 
what the law describes as “basic industries,” 
including food, fuel, clothing, and all public 
utilities. In°1920 Senator Curtis was reélected 
to the Senate, and Henry J. Allen was re- 
elected governor. In the presidential voting of 
this year, Warren G. Harding received 396,195 
votes; James M. Cox, 185,447. The constitu- 
tional amendments were adopted at this elec- 
tion, relating to promotion of farm home-owning, 
against the increase of farm tenancy, and to 
the promotion of good roads. The Kansas Court 
of Industrial Relations, created by the Legisla- 
ture of 1919, was organized, and at the close 
of the year, 28 industrial cases had been filed, 
20 of these by labor organizations, and in 13 
cases wage increases had been granted. On Apr. 
9, 1920, strikers in the coal mines were arrested 
and placed in jail for ignoring the summons of 
the Industrial Court. On April 30, the Indus- 
trial Court was declared constitutional by the 
State Supreme Court. On Feb. 7, 1921, Alex- 
ander Howat, the leader in the coal mining 
strike, was arrested by the authorities of the 
Industrial Relations Court for calling a strike 
in violation of an injunction. He was con- 
victed. In 1922 the Democrats came into power 
by the election of their candidate for governor, 
Jonathan M. Davis. In his campaign he spoke 
against the Industrial Court and promised a 
reduction of taxes. Governor Davis was inau- 
gurated in January, 1923. His message was de- 
voted chiefly to agricultural problems, and he 
indicated strong opposition to the Court of In- 
dustrial Relations, favoring the substitution of 
an industrial commission. Although the Legis- 
lature did not act on his recommendations, the 
functions of the Industrial Court. were greatly 
curtailed by a decision of the United States Su- 
preme Court on June 1] that the court had no 
power to fix wages. See LABoR ARBITRATION. 

Legislation. The most important acts of 
the Legislature in the decade 1914-24 are in- 
dicated below. Several measures passed in 1915 
were designed to strengthen the prohibition laws 
of the State. The Legislature of 1917 amended 
the laws relating to the administration of the 
State government and created a State manager 
for State institutions, his duties including those 
of purchasing agent; enacted a general prohibi- 
tion law; and amended the child labor law. The 
woman suffrage amendment to the constitution 
was ratified on June 16, 1919, and the prohibi- 
tion amendment on January 14 of the same 
year. The Legislature of 1921 abolished the In- 
dustrial Welfare Commission and conferred its 
powers on the Court of Industrial Relations; 
created a State aircraft board; made provision 
for the establishment and maintenance of. city 
planning commissions in cities of the first class; 
and imposed a penalty for the failure to employ 
the English language exclusively in teaching in 
the elementary schools. A Public Utilities Com- 
mission was created, and provision was made 


KANSAS 


for the organization of rural high school dis- 
tricts and for the consolidation of school dis- 
tricts for educational purposes. An election was 
authorized to be held in 1922 on the question 
of compensation of veterans of the War. This 
proposal, which called for the issuance of $25,- 
000,000 in bonds, was carried by the people. 
The Legislature of 1923 accordingly passed a 
soldiers’ bonus law. It also authorized a board 
of administration to make contracts for the 
drilling of oil and gas wells on land under its 
control belonging to the State, where there is a 
State institution on such land within two miles 
of one or more producing oil wells. The Legis- 
lature of 1923 submitted to the people to be vot- 
ed on at the general election of 1924 a constitu- 
tional amendment qualifying the provision of 
“uniform assessment and taxation” and permit- 
ting the Legislature to distinguish among sub- 
jects of taxation. 

KANSAS, UNIversity or. A coeducational 
State institution at Lawrence, Kan., founded in 
1864. The university showed a steady growth 
during the entire period between 1914 and 1923- 
24. The student enrollment increased from 2812 
in 1914 to 4557 in the year 1923-24 and 1506 
in the summer of 1923; the faculty membership 
was increased from 200 to 303, and the library 
from 100,000 to 159,000 volumes. Ernest H. 
Lindley succeeded Frank Strong, Ph.D., as 
Chancellor in 1920. 

KANSAS CITY. A city in Kansas. Its 
population increased from 82,331 in 1910 to 
108,851 in 1920. The estimated population in 
1923 was 108,851. This includes the suburb of 
Rosedale, which was annexed in 1922. The 
manufacturing establishments decreased from 
261 in 1914 to 196 in 1919. The value of pro- 
ducts, however, increased from $159,700,000 in 
1914 to $468,868,000 in 1919. Among the no- 
table achievements in the decade from 1914 to 
1924 was the organization of a Chamber of 
Commerce, which constructed a $100,000 build- 
ing. During the war years, a community war 
chest was organized. There was under construc- 
tion in 1924 a war memorial, to cost $500,000. 
A new court house, to cost $1,000,000, was 
authorized. Extensive enlargements were _ be- 
ing made in the latter part of the period on 
the municipal water and light plants, and a 
$5,000,000 bond issue was voted for the pur- 
pose. A junior college was under construction 
in 1924. In 1923, 1955 building permits were 
issued, an increase of 60 per cent over the 
preceding year; the number of building per- 
mits in 1924 exceeded those of any previous 
year by a considerable amount. Among other 
important accomplishments were the creation 
of the 1300-acre Fairfax Industrial District, 
and the Kansas City, Missouri, Railway and its 
terminal, one of the few terminals for electric 
roads in the western United States. 

KANSAS CITY, Mo. An important indus- 
trial and railroad centre in Missouri. The popu- 
lation rose from 248,381 in 1910 to 324,410 in 
1920, and to 351,819, by estimate of the Bureau 
of the Census, for 1923. Between 1914 and 
1924 a viaduct and double-deck bridge, a 14- 
mile boulevard, a 15-mile sewer system, and a 
dyke for flood protection were built by the city. 
At the close of the War a Liberty Memorial was 
built, including a shaft with a crucible at the 
top, in which a fire was to burn constantly, a 
hall of records, and a fraternity house, all sur- 
rounded by 33 acres of land in the heart of the 


734 


KAROLYI 


city. The $2,500,000 necessary for the project 
was raised by popular subscription. One of 
the largest baseball parks of the country was 
completed in 1923. Home-rule charter-making 
powers were acquired by the city in 1920. The 
park area increased from 2600 acres in 1914 to 
3470 in 1923 and the paved streets from 400 to 
600 miles. The bank clearings of Kansas City 
rose from $3,835,061,547 in 1915 to $11,615,142,- 
427 in 1920 and fell again to $6,881,567,927 in 
1923; building permits increased from 3517 val- 
ued at $10,667,405 in 1915, to 5831 valued at 
$24,327,400 in 1923; customs receipts from 
$262,279 to $416,803; and postal receipts from 
$3,195,424 in 1915 to $8,528,482 in 1923. The 
value of factory output rose from $319,000,000 
in 1915 to $590,192,057 in 1923, and live stock 
from 6,503,509 in 1915 to 8,537,267 in 1923, 
valued at $250,588,240. 

KANSAS WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY. 
A coeducational institution under the auspices 
of the Methodist Episcopal Church founded in 
1885 at Salina, Kan. The enrollment of the 
College of Liberal Arts rose from 149 in 1919 
to 526 in 1924; the total enrollment in the 
latter year was 1044. The faculty increased in 
membership from 20 in 1918 to 38 in 1924, and 
the library from 12,000 to 15,000 volumes. A 
new physical laboratory was equipped in 1920, 
and a new administration building was in proc- 
ess of construction in 1924. The curriculum of 
the College of Commerce was expanded to a 
four-year course leading to the bachelor’s degree 
and commercial teacher’s certificate; courses 
were established in secretarial science. An en- 
dowment campaign for $800,000 was completed 
in 1919. Rev. L. B. Bowers, D.D., succeeded 
Rev. John F. Harmon as president in 1919. 

KAPP, WoLFGANG (1868- ). A German 
revolutionist, born in New York City. He was 
the son of Friedrich Kapp, a well-known Liberal 
leader, and was born while his father was in 
exile in the United States. He founded the Ag- 
ricultural Credit Institute of East Prussia, which 
was very successful. During the War he was 
one of the leading representatives of the Junkers 
and bitterly opposed all measures taken to es- 
tablish a republic. In March, 1919, he headed 
a conspiracy to obtain control of the government. 
This was at first successful, and he was installed 
as Imperial Chancellor. He endeavored to form 
a government but was frustrated largely by a 
universal strike, which rendered him powerless. 
The movement collapsed on March 17, and he fled 
to Berlin, escaping by airplane to Sweden. See 
GERMANY, History, for an account of the Kapp 
Putsch. 


KAPP PUTSCH. See Trapk UNIONISM, 


Germany. 

KARAFUTO. See SAKHALIN. 

KARELIA CONTROVERSY. See _ FIn- 
LAND, RUSSIA. 

KAROLYI, MicHaEL, Count (1875- }; 


A Hungarian statesman. His family, for cen- 
turies, had been one of the most influential and 
important in Hungary and filled a conspicuous 
place in the political history of the country. Be- 
fore and during the War, he manifested strong 
pacifism and outspokenly condemned German 
ideals of world dominion. In 1916 he was 
trusted with the Austro-Hungarian peace over- 
tures to the Allies. When defeat was realized, 
he was called on, in November, 1918, to form a 
ministry. His first task was to conclude peace 
with General D’Esperey, commander on _ the 


KARPINSKI 


Macedonian frontier. Later in the same month 
he became provisional president of the Hungarian 
Republic. His endeavors to restore order were 
frustrated by the Bolshevik propaganda under 
Bela Kun, and he resigned in March, 1919. He 
took no further active part in the government. 
He visited the United States in 1923 in the in- 
terests of Hungary. See Huncary, History. 

KARPINSKI, Louis CHARLES (1878-— ds 
An American mathematician, born at Rochester, 
N. Y., and educated at Cornell University and 
Strassburg. He also studied (1909-10) at 
Columbia, where he was a fellow and a univer- 
sity extension lecturer. Meanwhile he taught 
mathematics at Berea (1898-1900) and at the 
Oswego (N. Y.) Normal School during 1903- 
04, but in 1904 accepted a call to Michigan 
where in 1919 he became full professor of math- 
ematics. Dr. Karpinski has devoted his atten- 
tion chiefly to the history and pedagogy of math- 
ematics, An authority on the history of science, 
he was collaborator on the Archivio di Storia 
della Scienza and author of The Hindu-Arabic 
Numerals, with D. G. Smith (1911), Robert of 
Chester's Latin Translation of the Algebra of 
Khowarzimi (1915), and Unified Mathematics, 
with H. Y. Benedict and J. W. Calhoun (1918). 

KATANGA. See COPPER. 

KATO, TomosaBuro (1859-1923). A prime 
minister of Japan (see Von. XIII). In the 
War he was commander-in-chief of the First 
Fleet which guarded Allied transportation from 
German raiding in the Pacific. After the War, 
as minister of marine, he began to build up 
Japan’s navy. He headed the Japanese delega- 
tion to the Disarmament Conference at Wash- 
ington and afterward won his government’s con- 
sent to the treaty. He became premier in June, 
1922, on his return from the Washington con- 
ference He died at Tokyo in 1923. See JAPAN, 
History. 

KAUFFMAN, REGINALD WRIGHT (1877—__)-. 
An American author (see Vout. XIII). He served 
on the Mexican border in 1916 and enlisted in 
1917 for service in France. His later books 
include The Latter Day Saints, with Ruth 
Wright Kauffman (1917); The Azure Rose 
(1918); Our Navy at Work (1918); Victorious 
(1919); Money to Burn and The Ranger of the 
Manor (1924). 

KAUFFMAN, Rutu Wricut (Mrs. REcI- 
NALD WRIGHT), ( ?- ). An American writer 
and war correspondent, born in New York City, 
and educated at Bryn Mawr and in Paris, 
France, at the College de France. During 1905 
and 1906 she investigated women’s work in de- 
partment stores, offices, and domestic service, 
and in 1909 she investigated “white slavery” in 
the United States and Europe. During the War 
she was correspondent for Leslie’s and for The 
Christian Herald and was the first woman cor- 
respondent at the American front in France. 
In 1918 she was connected with the Publicity 
Department of the American Red Cross. Her 
writings include: Women War Workers (1919) ; 
Three Little Kittens (1922); The Boundary Line 
(1923); The “I-Don’t-Want-To” Series, for chil- 
dren (1924). 

KAUFMAN, Gerorce S. (1889- ye... AD 
American playwright, born at Pittsburgh, Pa. 
For several years he conducted humorous daily 
columns in the Washington Times and the New 
York Evening Mail and was subsequently on the 
dramatic staff of the New York Tribune and of 
the New York Times. He was the author, with 


735 


KEITH 


Mare Connelly, of many successful plays, in- 
eluding Duley (1921); To the Ladies (1922); 
and Beggar on Horseback (1924). 

KAUTSKY, Kart JOHANN (1854— ). 
An Austrian Socialist (see Vor. XIII). He was 
one of the most important and prolific writers 
among the Social Democrats of Germany. Dur- 
ing the War he supported the militarism of the 
Kaiser and said that the Socialists could do 
nothing to stop the. conflict. In 1919 he pub- 
lished four volumes of documents, pertaining to 
pre-war history, with marginal notes by the ex- 
Kaiser, which raised a storm in Germany and 
which the newspaper Vorwérts declared showed 
that Germany before the War was ruled by a 
man all but mad. In 1920 Kautsky appealed 
to American Socialists to help reéstablish the 
Socialist Internationale. He was strongly anti- 
Bolshevik. After the War he published: Der 
Politische Massenstreik (1914); Die Vereinigten 
Staaten Mitteleuropas (1916); Die Befreiung 
der Nationen (1917); Serbien und Bulgarien in 
der Geschichte (1917); EHlsass-Lothringen 
(1917); Uebergangswirtschaft (1918); Die Dik- 
tatur des Proletariats (1918); Hapsburgs Glick 
und Ende (1918); Demokratie oder Diktatur? 
(1918); Die Sozialisirung der Landwirtschaft 
(1919); Wie der Weltkrieg Entsteht (1919); 
Terrorismus und Kommunismus (1919); Del- 
briick und Wilhelm II (1920); and Vergangen- 
heit und Zukunft der Internationale (1920). 

KAWAKAMI, K. K. (1875- ). A Jap- 
anese writer, born in Tokyo. He was educated 
in the law in Japan and was for a short time 
engaged in newspaper work in that country. 
In 1901 he came to the United States and stud- 
ied at the Universities of Iowa and Wisconsin. 
In 1905, engaged in journalism, he traveled ex- 
tensively in China, Siberia, and Russia. He 
was a correspondent for leading newspapers in 
Tokyo and a frequent contributor to American 
magazines and newspapers. He wrote: Political 
Ideas of the Modern Japan (1903); Asia at the 
Door (1914); Japan and World Politics (1917) ; 
Japan and World Peace (1919); The Real Jap- 
anese Question (1921). 

KAYE-SMITH, SHEILA (?- . An Eng- 
lish novelist, born at St. Leonard’s on the 
Sea. Her first published novel was The Tramp- 
ing Methodist (1908). This attracted wide at- 
tention and was followed by Star Brace (1909) ; 
Spell-Land (1910); ZJsle of Thorns (1913); 
Three Against the World (1914); Sussex Gorse 
(1916); Little England (1918); Tamarisk Town 
(1919); Green Apple Harvest (1920); and 
Joanna Godden (1921). She was generally 
recognized as one of the most distinguished of 
the younger English novelists. 


KEDAH. See MALAY STATES, Non- 
FEDERATED. 

KEEN, WILLIAM WILLIAMS § (1837- is 
An eminent American medical man (see VOL. 


XIII). He published several books during the 
decade 1914-24: Treatment of War Wounds 
(1917); Medical Research and Human Welfare 
(1917); I Believe in God and Evolution (1922) ; 
and Selected Papers and Essays (1923). He 
has delivered numerous lectures defending ani- 
mal experiments and was very active during the 
War in behalf of the Allies. He received spe- 
cial honors from England and France. In 1917 
he was appointed a member of the National Re- 
search Council. 

KEITH, Sir Artruur (1866-— )cy Agee 
ish anthropologist (see Vor. XIII). He was 


KELANTAN 


Fullerian Professor at the Royal Institute, 
1917-23, and afterward its secretary. He ed- 
ited and wrote numerous works on anatomy and 
anthropology, including: Antiquity of Man 
(1914); Menders of the Maimed (1919); En- 
gines of the Human Body (1920); and Na- 
tionality and Race (1920). 


KELANTAN. See MaAtray States, Non- 
FEDERATED. 

KELLOGG, FRANK BILLINGS (1856- " 
An American lawyer and diplomat (see VOL. 


XIII). In 1916 he was elected United States 
Senator from Minnesota for the term 1917-23 
but was defeated for reélection in 1922. In 1923 
President Harding appointed him American Am- 
bassador to Great Britain to succeed George 
B. M. Harvey. 

KELLOGG, Joun Harvey (1852- ape sel 
American hygienist (see VoL. XIII). Dr. Kel- 
logg has shown almost unparalleled activity as 
a writer of books, many of them large volumes, 
since 1915. They comprise: Colon Hygiene 
(1915); The Hygiene of Infancy (1916); The 
New Method in Diabetes (1917); Plain Facts, 
a summary of some of his older writings 
(1917); Awto-intoxication (1918); Rational 
Hydrotherapy (1918); The Itinerary of a Break- 
fast (1919); The Health Question Box (1920) ; 
The New Dietetics (1921); Tobaccoism (1922). 

KELLOGG, OLiver Dimon (1878- y RATT 
American mathematician, born at Linwood, Pa., 
and educated at Princeton and Gottingen. Dur- 
ing 1902-05 he was an instructor at the John C. 
Green School of Science at Princeton, and dur- 
ing 1905-20 he was at the University of Mis- 
souri, where he became full professor in 1910. 
On leave from Missouri, he was mathematician 
at the United States Naval Experiment Station 
in New London, Conn. In 1919 he became a lec- 
turer on mathematics at Harvard and in 1920 
an associate professor there. He has been in- 
terested in various problems of integral and dif- 
ferential equations, potential functions, and 
functional theory, on all of which he has pub- 
lished papers in mathematical journals. Dr. 
Kellogg is a fellow of the American Association 
for the Advancement of Science and presided 
over the section on mathematics in 1919 with 
the rank of vice president. 

KELSO, JAMES ANDERSON (1873- es SAT 
American theologian, born at Rawal Pindi, India. 
He studied at Washington and Jefferson Col- 
lege, the Western Theological Seminary and in 
Germany. He was ordained to the Presbyterian 
ministry in 1898. In 1897 he was instructor 
in Hebrew at the Western Theological Seminary 
and was successively professor of Hebrew and 
Old Testament literature, acting president, and 
president of this institution (1908- ving a 
was the author of many books on theological 
subjects, including A History of the Hebrews in 
Outline (1921) and A Hebrew Prophet and His 
Message (1922). He contributed to several 
Bible dictionaries and to the religious and 
secular press. 

KEMAL PASHA, MusrapHa (1879- ys 
A Turkish general and political leader, born in 
European Turkey (Macedonia). He was edu- 
cated for the army at the Imperial Turkish Mil- 
itary School at Constantinople and early dis- 
played unusual military abilities. During the 
War he served on the Turkish General Staff and 
was division manager in the Gallipoli campaign 
against the British. Here he displayed a skill 
and aggressiveness which were a large factor in 


736 


KENDALL 


the failure of the British to occupy the penin- 
sula. Following the defeat of the Central 
Powers and the occupation of Constantinople by 
the Allies, he went to Anatolia, where he re- 
organized the 3d Army Corps and in September, 
1919, having renounced allegiance to the Con- 
stantinople government, called a Turkish Na- 
tionalist Assembly at Siva. A government was 
organized of which he was chief. He was joined 
by many Turkish officers and men and was soon 
master of a large part of Asia Minor. In April, 
1920, a permanent assembly, of which he was 
president, was organized at Angora. This as- 
sembly refused to recognize the Treaty of Sévres 
and carried on war with Armenia, with the 
French in Cilicia, and with the Greeks, to whom 
Smyrna and other portions of Asia Minor had 
been given by the Treaty of Sévres. He became 
virtual dictator of the Nationalist government. 
By treaty with the Soviet republics of the 
Caucasus in 1921, he added a large part of 
Armenia to the Angora government, and by 
treaty with France in the same year, he re- 
gained Cilicia. On Jan. 1, 1922, he declared 
that the Nationalist government in Angora, 
while respecting the Sultan, did not recognize 
his authority as superior to that of the Turkish 
people. He carried on a campaign against 
Greece in 1922, and by his signal defeat of the 
Greek armies in Asia Minor in September of 
that year, he became virtual master of Turkey. 
In August, 1923, he was elected president of the 
National Assembly, and in March, 1924, first 
president of the Turkish Republic. As president 
he used his influence with the Assembly in the 
move to separate church and state in Turkey, 
and on Mar. 3, 1924, the caliphate was abolished. 

KEMMERER, Epwin WALTER (1875- ‘ie 
An American economist (see Vor. XIII). His 
later works include: Modern Currency Reforms 
(1916); The United States Postal Savings Sys- 
tem (1917); Monetary System of Mexico 
(1917); The A B C of the Federal Reserve 
System (1918); and High Prices and Deflation 
(1920). 

KEMP, HArry Hipparp (1883— bedi M51 
American author, born in Youngstown, Ohio, 
and educated at the University of Kansas. He 
made a trip around the world, on which he 
started with only twenty-five cents, and also 
traveled all over North America in the guise 
of a tramp. He made special studies of night 
life in London and New York. He wrote: 
Judas, a play (1910); The Cry of Youth, poems 
(1914); The Thresher’s Wife, poems (1914) ; 
The Passing God, poems (1919); John Gregory, 
a novel (1922); and Tramping on Life (1922). 

KENDALL, Epwarp Catvin (1886-— 1 
An American chemist, born at Norwalk, Conn., 
and educated at Columbia University. He at 
once entered the employ of Parke, Davis, and 
Company, of Detroit, Mich., with whom he re- 
mained until 1911, when he returned to New 
York City and was for three years connected 
with St. Luke’s Hospital. In 1914 he became 
head of the Section of Chemistry at the Mayo 
Clinic in Rochester, Minn., and also professor 
of biochemistry at the University of Minnesota 
under the Mayo foundation. His chief studies 


have been on the secretions of the human body, 


especially of the pancreas and the thyroid gland; 
his valuable researches have included the isola- 
tion of the active principles of the latter. On 
these subjects he has published papers in the 
journals of the American Chemical Society and 


KENDALL 


of the Society of Biological Chemists. 
member of both these organizations. 

KENDALL, (WILLIAM) SERGEANT (1869- 

). An American figure painter (see VOL. 
XIII). Among his awards from 1914 to 1924 
was a gold medal for painting, from the Panama- 
Pacific International Exposition in 1915. He 
was dean of the School of Fine Arts at Yale 
University, 1913-22. Among his later works 
may be mentioned “Crosslights” and “Inter- 
mezzo.” 

KENLY, WitttAm Lacy (1864- yi Ar 
American soldier, born at Springwood, Md. 
He was graduated at the United States Military 
Academy in 1889 and entered the army as second 
lieutenant of the 4th Artillery in June of the 
same year and continued in the service until 
1919, when he was retired with the rank of 
colonel. Meanwhile, in the war with Spain, he 
had participated in the actions of El Caney and 
Santiago. During 1899-1902 he was in the 
Philippines. He was in France in command of 
artillery, with the rank of brigadier-general 
(1917), and later had the second brigade of the 
Field Artillery. In 1918 he returned to the 
United States and was made director of military 
aéronautics with the rank of major-general in 
the National Army. He was active in the or- 
ganization of the Army Air Service Associa- 
tion in 1918 and was its first president. His 
services abroad were recognized by the decora- 
tions of the Legion of Honor, the Order of the 
Bath in 1919, and the Order of the Crown 
in 1920. Since his retirement he has been ac- 
tive in the development of oil interests in Ok- 
lahoma. 

KENNEDY, DANIEL JOSEPH (1862-— ). 
An American clergyman and educator, born in 
Knox County, Tenn., and educated in schools in 
the United States and in Europe. He was or- 
dained to the Roman Catholic priesthood in 
1884. He filled chairs in the faculty of col- 
leges in Europe and in 1906 became lecturer 
on sacramental theology at the Catholic Univer- 
sity of America. In 1920 he was professor of 
dogmatic theology at this university. His sev- 
eral books on theological subjects include Saint 
Thomas and Medieval Philosophy (1919). He 
also contributed many articles to Catholic peri- 
odicals and encyclopedias. 

KENOTRON. This device, in the interval 
between 1914 and 1924, was developed from a 
scientific laboratory toy to a practical article of 
commerce. It will rectify small alternating cur- 
rents (0.25 amperes) at 100,000 volts. Four of 
them have been arranged to rectify both half- 
cycles of 0.25 amperes at 200,000 volts. The 
kenotron consists of a hot cathode, platinum, 
tungsten, or impregnated tungsten, and a cold 
plate or anode in a high vacuum. The heated 
electrode emits electrons which are carried to 
the cathode by the correct potential, but as the 
cold electrode does not emit electrons there 
can be no current in the opposite direction. It 
is based on the Fleming valve. 

KENT, Norton ADAMS’ (1873- evan 
American physicist, born in New York City, and 
educated at Yale and Johns Hopkins Universi- 
ties. During 1901-03 he was an assistant at 
the Yerkes Observatory and then held the chair 
of physics (1903-06) at Wabash College. In 
1906 he was called to Boston, where in 1910 he 
became full professor. He had made original in- 
vestigations of such subjects as electric sparks 
in liquids and in air at high pressure, the shift 


He is a 


737 


KENTUCKY 


of spark lines due to changed conditions, vacuum 
tube discharge in magnetic field, and magnetic 
separation of lithium doublets, on all of which 
he has published the results of his studies. 
KENT, ROCKWELL (1882- ). An Ameri- 
cau artist. He was born at Tarrytown Heights, 
N. Y. His art studies were followed at Colum- 
bia -University, and under Chase, Henri, Hayes 
Miller, and Thayer. He first attracted atten- 
tion in 1907 with his pictures of Maine, such 
as “Winter” and “Seiners,”’ realistic marines 
notable for their strength of outline and mass- 
ing of color. In 1913 he visited Newfound- 
land and brought back works which included the 
imaginative “House of Dread,” “A Newfound- 
land Dirge,” and “The Voyage Beyond Life,” 


pervaded by a dark atmosphere of mystery. 


Thereafter, during a sojourn in Alaska in 1918, 
he produced work of a symbolic and spiritual 
quality which was highly reminiscent of Blake. 
Among these decorative, clean-lined drawings, 
the “Mad Hermit” series was particularly note- 
worthy. His trip to Tierra del Fuego in a life- 
boat in 1922 was also productive of mystical 
impressions. He was the author of Wilderness 
(1920) and Voyaging (1924). 

KENTUCKY. Kentucky is the thirty-sixth 
State in size (40,598 square miles) and the fif- 
teenth in population; capital, Frankfort. The 
population increased from 2,289,905 in 1910 to 
2,416,630 in 1920, a gain of 5.5 per cent. The 
white population rose from 2,027,951 to 2,180,- 
560, the native white increasing from 1,987,898 
to 2,149,780, while the foreign-born white fell 
off from 40,053 to 30,780. The negro population 
decreased from 261,656 to 235,938. The urban 
and rural populations both increased, the former 
from 555,442 to 633,543, and the latter from 
1,734,463 to 1,783,087. The growth of the prin- 
cipal cities was as follows: Louisville (q.v.), 
1910, 223,928, and 1920, 234,891; Covington, 
53,270 to 57,121; Lexington, 35,099 to 41,534. 
Newport fell from 30,309 to 29,317. 

Agriculture. While the population of the 
State increased 5.5 per cent in the decade 1910— 
20, the number of farms increased 4.4 per cent 
(from 259,185 in 1910 to 270,626 in 1920) ; 
the acreage in farms decreased from 22,189,127 
to 21,612,772, or 2.6 per cent; and the improved 
land in farms decreased from 14,354,471 acres 
to 13,975,746. The total value of farm property 
showed an apparent increase, from $773,797,880 
in 1910 to $1,511,901,077 in 1920; the average 
value per farm from $2986 to $5587. In inter- 
preting these values, however, and indeed all 
comparative values in the decade 1914-24, the 
inflation of currency in the latter part of the 
period is to be taken into consideration; the in- 
dex number of prices paid to producers of farm 
products in the United States was 104 in 1910 
and 216 in 1920. The total percentage of land 
used for agricultural purposes decreased from 
86.3 per cent in 1910 to 84 per cent in 1920; 
the percentage of improved farm land from 55.8 
to 54.3 per cent. Of the 270,626 farms in 1920, 
179,327 were operated by owners, 969 by man- 
agers, and 90,330 by tenants. The correspond- 
ing figures for 1910 were 170,332,993, and 87,- 
860. White farmers in 1920 numbered 257,998, 
compared with 247.455 in 1910; colored farmers 
12,628, comnared with 11,730. There was a de- 
crease of 9.8 per cent in the colored population 
in the decade, which noticeably affected the farm 
labor situation. Farms free from mortgage in 
1920 numbered 116,613, and those under mort- 


KENTUCKY 


gage, 40,615. Unmortgaged farms in 1910 num- 
bered 135,505, and those under mortgage, 33,039. 
The total number of cattle in 1920 was 1,093,453, 
compared with 1,000,937 in 1910; dairy cattle, 
659,794, compared with 409,834; hogs, 1,504,431, 
compared with 1,491,816; sheep, 707,845, com- 
pared with 1,363,013. The estimated produc- 
tion of the principal farm crops in 1923 was as 
follows: corn, 95,168,000 bushels; wheat, 7,688,- 
000; oats, 4,921,000; barley, 161,000; potatoes, 
5,614,000; sweet potatoes, 2,142,000; tobacco, 
565,186,000 pounds; and hay, 1,154,000 tons. 
Comparative figures for 1913 are: corn, 74,- 
825,000 bushels; wheat, 9,860,000; oats, 3,168- 
000; potatoes, 2,450,000; hay, 674,000 tons; and 
tobacco, 281,200,000 pounds. 

Mining. Kentucky is an important  pro- 
ducer of minerals. It ranked eighth in the 
value of; these products in 1921. Its resources 
are limited almost entirely to nonmetallic min- 
erals, since there is practically no metal mining 
in the State; in the order of value they are 
coal, petroleum, clay products, and stone. The 
progress of the industry during the decade 
1914-24 is indicated by comparative figures. 
The coal production in 1914 was 20,382,763 net 
tons, valued at $20,852,463; 1915, 21,361,674, 
$21,494,008; 1916, 25,393,997, $30,193,047; 1917, 
27,807,971, $60,297,653; 1918, 31,612,617, $80,- 
666,642; 1920, 35,690,762, $146,576,000; 1921, 
31,588,270, $85,092,600; 1922, 2,134,175 short 
tons. The increased value of production in 
the latter years was largely due to the 
decreased purchasing power of money and 
the consequent higher prices received for 
commodities. The output of petroleum varied 
during the decade from 502,441 barrels in 1914 
to 437,274 barrels in 1915; 3,088,160 barrels in 
1917; 4,367,968 in 1918; 8,738,000 in 1920; 9,- 
012,600 in 1921, and 8,973,200 in 1922. In ad- 
dition to the minerals mentioned above, the 
State produces considerable quantities of natural 
gas, gasoline, sand and gravel, and stone. The 
total value of the mineral products in 1921 was 
$114,404,662, compared with $195,920,036 in 
1920; $110,305,840 in 1919; $104,165,945 in 
1918; and $26,668,474 in 1914. 

Manufactures. While Kentucky is not one 
of the chief manufacturing States, it has in- 
dustries of great importance. There are eight 
cities with more than 10,000 inhabitants, the 
combined population of which in 1919 was 17.9 
per cent of the total for the State. In 1919 
these cities reported 72.7 per cent of the value 
of the State’s manufactured products. In 1909 
there were in the State 4776 manufacturing es- 
tablishments; in 1914, 4184, and in 1919, 3957. 
Persons engaged in manufacture in those years 
numbered 79,060, 77,865, and 83,954. Capital 
invested amounted to $172,778,805, $193,423,- 
069, and $276,535,395. The large increase in 
the value of products in 1914-19 was due 
chiefly to the change in industrial conditions 
brought about by the War and therefore cannot 
properly be used to measure the growth of man- 
ufactures during the census period, 1914-19. 
Flour-mill and gristmill products are most im- 
portant in point of value, with $22,365,000 in 
1909; $21,229,000 in 1914, and $45,774,000 in 
1919. The lumber and timber products indus- 
try is second, amounting in 1909 to $21,381,- 
000; 1914, $20,667,000; 1919, $34,456,000. Car 
construction and repair ranks third, with pro- 
ducts, in 1909, worth $6,535,000; 1914, $13,- 
344,000; 1919, $30,598,000. Tobacco manufac- 


738 


KENTUCKY 


tures, in 1909, amounted to $15,598,000; 1914, 
$16,147,000; 1919, $24,129,000. The chief man- 
ufacturing cities in the State are Louisville, 
Covington, and Newport. There were in Louis- 
ville, in 1909, 903 establishments, with a product 
valued at $101,284,000; in 1914, 778, with $105,- 
223,000; in 1919, 767, with $204,566,000. In 
Covington, in 1909, there were 196, with $8,- 
712,000; in 1914, 161, with $8,265,000; and in 
1919, 1338, with $17,121,000. Newport had, in 
1909, 144 manufacturing establishments, with 
a product valued at $6,491,000; 1914, 100, $8,- 
306,000; 1919, 81, $16,935,000. 

Education. The educational problems of 
Kentucky are unusually difficult because of the 
isolation of many of its communities and the 
difficulty of administering to their needs through 
schools. Nevertheless, progress was made dur- 
ing the decade 1913-23. The Legislature en- 
acted, during this period, many important laws. 
In 1919 a measure created a survey commis- 
sion, providing for a State educational survey 
to be made by five persons. The services of ex- 
perts, under the employ of the General Educa- 
tion Board, were secured, and more than 18 
months were spent in making the survey, which 
greatly increased public sentiment for the im- 
provement of educational facilities. The Gen- 
eral Assembly in 1920 enacted many wise and 
progressive measures, among them laws increas- 
ing the salaries of teachers and county superin- 
tendents and providing means by which money 
should be provided, a compulsory education law 
compelling children between the ages of 7 and 
16 years to attend school; and a law providing 
for health education in schools. The most im- 
portant of all, however, was the county school 
administration law, creating a county board of 
education elected by the people and having the 
power to fix the rate of the school levy and to 
appoint a county superintendent. In 1918 the 
minimum salary for teachers was made $45 a 
month, and in 1920 this was increased to $75 
a month. There was steady growth in the de- 
velopment of high schools. In 1916 there were 
149 with an enrollment of 18,850; in 1921, 225 
with an enrollment of 25,939. The junior high 
school movement also made considerable prog- 
ress. Enrollment in the schools has steadily 
increased. The total enrollment in the schools 
in 1914 was 517,299; in 1922-23 it was approx- 
imately 590,000. Expenditures for schools in- 
creased from $8,318,640 in 1917-18 to $13,615,- 
133 in 1921. The percentage of illiterates de- 
creased from 14.5 in 1910 to 10.6 in 1920: 
among the native white population, from 12.8 
to 9.2; among the foreign-born whites, from 
8.2 to 7.5; among the Negroes, from 34.7 to 
26.4 per cent. 

Finance. See STATE FINANCES, 

Political and Other Events. The political 
control in Kentucky in the decade of 1914-24 
was, on the whole, Democratic, but the Republi- 
cans made gains in certain years and elected 
their candidates. In this year two United States 
Senators were elected, one to fill the unexpired 
term of Senator Bradley, deceased, and the 
other for the full term beginning Mar. 4, 1915. 
J. N. Camden was elected to fill out the term 
of Senator Bradley, while J. C. W. Beckham 
was elected for the full term. Both were Demo- 
crats. In 1915, when A. O. Stanley was elected 
governor, the Democrats retained all the offices 
except one. James P. Levine, Republican, was 
elected Secretary of State. In 1916 the Repub- 


a 


KENTUCKY 


licans made a strong effort to carry the State 
but were unsuccessful. In the presidential vot- 
ing of this year President Wilson received 269,- 
990 votes; Charles E. Hughes, 241,854. On 
Sept. 4, 1916, the Lincoln Memorial at Hodgens- 
ville, built over the log cabin birthplace of 
Abraham Lincoln, was formally presented to the 
nation by the Lincoln Farm Association; the 
speech of acceptance was delivered by President 
Wilson. On Nov. 5, 1917, the United States Su- 
preme Court declared unconstitutional a race 
segregation ordinance passe. by the city of 
Louisville in 1914. At the election held in 
November, 1917, Charles H. Morris was elected 
attorney general without opposition. In 1918 
elections were held for United States Senator, 
and Gov. A. O. Stanley was elected, defeating 
B. L. Bruner, the Republican candidate. In the 
elections for governor and other State officers in 
1919, the Republicans came into control and 
elected their candidate for governor, E. P. Mor- 
row. The Democrats nominated Gov. J. D. Black. 
Elections were held in 1920 for United States 
Senator, and in this the Republicans were again 
successful, electing their candidate, R. P. Ernst, 
who defeated J. C. W. Beckham, a candidate 
for reélection. In the presidential voting of this 
year, J. M. Cox received 456,497 votes; W. G. 
Harding, 452,480. In 1923 the Democrats re- 
gained power, electing as governor William J. 
Fields. 
Legislation. The Legislature of Kentucky 
meets biennially, in even years. In 1914 a 
resolution providing for woman suffrage was 
defeated. The Legislature of 1916 created a 
Workmen’s Compensation Board, and _ passed 
several important laws relating to the regula- 
tion of the liquor traffic. In 1917 a modern 
tax law was enacted. The Legislature in 1918 
ratified the Federal prohibition amendment and 
provided for a State bar examination. In 1919, 
State-wide prohibition was adopted. In 1920 
the child labor laws were amended, a State de- 
partment of roads and highways was created, 
a prohibition enforcement act was passed, a 
measure providing for the suppression of mob 
violence and the prevention of lynching «was 
enacted, the State school system was modernized, 
a Department of Charities and Correction was 
created, a provision was made for physical edu- 
eation and training in the public schools, the 
election laws were amended, and provisions 
were made for a State tuberculosis sanitorium. 
In 1922 a State codperative marketing act was 
passed. In 1924 the Legislature passed a law 
requiring daily readings from the Bible in the 
public schools, restored the forestry depart- 
ment, and created a State park commission. 
KENTUCKY, UNIvErsITy or. A_ coeduca- 
tional State institution at Lexington, Ky., 
founded in 1858. The enrollment increased 
from 1245 in 1914 to 1793 in 1923-24, faculty 
members from 75 to 165, and the library from 
30,000 to 54,118 volumes. During the same pe- 
riod the income increased from $400,000 to $1,- 
334,269. The courses in economics, sociology, 
botany, zodlogy, music, art, and agriculture were 
enlarged, courses in public health and hygiene 
were established, and a new College of Educa- 
tion created in 1923. The administration build- 
ing, Neville Hall, and White Hall were remod- 
eled during the decade; a men’s dormitory and 
a stock-judging pavilion were built, and work 
was begun on a large addition to the chemistry 
building and a gymnasium. A gift of 15,000 


739 


KENYA COLONY 


acres from the E, O. Mountain Fund in 1923 
provided opportunity for experiment in re- 
forestation, horticulture, farming, and _ stock- 
raising in the mountains of eastern Kentucky. 
Frank Le Rond McVey, Ph.D., LL.D., succeeded 
Henry Stites Barker, LL.D., as president in 
1917. 

KENYA COLONY AND PROCTECTOR- 
ATE. A British crown colony in Africa, for- 
merly known as the East Africa Protectorate, 
but after July, 1920, as the Kenya Colony. The 
protectorate is a strip of territory along the 
coastline 10 miles broad, leased from the Sultan 
of Zanzibar. The area is about 245,000 square 
miles; the population, in 1921, was estimated 
at 2,376,000, of whom 9651 were Europeans, 22,- 
822 Indians, and 10,102 Arabs. The largest 
city, Mombasa, had a population of 32,000 in 
1921; the capital, Nairobi, 24,000. Most of the 
highland area suitable for white settlers was 
preémpted by 1921. The land was being sown 
in maize and coffee in increasing quantities, 
while live-stock, breeding, dairying, etc., were 
coming in for more and more attention. The 
colony continued to prosper; imports and ex- 
ports increased steadily from 1914 on, except 
for a passing setback in 1919-20. In 1913-14, 
imports were valued at £2,147,937; in 1920-21, 
they were £6,911,858, but dropped to £2,871,240 
in 1922. In 1913-14 exports were £1,482,876, 
while in 1920-21 they were £5,060,920, and in 
1922, £2,780,998. Shipping, however, dropped 
from 3,565,795 tons entered and cleared in 1913- 
14 to 1,404,391 tons in 1920-21. Leading ex- 
ports were hides and skins, grain, copra, coffee, 
and fibre. In 1920-21, 51 per cent of the im- 
port value came from the United Kingdom, 26.4 
per cent from British possessions, 8.2 per cent 
from the United States; 58 per cent of the ex- 
port value went to the United Kingdom, 29 per 
cent to British possessions, 5 per cent to France, 
1.5 per cent to the United States. Revenues 
and expenditures mounted during the period 
after 1914. In 1913-14 revenues were £1,133,- 
798 and expenditures, £1,115,899; in 1922, £1.,- 
649,032 and £1,972,212; in 1923 (estimate), £1,- 
784,662 and £1,757,028. The State railway, by 
1922, had been increased to 618 miles. The an- 
nual railway surplus, beginning with 1920, was 
devoted to the railway construction fund. A 
new line from Nakuru to Turbo, 100 miles north 
of the main railway, was projected in 1919. In 
connection with the trade figures above, it should 
be noted that in 1917 Uganda (q.v.) and Kenya 
were united in a customs union. 

History. In 1920 this protectorate, for- 
merly known as the East Africa Protectorate, 
was changed to a crown colony with the name 
Kenya Colony and placed under the British 
Colonial Office. The year before, in July, 1919, 
a measure of self-government was granted the 
territory when Europeans were permitted to 
elect 11 members to the Legislative Council; In- 
dians were to be represented by two nominated 
members, and Arabs by one. The government 
maintained its ascendancy by reserving the right 
to nominate enough members of the council to 
assure its control. Kenya became the storm 
centre of a famous controversy, reverberations 
of which soon were to be heard all over the 
British Empire. From 1896 on, Indians had 
come to the country in increasing numbers in the 
roles of money lenders, traders, and artisans, 
so that after the War there were 22,822 of them 
to 9561 Europeans. The restrictions placed on 


KENYON 


them by the whites were onerous. In particular, 
Indians in Kenya objected to the reservation 
of the Highlands for Europeans; commercial 
and residential segregation in the towns; the 
limited franchise; and restrictions on Indian 
immigration. The Indian position derived 
strength from the significant resolution passed 
by the 1921 Imperial Conference, favoring 
citizenship for Indians in the Empire. The 


question was whether the Indians were to be | 


recognized as citizens of the Empire or as a 
subject race. With what seemed a good deal of 
casuistry, the Europeans maintained on _ their 
side that the colony was a trust ruled only in 
the interests of the native blacks and that there- 
fore the character of the ruling population did 
not matter much. Disagreement, continuing 
until 1923, became daily more bitter. A pro- 
gramme of 1923 which included a further ex- 
tension of the franchise for Indians, based on 
a white majority of seven to four, and the aban- 
donment of segregation and embargo on immigra- 
tion, pleased neither side. The danger of open 
violence now spurred the British government to 
action. A conference was called, and the Colo- 
nial Office decided to compromise by establish- 
ing the principle of an Imperial trusteeship, 
based on neither European nor Indian self-gov- 
ernment. The settlement, as finally effected, 
called for a communal franchise with five elected 
Indians and 11 Europeans, though with the 
official majority retained; the continuance of 
immigration regulations then in existence; the 
reservation of the Highlands for Europeans; the 
abolition of all segregation. Whether the plan 
pleased the Kenya Indians it was difficult to say, 
for they gave no sign; but the storm of dis- 
approval which it aroused in India was signifi- 
eant. No further action was taken, in view of 
the fact that the 1923 Imperial Conference 
promised a reopening of the Indian immigration 
question at the future Conference on crown 
colonies. 

KENYON, WiILLiAM Squire (1869- ie 
An American jurist (see Von. XIII). He was 
elected United States senator from Iowa in 1911 
and was successively reélected. He served until 
1921, when he resigned following his appoint- 
ment by President Harding as judge of the 
United States Circuit Court. While in the Sen- 
ate he was leader of the so-called “farm bloc” 
and was an aggressive supporter of progressive 
legislation. 

KENYON COLLEGE. An 
Gambier, Ohio, founded by Philander Chase, first 
bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 
Ohio, and incorporated in 1824. The corpora- 
tion maintains two schools, an undergraduate 
college for men and a divinity school known as 
Bexley Hall. At the college the student en- 
rollment increased from 136 in 1914 to 251 in 
1923, the faculty from 14 to 23, and the library 
from 27,000 to 30,000 volumes. In 1923 the 
divinity school had five professors, 18 students, 
and a library of 13,000 volumes. * The endow- 
ment was increased from $520,000 in 1914 to 
$1,400,000 in 1923; $600,000 was raised in 1921. 
Of the endowment $210;000 was specifically des- 
ignated for the work of the divinity school and 
$925,000 for the college proper. In 1923 a new 
college dormitory costing $200,000 was in proc- 
ess of construction. The completed building 
was to house 100 students and to be called 
Leonard Hall in honor of the bishop of Ohio. 
A central] heating plant was also in process of 


740 


institution at - 


KERR 


construction. President, the Rev. William F. 
Peirce, L.H.D.;.D.D.; LL.D! 

KERAK. See TRANSJORDANIA. 

KERENSKY, ALEXANDER (1881- ) 1A 
Russian Socialist politician, born at Simbirsk, 
and graduated in law from the University of 
Petrograd. He practiced law in Petrograd for 
some years. During the troubles in Turkestan 
he published a strong attack against the govern- 
ment of the affected districts. He was an im- 
passioned and forceful speaker and became a 
leader in the Fourth Duma in 1917, largely be- 
cause of this ability. After the overthrow of 
the Czar, Kerensky held many important posi- 
tions in the new Socialist government which 
was opposed to the radical element, later known 
as Bolsheviks. He was minister of justice in 
the Lvov ministry and later premier with the 
portfolio of minister of war. While holding the 
latter position he attempted to reorganize the 
Russian army and make it a potent factor again 
in the struggle against the Central Powers. 
He was hampered on every side by the activities 
of the Bolsheviks and disgruntled military 
leaders. In September, 1917, Kerensky was able 
to crush an abortive revolt led by General 
Kornilov, but by November 1, he was driven 
from power by the Bolsheviks under the leader- 
ship of Lenin and Trotsky. After his downfall 
he visited many of the capitals of Europe and 
carried on anti-Bolshevik propaganda. Keren- 
sky was the President of the ill-fated Russian 
Republic set up shortly after the revolution of 
March, 1917. See Russia, History. 

KERR, ALFRED (1867-— ). A German 
critic, born at Breslau. He edited the maga- 
zine Pan, and his published works include: 
Brentanos Jugenddichtungen (1894); Godwin, 
ein Kapitel Deutscher Romantik (1898); Herr 
Sudermann, a satire (1904); Schauspielkunst 
(1904); Davidsbiindler: das Neue Drama 
(1904) ; Die Harfe (1918); Die Welt im Drama 
(1918); and Die Welt im Lieht (1920). 

KERR, JAMES MANForD (1851- oe AD 
American legist, born near Tippecanoe City, 
Ohio, and educated at the National Normal Uni- 
versity, Lebanon, Ohio. He began to practice 
law in Ohio in 1877 and thereafter in many 
States and in the Federal courts. He edited 
several law periodicals, founded The American 
Law Journal, and became editor for the Bender- 
Moss Company and the Bancroft-Whitney Com- 
pany, law book publishers of San Francisco, Cal. 
His numerous writings include: Before and at 
Trial (1889); Business Corporations (1890) ; 
Cyclopedic California Civil Code, 2 vols. (1905) ; 
Cyclopedic California Penal Code (1906; 2nd 
ed., 1921); Cyclopedic Califorma Political Code 
(1906; 2nd ed., 1921); Cyclopedic California 
Code of Civil Procedure, 2 vols. (1907; 2nd ed. 
1921-22); Kerr’s Wharton on Criminal Law, 3 
vols. (1912); California Digest, 10 vols. (1915- 
17); Biennial Supplement (1917); Kerr’s 
Wharton’s Criminal Procedure, with Forms, 4 
vols. (1918); and Kerr’s Pleading and Prac- 
tice under the Procedural Codes, 2 vols. (1919). 

KERR, Sopuie (Mrs. Sopuie KERR UNDER- 
wood) (1880- ). An American novelist, 
born at Denton, Md. She was educated at 
Hood College, Frederick City, Md., and at the 
University of Vermont. She began to write 
stories at 18 years of age and did newspaper 
work in Pittsburgh, Pa., for a few years, and 
then came to New York City, where she was 
managing editor of the Woman’s Home Com- 


KEUTGEN yAt 


panion, She contributed stories to practically 
all the major magazines in the United States. 
Her novels include: Love at Large (1916); The 
Blue Envelope (1917); The Golden’ Block 
(1918); The See-Saw (1919); Painted Meadows 
(1920); and One Thing Is Certain (1922). 
The Blue Envelope and The Golden Block are 
stories of businesswomen, written in the natu- 
ral, straightforward style that distinguishes 
Sophie Kerr’s work as a whole 

KEUTGEN, Frieprich W. E. (1861- i" 
A German historian and professor of history at 
the university of Hamburg. He was born at 
Bremen and studied at Giessen, Gottingen, and 
Strassburg. He was lecturer at Johns Hopkins 
University in Baltimore in 1904-05, and organ- 
ived and became lecturer at the Kolonial In- 
stitut in Hamburg in 1910. He has written: 
Die Hansa in England im Vierzehnten Jahr- 
hundert (1890); Die Aufgabe der Genealogie 
(1899) ; Der Grosshandel im Mittelalter (1902) ; 
Handelsgeschichtliche Probleme (1904); Brit- 
ische Reichsprobleme und der Krieg (1914); 
Entstehung des Britischen Weltreichs (1915) ; 
Das Britische Kolonialreich (1916); and Der 
Deutsche Staat des Mittelalters (1918). 

KEY, PIERRE VAN RENSSELAER (1872- ye 
An American editor, born at Grand Haven, 
Mich., and educated privately and at the Chi- 
cago Musical College. For several years he was 
music critic on the staff of newspapers in Chi- 
cago, and from 1907 to 1919 he was music ed- 
itor of the New York World. In the latter year 
he founded and became editor of the Musical Di- 
gest. He contributed many articles on musical 
subjects to newspapers throughout the coun- 
try and wrote biographies of McCormack and 
Caruso. 

KEYES, FREDERICK GEORGE (1885- 2 
An American physical chemist, born at Kings- 
ton in Canada, and educated at Rhode Island 
College and Brown University. After teaching 
chemistry at Brown, he went to the Massachu- 
setts Institute of Technology as research associ- 
ate in physical chemistry in 1909. During 
1913-16 he was chief engineer of the Cooper 
Hewitt Electric Company and then returned to 
the Institute of Technology, where in 1919 he 
took the advanced rank of director. His own 
researches have included important papers on 
equilibrium measurements, gas and liquid phase, 
thermodynamic properties of ammonia, and low 
temperature in connection with the kinetic the- 
ory of development, which he has published in 
technical journals. During the War he was di- 
rector of the research and control laboratory of 
the Chemical Warfare Service at Puteaux. 

KEYNES, Jonn Maynard (1883- Ne 
An English economist and publicist. He was 
educated at Eton and Cambridge and then be- 
came a civil servant. From 1915 to 1919 he 
-was in the Treasury and acted ag its principal 
representative at the Paris Peace Conference, 
where his work gave him world-wide distinction. 
Among the first to protest against the rigorous 
provisions of the reparations clauses of the Ver- 
sailles Treaty, in season and out he castigated 
the attempt to shackle German industry. To- 
ward this end he wrote Economic Consequences 
of the Peace (1919) and A Revision of the 
Treaty (1922). A chapter of the former con- 
tained the now famous vitriolic attack on the 
visionary character of President Wilson’s pro- 
gramme. Other writings included A Treatise on 
Probability (1921) and Mon Foreign Ex- 


KILMER 


change (1923). He was fellow and bursar of 
King’s College at Cambridge, editor of The Hco- 
nomic Journal since 1912, chairman of the Na- 
tional Mutual Life Assurance Society, and chair- 
man of The Nation since 1923. His economic 
and financial articles appeared from time to 
time in the New York World and the New Re- 
public. 

KEYSER, CaAsstus JACKSON 
An American mathematician and_ philosopher 
(see VoL, XIII). His works published after 
1914 include The Human Worth of Rigorous 
Thinking (1916) and Mathematical Philosophy, 
a Study of Fate and Freedom (1922). 

KEYSERLING, HERMANN ALEXANDER, GRAF 
von (1880- ). A leading German social 
philosopher, born at Kénno in Livonia, His 
family came from the wealthy German-speak- 
ing nobility of Baltic Russia. After his educa- 
tion at the universities of Dorpat, Heidelberg, 
and Vienna, he took a trip around the world. 
He interested himself in natural science and in 
philosophy, and before the War he was known 
both as a student of geology and as a popular 
essayist. The Russian Revolution deprived him 
of his estate in the Baltic, and with the remains 
of his fortune he founded the Gesellschaft fiir 
Freie Philosophie (Society for Free Philosophy) 
at Darmstadt. The mission of this school was 
to bring abéut the intellectual reorientation 
of Germany. Although not a doctrinaire paci- 
fist, Keyserling believed that the old German 
policy of militarism was dead for all time and 
that Germany’s only hope lay in the adoption 
of international, democratic principles. His 
political and social writings include: Ewuropas 
Zukunft (1918); Deutschlands Wahre Politische 
Mission (1919); Was Uns Not Tut und Was 
Ich Will (1919);+ Peace or War EHverlasting 
(1920); and Politik, Wirtschaft, und Weisheit 
(1922). His more speculative writings include: 
Das Reisetagebuch einer “Philosoph (1919), 
Philosophie als Kunst (1920), and Weisheit 
und Sinn (1922). 

KIAOCHOW. See SHANTUNG; JAPAN, His- 
tory. 

KIDNEY DISEASE. See NEPuHRITIS. 

KILLIAN, Gustay (1860-1921). A Ger- 
man laryngologist, born in Mainz, and educated 
at the University of Freiburg-im-Breisgau. He 
made revolutionary advances in the diagnosis 
and treatment of affections of the infralaryngeal 
passages, especially in the diagnosis and _ re- 
moval of foreign bodies in the bronchial tubes, 
by means of his new art of bronchoscopic con- 
trol. His first college appointment was as as- 
sistant to Professor Hack of the chair of  oto- 
laryngology in Mainz. The sudden death of 
Hack led to his succession, by Killian, although 
he was not made professor at the time. His 
revolutionary activity in bronchoscopy gained 
him an appointment as professor of laryngology 
in the University of Berlin; this was the first 
»~rofessorship of such scope in Germany. Kil- 
lian introduced another innovation known as 
suspension laryngoscopy into the technic of his 
specialty. He wrote no monograph on _ the 
bronchoscope, and the omission has been sup- 
plied by his pupils. His book, Die Schwebe- 
laryngoscopie, appeared in 1920; in collabora- 
tion with Voss was written a volume on mil- 
itary experience, Gehérorgan, Obere Luft und 
Speisenginge (1921). A Festschrift volume was 
published in 1920. 

KILMER, Joyce 


(1862— }s 


(1886-1918). An Ameri- 


KIMBALL 


can journalist and poet, born in New Bruns- 
wick, N. J. Following his graduation from 
Rutgers College and studies at Columbia Uni- 
versity, he taught for a time and then entered 
newspaper work in New York City. He con- 
tributed to many newspapers and magazines on 
many subjects, but he was chiefly distinguished 
for his verse and was recognized as one of the 
most prominent of the younger American poets. 
At the outbreak of the War, he enlisted as a 
private in the 116th Infantry (69th New York), 
and in August, 1918, was killed in the course of 
the American advance which drove the Germans 
from the Marne salient. His books include 
Summer and Love (1911); Trees, and Other 
Poems (1915), and Main Street, and Other 
Poems (1915). 

KIMBALL, (SIDNEY) FISKE (1888— ys 
An American architectural author, born at 
Newton, Mass., and educated at Harvard Uni- 
versity and in Europe. He was assistant in 
Harvard and instructor at the University of II- 
linois from 1909 to 1913. In the latter year 
he was appointed instructor in architecture at 
the University of Michigan and was later as- 
sistant professor of architecture and assistant 
professor of fine arts there. In 1919 he became 
professor of art and architecture at the Univer- 
sity of Virginia. He wrote much on architec- 
tural subjects and in 1916 became an editor of 
Art and Archeology. He designed the McIntire 
Amphitheatre in West Virginia and many other 
buildings. He lectured at the Metropolitan 
Museum and the University of Chicago and was 
a member of many architectural and other so- 
cieties. His writings include Jefferson and the 
First Monument of the Classical Revival (1915) ; 
Thomas Jefferson, Architect (1916); A History 
of Architecture, with G. H. Edgell (1918); and 
Domestic Architecture of the American Colonies 
(1922). He also contributed to literary and art 
magazines, 

KINDERGARTEN ASSOCIATION, Na- 
TIONAL. The object of this organization is to 
provide kindergarten training for all the na- 
tion’s children. It was established in New 
York in 1909 at a time when statistics showed 
that only one child in nine received kinder- 
garten education and that 4,000,000 children 
were deprived of this privilege every year. The 
need was recognized for an organization to edu- 
cate boards of education as to the value of kin- 
dergarten training. From its beginnings the 
Association interested itself in securing legisla- 
tion requiring the organization of kindergartens 
on petition, and laws to this effect were secured 
in nine states: Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, 
Texas, Pennsylvania, Kansas, Wisconsin, [lli- 
nois, and Maine. Through its field representa- 
tives, the Association established 502 new kinder- 
gartens, located in 322 towns and training 209,- 
734 children; of this number 65 new kindergar- 
tens were organized in 1923. In 1913 the As- 
sociation assisted the United States Bureau of 
Education in conducting a Kindergarten Divi- 
sion, compiling important statistics of kinder- 
gartens, and completing a careful survey of 
schools for training kindergarten teachers, 
the results of which were published in bul- 
letins of the Bureau of Education. After 
1917 it codperated with the Bureau in pre- 
paring articles on home _ education which 
were sent to papers and magazines in this and 
many foreign countries. Its work was instru- 


mental in arousing an active interest in early 


742 


KIRCHWEY 


education among the members of important na- 
tional societies with a view to overcoming the 
existing indifference toward the extension of 
early training for children. The Association 
also codperated with branches of the Interna- 
tional Kindergarten Union, an_ organization 
made up of kindergarten teachers; in 1912 it 
affiliated with the National Kindergarten and 
Elementary College of Chicago. The movement 
was supported by voluntary gifts and expended 
about $15,000 annually. Headquarters were 
maintained in New York City. 

KING, (WILLIAM BENJAMIN) BASIL 
(1859— ). An American author (see VoL. 
XIII). His later books are The Side of the 
Angels (1916); The High Heart (1917); The 
Lifted Veil (1917); The City of Comrades 
(1919); The Abolishing of Death (1919); The 
Conquest of Fear (1921); The Discovery of 


God (1922); Dust Flower (1922); and The 
Happy Isles (1923). 
KINSMAN, FREDERICK JOSEPH (1868- ke 


An American clergyman, educated at St. Paul’s 
School at Concord, N. H., and at Keble College, 
Oxford. He was Protestant Episcopal bishop 
of Delaware from 1908 to 1919 but resigned to 
become a Roman Catholic and was appointed 
professor of modern church history in the 
Catholic University at Washington. He wrote: 
Principles of Anglicanism (1910); Prayers for 
the Dead (1914); Issues before the Church 
(1915); Outlines of the History of the Church 
(1916) ; Catholic and Protestant (1918); Salve 
Mater (1920). 

KIPLING, (JoseErpH) RupyarD (1865-— P. 
An English novelist and poet (see Vor. XIII). 
During the War he wrote much on subjects con- 
nected with the British army and nation. He 
wrote New Armies in Training (1914); Sea 
Warfare (1916); A Diversity of Creatures 
(1917); The Years Between (1918); Inclusive 
Verse (1919); and Letters of Travel (1920). 
His only son, Joseph Lockwood Kipling, was 
killed in the War. 

KIRCHEISEN, Frieprich Max (1877-— V3 
A German historian, born at Chemnitz. He 
studied history and internationa law at 
the Universities of Leipzig and Paris and 
specialized in the Napoleonic era. He also’ 
distinguished himself by his geographical and 
literary researches. His writings include a 
bibliography on Napoleon which was published 
in German, English and French (1902); Die 
Schriften von und iiber Friedrich von Gentz 
(1906); Napoleon: Auswahl aus Seinen Aus- 
spriichen (1907); Hat Napoleon Gelebt? (1910) ; 
Napoleon, Sein Leben und Seine Zeit (1914); 
Napoleon im Lande der Pyramiden (1918); Aus- 
wahl aus J. J. Rousseaus Briefen (1908) ; 
Memoiren aus dem Spanischen Freiheitskampfe 
(1908); Arndt, Erinnerungen (1908); Gedichte 
(1913); Der Vélkerring (1915-17); and Die 
Schlacht an der Marne (1915). 

KIRCHWEY, GEORGE WASHINGTON 
(1855- ). An American legal scholar (see 
Vou. XIII). In 1915-16 he served as warden 
of Sing Sing Prison and from 1917 was head of 
the Department of Criminology of the New York 
School of Social Work. He resigned as Kent 
Professor of Law at Columbia in 1916. He 
served on various committees investigating 
prisons and in 1918-19 was director of the 
United States Employment Service. In 1917 he 
was president of the American Peace Society, 
as well as president of the American Institute 


KIRGHIZ 


of Criminal Law and Criminology in the same 
ear, 

KIRGHIZ AUTONOMOUS SOCIALIST 
SOVIET REPUBLIC. See SIBERIA AND THE 
FAR EASTERN REPUBLIC. 

KITCHENER, Horatio HERBERT, first KARL 
oF (“KOUTCHENER OF KHARTUM’) (1850-1916). 
A famous British soldier and administrator (see 
Vou. XIII). When England: entered the War, 
Kitchener was at home on leave from Egypt and 
was appointed Secretary of State for War. He 
built up a great army of over 2,000,000 men. 
Hiaving undertaken to help in the arming of 
Russian forces, he sailed from Scapa Flow, 
on June 5, 1916, to consult with the Czar. His 
ship struck a mine off the Orkneys, and he and 
most of his staff were drowned. 

KITTREDGE, Georce Lyman (1860- ). 
An American philologist (see Vor. XIII). He 
has been professor at Harvard for many years 
and is a very prolific author. His later works 
include: Chaucer and His Poetry (1915), Ga- 
wain and the Green Knight (1916), Shakespeare 
(1916), Concise English Grammar, with F. E. 
Farley (1918), and Dr. Robert Child, the Re- 
monstrant (1919). 

KLAGENFURT BASIN. This region on 
the southern boundary of the Austrian Republic 
in the basin of the Drave, with an area about 
1200 square miles, was one of the districts most 
stubbornly contested in the making of the peace. 
Although the whole region is a political and 
economic unit, since the valley of the Drave, 
enclosed by highlands, here widens out into a 
long corridor, its disposition nevertheless pre- 
sented a peculiar problem, for the northern side 
of the valley was peopled by German Austrians 
and the southern by Slovenes. Its total popu- 
lation was about 150,000, the majority Slovenes 
but of no pronounced Slavophil sympathies; 
Klagenfurt, the town, had 28,958 inhabitants 
(1910), 25,582 of whom were Germans. The 
failure of the Austrian armistice terms to 
fix an occupation line for the province of Car- 
inthia, and the desire of the Jugo-Slavs to 
push their boundaries as far north as possible, 
made this region the scene of turmoil and blood- 
shed for more than six months after the actual 
close of war. Sporadic fighting went on up 
to April, 1919, and then, in ¢he following month, 
strong bands of irregular Jugo-Slav_ troops, 
strengthened by Serb detachments, pushed into 
the Basin, seized large stores of war materials, 
and occupied at least two-thirds of the area as 
well as the town of Klagenfurt. This turn of 
affairs compelled the Peace Conference to take 
action. On May 31 the cessation of hostilities 
and evacuation were ordered, and though an 
armistice was signed a week later, the state of 
war continued, with the Jugo-Slavs in actual 
possession. Because of the bitterness which had 
been aroused on both sides by this time, no solu- 
tion but the holding of a plebiscite could pre- 
sent itself to the Peace Conference. Article 50 
of the Treaty of St. Germain of Sept. 10, 1919, 
therefore made provision for the dividing of 
the basin into two zones, A and B. In the south- 
ern and larger zone (A), a plebiscite was to be 
held first, and the disposition of the whole region 
was then to be thus determined by the vote in 
this zone: in the event of a favorable Jugo-Slav 
vote, A was to go to Jugo-Slavia and a plebiscite 
was to be held in B; in the event of a favorable 
Austrian vote the whole was to go to Austria 
without further action. An inter-Allied com- 


743 


KNIGHTS OF COLUMBUS 


mission took charge of Zone A on July 21, 1920, 
and on Oct. 10, 1920, the voting took place. In 
spite of the fears entertained by Austrians for 
the loss of the district because of the predomi- 
nantly Slovene population, about 70 per cent, 
and the fact that Jugo-Slavs had administered 
the zone from September, 1919, the vote was 
in favor of Austria; 22,025 ballots were cast 
for the Republic and 15,279 for Jugo-Slavia. 
The Basin, therefore, reverted to Austria. The 
considerations determining the result were prob- 
ably the slight cultural affinity between the 
Slovenes of the region and their fellows to the 
South, distaste for military service in the Jugo- 
Slav army, and more important, the economic 
factor. Klagenfurt, in Zone B, was the market 
and railway outlet of the whole Basin, and 
with its market cut off by boundary lines the 
natives would have been compelled to~ ship 
their produce to Laibach, a distance of 60 miles 
across the Karavanke mountains. 

KLIMKE, Frieprico A. (1878- ).) An 
Austrian Jesuit. He was born at Golleow and 
studied classical philology at the university of 
Cracow. He became professor of philosophy 
and of the history of philosophy at the Uni- 
versities of Cracow and Innsbruck and was later 
called to the Gregorian University in Rome. 
His writings include: Der Deutsche Materialis- 
musstreit im Neunzehnten Jahrhundert (1907) ; 
Der Mensch (1908); Hauptprobe der Weltan- 
schauung (1910); Der Monismus und Seine 
Philosophischen Grundlagen (1911); Monistische 
Einheitsbestrebungen in der Katholischen Welt- 
anschauung (1912); Monismus und Pédagogik 
(1918); Unsere Sehnsucht (1922). Some of 
his works were published simultaneously in Ger- 


‘man and Polish. 


‘ KLOTZ, OTTo JvuLius (1852- eae: 
Canadian civil engineer and astronomer (see 
Vout. XIII). He was chairman of the National 
Committee of Canada of the International 
Astronomical Union in 1920, president of the 
American Seismological Society during 1920-21, 
and delegate for Canada at Rome at the Inter- 
national Astronomers’ Union in 1922. 

KLUCK, ALEXANDER von (1846- yay A 
German general (see Vou. XIII). He. led the 
campaign of the Marne in 1914, was wounded in 
1915, and retired in the following year. Gen- 
rral von Kluck wrote of his participation in 
the War in the volume entitled Fiihrung und 
Taten der Erste Armee (1920). 

KNAPP, Braprorp (1870- ). An Ameri- 
can agricultural educator, born at Vinton, Iowa, 
and educated at Vanderbilt University and in 
law at the University of Michigan. For several 
years he practiced law in Iowa and until 1911 
was engaged in codperative demonstration work 
for the Bureau of Plant Industry. In 1911 he 
was appointed special agent in this bureau and 
from 1915 to 1920 was chief of the Office of 
Extension Work in the South for the States Re- 
lations Service of the United States Department 
of Agriculture. In 1920 he became dean of the 
College of Agriculture of the University of Ar- 
kansas and director of the State Experiment 
Station. Professor Knapp wrote Safe Farming, 
How the Whole Country Demonstrated, and 
publications for the United States Department 
of Agriculture. 

KNEISEL QUARTET. See 
Chamber Music. 

KNIGHTS OF COLUMBUS. A _ Roman 
Catholic fraternal and_ benevolent society 


Music, 


KNIT GOODS 


founded in 1882. On Jan. 1, 1924, there were 
2368 subordinate branches of the society, with 
229.333 insured and 542,622 associate members. 
During the War this organization was active 
in work among the men in the army, navy, and 
marine forces of the United States. In 1918, 
150 Knights of Columbus buildings were opened 
in camps in the United States and 45 huts in 
France. The buildings were equipped with 
chapels, libraries, writing desks, lounges, fire- 
places, player pianos, phonographs, billiard 
tables, games, many kinds of stage apparatus, 
moving-picture machines, and other things neces- 
sary for the comfort of service men. There were 
350 secretaries and 100 chaplains in charge of 
the work in the United States and 175 secre- 
taries and 40 chaplains overseas. Cigarettes, 
cigars, smoking tobacco, pipes, chewing gum, 
razors, shaving cream, shaving brushes, tooth 
paste, tooth brushes, and many other articles 
were distributed by the Knights of Columbus 
free to enlisted men. 

After the Armistice the organization opened 
technical schools in the larger camps, extending 
free instruction to those in the service. In 
1919, 20,000 officers and men were receiving in- 
struction in law, commercial science, technical 
subjects and modern languages. The following 
year the schools were extended to the larger 
cities of the country until 150 schools were in 
operation with an enrollment of 99,310 in 80 
different courses. Correspondence course in- 
struction was extended to ex-service men not 
able to attend the evening schools in the 
larger cities. In January, 1924, there were 
25,000 students actively enrolled and submitting 
lessons for correction. In 1919, 411 college 


scholarships were awarded to men who rendered © 


service with the army, navy, and marines during 
the War. Employment centres were opened 
during the demobilization period in all large 
cities throughout the country, and positions were 
found for 175,000 ex-soldiers. $38,000,000 was 
spent by the Knights of Columbus for educa- 
tional and welfare activities for men in the 
army, navy, and marine forces of the United 
States during the War. In 1921 the Supreme 
Council voted to establish an endowment fund 
of $1,000,000 to finance welfare work in Italy, 
undertaken at the request of the late Pope Bene- 
dict XV, and in 1924 it established three large 
and completely equipped playgrounds in Rome. 
A papal medal was struck to commemorate the 
occasion. 

KNIT GOODS. See TExTILE MANUFACTUR- 
ING. 

KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE (1853-1921). 
An American lawyer and statesman (see Vout. 
XIII). He was reélected to the Senate in 1916 
for the term ending 1923. He took a prominent 
part in debates on the Versailles Treaty and 
the Covenant of the League of Nations and was 
the author of the Knox Resolutions, which pro- 
posed the repeal of the joint resolution of Apr. 
6, 1917, declaring the existence of a state of 
war with Germany, and in its place the declara- 
tion that the state of war was at an end, on the 
condition that the United States should have 
possession of the property of the German gov- 
ernment in the United States, and of its sub- 
jects, until a treaty should be ratified. This 
resolution was defeated. Senator Knox was one 
of the chief opponents of the treaty in the Sen- 
ate. He died Oct. 12, 1921. 

KNOX COLLEGE. A coeducational institu- 


744 


KOLCHAK 


tion at Galesburg, Ill., founded in 1837. The 
student enrollment increased from 340 in 1913- 
14 to 580 in 1923-24, the faculty was increased 
from 26 to 48 members, and the library from 
10,000 to 26,413 volumes. .The productive funds 
were increased correspondingly from $402,601 
to $1,426,139 and the yearly income from $53,- 
851 to $180,318. Seymour Hl], a men’s dormi- 
tory, union, and commons, costing $150,000, 
was erected in 1921. The college adopted a 
policy of owning all fraternity houses, which 
are leased for a long term to the fraternities; 
two new fraternity houses were built, and an- 
other was to be begun in 1924; three large resi- 
dences were made over for fraternity purposes. 
President, James L. McConaughy, Ph.D. 

KOEHLER, Wotrcane (1887—. ). A 
German psychologist, born at Reval in Esthonia, 
and educated at the Universities of Tiibingen, 
Bonn, and Berlin. After teaching in German 
schools, he found himself during the War at an 
anthropoid research station in German South 
Africa. There he conducted investigations on 
the perceptive capacities of chimpanzees and 
apes. After the War he was professor at the 
University of Berlin. On leave of absence in 
1924, he lectured at Clark University. . His re- 
searches in animal psychology led Koehler to 
become one of the leaders of the new school of 
German psychology known as the Gestaltpsy- 
chologie or psychology of forms. His published 
work comprises, in addition to a number of 
monographs, a remarkable volume on Die Phy- 
sischen Gestalten in Ruhe und im. Stationdiren 
Zustand (1920). 

KOESTER, FRANK (1876- ). An Ameri- 
can engineer, born at Sterkrade, Germany. He 
received a thorough training in his profession 
in Germany and then came to the United States 
in 1902. His first engagement was with the 
New York Subway Construction Company, after 
which he served as engineer with the Guggen- 
heimer Exploration Company, the American 
Smelting and Refining Company, and similar 
corporations. In 1911 he entered consulting 
practice in New York City and was lighting ex- 
pert for Allentown, Scranton, and other cities 
in Pennsylvania. Besides patenting numerous 
improvements in plant engineering, he has writ- 
ten many articles for technical journals on his 
specialties and is the author of Steam Electric 
Power Plants (1908), Hydroelectric Develop- 
ments and Engineering (1909), Electricity for 
the Farm and Home (1913), The Price of Inef- 
ficiency (1913), Modern Oity Planning and Main- 
tenance (1914), and Secrets of German Prog- 
ress (1915). 

KOFFKA, Kurr (1886- ). A German 
psychologist, born at Berlin, and educated at 
the University of Berlin and at Edinburgh. He 
became professor of psychology at the University 
of Giessen and founded the periodical, Psycholo- 
gische Forschung, with a new orientation for 
experimental psychology. His published writ- 
ings include: Haperimentaluntersuchungen zur 
Lehre vom Rhythmus (1908); Ueber Vorstel- 
lungen (1911); Zur Analyse der Vorstellun- 
gen und Ihrer Gesetze (1912); Beitrige zur 
Psychologie der Gestalt (1919); and Die 
Grundlagen der  Psychischen Entwicklung 
(1921). 

KOLCHAK, VLApiImMIR VASILIEVITCH 1874- 
1920). A Russian admiral and_ soldier. He 
entered the navy in 1891 and was commissioned 
an officer in 1894. During the Russo-Japanese 


KONTI 


War, he greatly distinguished himself in the 
defense of Port Arthur and for this received 
many decorations. From 1906 to 1916 he was 
on the general staff of the navy and took an 
active part in the organization of that branch 
of the service. During the War he displayed 
distinguished military gifts, and his personal 
gallantry won him a series of awards ‘and 
promotions. He became rear-admiral in 1916. 
He was given an independent command in the 
Baltic and was promoted to be vice-admiral and 
commander of the Black Sea Fleet. Following 
the Revolution in 1917, he became an anti- 
Bolshevist leader, and his brilliant successes 
at first rapidly gained him virtual leadership. 
In 1919, however, he gradually lost ground, and 
at the end of that year, following brief successes, 
he was obliged to retire across the Irtish River, 
where he lost his.guns and supplies. He with- 
drew with his forces to Vladivostok, where, in 
January, 1920, an anti-Kolchak revolution broke 
out. On June 24, he surrendered to the revolu- 
tionary forces at Irkutsk and was executed. 
See RusstA, History; SIBERIA, History. 
KONTI, Istmpore (1862- ). An Ameri- 
can sculptor (see Vou. XIII). Among his later 
works, in his refined and decorative manner, 
were a fountain in Audubon Park in New Or- 
leans, the memorial to Bishop Potter in St. 
John’s Cathedral, New York City, and an ideal 
work in bronze, “The Genius of Immortality,” in 
the Metropolitan Museum, New York City. 
KOREA, or CuHosen. A_ dependency of 
Japan, occupying the peninsula on the main- 
land of Asia opposite the main island of Hondo. 
Area, 85,228 square miles, 82,926 being on the 
mainland and 2302 in neighboring islands. In 
1921 the native population was 17,059,358 (13,- 


947,474 agricultural); the Japanese popula- 
tion, 367,618. The principal cities were Seoul, 
261,698 (188,648 Korean, 69,774 Japanese) ; 


Pyongajang, 78,621 (60,086 Korean, 17,731 Japa- 
nese); Fusan, 76,126 (41,902 Korean, 33,979 
Japanese); Taiku, 46,043 (33,213 Korean, 12,- 
515 Japanese) ; Chemulpo, 39,999 (26,516 Kor- 
ean, 12,095 Japanese); Kaisong, 37,592 (36,242 
Korean, 1201 Japanese); Gensan, 29,768 (21,- 
532 Korean, 7620 Japanese) ; Chinanpo, 22,667 
(17,116 Korean, 5026 Japanese). 

Agriculture. Rice was the principal agri- 
cultural product; 76,018.392 bushels were pro- 
duced in 1918, 14,880,000 of which were ex- 
ported to Japan, the balance being consumed 
locally. In 1913, 60,327,321 bushels were pro- 
duced. Other products were: barley, 28,556 547 
bushels in 1918 and 25,973,281 in 1913; millet, 
28,103,169 in 1918 and 22,709,374 in 1913; soya 
beans, 24,159,530 in 1918 and 17,880,317 in 1913; 
wheat, 6,848,647 in 1918 and 6,306,958 in 1913; 
silk (exported), 2,073,601 pounds in 1918 and 
187,695 in 1913; ginseng, 266,093 pounds in 1918 
and 185,319 in 19138, with an export of some 
103,008 pounds to China in 1918; American up- 
land cotton production, for 1921, 90,476,000 
pounds, and 17,785,414 in 1913; native cotton, 
36.784,000 pounds in 1921 and 34,437 462 in 
1913; tobacco, 32,104,000 pounds in 1918 and 
31,348,000 in 1913. Live stock resources were: 
cattle, 1,480,037 (40627 cattle exported to 
Japan, Siberia, and China as well as 2,838 000 
cowhides) in 1918 and 1,211,011 cattle in 1913; 
58217 horses (1913: 50,652); 12,172 asses 
(1913:° 13,225) 3 2211 mules (1913: 802) ; > 923,- 
979 swine (1913: 761,186) ; 16,650 goats (1913: 
10,456); 4,913,322 fowl (1913: 4,194,335). 


745 


KOREA 


Horticulture: 1,139,392 pear trees (yield 13,605,- 
121 pounds of pears; 1913: 580,236 trees and 
2,296,420 pounds); 1,420,871 apple trees (yield 
14,481,726 pounds of apples; 1913: 680,144 trees 
and 2,930,748 pounds); 348,099 grapevines 
(yield 2,017,403 pounds of grapes; 1913: 243,169 
and 838,598 pounds) ; 5,251,124 chestnut trees 
(yield 31,412,832 pounds of chestnuts; 1913: 
1,581,270 and 33,431,116 pounds). The Oriental 
Development Company, a Japanese land coloniza- 
tion company, accepted 7035 Japanese families’ 
applications for settlement from 1910 to 1918; 
of these, 3457 were successful, with 15,555 mem- 
ih) of their families settled on 17,741 acres of 
and. 

Mining. 1918 productions were: 135,000 
ounces gold (1913: 145,000 ounces) ; 16,000 
ounces placer gold (1913: 28,000 ounces); 66,- 
448,000 pounds gold and silver ore (1913: 11,- 
342,000 pounds); 43,000 ounces silver (1913: 
24,000 ounces); 578,000 pounds coarse lead; 
2,828,000 pounds zine ore; 635,000 pounds tungs- 
ten ore; 199,000 tons iron ore (1913: 142,000 
tons), 94,888,000 pounds pig iron; 15,523,000 
pounds graphite (1913: 27,120,000 pounds) ; 
188,000 tons coal (1913: 128,000 tons); 102,- 
396,141. pounds salt (1913: 56,201,622 pounds). 

Forestry. From 1907 to 1918, 25,618 acres 
had been planted with 21,198,000 trees by State 
and local governments; 240,443 acres were leased 
out for afforestation in 1918. 

Fisheries. The total value of the catch in 
1918 was $16,431,701, as against $5,528,142 in 
1913. The 1918 catch consisted of 198,703,000 
pounds of pollack; 147,342 pounds of sardines; 
68,116,000 pounds of mackerel; 68,544,000 
pounds of cod; 41,176,000 pounds of herring; 
39,808,000 pounds of guchi; 24,721,000 pounds 
of lobster, and lesser amounts of other fish. 

Manufacturing. In 1918 there were 1700 
factories, employing 5 people each or more, us- 
ing 26,151 horse power in all, and producing 
products valued at $78,400,815. Of these, 736 
were owned and operated by Japanese and 605 
by Koreans. They included 297 for rice clean- 
ing, 182 for ceramics, 163 for metal ware, 117 
for brewing, and 83 for dyeing and weaving. 
The value of products of those owned by Japa- 
nese was $42,200,792; by Koreans, $4,181,876. 
In 1913 there were only 532 factories, of the 
same class, using 9908 horse power and with a 
production of $18,033,086. 

Foreign Trade. 1921 imports amounted to 
$109,138,000, consisting principally of cotton 
gray sheeting ($15,868,000), coal, lumber, ma- 
chinery, cotton fabrics, Chinese hemp fabrics, 
petroleum, sugar, and cotton yarn. 1914 im- 
ports were $31,615,000, consisting of gray 
sheeting, $2,940,000; rice, $1,362,000; cotton 
yarn, $1,035,000; cotton fabrics, $994,000; white 
sheeting, $878,000; coal, timber, paper, flour, 
sugar, machinery, and petroleum. Similarly, 
1921 exports amounted to $116,190,000, con- 
sisting principally of rice, $46,406,000; beans, 
$11,433,500; raw silk, including tussah silk, $6,- 
522,500; iron and steel, $4,411,000; fish, ginseng, 
fertilizer, cotton, gold, cow hides, cattle, paper 
and pulp. In 1914, exports were $17,194,000, 
consisting of rice, $12,258,000, and beans, peas, 
cowhides, ginseng, cotton, and leather manufac- 
tures. 


Budget and Finance. Total expenditures 


and revenues for 1923-24 were $72,845,000 
(1913-14: $31,546,744); total debt in March 
1922, was $92,663,000 (1916: $36,801,000). 


KORNILOV 


Twenty-one ordinary banks were in operation, 
with $7,475,000 paid-up capital, in 1921, in ad- 
dition to the Bank of Chosen, with $25,000,000 
capital, and the Provincial Hypothee Bank, with 
$7,500,000 capital. Bank-notes of the Bank of 
Chosen outstanding in September, 1921, totaled 
$55,443,500. Total currency in circulation was 
$62,978,832. By contrast, there were 15 ordi- 
nary banks with $1,800,000 paid-up capital in 
1915, in addition to the Bank of Chosen with 
$5,000,000 and six Provincial Hypothee Banks 
with $739,000 capital. Bank-notes of the Bank 
of Chosen totaled $12,343,000 in 1915, which was 
the total currency. 

History. Under Japanese administration 
the province progressed materially. Bare hill- 
sides were afforested, agriculture received the 
benefit of scientific supervision, and railways 
were built. Advances were startling in every 
line of economic activity. But the absolute 
character of the Japanese authority, the domi- 
nanee by the military, the refusal to heed the 
demands for a larger measure of popular gov- 
ernment, all contributed to a feeling of resent- 
ment which the democratic doctrines of the 
War finally fanned into open hostility. Through- 
out 1919 there were everywhere marked evi- 
dences of unrest; means of communication were 
eut; cities were the scenes of mob violence; pub- 
lie officials were attacked and some even killed. 
The Japanese, on the other hand, retaliated by 
increasing their garrisons and by employing 
repressive measures. By April the riots had 
taken on so much of the character of actual re- 
bellion that the Japanese privy council was 
spurred into action. A programme of reform in- 
troduced during the year included the extension 
of civil government at the expense of the mili- 
tary and responsibility of the governor to the 
Japanese Ministry. Korea was made an in- 
tegral part of the Japanese Empire, and Koreans 
were put on the same footing as Japanese, 
nominally at least. Members of the former 
Korean dynasty and cabinet received Japanese 
patents of nobility. A little later, in 1920, the 
Korean tariff was assimilated to that of Japan. 
Meanwhile a revolutionary party, through a 
committee at Shanghai, promulgated a repub- 
lican constitution for the “Provisional Govern- 
ment of the Korean Republic.” An attempt was 
made to interest Soviet Russia in the struggle 
of the Koreans for independence, while natives 
and friends of Korea in other countries, espe- 
cially in the United States, endeavored to show 
sympathy for Korean aspirations by giving pub- 
licity to numerous acts of oppression, violations 
of the rights of pro-Korean missionaries, sum- 
mary executions of Korean patriots, etc., alleged 
to have been committed by the Japanese in 
Korea. Baron Saito, the new governor, ex- 
pressed the hope that ultimately Koreans would 
receive all those civil and constitutional liber- 
ties which Japanese possessed, but the tenuous 
character of the promise hardly served to as- 
sure the natives. Disorders were thus sporadic 
during 1920, while the military authorities de- 
ported themselves with a marked severity. By 
1924 none of the political or educational hopes 
of the Koreans had yet been realized. 

KORNILOV, LAvr GEoRGIEVITCH (1870- 
1918). A Russian general. He entered the 
army in 1888 and took part with distinction in 
the Russo-Japanese War. He served from 1907 
to 1911 as Russian military agent in China and 
later had various commands in Siberia. At the 


746 KRALIK 


beginning of the War he commanded a division 
of Brussilov’s army with great success. He was 
captured during the Russian retreat in 1915 but 
effected his escape and reached Rumania. Re- 
turning to Russia, he commanded the 25th 
Army Corps. At the outbreak of the Russian 
Revolution in March, 1917, he became com- 
mander-in-chief of the troops in Petrograd but 
resigned his command on account of lack of 
discipline in the army and was assigned to the 
8th Army. On August 1 he succeeded Brussilov 
as commander-in-chief and at once took strong 
measures for the restoration of discipline. In 
September, 1917, he demanded full military and 
civil power from Kerensky. He was thereupon 
dismissed and marched with his troops on Petro- 
grad. The movement collapsed and on Septem- 
ber 15 he surrendered. He escaped to the Cau- 
casus, where he gathered a volunteer force of 
Cossacks, and was killed in March, 1918. See 
RusstA, History. 

KOSTER, Apotr (1883- ). A German 
writer, born at Verden, and educated at the 
Universities of Halle, Marburg, Heidelberg, and 
Zurich. He was lecturer at the University of 
Munich, traveled in England, America, Asia and 
Africa, and during the War was correspondent 
for Social-Democratic papers. During the presi- 
dency of Wirth he was Minister of the Interior. 
He has written Die Ethik Pascals (1906); Der 
Junge Kant (1913); Die Zehn Schornsteine 
(1909); Die Bange Nacht (1913); Der Tod in 
Flandern (1915); Brennendes Blut (1916); and 
Der Kampf um Schleswig (1920). 

KOWEIT. See ARABIA, 

KRAEMER, HENRY (1868- y 2 An 
American pharmacist, born at Philadelphia, Pa., 
educated at the Philadelphia College of Phar- 
macy and Columbia and Marburg Universities. 
He was instructor at the New York College of 
Pharmacy and during 1895-97 professor of 
botany at Northwestern University. In 1897 he 
accepted the chair of botany and pharmacognosy 
at the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy and 
became also director of the microscopical labora- 
tory. These places he held until 1917, when he 
accepted a similar chair at Michigan, where he 
served also as dean. In 1920 he became direc- 
tor of the Kraemer Scientific Laboratory. He 
was editor of the American Journal of Phar- 
macy, 1898-1917, and in 1900 became a mem- 
ber of the committee of revision of the United 
States Pharmacopeia. He is the author of A 
Textbook of Botany and Pharmacognosy (1902), 
Applied and Economic Botany (1914), and 
Scientific and Applied Pharmacognosy (1915). 

KRAFT, ZpDENKO von_~ (1886— a An 
Austrian writer, born at Gitschin, and privately 
educated with special attention to drama and 
music. His works include: Adagio Consolante 
(1910); Der Osterprinz, ein Sonniges Leben 
(1914); Die Stimme von Helgoland (1916) ; 
Sonnenwend des Gliicks (1917); Wikings Letzte 
Fahrt (1917); Maria Theresa (1918); Missa 
Solemnis (1920); and a trilogy of novels on 
the life of Wagner, Barrikaden (1920). Liebestod 
(1921), and Wahnfried (1922). 

KRALIK, RIcHARD VON MEYERSWALDE 
(1852). An Austrian writer, born at Eleonoren- 
heim in Bohemia and educated at the universi- 
ties of Vienna, Bonn, and Berlin. He’ is the 
author of many works, which include: Mazi- 
milian, a drama (1885); Deutsche Puppen- 
spiele (1885); Spriche und Gesdnge (1892); 
Kraka, a comedy (1893); Kaiser Marcus Au- 


KRAMER . 


relius in Wien, a drama (1897); Veronica, a 
drama (1898); Rolands Tod (1898) ; Altgriechx 
ische Musik (1900); Angelus Silesius (1902) ; 
Die Deutschen Klassiker und der Katholizis- 
mus (1903); Weltgeschichte und Menschenalter 
(1903); Das Veilchenfest (1905); Die Grals- 
sage (1907) ; Die Revolution (1908) ; Die Katho- 
lische Literaturbewegung der Gegenwart (1909) ; 
Homeros (1910); Geschichte von Wien (1911); 
Geschichte der Neuesten Zeit (1914-20); Die 
Neue Staatenordnung (1918); and Grundriss 
und Kern der Weltgeschichte (1920). 

KRAMER, A. WALTER (1890- ). An 
American composer, born in New York City, 
Sept. 23, 1890. He studied violin with C. 
Hauser and R. Arnold, but in composition he 
is practically self-taught. In 1910 he joined 
the staff of Musical America, leaving in 1922 to 
go abroad. He has contributed to other period- 
icals. His compositions include a symphonic 
poem, The Tragedy of Nan; four Sketches for 
orchestra; a Rhapsody for violin and orchestra; 
a suite for string orchestras; The Hour of 
Prayer for baritone, chorus, and orchestra; a 
string quartet; compositions for organ and for 
piano; and songs. . 

KRAPP, GEoRGE PHILIP (1872- ). An 
American educator, born at Cincinnati, Ohio, and 
educated at Wittenberg College and at Johns 
Hopkins University. He served for several years 
as an instructor of English at the Horace Mann 
School and in Teachers’ College. In 1907 he 
was adjunct professor of English at Columbia 
and from 1908 to 1910 was a professor at the 
University of Cincinnati. In the latter year he 
was appointed professor of English at Columbia. 
He was a member of many learned societies and 
author of The Elements of English Grammar 
(1908); In Oldest England (1912); Pronuncia- 
tion of Standard English in America (1919) ; 
and Tales of True Knights (1920). 

KRAUS, CHARLES AUGUST (1875- Me 
An American physical chemist, born at Knights- 
ville, Ind., and educated at the University of 
Kansas, Johns Hopkins University, and the 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where 
he was a research associate in physical chem- 
istry during 1908-12 and assistant professor 
during 1912-14. In 1914 he became professor 
of chemistry and director of the chemical labora- 
tory at Clark University. The subjects of solu- 
tions, organic radicals, and vapor electric ap- 
paratus have received his attention. He has 
published the results of his investigations on 
these and similar subjects in the technical jour- 
nals of his specialties. 

KRAUS, Epwarp Henry (1875- ) ame: 
American mineralogist, born at Syracuse, N. Y., 
and educated at the Universities of Syracuse 
and Munich. During 1896-99 he was instructor 
in German and mineralogy at Syracuse, where 
‘he became associate professor of mineralogy in 
1902, and in 1902-04 he was in charge of the 
department of science at the Syracuse High 
School. In 1904 he was called to the University 
of Michigan, where in 1919 he was appointed 
to the chair of crystallography and mineralogy, 
in addition to his positions of director of the 
mineralogical laboratory (1908— ) and dean of 
the summer session (1915— ). Besides many 
papers on chemical and physical crystallography 
and the optical constants of crystal at vary- 
ing temperatures, he has written Hssentials of 
Crystallography (1906); Descriptive Mineral- 
ogy (1911); Tables for the Determination of 


747 


KROEGER 


Minerals, with W. F. Hunt (1911); and Hle- 
mentary Mineralogy, also with Hunt (1920). 

KRAUSKOPF, JosepH (1858- ). An 
American rabbi, born in Germany. In 1872 he 
emigrated to the United States and received 
his degrees from the University of Cincinnati 
and the Hebrew Union College both in 1883. 
He was rabbi in Kansas City from 1883 to 
1887 and went to Philadelphia in the latter 
year. He was the founder of the Jewish Publi- 
cation Society of America and of the National 
Farm School. In 1898 he was appointed special 
relief commissioner to Cuba and was special 
commissioner and agricultural commissioner in 
Europe for several years following. In 1904- 
05 he was president of the Conference of Amer- 
ican Rabbis and was an official of other soci- 
eties. He wrote The Jews and Moors in Spain, 
My Visit to Tolstoy, The Seven Ages of Man, 
The Service Manual, The Service Ritual, and 
many volumes of lectures. From 1917. to 
1920 he was representative of Jewish organiza- 
tions in the Food Conservation Department in 
Washington. 

KREGER, Epwarp ALBERT (1868- bie 
An American army officer, born at Keota, Iowa, 
and graduated at the lowa State College in 
1890. He served in the Spanish-American War 
with the Iowa troops and in 1901 was com- 
missioned first lieutenant of the Regular Army. 
He served in the Philippines and in Cuba, 
From 1914 to 1917 he was professor of law at 
the United States Military Academy and as- 
sistant to the Provost Marshal in 1917-18. In 
1918-19 he was acting judge-advocate-general 
with the Army in France and was acting judge- 
advocate-general of the United States Army 
from 1919. He received the Distinguished Serv- 
ice Cross for heroism in action in the Philippines 
and the Distinguished Service Medal for dis- 
tinguished service as acting judge-advocate- 
general. 

KREHBIEL, HENry Epwarp (1854-1923). 
An American music critic (see Vou. XIII). In 
1917 he published A Second Book of Operas 
and in 1919 More Chapters of Opera and Parsi- 
fal, an English Version for Performance, which 
was used by the Metropolitan Opera Company. 

KRESY. See VILNA. 

KROEBER, ALFRED LOuIS (1876- hyo bh 
American anthropologist (see Vor. XIII). His 
later publications include: Zuni Potsherds and 
Hokan (1915); Floral Relations among the 
Galapagos Islands (1916); Zuni Kin and Clan 
(1917); Tribes of the Pacific Coast (1917); 
The History of Philippine Civilization as Re- 
flected in Religious Nomenclature (1918); Kin- 
ship in the Philippines (1919); Peoples of the 
Philippines (1919); Yuman Tribes of the Low- 
er Colorado (1920); Basketry Designs of the 
Mission Indians (1922); and Anthropology 
(1923). He founded the California Academy 
of Sciences (1917). 

KROEGER, ERNEST RICHARD (1862- Vee 
An American organist and composer, born at 
St. Louis. After completing his entire musical 
education under local teachers, he served as or- 
ganist in various churches in St. Louis and as 
conductor of several choral societies. He trav- 
eled extensively as a concert organist. His 
principal compositions are the overtures, T’han- 
atopsis, Pittoresque, Hndymion, Sardanapalus, 
Hiawatha, Atala, and Festival; four string 
quartets, a piano quintet, a piano quartet, a 
piano trio; many pieces for organ and for 


KROGH 748 


piano, especially in the larger forms; and over 
100 songs. 

KROGH, Avucusr (1874- ). A Danish 
physiologist, born in Grensa, and educated at 
the University of Copenhagen. He devoted him- 
self to the study of anatomy and physiology 
with special reference to comparative biology 
and in 1916 was appointed professor of z00- 
physiology at his alma mater. He has pub- 
lished two well-known works which have been 
translated into English and German: The Re- 
sprratory Exchanges of Animals (1916) and 
Anatomy and Physiology of the Capillaries 
(1922). In 1920 he received the Nobel Prize 
for Medicine and Physiology. 

KRUGER, Fetrx (1874- ). A German 
philosopher and psychologist. He succeeded to 
the chair of Wundt at the University of Leipzig 
on the latter’s death in 1920. Best known for 
his Untersuchungen iiber Entwicklungspsychol- 
ogie (1915), in which he studied social psy- 
chology from an historical point of view, he was 
Nalso the author of several philosophical works. 
' These include Ist Philosophie ohne Psychologie 
Moglich?: (1896) and Der Begriff des Absolut 
Wertvollen (1898). From Leipzig, Kruger di- 
rected a group of researches and. studies under 
the general title of Lntwicklungspsychologie 
(Developmental Psychology). 

KUCHLER, K. F. Wartuer (1877- —). =A 
German writer, born at Essen and educated at 
the University of Leipzig. He was instructor 
in German at the University of Nancy and at 
Cornell, lecturer at the University of Giessen, 
and later professor of Romance languages at 
Wiirzburg. He is the author of Marie Joseph 
Chéniers Lyrische und Dramatische Dichtungen 
(1900); Die Cent Nouvelles (1906); Franzo- 
sische Romantik (1908); Libussa (1919); Ro- 
main Rolland, Henri Barbusse, Fritz von Unruh 
(1920); and Ernest Renan (1921). 

KUHLMANN, RICHARD, BARON VON 
(1873— ). A German diplomatist and states- 
man. He entered -the diplomatic service in 
1889 and after serving in various capacities 
became councilor of the German Embassy in 
London in 1908. He was sent as German am- 
bassador to The Hague in April, 1915, and 
served at Constantinople in 1916-17. He was 
then appointed foreign secretary to succeed 
Zimmermann and held this position until his 
resignation in July, 1918. He was largely re- 
sponsible for the treaties of Brest-Litovsk and 
Bucharest. 

KU KLUX KLAN. An organization 
founded in 1915 by William Joseph Simmons, 
of Atlanta, Ga. While in a measure it is a 
revival of the society of the same name which 
flourished in the South during the reconstruc- 
tion period, its aims and purposes are, in a 
larger sense, distinctly different. The organi- 
zation of the modern society is claimed by Sim- 
mons to have been undertaken by him as the 
result of a vision. He preserved the regalia 
and some of the nomenclature of the original 
Klan, but to these he added other designations, 
all of which begin with the letters &l, e.g. Klo- 
kard, lecturer; Kladd, conductor; Kleagle, or- 
ganizer; Klavern, meeting. The activities of 
the original Ku Klux Klan were directed almost 
entirely against the negroes in the South, for 
the purpose of preventing their participation 
in social and political affairs. The modern Ku 
Klux Klan, although it theoretically avoids 
‘stating such as its purpose, is hostile chiefly 


KU KLUX KLAN 


to Jews and Roman Catholics. The fundamen- 
tal doctrine of the Klan is “100 per cent Amer- 
icanism.” This, with its corollary principles 
of “no foreign allegiance” and “white suprem- 
acy,’ means in practice a campaign against 
Catholics, Jews, and negroes, particularly the 
first. The growth of the movement was slow, 
until after the end of the Great War, when Ed- 
ward Young Clarke, a former newspaper man, 
conceived the possibility of organization on a 
large scale. He was made Imperial Kleagle 
and was appointed head of the propaganda de- 
partment. Numerous agents were put in the 
field to organize in 40 States. They were called 
Kleagles. Each member enrolled paid $10, of 
which the Kleagle received $4 and the King 
Kleagle $1; the remaining $5 was sent to the 
Imperial Treasurer. As a result of these ef- 
forts the Klan spread with marvelous rapid- 
ity, and its effects were soon apparent. The 
organization scon began to function as a censor 
of personal conduct in many localities and im- 
posed punishment as it saw fit. The result was 
an outbreak of lawlessness in many States un- 
der the name of discipline. This lawlessness 
reached a climax during the summer of 1922, 
when murders were charged to its members in 
Inglewood, Cal., and Mer Rouge, La. The lat- 
ter was especially atrocious. It is described in 
the article Lourstana. There were also out- 
breaks of violence in various towns in Texas, 
Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, and other States. 
Governor Parker of Louisiana made a strong 
effort to bring about Federal action for the sup- 
pression of the Klan but was not suecessful. In 
many States, -the legislators passed measures 
designed to remove the objectionable features. 
Most of these laws forbade the use of masks by 
any secret organization. 

The entrance of the Klan into politics was a 
further step in its development. It is especial- 
ly strong in the South and Middle West. In 
Texas, it was charged, Earle B. Mayfield was 
elected United States Senator in 1922 through 
the Klan’s support. In Oregon the Klan was 
sufficiently powerful to put through legis- 
lation banning parochial schools. In Oklahoma 
its activities and the attempt of the governor 
to control them led to the latter’s impeachment 
and removal. (See OKLAHOMA.) The organ- 
ization is very influential in the mid-western 
States, Indiana, Illinois, Kansas, and Ohio. It 
has considerable strength in Pennsylvania. In 
New Jersey its membership is said to be greater 
than in any other State. In New York it has 
not gained a strong footing, but it is strong in 
Connecticut. It may be noted that the consti- 
tution or creed of the Klan is an instrument to 
which almost any good citizen might subscribe. 
It is only in its application that it has been 
harmful. The following are quotations from 
the Klansman’s creed: 


“T believe in God and in the tenets of the 


Christian church and that a godless nation 
cannot long prosper.” 

“T believe in the eternal separation of church 
and state.” 

“T do not believe in mob violence, but I do 
believe that laws should be enacted to prevent 
the cause of mob violence.” 

“T believe in the prevention of unwarranted 
strikes by foreign labor agitators.” 

“T believe in the limitation of foreign immi- 
gration.” 

“To am: ag nati born American citizen, and I 


4 


and take binding oatl\s of delity and 


klannishness. 


jons in 1924. 
South, how- 
ever, it was. more of |: 1 


cratic than with the In the 
Republican platform a plank 
which, in a general way, rey secret so- 
cieties which functiondd cont the Consti- 


tution of the United § . 
convention, the question was } 
Ilan bitterly apnovel Co er, 
York and Senator Underwooc 
of the princ\pal candidates 


Klan. A_ resolution opposi1 
mentioning it by name w 
jority of one vote, and th 
platform did not differ fror 
publicans. The Ku Klux Kla 
of the American party, n 
date for the presidency | 
tions. The total membership | 

known with any accurae fs It is 
there were about 2,000,000 membe 
Its organization was agegres: y carried on, 
and there were indicati would reach 
far greater proportions. 
claimed by the Klan resu 
of many clergymen in it 
places churches displayed 
bers of the Klan to their 
however, the movement was 
churches. ay 


bert O. Na- 
imated that 


he enlistment 
ae . 
, and in some 


es. In general, 
pposed by the 


In 1923 dissension «arose the order as a 
result of a controversy W. J. Simmons, 
the so-called Emperor, . PWs Evans, 


Imperial Wizard. Simmons ¢ arged that Evans 
interfered in the operation) of th: order. In 
the court action which fo. lo tie adminis- 
_ tration of the Klan’s affair piiced in the 

hands of a commission consis o: the found- 
er, W. J. Simmons; its aa the time, H. 
W. Evans; and a municipa t. marshal of 
Atlanta. The Imperial Wizard an directing 
head in 1924 was H. W. EB ti A . yoman’s or- 
ganization affiliated with the nis called the 
Kamelia. f i 

KULPE, Oswarp (1863 916 me A German 
philosopher (see Vou. XITL fe died in 1915 
before completing a treati £ ‘chological 


theory embodving the cont the image- 
less thought school. His work was 
published pos:humously by | Karl Biih- 
ler under the title, Vorlesw * Psychol- 
ogie (1922). 

KUMMEE, FRreperic ee) 


An Americaa author : fe 
Catonsville, Md. His 
clude: Plaster ea | >" 
Earth was Young AP Been : ry Golden Girl, 
with musie by Victor Herbert 919); The 
Bonehead (20); The Voice, in) Which William 
Courtenay sarred (1923). He often wrote un- 
der the pseidonym of Arnold Tredericks. Be- 
sides his wark for the legitimate) Stag> he wrote 
many motim picture scenario ne lite ing The 
Slave Marlet, The Yellow P ' atherhood, 
The Ivory ‘nuff Box, and The} 1 ” 

KUN, BELA (1886- “I i ngarian 
Communist leader. He had long identified 


with Communist activities and his abilities 1 
won him a high place in the movement. i. 
organized a revolution at Budapest, in Febru- 
ary, 1919, which brought about the resignation 
of the Karolyi cabinet. He was appointed com- 
missary for foreign affairs in the Hungarian 
Soviet government in March and _ negotiated 
with General Smuts, acting for the Allied Peace 
Conference, in April of that year. As recogni- 
tion was refused, he made a military alliance 
with the Russian Soviet government. The Com- 
munist government was overthrown in August, 
1919, and he fled to Vienna. He was captured 
and interned in Austria but was released in ex- 
change for Austrian prisoners in Russia in 
July, 1920. See Huncary, History. 

KUNZ, GrEoRGE FREDERICK (1856- ) > An 
American mineralogist (see Vor. XIIT). Among 
his later writings are EL. Roty and His Work 
(1914), Magie of Jewels (1915), Ivory and the 
Elephant (1915), Shakespeare and Precious 
Stones (1916) and The Ring (1917). 

KUPRIN, ALEXANDER I. (1870- his 
Russian writer, belonging to the realistic 
school. He is an excellent stor¥*tetffer. His 
most famous novel is The Duel (1905), a story 
of barracks life. He also wrote some delight- 
ful stories for children, as well as many 
sketches, and made for himself a reputation 
abroad. His writings include Short Stories 
(1893-1918); The Duel (1905); Sulamith 
(1908); The Pit (1909-1913); A Bracelet of 
Garnets (1911); Leaystrygonians (1912); The 
Black Sea Coast; Moloch; and At Rest. 

KURDISTAN. A region in eastern Asia 
Minor comprising for the most part the Turk- 
ish vilayets of Mamuret-ul-Aziz, Diarbekr, Bit- 
lis, Van, but also the northern section of the 
vilayet of Mosul in the now independent state 
of Iraq or Mesopotamia, and part of western 
Persia. It is inhabited by the Kurds, a semi- 
nomadic people related to the Persians in race 
and language, but belonging to the Sunni sect. 
The total population was estimated at 2,500,- 
000. It had been the consistent policy of the 
old Turkish government to settle the Kurds 
among the Armenian populations, and thus, by 
singling them out for special favors, to create 
strong “Mohammedan centres in these unruly 
vilayets. The independent spirit thus fostered ; 
naturally rendered the Kurds indilerent. to the | 
War, with the result that their participation 
was negligible. The Russian policy, ' 
Russians were in control of Erzerum and Bitl is 
after 1916, was designed along the same lines, — 
and the Kurds were played off against the Ar- 
menians. The entry of the British into Meso- 
potamia, and the promises held out by British 
political officers of a Kurdish independent state, 
naturally made Kurdish leaders gravitate to- 
ward Great Britain. With the exception of 


temporary setbacks early in 1919 when the 
Sheik Mahmud rose against the British in 
southern Kurdistan, British penetration into 


the country was uniformly successful through 
1919. The extravagant scheme of sending loose- 
ly coérdinated units into a far-flung area 
brought reverses, for in 1920, as a result of na- 


. tive uprisings, the British were compelled to 


withdraw from the greater part of the region. 
By the Treaty of Sévres (1920) provisions were 
made for the satisfaction of Kurdish national 


aspirations. An i fer -Allied commission was 
to erect. S government within the 
,area east\ of the Eu rates, south of the future 


ndary of Armenia, and north of Syria an an egendvr 
Resopotamia; a commission of Allied represent- much from (] 
atives acting with Kurds and Persians was to Russian, ani 
rectify the frontier between Kurdistan and Per- honoris caus) fror 
sia. If within one year from the coming into KUT-EL-AMA# 
force of the treaty, the Kurds gave evidence to Turkish Frout. 
the League Council of their desire for complete KUTSCHIIR, A 
independence, and if the Council approved, Kur- man critic, born | 
distan was then to be raised to the dignity of a at the Unive r 0 
separate sovereign state, and, in that event, Great of Natiirgefih 
Britain must permit the voluntary adhesion of bel als Kritike $ 
the Kurds in Mosul, part of the Mesopotamia wnd Unser Leben: | 
mandate, to the new state. The failure of the (1909); Sceicill 
Sévres treaty and the realignments effected in drucksmittel a 
subsequent years caused the hopes of the Kurds Grabbe (1913); 
for independence to be forgotten; the final Wedekind, S¢ 
treaty of Lausanne in 1923 made no mention of and other w 
a free Kurdistan; and the Kurds remained sub- soldier songs, 
ject to alien rule. Like prewar Poland, Kur-_ edited the co 
distan was divided among three alien nations, (1921), and 
namely, Turkey, Persia, and Mesopotamia. KWANG(OSE 
KURZ, IsotpE CLARA M. (1853- ). A CHINA. oa 
« German writer, born at Stuttgart, the daughter KYNE, 
of Hermann Kurz, novelist, translator, and li- American n 
brarian at the university of Tiibingen. She and educate 
lived for many years in Florence. She is the ness college of tl 
author of Gedichte (1890); Italienische Erzéh- was engaged in 


nh 


sa 
| 
ia 
’: 
U/ 
Ly 
: 
rH 
. 


Stadt des Lebens (1902); MNewe Gedichte War and wis ca 
(1905); Hermann Kurz, a biography (1906);  lery during the 
Lebensflut (1907); Florentinische Erinnerung- which are w idely 
en (1909); Im Zeichen des Steinbocks, a vol- fathers (1913); 
ume of aphorisms (1909); Die Kinder der Lil- py Ricks (19 
ith (1909); Cora und Andere Novellen (1914) ; (1918) ; Kine 
Schwert aus der Scheide, a volume of verse Pea Pirates 
(1917); Aus Meinem Jugendland, an autobio- (1921). He 
eraphical work (1919); ZYraumland (1920); 


of 


= 


Wir 


eRNARD 


She also translated 
English, Italian, and 
e degree of doctor 
iiversity of Tiibingen. 
See WaR IN EUROPE, 


2 (1878- ). A Ger- 
Hanover, and educated 
£ Munich. 
Goethes Lyrik (1906); Heb- — 
Jramas (1907); Die Kunst 
undstein zu einer Kritik 
(1909); Die Aus- 
ne, (1910); Hebbel und 
istagebuch (1915); Frank 
nd Sein Werk (1921) ; 
ympiled an anthology of 
ige Soldatenlied (1917), 
ks of Frank Wedekind 
ry stage adaptations. 

we N. See FRenNcH INpo- 


He is the author 


(1880- Bg 
in San Francisco, Cal., 
ic schools and in a busi- 


For several years he 


umber business. He gerved 
lungen (1895); Von Dazumal (1900); Die in the Philipp ing 


the Spanish-American 


ns 


eae 


the 144th Field Artil- 
in Kurope. His books, 
ilar, include Three Grand- 
ong Chance (1914); Cap- 
The Valley of the Giants 
f the Dust (1919); The Green 
)); and Pride of Palomar 
a frequent contributor of 


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